Football and Fascism: Local Identities and National Integration in Mussolini’S Italy’
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‘Football and Fascism: Local Identities and National Integration in Mussolini’s Italy’ University College London Submitted in fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2003 Simon David Martin ProQuest Number: 10015801 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest. ProQuest 10015801 Published by ProQuest LLC(2016). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 ABSTRACT Football was institutionalised as a Fascist game in 1926 after which, it was exploited domestically as a political soporific to develop a sense of Italian identity and internationally as a diplomatic tool to improve the standing of the regime in the global arena. By studying the experiences of club teams in Florence and Bologna, plus the success of the national team, this thesis draws conclusions as to the coexistence of apparently contradictory local, national and Fascist identities. Furthermore it contributes to the debate regarding the regime’s attempt to manufacture consent. The formation of the first national league in 1929, contributed to the emergence of a number of clubs which dominated European competition. Internationally, the Italian team won the 1934 World Cup, held in Italy; the 1936 Olympic soccer tournament; and retained the World Cup trophy in France in 1938. Yet, despite the arguably successful attempt to construct an imagined community via the politicisation of this aspect of popular mass culture, on occasion, the regime met serious resistance, thereby exposing some of the real conflicts and contradictions that existed within the Fascist society and state. Following extensive archival research in Florence and Bologna, this thesis also compares the histories of the respective city teams and the differing ways in which they contributed to the formation of local and national identities. Significant in the formation of these identities were the revolutionary stadia built by the regime for both clubs, which are examined as part of a detailed consideration of the politicisation of sports architecture under Fascism. While contributing to the cultural history of Fascist Italy, this thesis draws overall conclusions that suggest the regime’s attempt to use football to form identity and manufacture consensus, actually forced it to recognise existing tensions within society, thereby permitting the existence of diversity and individuality. Contents List of Illustrations 4 Acknowledgements 5 Abbreviations • 8 Chapter 1: Introduction 9 Chapter 2: '"Mens sana in corpore sano'' 23 Socialism 0 Catholicism 0 24 Fascism 1 Rest of Italy 0 (The Fascist attitude to sport) 34 Fascist Culture 37 War Without the Shooting 40 The Battle for Bodies 46 Harnessing Hearts and Minds 56 Playing Political Games 58 Chapter 3: Fascist Football Foundations 69 Ca/c/o-chaos: The Road to Viareggio 69 The Carta di Viareggio 78 Calcio goes south 88 Chapter 4: Building the Future 101 The need for a level playing field 103 Legislating for good taste 107 Architecture and Sport 112 Roman stadia in Fascist cities 116 Crowds, masses and the collective mind 128 Chapter 5: Arpinati, Bologna,Calcio: the ABC to success 137 Arpinati: Mayor of Bologna and ‘man of sport’ 138 A national stadium for a provincial city 145 Bolognese excellence, fascistically funded . 151 Myths, legends and lo stadio 155 Putting Bologna on the map 161 Chapter 6: Radical Florence: The Cradle ofCalcio 173 Ridolfi Realises the Dream 174 Florentine Fascism: A radical party in a radical city . 178 Myths, legends and lo stadio . 187 Fiorentina: Fascist football in a Fascist city . 198 Chapter 7: Shooting for Italy: Foreign Bodies on Foreign Fields 208 Sporting Ambassadors 209 For Club and Country 212 Mussolini’s Mondiale: the politicisation of the 1934 World Cup 221 It’s not just the competing, it’s the winning that counts 229 Omindo? Rimpatjiato? Italiano Nuovo? 234 Italy breaks the mould - Metodo v Sistema . 238 Chapter 8: Conclusion 252 Appendix 260 Bibliography 273 List of Illustrations Fig 1. Italian national football team shirt, circa 1928. FIGC Fondazione Museo del Calcio, Florence, (photo S. Martin) Fig 2. Italian Football Team Uniform, circa 1932. FIGC Fondazione Museo del Calcio, Florence, (photo S. Martin) Fig 3. The Stadio dei Marmi (Marble Stadium), Rome, 2002. (photo S. Martin) Fig 4. The mythologised Ttaliano Nuovo’, Stadio dei Marmi (Marble Stadium), Rome, 2002. (photo S. Martin) Fig 5. Various statues, Stadio dei Marmi (Marble Stadium), Rome, 2002. (photo S. Martin) Fig 6. The ‘Littoriale’ (now Stadio dall’Ara) sports complex, Bologna, 2001. (photo S. Martin) Fig 7. The Marathon Tower from Portico San Luca, Bologna, 2001. (photo S. Martin) Fig 8. The Marathon Tower and Portico San Luca, Bologna, 2001. (photo S. Martin) Fig 9. The Marathon Tower, external perspective, Bologna, 2001. (photo S. Martin) Fig 10. The Marathon Tower, internal perspective, Bologna, 1928. (© FIGC Fondazione Museo del Calcio, Florence) Fig II. The Marathon Tower, internal perspective, Bologna, 2001. (photo S. Martin) Figs 12&13. Tribune of Honour, ‘Giovanni Berta’ stadium (now Artemio Franchi), Florence, 2001. (photo S. Martin) Figs 14 & 15. Main entrance to the ‘Giovanni Berta’, Florence, 2001. (photo S. Martin) Fig 16. Helicoid Stairway (Curva Fiesole), ‘Giovanni Berta’, Florence, 2001. (photo S. Martin) Fig 17. Helicoid Stairway (Tribuna Maratona), ‘Giovanni Berta’, Florence, 2001. (photo S. Martin) Figs 18 & 19. Marathon Tower, ‘Giovanni Berta’, Florence, 2001. (photo S. Martin) Fig 20. Curva Ferrovia (Marione), ‘Giovanni Berta’, Florence, 2001. (photo S. Martin) Figs 21 & 22. Tribuna Maratona, ‘Giovanni Berta’, Florence, 2001. (photo S. Martin) Fig 23. 1934 World Cup Match Tickets. (© FIGC Fondazione Museo del Calcio, Florence) Fig 24. 1934 World Cup Stamps. (© FIGC Fondazione Museo del Calcio, Florence) Fig 25. The ‘Coppa del Duce’, FIGC Fondazione Museo del Calcio, Florence, (photo S. Martin) Acknowledgements A recent trawl through family photo albums during an afternoon that would have been better spent preparing this thesis for submission, revealed the consistent feature of a football. From a back garden in Essex to the curve of Rome’s Stadio Olimpico, football has guided, if not governed, my mazey dribble through life. Replacing West Ham’s Billy Bonds might have been my dream occupation, with the emphasis on dream, but developing an academic career around the study of the ‘beautiful game’ was a pleasant alternative. The potential for serious historical study into football was revealed to me by Duncan Shaw’s research on Spanish football under Franco, at Queen Mary and Westfield College, London. While sport has increasingly come into vogue as a serious topic of academic research and discussion, it was this thesis that first exposed me to the game’s potential as a revealing and relatively novel area of historical analysis. The skills and experience that I have acquired as a journeyman Sunday morning footballer across the playing fields of Essex and east London, prepared me well for the demands of historical research. A modicum of ability and grim determination, supplemented by the inspiration of others, can go a long way. Without underestimating their years of dedication, footballers such as Diego Maradona, Johann Cruyff and Bobby Moore, to name but a few, were blessed with heaven sent talents. Of course, world class historians have also been inspirational, but by nature of the trade their talents are somewhat less divine and spontaneous, although occasionally no less creative and motivational. Eric Hobsbawm would be the first name on my ‘Inspirational X r team sheet and he would wear the number 10.1 also owe much to the efforts and dedication of others who have helped me to reach this point. Dave McLean at Abbs Cross School was the first to make history interesting, while the History department of Queen Mary and Westfield College, had the faith to take me on as a slightly mature student with a very average record. Once there. Dr Roger Mettam became my guru and Dr Maria-Sophia Quine helped me discover that there was more to Fascism than the A’ level syllabus had suggested. On loan for one season to the Wellcome Institute for Medical Research, Dr Michael Neve’s teaching laid significant foundations in this thesis. I owe much credit to my two supervisors Dr Jonathan Morris and Dr Axel Komer (University College London), who were both extremely encouraging from the start and whose advice and criticisms guided me through the mists that frequently obscured the goal. Above all they have supported me through the inevitable setbacks and responded with good grace and speed to my frequent reference demands. Their input was also crucial in obtaining much of the funding that has supported me throughout the research for this thesis. Prof.essa Mariuccia Salvati (University of Bologna) was also instrumental in securing research grants from the Italian government, besides offering me encouragement, advice and contacts on the ground. Prof. Giuliano Gresleri (University of Bologna) and Professor Tim Benton (Open University) both took the time to discuss my unrefined architectural theories. Professor Pierre Lanffanchi (Leicester De Montfort University) provided some useful advice early in the research process and, importantly, put me in contact with Francesco Varassi whose own impressive work was a great source of information, inspiration and reassurance. Sergio Giuntini in Milan was free with his advice, encouragement and source material, in addition to ensuring I saw AC Milan in the flesh. With the referee poised to blow full-time.