Nitrogen Fixation in Agriculture, Forestry, Ecology, and the Environment Nitrogen Fixation: Origins, Applications, and Research Progress
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Nitrogen Fixation in Agriculture, Forestry, Ecology, and the Environment Nitrogen Fixation: Origins, Applications, and Research Progress VOLUME 4 Nitrogen Fixation in Agriculture, Forestry, Ecology, and the Environment Edited by Dietrich Werner Philipps-University, Marburg, Germany and William E. Newton Department of Biochemistry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia, U.S.A. A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN-10 1-4020-3542-X (HB) ISBN-10 1-4020-3544-6 (e-book) ISBN-13 978-1-4020-3542-9 (HB) ISBN-13 978-1-4020-3544-5 (e-book) Published by Springer, P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands. www.springeronline.com Background figure caption: “A seed crop of clover (Trifolium hirtum) in flower near Moora, Western Australia. Photograph courtesy of Mike Davies, Senior Technical Officer, Pasture Research Group of Agriculture WA and reproduced with permission.” Vol. 4-specific figure caption: “First year soybean cultivation from a field trial in Puerto Rico with both inoculated and non-inoculated rows. Photograph courtesy of R. Stewart Smith, Nitragin Company, USA, and reproduced with permission.” Printed on acid-free paper All Rights Reserved © 2005 Springer No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Printed in the Netherlands TABLE OF CONTENTS Series Preface. ............................................... ix Preface......................................................... xiii ListofContributors............................................... xvii Chapter 1. Production and Biological Nitrogen Fixation of Tropical Legumes D. Werner ....... ............................................... 1 1.Introduction............................................ 1 2. Phaseolus sp. and Vigna sp.(Beans)......................... 2 3. Arachis hypogaea (Groundnut,Peanut)....................... 7 4. Cicer arietinum (Chickpea)................................ 8 5. Cajanus cajan (Pigeonpea) ............................... 9 6. Mucuna pruriens (Velvetbean)andOtherLegumes............ 10 Acknowledgements....................................... 12 References.............................................. 12 Chapter 2. Nitrogen Fixation by Soybean in North America S.G.Pueppke.................................................... 15 1. Soybean: Pathways to North America and EstablishmentasaCrop................................ 15 2.SoybeanProductioninNorthAmerica....................... 17 3. Major Soybean Cropping Systems .......................... 20 4. Biological Nitrogen Fixation by Soybean in North America . 20 5.Perspectives........................................... 21 Acknowledgements....................................... 22 References............................................... 22 Chapter 3. The Importance of Nitrogen Fixation to Soybean Cropping in South America M. Hungria, J. C. Franchini, R. J. Campo and P. H. Graham.............. 25 1.Introduction........................................... 25 2. Taxonomy, Origins, and Importance of Soybean .............. 25 3.BiologicalNitrogenFixation.............................. 29 4. Economic Importance of Biological Nitrogen Fixation (BNF) inSouthAmerica...................................... 32 5.CropManagementinSouthAmerica........................ 34 6.FinalConsiderations.................................... 38 Acknowledgement........................................ 39 References.............................................. 39 Chapter 4. Production, Regional Distribution of Cultivars, and Agricultural Aspects of Soybean in India S. K. Mahna .................................................... 43 1.IntroductionandHistoricalBackground..................... 43 v vi 2. All-India Area Coverage, Productivity, and Production of Soybean between 1970-2003 . ........................... 45 3. All-India State-wise Area Coverage, Productivity, and ProductionofSoybean................................. 46 4.RegionalDistributionofSoybeanCultivars.................. 49 5.RegionalAgriculturalAspectsofSoybeanCultivation.......... 59 Acknowledgements...................................... 64 References............................................. 64 Chapter 5. Soybean Cultivation and BNF in China J. E. Ruiz Sainz, J. C. Zhou, D.-N. Rodriguez-Navarro, J. M. Vinardell and J. E. Thomas-Oates ........................................... 67 1.Summary............................................. 67 2. Soybean Cultivation in China: Historical Aspects andCurrentSituation.................................. 68 3.Nitrogen-FixingBacteriathatNodulateSoybean.............. 75 4.TheSoybeanGermplasmCollectioninChina................ 81 5. Soybean in Crop Rotation and in Continuous Cultivation . 82 6.Conclusions........................................... 84 Acknowledgement........................................ 85 References............................................... 85 Chapter 6. Soil Stress Factors Influencing Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation M.J.Sadowsky.................................................. 89 1.Introduction........................................... 89 2.ImportanceofSymbioticNitrogenFixation................... 89 3.SymbioticInteractionofLegumeswithRhizobia.............. 90 4. Nodulation and Nitrogen-Fixation Genetics in the RhizobiaandBradyrhizobia............................. 92 5.RhizobiaintheSoilEnvironment.......................... 94 6. Stress Factors in the Soil Environment that Influence N2 Fixation . 95 7.ConcludingRemarks.................................... 101 References.............................................. 102 Chapter 7. Nodulated Legume Trees J. I. Sprent ..................................................... 113 1.Introduction............................................113 2.Leguminosae.......................................... 113 3.RhizobiathatNodulateLegumeTrees..................... 133 4. Types of Nodule formed on Trees . 134 5. Mycorrhizas and Other Nutrient-Acquisition Systems .......... 135 6.MeasurementofNitrogenFixationbyTrees.................. 136 7.RoleofLegumeTreesinNaturalandManagedSystems........ 137 References.............................................. 139 vii Chapter 8. Nitrogen Fixing Trees with Actinorhiza in Forestry and Agroforestry R. O. Russo .................................................... 143 1.Introduction........................................... 143 2.GeneralCharacteristicsoftheActinorhizalSymbiosis.......... 144 3. Host Botanical Families ................................. 148 4.NitrogenFixationinActinorhizalTrees......................149 5.MycorrhizalAssociationswithActinorhizalTrees............ .153 6.ActinorhizalTreesinAgroforestry......................... 157 7. The Genus Casuarina . 158 8.TheExperienceoftheCentralAmericaFuelwoodProject....... 159 9.TheCaseofAlnus acuminata inTropicalHighlands........... 161 10.OtherUsesofActinorhizalTrees......................... 163 11.ConcludingConsiderations.............................. 164 References.............................................. 165 Chapter 9. Molecular Ecology of N2-fixing Microbes Associated with Gramineous Plants: Hidden Activities of Unknown Bacteria T. Hurek and B. Reinhold-Hurek .................................... 173 1.Introduction........................................... 173 2. The Problem of Identifying Key Diazotrophic Bacteria inGramineousPlants:TheClassicalApproach.............. 174 3. The Significance of Diazotrophic Grass Endophytes ........... 176 4.TheSignificanceofCulture-IndependentMethods............. 179 5. The Significance of nifH-TargetedMethods.................. 180 6. Limitations of nifH-TargetedMethods...................... 181 7. Many Diazotrophs Defy Cultivation ........................ 183 8. Diazotrophic Grass Endophytes as Key Organisms for BNFinGramineousPlants.............................. 185 9.SummaryandOutlook................................... 189 References.............................................. 191 Chapter 10. Interactions of Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and Nitrogen-Fixing Symbiosis in Sustainable Agriculture J. M. Barea, D. Werner, C. Azcón-Guilar and R. Azcón .................. 199 1.Introduction........................................... 199 2.PurposeofReview...................................... 200 3.Nitrogen-FixingSymbioses............................... 201 4.ArbuscularMycorrhiza...................................202 5. Interactions between AM Fungi and Rhizobia to Improve LegumeProductivityinAgriculture....................... 205 6.Conclusions........................................... 214 Acknowledgements....................................... 215 References.............................................. 215 viii Chapter 11. Inoculant Preparation, Production and Application M. Hungria, M. F. Loureiro, I. C. Mendes, R. J. Campo and P. H. Graham . 223 1.Introduction............................................223 2.StrainSelection.........................................224 3.InoculantProduction.....................................230 4.InoculantApplication.................................... 237 5.FactorsAffectingtheSuccessofInoculation................. 240 6.MainConclusions.......................................245