Berber Chronology

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BERBER CHRONOLOGY

7000-5000 B.C. Capsian civilization. 6000-2000 B.C. Neolithic civilization in North Africa and in the Sahara. 1000 B.C. Phoenician settlements in North African shores. Around 950 B.C. Sheshonq I (Libyan) founds the 22nd Egyptian dynasty. Around 814 B.C. Foundation of Carthage by Phoenicians. 500–400 B.C. Formation of Berber Kingdoms: Mauretania in the west, Massaessyles in the center, and Massyles in the east. 500–400 B.C. Carthage expands into African hinterlands. 146 B.C. Third Punic War; final destruction of Carthage; beginning of the Roman occupation of North Africa. 116 B.C. Jugurtha, Massinissa’s grandson, unites Numidia. 112–104 B.C. Jugurthine War; Jugurtha defies the Romans; he is eventually betrayed by King Bocchus of Mauretania. 82 B.C. Hierbas unites Numidia and is defeated by Rome. 46 B.C. Defeat of Juba I; Rome annexes Numidia and creates the Roman province of Africa Nova. 25 B.C. Augustus gives Mauretania to Juba II as a client kingdom. 193 Berber Lacius Septimius Severus from Liptis Magna becomes the first African emperor of Rome. 347 Donatists and Circumcelliones unite against Roman power. 354 Birth of Saint Augustine in Tagast (Algeria). 372–376 Revolt of Firmus in the Kabyle Mountains, with support from the Donatists. 395 Saint Augustine becomes Bishop of Hippo. 396 Revolt of Firmus’s brother Gildon, with Donatist support. 429 Invasion of Africa by the Vandals. 430 Saint Augustine dies during the siege of Hippo. 533 The fall of the Vandals. 596 Berber uprisings against the Byzantines. 647 Arabs defeat the Byzantine army at Sbeitla; occupation of Copyright © 2007. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. rights All Publisher. Scholars Cambridge 2007. © Copyright Tripolitania. 669 The Arab leader `Uqba Ibn Nafi` seizes Tripolitania and Byzacena; foundation of the city of Qayrawan; Berber resistance by Kussayla.

North African Mosaic : A Cultural Reappraisal of Ethnic and Religious Minorities, edited by Nabil Boudraa, and Joseph Krause, Cambridge Scholars Publisher, 2007. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/cuhk-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1133038. Created from cuhk-ebooks on 2019-10-29 18:57:09.

12 Berber Chronology

688 Arab counter-offensive; Kussayla dies. 695 Hassan Ibn Nu`man invades the Maghreb, captures Carthage, but Arab armies are defeated by Kahena, the Berber queen of the Aures (South east Algeria). 701 Kahena dies; end of Berber resistance; the Berbers convert to Islam. 711 Berber general Tariq Ibn Ziyad leads the Moorish conquest of Spain. 827-896 The Aghlabids conquer Sicily. Malta. Syracuse. 972 The Fatimids leave the Maghrib to Egypt; The Zirids take over the Maghrib. 1014 The Hammadid dynasty. 1090-91 The Almoravid conquests of Spain. 1147-1150 The Almohad incursions in Spain. 1159 The Almohads unite the Maghreb. 1415 The Portuguese occupy Ceuta and Tangiers in 1471. 1514 The Ottomans take Djidjel from the Spanish. 1515 The Ottomans take Algiers. Later, they capture Libya and Tunis. 1517 The Ottomans take Tlemcen. 1609 Mass migration of Andalusis to the Maghreb. 1830 France begins its colonization of Algeria. 1857 French conquest of Kabylia. 1858–1860 Kabyle uprisings. 1859 Uprisings in the Aures region. 1871 Al-Mukrani and Cheikh Al-Haddad uprisings. 1881 Establishment of a French protectorate in Tunisia. 1912 Establishment of a French protectorate in Morocco; Spain controls most of northern and southern Morocco; Libya becomes an Italian protectorate. 1916 Tuareg rebels, led by Kaocen, occupy Agadez. 1921–1926 Revolts of Abdelkarim al-Khattabi in the Rif, northern Morocco. 1930 Berber Dahir in Morocco. 1933 Aït Atta resist the French in the Sahara and the Anti-Atlas; battle of Bougafer.

Copyright © 2007. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. rights All Publisher. Scholars Cambridge 2007. © Copyright 1937 Foundation of the Parti du Peuple Algérien (PPA). 1940 Emergence of Algerian nationalism.

North African Mosaic: 13 A Cultural Reappraisal of Ethnic and Religious Minorities

1949 Berberist crisis; Kabyle leaders call for a secular state and for a multicultural Algerian society and opposition to the Arab-Islamic as sole model for Algeria. 1951 Libyan independence. 1954 Beginning of the Algerian War. 1956 Moroccan independence. 1956 Tunisian independence. 1958–1959 Rif uprising is repressed. 1959 Foundation of the Movement Populaire (MP) by Mahjoubi Ahardan. 1962 Algerian independence. 1963 Revolts in Kabylia against the new government. Creation of Front des Forces Socialistes (FFS) by Hocine Aït Ahmed. 1962–1963 Tuaregs of Idrar Niforas in northeastern Mali rebel against the Malian government. 1967 Foundation of Paris-based Académie Berbère d’Echange et de Recherches Culturels. 1969 Mu`ammar Kadhafi deposes the Sanusi monarchy. 1972 Second coup d’état attempt on King Hassan II of Morocco. 1973 Kabyle activists form Groupe d’Etudes Berbères at the University of Paris VIII-Vincennes. 1978 Establishment of Ateliers Imedyazen, an outreach and publication cooperative in Paris to debate and disseminate Berber issues; foundation of Tamaynut Association. 1980 Berber Spring (Tafsut): Algerian government cancels Mouloud Mammeri’s lecture at the University of Tizi- Ouzou; Kabyle protests follow; repression of protestors by security forces; foundation of the Mouvement Culturel Berbère (MCB). 1980–1990 Proliferation of Berber cultural associations in North Africa and in France 1984–1985 Drought destroys about 70 percent of Tuareg livestock. 1989 Foundation of the Rassemblement pour la Culture et la Démocratie (RCD) by Said Sadi; Libya deports Malian Tuaregs.

Copyright © 2007. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. rights All Publisher. Scholars Cambridge 2007. © Copyright 1990 Front Islamique du Salut (FIS) wins municipal and regional elections; defeat and humiliation of the FLN. Tuareg rebellion in Niger; armed Tuareg rebels attack government in Mali and Niger; Front Populaire de

14 Berber Chronology

Libération de l’Azaouad (FPLA) seeks to establish a new state in northern Mali. Interior ministers of Algeria, Mali, and Niger meet in Tamanrasset to discuss armed Tuareg uprisings; presidents of Libya, Algeria, Mali, and Niger hold a summit to discuss Tuareg issues; Tuareg aim to set up a free Tuareg state. 1991 Tuaregs destroy a border checkpoint, erasing border markings between Niger and Mali; Tuareg massacres; Agadir Charter calls for the recognition of the Amazigh language and culture in Morocco. 1992 Two Tuareg rebel groups and the government of Mali sign a truce in Tamanrasset (Algeria); concessions included the establishment of a Tuareg autonomous region and the withdrawal of the Malian army from Timbuktu and Gao; the Front Populaire de Liberation de l’Azaouad (FPLA) continues its attacks; Malian army retaliation increases. 1993 Niger admits the existence of a Tuareg rebellion and calls for peace talks; Truce between the Front de Libération de l’Aïr et de l’Azawad (FLAA) and the government of Niger. Tuareg refugees begin to return to Mali from Algeria. 1994 Massacre of Tuareg civilians by Malian armed forces; Tuareg assaults on Gao. Members of the Goulmima-based organization, Tilleli, are arrested for showing banners written in Berber script (Tifinagh) during Labor Day march. King Hassan II calls for teaching “Berber dialects;” Moroccan television begins broadcasting a daily four- minute news bulletin in Tamazight, Tashalhit, and Tarifit. 1994-1995 School boycott in Kabylia. 1995 Algerian government creates the Haut Commissariat à l’Amazighité (HCA) to oversee the insertion of Tamazight in the education system and media, but fails to achieve its mission. Peace agreement signed between the government of Niger and Tuareg groups. Copyright © 2007. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. rights All Publisher. Scholars Cambridge 2007. © Copyright Malian Tuaregs call on the international community to help solve Mali’s northern problems; continuous cycles of retaliatory killings of Tuareg civilians and Tuareg assaults; Algeria relocates Malian refuges to new camps.

North African Mosaic: 15 A Cultural Reappraisal of Ethnic and Religious Minorities 1996 Moroccan law restricts the use of Amazigh names. 1997 First World Amazigh Congress held in the Canary Islands. 1998 Assassination of Matoub Lounes, a Kabyle singer and activist; riots in Kabylia. 2001 King Mohamed VI announces the foundation of the Institut Royal pour la Culture Amazigh (IRCAM). Black Spring (riots) in Kabylia; government forces kill scores of protestors; Draft of the El-Kseur Platform which calls for economic demands and official recognition of Berber language and culture. 2002 Tamazight (Berber) is finally recognized as a national language (but is still not official) in constitutional revision. 2005 Kadhafi Charity Foundation calls on the government of Libya to lift a 1970s ban on the registration of Amazigh names.

COPTIC CHRONOLOGY

42 AD Saint Mark the Evangelist, the author of the oldest of the Christian gospels, founds the Coptic Church. 150 School of Alexandria is founded in Egypt, quickly becoming a major center for both Christian theology and Greek philosophy. c. 150 Coptic translation of orig. Greek (Nag Hammadi library). c. 200 The first Sahidic Coptic Bible translations written in Alexendria. 246 Paul of Thebes retreats to the Egyptian desert and becomes the first Christian hermit. 250 Christian council of Rome, Demetrius bishop of Alex. condemns Origen who in 248 cited the heresy recorded by Celsus. 284 Massacre of Copts under the rule of Emperor Diocletian. Known to Copts as the Year of the Martyrs. 290-345 St Pachomius establishes the 1st monastery in Egypt. 300 The first Bohairic Coptic Bible translations written in Alexandria. c. 325 The first Fayyumic Coptic translation fragment of John 6:11-15:11. 339 Athanasius of Alexandria visits Rome accompanied by the two Egyptian monks Ammon and Isidore disciples of Anthony who export the idea of monasticism to Europe. c. 350 The first Akhmimic (cop. ac) & Sub-Akhmimic (cop.ac2) Coptic translations of John. c. 431 Building a church of El-Ashmonien, which was one of the sites that was visited by the holy family. 441 Building the white convent (the convent of Anba Shenuda) in Suhag, which is said to have been built by Empress Helena. Copyright © 2007. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. rights All Publisher. Scholars Cambridge 2007. © Copyright 451 Coptic Patriarch Dioscorus is excommunicated at the Council of Chalcedon, given his insistence on Christ’s indivisible, divine nature.

North African Mosaic: 17 A Cultural Reappraisal of Ethnic and Religious Minorities

c. 550 The Emperor Justinian starts erecting St. Catherene convent in the eastern desert. c. 600 The Emperor Arcadius starts erecting the pilgrimage complex of Abu Mina near Alexandria. 642 Omar Bin El-Khatab, the second Moslem Caliph, takes Egypt; defeats Heraclius in Holy War (The Arab conquest to Egypt and the end of the Byzantine Era in Egypt). c. 700 Building the Church of St. Sergyous (the oldest Church in Old Cairo) upon the crypt where the holy family stayed. c. 706 AD The Arabic language replaces the Coptic language in affairs of state within Egypt. 750-868 Imposing sumptuary laws on Copts under the Abbasid 905-935 Dynasties. 1003 The Fatimid ruler Al-Hakim bi Amr Allah starts a persecution against Christianity. Twelfth century The Coptic Patriarch mandates the use of the Arabic language alongside Coptic in church services. Twelfth century The Syrian convent given to the Syrians as a lien, and the church of The Angel Michael sold to the Jews. Thirteenth Catholic missionaries begin activities among Copts in century Egypt. c. 1321 Persecution of Copts by Mamluk rulers of Egypt. Fifteenth century The appearance of the architectural style known as Akhmym Style of Churches. Eighteenth The appearance of the architectural style known as 12 century Domes Style of Churches. 1825 British Church Missionary Society dispatches a representative to Cairo. 1854 Cyril IV, who will become known as the Father of Reform, assumes the Patriarchal seat. American missionaries of the United Presbyterian Church inaugurate activities in Egypt. 1855 The main mark of Copts' inferiority, the “Jizya” lifted, and shortly thereafter Copts started to serve in the Egyptian army. 1865 Church Missionary Society representative J. R. T. Lieder passes away.

Copyright © 2007. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. rights All Publisher. Scholars Cambridge 2007. © Copyright 1867 Violence in Upper Egypt as Coptic Patriarch Demetrius II undertakes tour of area and condemns Protestant missionary activities therein.

18 Coptic Chronology

1895 Coptic Catholics develop a formal organization, with a Patriarch, for their activities. March 1911 Prominent Coptic laymen, unsettled by the assassination of Coptic Prime Minister Boutros Ghali, gather in Asyut to complain about government discrimination. 1919 Copts and Muslims join together in strikes and demonstrations targeting British occupation. 1933 Wafd Party adopts strident anti-missionary stand, in light of allegations that a mission school pressured a Muslim student to convert. 1945 A library of early Christian texts is discovered at Nag Hammadi in Egypt. 1952 Coptic lawyer Ibrahim Fahmy Hilal creates the Society of the Coptic Nation, promoting a particularist Coptic identity in wake of sectarian attacks. Gamal Abdel Nasser’s Free Officers seize control of Egyptian government, and send King Farouk into exile. 1954 Ibrahim Fahmy Hilal seizes control of Patriarchate, only to face arrest by the revolutionary regime. Alleged assassination attempt against Nasser used as pretext to ban Muslim Brotherhood. September 21, Law Number 462 eliminates the separate courts, which had 1955 administered personal status laws for Muslim, Christian, and Jewish communities, respectively. April 19, 1959 Kirollos VI assumes Patriarchal seat. 1961 Nasser’s Socialist Decrees tend to disempower Copts disproportionately. July 24, 1965 Nasser lays cornerstone of Cathedral of Saint Mark, emphasizing national unity in remarks alongside Patriarch Kirollos VI. 1966 Chief Muslim Brotherhood ideologue, Sayyid Qutb, executed. September 1971 Nasser’s successor, President Anwar Sadat, grants amnesty to Muslim Brotherhood political prisoners. October 13, Shenouda, formerly Bishop of Education, assumes 1971 Patriarchal seat.

North African Mosaic: 19 A Cultural Reappraisal of Ethnic and Religious Minorities

1977 Legislation proposes to punish apostates from Islam with the death penalty. Shenouda publicly attacks such ‘Islamizing’ legislation. The Patriarch meets with U.S. President Jimmy Carter at the White House. April 30, 1980 The People’s Assembly declares Islamic law the principal source of legislation in Egypt. 1981 Sadat imprisons 1,536 public figures, both Copts and Muslims, from across the political spectrum. Within a month, the President is assassinated by Islamists. January 1985 Pope Shenouda is finally released from house arrest imposed by Sadat.

SAHRAWI CHRONOLOGY

Thirteenth Arabization of the Western Sahara begins. Century 1884-1885 Spain begins to occupy parts of the Saharan coast. 1912 Madrid and Paris finalize borders of Spanish Sahara and the Franco-Spanish protectorates in Morocco. 1934 French and Spanish pacification efforts in the Western Sahara reach their climax. 1956 Shortly before achieving independence, Moroccan political elites lay claim to Mauritania, northern Mali, western Algeria and Spanish Sahara as a part of “Greater Morocco.” 1957-1958 Irregular guerillas of Moroccan and West-Saharan origin launch a new anti-colonial war in southern Morocco, western Algeria, Mauritania and Spanish Sahara, only to be crushed in a joint French and Spanish counterinsurgency effort. 1958 Spanish Sahara is declared a province of Spain. 1960 Mauritania achieves independence from France. 1962 Algerian independence. 1963 The United Nations places Spanish Sahara on its official list of colonies. 1970 First indigenous independence movement in Spanish Sahara is quickly repressed by Spanish administration. 1973 Sahrawi students in Morocco form first cell of Polisario Front in May, and quickly launched war of national liberation. 1974 Spain announces referendum on self-determination, which is soon opposed by Morocco and Mauritania. 1975 Morocco threatens to invade Spanish Sahara after International Court of Justice rejects its historical claim.

Copyright © 2007. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved. rights All Publisher. Scholars Cambridge 2007. © Copyright With backing from the United States, Spain agrees to hand over administration to Morocco and Mauritania. Furious, Algeria throws its support behind Polisario.

North African Mosaic: 21 A Cultural Reappraisal of Ethnic and Religious Minorities

1976 Polisario forms its own government-in-exile, the Saharan Arab Democratic Republic, focusing its Algerian-backed war on Mauritania. Nearly half the native Sahrawi population of Western Sahara joins Polisario, forming four refugee camps near Tindouf, Algeria. 1979 Mauritania withdraws from Western Sahara conflict; Polisario at height of military success. 1980 After years of military setbacks, Morocco begins to construct a series of heavily defended barriers that eventually bisect Western Sahara from north to south by the late 1980s. 1981 Morocco's King Hassan II agrees in principle to an Organization of African Unity referendum in Western Sahara. 1984 Organization of African Unity recognizes the Saharan Arab Democratic Republic; Morocco leaves the organization. 1988 The UN Security Council backs plans for a UN referendum in Western Sahara. 1991 Security Council adopts a Settlement Plan for Western Sahara; the UN Secretary-General unilaterally declares a ceasefire in September. 1992-1999 The UN Mission in Western Sahara attempts to establish an electorate for a referendum on independence. 2000 Following the bloody referendum in East Timor, Security Council pushes for an alternative to a vote on independence in Western Sahara once it is clear that the plebiscite is heading towards independence. 2001 Lead UN negotiator, former U.S. Secretary of State James Baker presents an autonomy agreement for Western Sahara, which is rejected by Polisario and Algeria but is accepted by Morocco. 2002 The UN Legal Counsel reaffirms that Western Sahara is still a Spanish colony under the de facto administration of Morocco. UN Security Council calls for Baker to find an

22 Sahrawi Chronology

2003 Baker presents his Peace Plan for Western Sahara; it offers five years of Western Saharan autonomy followed by a referendum on independence. Polisario and Algeria accept the proposal but Morocco rejects it. France and the United States reassure Morocco that a solution will never be imposed. 2004 After seven years as key mediator, Baker decides to resign. Morocco continues to reject any vote on independence; Polisario and Algeria call for the forced implementation of Baker's Peace Plan. 2005 The Moroccan-occupied Western Sahara witnesses some of the largest pro-independence demonstrations since 1975; nationalists call it the Sahrawi Intifadah. 2006 Morocco announces that it will unilaterally implement autonomy in Western Sahara as a solution to the conflict. Polisario begins to call for a withdrawal of the UN mission and re-opens its military training schools.

Created fromcuhk-ebooks on 2019-10-29 18:57:09. Joseph Krause,Cambridge ScholarsPublisher,2007. ProQuestEbook Central,http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/cuhk-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1133038. North African Mosaic:ACultural ReappraisalofEthnic andReligiousMinorities, editedbyNabil Boudraa,and Copyright © 2007. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved.

MAPS

Map 1 Distribution of modern Berber speakers. Reprinted from The Historical Dictionary of the Berbers, by Hsain Ilahiane, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 2006. (Adapted from Brett, M. and Fentress, E. The Berbers: the peoples of Africa. Oxford: Blackwell, 1997).

24 Maps

Map 2 The Almoravid expansion in Spain. Reprinted from The Historical Dictionary of the Berbers, by Hsain Ilahiane, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 2006