BUILDING SOCIALISTIC ARCHITECTURAL SCHOOLS 717

Building Socialistic Architectural Schools: The Transformation of China’s Architectural Education from American Beaux-Arts Model into the Soviet Model

XIAO HU University of Idaho

The professional education is a vital component of BACKGROUND the architectural profession. It not only offers spe- cial training to obtain the required basis of archi- Modern architectural education in China started in tectural knowledge and skills needed for the pro- the 1920s as a self-regulation and self organization fessional practice of design, but also ensures the effort by the first generation of Chinese architects stable development of the profession by excluding who were trained in the US and Japan. During the other competitors through a monopoly of knowl- 1930s, Chinese universities demonstrated a strong edge and skills. The required formal training of ar- preference on recruiting Chinese students who chitecture provides a cultural and social legitima- graduated from American architectural schools for tion for architects' responsibility and importance. faculty. A few returned architectural graduates, in- cluding Wang Heng from the University of Pennsyl- The formation of the modern architectural profes- vania and Bao Ding from the University of Illinois, sion in China was the product of political and social from the University of Pennsylvania. change – the falling of China’s imperial system and The American-Beaux Arts model was introduced by the rising of Western capitalism in the end of 19th the American-trained architects, especially those Century. The introduction of modern Western capital- from the University of Pennsylvania, where Paul ist forces of production had undermined and trans- Cret’s Beaux-Arts tradition dominated the curricu- formed much of China’s traditional economic order, lum. This began the profound and long-lasting in- and the onslaught of the Western model disintegrat- fluence of the Beaux-Arts model in China until to- ed China’s traditional architectural practices. How- day. However, China’s architectural education did ever, the architectural profession in China was not not have any opportunity to become more fully refashioned in the image of the Western professional fledged. The Japanese invasion in 1937 forced most world. Although Chinese architects shared the simi- of architectural schools in China to be shut down. lar, if not the same, professional criteria and social distinction with those practitioners in the West, the With the Chinese Communist Party’s victory in 1949 changeable ideological structures, repeated foreign and the establishment of its highly disciplined and interventions, and constant revolutions significantly powerful centralized administration apparatus, all changed the nature of the architectural practice in professions, including architects, were quickly and China. In the 1950s, China’s architectural education effectively integrated into the state organizational underwent a significant transformation under politi- system, which was actually fully controlled by the cal and ideological orders. Within a few years, the Chinese Communist Party. Since higher education American Beaux-Arts model was wiped off and was played an important role for the socialist transition replaced by the model borrowed from the Soviet and China’s modern higher education was primarily Union. This paper focuses on how the Chinese Com- a Western-inspired learning pattern, it was crucial munist Party effectively implemented its plans and for the Party to reconstruct the entire higher edu- policies step by step to complete this transformation. cation system and to transform it into a socialist in- 718 DIGITAL APTITUDES + OTHER OPENINGS

stitution. As a result, in addition to nationalization them into 11 public and 9 private institutes run by of the architectural profession, the architectural Chinese citizens.4 By the beginning of 1952, most of education within higher education had to undergo foreign faculty members and staffs had left China. Al- a significant reformation for the needs of socialist though the nationalization of private institutes would order and economic modernization. take a few more years to complete, the Party had actually eliminated private controls and established NATIONALIZATION & THE THOUGHT REFORM its firm administration in major universities. It was achieved by re-registering all private institutes, dis- During the era of the Republic of China of 1912- patching Party cadres or promoting pro-communists 1949, China’s higher education primarily adopted intellectuals to key positions, and establishing the the American model, as a direct consequence of Party-controlled student organizations on campus. the return of China’s top intellectuals trained in the United States and a more profound cultural influ- After two years of ruling, the Party had more confi- ence from American Christian organizations. Both dence to conduct further reformation in higher ed- China’s public and private higher education insti- ucation. In May 1951, the State Council approved tutes had strong ties to the United States before a proposal by Ma Xulun, the Minister of Education, 1949. The majority of private institutions were to “appropriately and gradually reform the exist- funded by American Christian organizations. In ing higher education system”.5 In order to prepare 1947, there were around 12,000 students enrolled for more profound reform, the Party launched a re- in American-Christian funded institutes, about 20 pressive campaign in 1951, the Thought Reform, percent of all college students in China.1 In pub- aiming at the university faculty, especially those lic universities, professors with American degrees elites in higher education. For the Party, this cam- were widely hired and the American curricula also paign was critical as the majority of China’s elite were widely adopted. intellectuals did not participate in the revolution and did not experience any type of political reedu- In June 1950, Mao Zedong stressed eight principles cation. Although most of them welcomed the com- for restoring the nation’s economy. The fourth prin- munist victory, the Party was concerned about the ciple focused on higher education: individualistic tendencies and liberal thought that were prevalent among intellectuals. Reform of the old school education and of the old cul- tural institutions in our society should be conducted On the other hand, the Party understood the im- carefully step by step, and all patriotic intellectuals should be won over to the service of the people. On portance of retaining the high-level intellectuals’ this question, procrastination or reluctance to intro- cooperation for the national development, particu- duce reforms is wrong, and so is rashness or any larly for architects and engineers. Mao Zedong con- attempt to push them through arbitrarily.2 sidered the reformation of intellectuals essential for “the thoroughgoing democratic transformation and The process of higher education reformation in the progressive industrialization of our country.”6 The new era took two main steps – nationalizing and Thought Reform emphasized on political education reordering. In December 1949, the First National courses with intensive study of Mao’s works and Conference of Education pointed out that the pri- other fundamental knowledge of Marxism-Lenin- mary task in higher education for the new regime ism. This political education aimed at instilling an was “to build the people’s higher education and to appreciation of the value of collectivistic mental- train capable people for new development, which is ity and socialism, and removing the admiration of a starting point for an entirely new higher educa- American culture and ideologies. In addition, peo- tion system.”3 The final report of this conference ple had to participate in a rectification-style ses- concluded that the higher education must be re- sion based in Maoist techniques of mass meetings, formed in terms of educational systems, curricular small groups of individual criticism and self-criti- contents and the pedagogical methodologies. cism, public humiliation and written and oral con- fessions of ideological deviations. China’s involvement in the Korean War accelerated the nationalization of Christian-funded institutes. By As the Chinese architectural scholars and educators the end of 1951, the state had taken over all foreign- were primarily trained in the West, it was difficult funded or administrated institutes and transformed BUILDING SOCIALISTIC ARCHITECTURAL SCHOOLS 719

for them to accept the Party’s accusation against Thought Reform Campaign, Liang Sicheng and Lin the Western learning, values and ideologies at the Huiyin had claimed that “the capitalistic political beginning of the Thought Reform Campaign. Some system generates the disorder of urban develop- challenged the claim that “the American models of ment in capitalist countries.”13 In order to serve for higher education only produced the thoughts of ex- China’s new development, Liang and Lin suggested ploitation and the pursuit of pleasure.”7 In Tianjin that “we should conduct a full self-assessment of University, some faculty members complained the our thoughts…learning the Party’s policies and di- Party’s policy on studying the Soviet Union model – rectives, to work hard for a national, scientific, and “They [the Party cadres] always say that the Soviet public architecture.”14 During the Thought Reform Union is the most advanced country in the world. Campaign, Liang stated: But can Moscow be compared to the New York City? It may be because Chairman Mao only went to one Most of Chinese architects learned architecture from the West, especially the United States. After gradu- foreign country – that is the Soviet Union.”8 ation, we all have lived in large cities…and served for high-level officials, warlords, compradors and Responding to those reactions, the Party intensified landlords… We have worked in design for satisfy- the campaign by encouraging students and regular ing their desires and earning our profits… Having studied the socialist theories and been helped by the staff members to assist the campaign. The Minis- Soviet advisors, we have now begun to recognize try of Education described this process as “taking that all designs should serve for the people, taking a shower” – care of their needs and acknowledging the ideologi- cal meaning of architecture.15 “we should burn them with hot water. As long as they are not dead, it is fine. They need to repeatedly make The Thought Reform did not result in an immedi- confessions in public meetings and small group dis- ate and significant change within the architectural cussions. We should release their wrongdoings and mistakes by posters and broadcasting. Young Party curriculum except for the addition of political stud- members and members of the Chinese Communist ies into the curriculum. But this campaign caused Youth League from our faculty groups and students the split of architectural educators. Some archi- must help them to clean their bodies by going to their tects began to embrace the Party’s ideologies while homes and explaining the Party’s policies. They also can overlook these intellectuals’ behaviors and en- others seemingly achieved the reformation but hid sure that they all accept the criticism.”9 their true thoughts inside. This campaign helped the Party to identify and develop its establishment Although there was little overt political violence, architects and educators who could take more the social and psychological pressures were in- leading roles in architectural practice. tense.10 All faculty members had to confess their past mistakes and wrongdoings. For example, REORGANIZATION OF ARCHITECTURAL many architectural professors admitted that they DISCIPLINE had been attracted by the bourgeois influence of exploiting junior designers and pursuing profits In 1949, the Soviet Union had demonstrated its when they did professional practice.11 Some archi- great success in industrial development and scientif- tectural scholars acknowledged their admiration ic technologies. Since the Soviet patterns of higher of American lifestyle – “I wanted to have a good education had helped its nation’s significant growth house and own a car. I have hired two servants in science and technology, the Chinese Communist to work for me because I did not like to work. The Party believed that organization and management admiration of American life had made me become of higher education in the Soviet Union could be bor- a slave of imperialists, continuously disseminating rowed as the quickest and best way for the practice toxin to students and colleagues.”12 of the higher education’s socialist transformation in China. The nationalization of higher education and It was noted that some architectural educators ac- the Thought Reform conducted in1949-1951 had tually supported the Thought Reform Campaign. paved the way for reorganizing the entire system of They considered that the individualistic aversion higher education along Soviet lines. to discipline and the greedy pursuit of professional profits learned from the West eventually caused One major distinction between the Western mod- the disorder of urban development and the igno- el of higher education system and the Soviet one rance of public goods. A few months before the was that the Soviet system aimed to create a more 720 DIGITAL APTITUDES + OTHER OPENINGS

specialized division of academic disciplines accord- their quality by merging smaller architecture ing to the needs of industry and to produce more or architectural construction programs from trained students in specialized technical areas other mid-size or small-size universities. The necessary for economic development, while the architectural programs in Western model focused on general undergraduate and Northeast College of Technology were out- education with emphasis on liberal arts. Another comes of this approach. major distinction was the Soviet model’s strong emphasis on industrial development and practical 2. the Party split a prestigious program off from its application. The Soviet higher education had been original university and transferred it to another structured to produce more specialized engineers major university with other smaller architecture and industry administrators for the needs of indus- or architectural construction programs when the trial growth. Hence, the structure of higher educa- original university was either dismissed or de- tion needed to aim at orienting students towards fined for different specializations. That was the careers in the highly specialized fields which the process for the architectural programs in Tongji industry demanded the most. University and Tianjin University.

In 1952, the number of institutes in China with ar- 3. the Party also divided an architectural program chitectural education programs was reduced and away from its original universities, combined it consolidated to seven. The development of archi- with other smaller programs, and then formed tectural education as an independent discipline the architecture department in a newly es- since the 1930s was discontinued as the Soviet tablished institute. This approach resulted in model considered architecture an integral part of the creation of the architectural programs in construction engineering, serving for the nation’s Chongqing Construction Engineering Institute, intention on economic development. China was in Institute of Technology and South Chi- a great need of architectural graduates who were na Institute of Technology. specialized in particular fields of construction and could quickly apply the knowledge into practice Through the higher education reorganization, the ar- rather than possessing profound and general ar- chitectural education lost its tie to humanities and chitectural understanding. As a result, it was cru- liberal arts, which were undergoing major cuts due cial to borrow the Soviet model of higher educa- to their admiration and support of the western val- tion in order to efficiently and effectively transform ues and ideologies. Under the strong influence of the the generalist architectural graduates into modern Soviet model, the architectural education was seen construction specialists for the needs of national as a unit of construction engineering. The Party re- industrialization and economic materialization. In constructed the whole architectural education not addition, China’s architectural education had been only for a firm control over it, but also for ensuring mainly influenced by Western values and ideas be- the direct service of the architectural education to fore 1949, which were popular among the disci- the economic development. Thus, the consideration plines in humanities and liberal arts. In order to for architectural learning was functional in terms of achieve the socialist transformation of higher edu- producing more qualified personnel in architectural cation, it is necessary to cut the linkage between design for the urgent needs of industrialization rath- architecture and humanities/liberal art, reducing er than to nurture the profession of architecture. the Western influences in architectural education. CREATION OF HIERARCHICAL RANKING When reorganizing architectural programs, the TITLES & THE ASSOCIATED SALARY SYSTEM Party attempted to preserve and to enhance most of prestigious architectural programs while elimi- A significant step of bureaucratizing the architec- nating or merging small ones. It conducted the tural profession in the 1950s was the adoption of a reorganization of architectural programs in three hierarchical salary system, also borrowed from the different manners: Soviet Union. The Ministry of Education released the “Criteria of Salary Levels for Employees in All 1. the Party preserved prestigious architectural Institutions and Schools” in July 1952. These cri- programs in major universities and promoted teria allocated salary levels into 33 grades, with BUILDING SOCIALISTIC ARCHITECTURAL SCHOOLS 721

several grades applied to one job title. The high- the resistance when transferring professionals from est salary was 12 times greater than the lowest one employer to another according to the economic one. Each person’s salary was determined by five needs. Those professionals could gain the same, if factors: political integrity, academic or profession- not more, salary and enjoy the same social privileg- al capability, working experience and educational es between different employers. However, the Party background, former salary level, and the local liv- did not present a well-defined criterion for salary ing expenditure level.16 and title promotion to create an incentive for perfor- mance. This caused an actual stagnancy in profes- The State Council set two major criteria for assign- sional promotion during the following decade. ing a person to a specific technical or academic title: the political attitude and the professional ex- DEVELOPMENT OF SOVIET MODEL pertise.17 According to these two criteria, three fac- tors were primarily considered –the political quali- Since 1952 when the Party completed the reorga- fications, professional competent, and professional nization of higher education, the Soviet model of or academic accomplishments. In addition, the teaching methods, curricular structures, operational educational degrees and working experience were systems and even textbooks were largely borrowed. regarded as two affiliated factors. In both 1954 and 1956, the Ministry of Higher Edu- cation conducted two meetings with the Soviet advi- In 1956, the Ministry of Higher Education only ap- sors’ help for the adoption of textbooks nationwide. proved 56 Level-One Full Professors nationwide, among whom there were three architectal edu- In order to systematically remove Anglo-American cators, Liang Sicheng at Tsinghua University, Liu influence and to strengthen the specialties- need Dunzheng and Tingbao at Nanjing Institute ed for economic development, the Party needed of Technology. These three architects were also to revise curricula, textbooks and teaching meth- among the first 40 members of the Technology and ods. One major lesson from the Soviet experience Science Institute of the Chinese Academy of Sci- was that the state should clearly define the curri- ences, which was the top national research center cula, teaching methods and disciplinary procedures for practical science and technology.18 with strict rules and regulations.19 As a result, all Chinese institutions adopted uniformed teaching The salary grades for higher level practitioners plans, materials, and textbooks for every specialty. were far beyond the average incomes of the ma- jority of Chinese people. This reflected the Party’s According to the Soviet model, the curricula of ar- sustained efforts to reassure key groups of the so- chitecture were modified. All courses were divided ciety whose skills and expertise were crucial for the into three categories: foundation courses, techno- nation’s economic modernization. In addition, the logical courses and specialized courses. First, the distribution of high salaries to elite engineers and technological courses were strengthened by adding architects also reflected the Communist Party’s at- more study hours in building technology, structure, tempts in expanding the “United Front” to absorb materials and construction. For example, in the more allies who supported the Party’s policies and building structure field, Tsinghua University added goals, and participated in carrying out these poli- 202 hours of mechanics of structure courses, 137 cies to achieve those goals. hours of concrete structure course, 51 hours of steel structure courses, 34 hours of wood structure As a result, most architectural practitioners and courses, 44 hours of building foundation cources, educators were actually more concerned about and 28 hours of structure design courses.20 their salary grades than their academic and techni- cal titles because the salary grade primarily deter- Second, more courses of field studies and intern- mined the quality of well being and the amount of ship were added. In Tsinghua University, an under- income. The technical or academic title only defined graduate architectural student had to take eight a person’s duty and responsibility while the salary courses of field studies and internships within the grade defined his/her political and social status. As five-year architectural program. These courses the salary grade was bundled with a certain aca- included: eight weeks of Working With Construc- demic or technical title, it helped the Party reduce tion Workers I in the 2nd semester, two weeks of 722 DIGITAL APTITUDES + OTHER OPENINGS

Building Survey in the 4th semester, one week of train junior faculty members, develop innovative Measurement Study in the 4th semester, two weeks teaching approaches, conduct political studies, and of Watercolor Drawing at the 4th semester, eight make teaching assessment. Several groups were re- weeks of Working With Construction Workers II in sponsible for different aspects of the teaching of a the 6th semester, six weeks of Assistant of Worker particular specialization. A teaching-research group Leaders in the 8th semester, 10 weeks of internship was formed by faculty members who taught courses in design institutes in the 10th semester, and a field in the same field. For example, in 1954, the Nan- trip investigation before the thesis project.21 jing Institute of Technology established three groups within the Department of Architecture, the Architec- Third, political and ideological studies were signifi- tural Design Group, the Building Technology Group cantly added. A total of 392 hours of political and and the Fine Arts Group. With the urgent needs ideological courses were incorporated into Tsinghua for industrialization and China’s quick urbanization, University’s architectural curricula.22However, the ar- those three groups were expanded to five in 1956, chitectural design studio courses still occupied the the Architectural Design and City Planning Group, most study hours among all courses. There were the Industrial Building Design Group, the Architec- 1,560 hours of design studio learning in Tsinghua tural History Group, the Building Technology Group University, including 747 hours of civilian building and Fine Arts Group.24 A senior educator was desig- design, 179 hours of industrial building design, and nated to be the leader of each group and normally 160 hours of urban planning and design.23 10 to 20 faculty members composed of each group. In Tsinghua University, the Civilian Building Design The Soviet pedagogy and teaching methods were Group had 19 faculty members, the most, while the also borrowed. For example, the five-point sys- Architectural History and Theory Group had only 5 tem was emulated to replace the 100-point grad- faculty members, the least. Each group had its own ing system. In the new system, “5” was equivalent resource center and library.25 to the grade “A” in American grading system while “1” meant the grade “F”. For example, during 1955- With the adoption of the Soviet model, the enroll- 1957, there was no grade of “5” was given to stu- ment of architecture stably increased. The fresh- dents in the Nanjing Institute of Technology as the man enrollment of architecture in Tsinghua Uni- Architecture Department thought that there was no versity from 1953 to 1956 was around 90 students perfect design and consequently no full point could per year. In the Nanjing Institute of Technology, the be given. Hence, a 5-minus was the highest grade freshman enrollment in 1956 had increased 73% given to excellent students’ designs. A major change from the enrollment in 1952. With the increase in in teaching methods was the adoption of the oral student enrollment and the socialist transformation, examination. Unlike the public design presentation the social stratification of architectural students also in the American model, all Chinese architectural stu- significantly changed. By 1949, most architectural dents had to go through an oral examination when students came from wealthy families. This was es- their design assignments were completed. Each stu- pecially apparent in the first generation of Chinese dent was called individually to present his/her design architects. After 1949, the socialist transformation works in a room to a group of faculty members, fol- substantially changed the social stratification and lowed by a question-and-answer session. class closure by recruiting more students from low- income families. In 1952, the Party began to provide Another major change in architectural education a basic living stipend and eliminate tuition payments was the academic intra-institution organization. for all college students. In addition, a national uni- College-level administrations were eliminated and fied examination for college entry was put in place each department was further specialized into several in 1953 to ensure a fair distribution of students from academic units, called the teaching-research groups different social classes according to their academic (jiaoyan zu), each with specific expertise and spe- performance. This accelerated opportunities for stu- cialties. These teaching-research groups became the dents from working class and peasant families to core managerial unit of academic activities – it en- enter college. The percentage of college students of sured the Party’s educational plan was correctly car- worker-peasant origin rose from 20.5 % in 1953 to ried out by each faculty member. It was also respon- 36.4 % in 1957.26 sible to supervise teaching and research activities, BUILDING SOCIALISTIC ARCHITECTURAL SCHOOLS 723

CONCLUSION Liang, Sicheng & Lin Huiyin. “The Thoughts For the Translation of ‘The WWII Reconstruction of The Soviet Union’.” The Works of Liang Sicheng, Vol.5, The nationalization and reorganization of archi- Beijing: China Architectural Science Press, 2001 tectural education in higher education took place Mao Zedong. “Fight for a fundamental return for the a little later when the Party had gained full con- better in the nation’s financial and economic trol over the profession and other key cultural and situations.” The Works of Mao Zedong since the Establishment of the People’s Republic Vol.2, educational sectors. It was obvious that the Party Beijing: The Document and Archive Office of the intended to eliminate western ideological influenc- Chinese Community Party. es on higher education by conducting the Thought Mao Zedong. “Great Victory in Three Mass Movements. Reform Campaign. One of the major problems fac- The Works of Mao Zedong since the Establishment of the People’s Republic Vol.2, Beijing: The ing the Party to achieve economic restoration and Document and Archive Office of the Chinese industrialization was the shortage of trained archi- Community Party, 1997. tects and engineers. To meet this need as quickly Maurice, Meisner. Mao’s China and After: A History of the as possible, the Party borrowed the Soviet patterns People’s Republic. New York: the Free Press, 1999. Ministry of Education. Criteria of Salary Levels for of higher education by placing an increasing em- Employees in All Institutions and Schools, 1952. phasis on engineering and science disciplines and Pan, Guxi. Memorial Symposium for 70 Anniversary of offering more specific educational programs. The the Architecture Department of the Southeast, Thought Reform Campaign had paved the way for Beijing: Chinese Architectural Science Press, 1997 People’s Daily. “The Summary Report for the First the reorganization of all academic disciplines. Be- National Conference of Education,” People’s Daily, ing considered as a unit of construction engineer- January 6, 1950. ing, the architectural programs were amalgamated People’s Daily, “The Command of the State Council of with other engineering disciplines in polytechnic the People’s Republic of China”, People’s Daily, June 4, 1955. institutes. The connection to humanities and lib- State Council of the Central People’s , The Order of eral arts was cut off, which led to a more intensi- Adopting Monetary Salary for All State Employees, fied focus on architectural technologies and science 1955. in teaching and learning thereafter. The Party also Pepper, Suzanne. Redicalism and Education Reform in 20th-century China: The Search for an Ideal attempted to retain and enhance the quality and Development Model, New York: Cambridge function of architectural education by re-assem- University Press, 1996 bling the resources of architectural education. The Zen, Junsheng. The History of China’s Christian Higher prestigious architectural programs were retained Education. Zejing Education Press: , China, 1987. and enhanced by absorbing smaller architectural programs. All retained architectural programs were ENDNOTES assigned to main industrial centers in order to sat- isfy the immediate needs of industrialization. 1 Zen, Junsheng. The History of China’s Christian Higher Education. Zejing Education Press: Hangzhou, REFERENCE China, 1987, p.469. 2 Mao Zedong, “Fight for a fundamental return Dong, Weichuan. New Education in New China.Shanghai: for the better in the nation’s financial and economic The Chinese Book Press, 1951. situations,” p.394. Fang, Huijian & Zhang Sijin. The History of the Tsinghua 3 People’s Daily, “The Summary Report for the University, Vol.2, Beijing: Tsinghua University First National Conference of Education,” People’s Daily, Press, 2001. January 6, 1950. Jiang Pei & Wang Hongxue. “The Reformation of Higher 4 Jiang Pei & Wang Hongxue. “The Reformation Education in Early.” Journal of Contemporary of Higher Education in Early 1950s (Wushi Niandai De History of China ,1998, Issue 3. Yuanxi Tiaozhe),” Journal of Contemporary History of Kwong, Julia. Chinese Education in Transition: Prelude to China (Zhongguo Xiandai Lishi), 1998, Issue 3, p.32. the Cultural Revolution, Montreal: McGill-Queens 5 Jiang Pei & Wang Hongxue. “The Reformation University Press, 1979 of Higher Education in Early 1950s (Wushi Niandai De Liang, Sicheng.“The Soviet Advisors Help Us to Correct Yuanxi Tiaozhe),” Journal of Contemporary History of Our Understanding of Architecture.” The Works of China (Zhongguo Xiandai Lishi), 1998, Issue 3, p.34. Liang Sicheng Vol.5, Beijing: China Architectural 6 Mao Zedong, “Great Victory in Three Mass Science Press, 2001. Movements”(Sanda Yuandong De Weida Shenli), The Liang, Sicheng & Lin Huiyin. “The Preface of the Works of Mao Zedong since the Establishment of the Functional City.” The Works of Liang Sicheng, Vol.5, People’s Republic Vol.2, Beijing: The Document and Beijing: China Architectural Science Press, 2001. Archive Office of the Chinese Community Party, 1997, p.482-483. 7 Interviews with Chinese architects. 724 DIGITAL APTITUDES + OTHER OPENINGS

8 Ibid. 9 Dong Weichuan, New Education in New China (Xin Zhongguo de Xin Jiaoyu), Shanghai: The Chinese Book Press (Zhonghua Shuju), 1951, p.90-91. 10 Maurice Meisner, Mao’s China and After: A History of the People’s Republic. New York: the Free Press, 1999, p.86. 11 Interviews with Chinese architects. 12 Interviews with Chinese architects. 13 Liang Sicheng & Lin Huiyin, “The Preface of the Functional City,” The Works of Liang Sicheng, Vol.5, Beijing: China Architectural Science Press, 2001, p.116. 14 Liang Sicheng & Lin Huiyin, “The Thoughts For the Translation of ‘The WWII Reconstruction of The Soviet Union’,” The Works of Liang Sicheng, Vol.5, Beijing: China Architectural Science Press, 2001, p.121. 15 Liang Sicheng, “The Soviet Advisors Help Us to Correct Our Understanding of Architecture,” The Works of Liang Sicheng Vol.5, Beijing: China Architectural Science Press, 2001, p.150-153. 16 Ministry of Education, Criteria of Salary Levels for Employees in All Institutions and Schools (Quanguo Geji Xuexiao Jiaozhi Yuangong Gongzi Biaozhui Biao), 1952. Governmental archives. 17 State Council of the Central People’s Government (Zhongguo Jindai Jianzhu Yanjiu He Baohu), The Order of Adopting Monetary Salary for All State Employees (Guanyu Guojia Jiguan Gongzuo Renyuan Shixing Gongzi Zhi He Gaijin Hebi Gongzi Zhi De Mingling), 1955, governmental archives. 18 People’s Daily, “The Command of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China (Zhonghua Renmin Gonghe Guo Guowu Yuan Mingling)”, People’s Daily, June 4, 1955. 19 Suzanne Pepper, Redicalism and Education Reform in 20th-century China: The Search for an Ideal Development Model, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996, p.161. 20 Fang Huijian & Zhang Sijin, The History of the Tsinghua University, Vol.2, Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, 2001, p.8. 21 Fang Huijian & Zhang Sijin, The History of the Tsinghua University, Vol.2, Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, 2001, p.8. 22 These courses included 102 hours of the Revolutionary History of China, 102 hours of the Introduction of Marxism-Leninism, 128 hours of Political Economics, and 60 hours of Dialectical materialism. 23 Fang Huijian & Zhang Sijin, The History of the Tsinghua University, Vol.2, Beijing: Tsinghua University Press, 2001, p.8. 24 Pan Guxi, Memorial Symposium for 70 Anniversary of the Architecture Department of the (Dongnan Daxue Jianzhu Xi Chengli 70 Zhounian Jinian Zhuanji), Beijing: Chinese Architectural Science Press, 1997, p.226. 25 Pan Guxi, Memorial Symposium for 70 Anniversary of the Architecture Department of the Southeast University (Dongnan Daxue Jianzhu Xi Chengli 70 Zhounian Jinian Zhuanji), Beijing: Chinese Architectural Science Press, 1997, p.711. 26 Julia Kwong, Chinese Education in Transition: Prelude to the Cultural Revolution, Montreal: McGill- Queens University Press, 1979, p.70. BUILDING SOCIALISTIC ARCHITECTURAL SCHOOLS 725