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Arvord, Språkfamiljer Och Metoder Arvord, språkfamiljer och metoder Rune Westerlund Språksläktskap Språkförändring Språklagar Komparativ språkhistorieforskning Arvord, lånord Rekonstruktion av tidigare stadier Glottokronologi (lexikostatistik) Språkträd Vågteorin för några uralspråk (ugriska och finska språk) syd- central- öst- nenets enets nganasan selkup kväniska meänkieli SAMISKA SAMOJEDSPRÅK finska ingermanl. URALISKA olonets. karelska mansi liviska östersjö- UGRISKA chanit votiska finska ungerska vepsiska volgafinska permiska estniska mari mordvisn. moksja erza udmurt. komi ©Rune Westerlund Räkneorden 1–3 i några indoeuropeiska ”tidiga” språk *oynos *duwo: *treyes PE *ainaz *twai *thrijiz (protogermanska) u:nus duo tre:s (latin) oinos dvai treis (keltiska) hei:s dúo: trei:s (klassisk grekiska) se wi trai (tokhariska B) ai:ns dwa:i trijan (preussiska; baltiskt språk) jedinu diva trije (kyrkslaviska) éka dvá trí (sanskrit) ek dui tin (nepali) Den germanska ljudskridningen Bl.a. blir indoeuropeiska tonlösa klusiler tonlösa frikativor. lat. OE engelska ON svenska mod. fr. pf ped- fot foot fot- [fu:t] pied dt tþ [θ] tri- þri- three þri- [tre:] trois kh cord- heorte heart hjarta [jæʈ:a] cœur [k-] [k-] Hur blev *kannabiz hampa? Grimms lag kh, bp; Verners lag /n/ före /p/ /m/ (urgermanska) *hannapa hænep hennep hanef hampr (anglosax.) (medellågty.) (medelhögty.) (fornisl.) hemp hennep Hanf hampa eng. nederl. ty. sv. Exempel på förändringar i Luleå med omnejd under de senaste 60 åren (i sht hos den manliga befolkningen). Fonetiskt: långt/kort /e/ före /r/ eller andra retroflexer e>ä>a [ε]>[æ]>[a] Hertsön verkstad där ©Rune Westerlund Morfembortfall (Luleå med omnejd) Tvåstaviga verb av typen: köra kö [ɕø:] obet. [ɕø] fara fa [fɑ:] obet. [fɑ] göra gö [jø:] obet. [jø] Vars ska du gå? – Ja ska fa dit! ©Rune Westerlund Förändring av morfologin vid pluralbildning i danskan och svenskan fornnordiska modern svenska modern danska gator -ur -or gader [-əɹ] färder -ir -er -er/-e [-ə] færder fiskar -ar -ar [-aɹ] fiske ©Rune Westerlund Uttalsförändring av det danska verbet made ’mata’ [ˈmata]-[ˈma:tʰa]-[ˈma:də]-[ˈma:ðə]-[ˈma:ə] forndansk yngre forndansk 1700-tal) (1900-tal) 2000-tal Arvordet ”fågel” i engelskan Protogermanska *fugl-az Old English 1500-tal fowl ’hönsfågel’ m.m. foγol ’fågel’ - brid ’ungfågel m.m.’ bird ’fågel’ Komparativ metod *nusvenska-nysvenska-fornsvenska-runsvenska *närliggande språk, nuvarande former och tidigare stadier *likheter och skillnader med andra språkgrupper (t.ex. romanska, slaviska, iranska) (Lehmann, W. P. 1992:141–161) Arvord och lånord Omarkerade ord: familj (släktskap), mat, ord för kroppsdelar, räkneord, de omarkerade adjektiven stor, liten, lång, kort etc. Exempel på omarkerade arvord Kroppsdelar öra, hjärta Kvantitet två, många Adjektiv stor, liten Föda vatten, frukt Djur fisk, fågel Verb äta, dricka Perceptionsverb se, höra Miljö jord, eld Lokaliteter höger, vänster Färg vit, röd Konjunktion och Människa moder, namn Pronomen jag, du Arvordens olika nivåer indoeuropeiska: bäver PIE *bhebhrus germanska: björn PG *beran nordiska: räv ON *retƀa- PIE = proto-indoeuropeiska PG = proto-germanska ON = urnordiska (Cambridge Etymology Dictionary , Hellquist: Svensk etymologisk ordbok) Lån från andra språk är oundvikliga arvord lånord fr. lågty. varda bliva arvoda arbeta spyrja fråga gift gåva härdh skuldra thorlikin sådan (Pettersson, G 2005:137) S.k. dupletter proto-IE arvord lånord till sv. *kan(n)abiz hampa kannabis *trey-es *thrij-iz tre trio *pan-ca fem punsch *pl-nós *pol-nós full, fler plus (bl.a. Lehmann, W. P. 1992:4) Rekonstruktion av tidigare stadier av svenskan Fonologisk f ------------- p Morfologisk talspråkets [-ǝr] -er ------- -or Semantisk rolig ’lustig’ ---------- ro ’lugn’ Rekonstruktion av protospråkets rötter till några romanska språk fr. it. sp. port. latin ‘kära’ cher caro caro caro ? (‘dyra’) ‘fält’ champ campo campo campo ? ‘ljus’ chandelle candela candela candeia ? ‘hus’ chez casa casa casa ? (‘hem’,’vid’) ‘skola’ école scuola escuela escola ? (Lehmann, W.P.:1992:6–8) Rekonstruktionsexempel fr. it. sp. port. latin ‘kära’ cher caro caro caro *car- (‘dyra’) ‘fält’ champ campo campo campo *camp- ‘ljus’ chandelle candela candela candeia *cande- ‘hus’ chez casa casa casa *cas- (‘hem’) ‘skola’ école scuola escuela escula *scho- •Burlak S.A., Starostin S.A. “Introduction to Comparative Linguistics” – URSS, Moscow 2001 Glottokronologi (lexikostatistik) Glottokronologi är en metod som används i historisk lingvistik för att beräkna när två eller flera språk skilde sig från varandra. Bl.a. Morris Swadesh, Robert Lee, Sergei Starostin, Svetlana Burlak (Lehmann, W.P.:1992:175–182; Burlak, S.A., Starostin, S.A. 2001) Glottokronologi 1. Grundläggande ordförråd på ca 200 ord, ”the Main List”. 2. Alla ord har likvärdiga möjligheter att bytas ut eller vara kvar. 3. Utbytet av ord från ML är i princip konstant över tid. 4. Hastigheten för bortfall/utbyte av ord är beräknad till 5% per 1000 år. Ord från ”the Main List” Kroppsdelar öra, hjärta Kvantitet två, många Adjektiv stor, liten Föda vatten, frukt Djur fisk, fågel Verb äta, dricka Perceptionsverb se, höra Miljö jord, eld Lokaliteter höger, vänster Färg vit, röd Konjunktion och Människa moder, namn Pronomen jag, du Viktiga hänsynstaganden *det semantiska omfånget måste (i princip) stämma, t.ex. måste ord som svenskans orm och engelskans worm ’mask’ räknas bort. *alla lånord måste rensas bort Starostins formel t = tidsrymd λ = hastigheten av bortfall av ord (0,05/1000 år) c = procentandelen besläktade ord som är kvar log c t = – 2λ c (Burlak S.A., Starostin S.A. 2001:85) När skiljdes svenskan från övriga germanska språk enl. Starostins formel? Språk Andel gemensamt ordförråd År 0 (207 arvord enl. ML) 200 gotiska (1800) tyska (1560) 80% engelska (1530) 81% 600 holländska (1340) 85% 800 1000 isländska (1000) 91% 1200 norska (810) 94% 1400 danska (500) 98% 1600 1800 2000 (Burlak S.A., Starostin S.A. 2001 2001:86–90) Några referenser Burlak S.A., Starostin S.A. 2001. Introduktion till jämförande lingvistik. Moscow: Editorial URSS (på ryska). Hellquist, E. 1922 (1966). Svensk etymologisk ordbok. Lund: Gleerups. Lehmann, Winfred P. 1992. Historical Linguistics. London: Routledge. Nielsen, N. Å. 2004. Dansk Etymologisk Ordbog. Köpenhamn: Gyldendals Røde Ordbøger Pettersson, G. 2005. Svenska språket under sjuhundra år. Lund: Studentlitteratur. Ramat, A.G., Ramat, P. 1998 The Indo-European Languages, Routledge, London Sjoberg, A. & Sjoberg, G. 1956. Problems in glottochronology. American Anthropologist, 58 (2). S. 296– 308. Kritik finns … … men det får tas upp vid ett annat tillfälle eller sammanfattas med ett citat av Colin Renfrew ”we don’t do dates”!.
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