Appendices Appendix 1: the Bureau-Shaping Model

Home , Executive agency, Paymaster General

Appendices Appendix 1: The Bureau-Shaping Model

The bureau-shaping perspective on executive agencies draws extensively on the bureau-shaping model (Dunleavy, 1985, 1986, 1989a,b, 1991) by incor- porating the insight that officials have a preference for policy work rather than routine work and the concept of bureau-shaping strategies. Dunleavy developed the bureau-shaping model in two parts. First, the bureau-shaping typology of bureaus, based on differences in the mix of budgets in a bureau. Organisations with a high proportion of ‘core budget’ spent on their own activities are ‘delivery’ bureau whilst organisations passing on budget for others to spend are ‘transfer’, ‘contracts’ or ‘control’ bureau, depending on who receives the money (Dunleavy, 1991, pp. 183–8). The typology was applied to describe the ‘architecture’ of the British state in the late 1980s (Dunleavy, 1989a,b). The second part of the bureau-shaping model is a general theory of administrative reform which suggests that rational officials value work related utility and undertake ‘bureau-shaping’ strategies in pursuit of these benefits (Dunleavy, 1985, 1986, 1991, pp. 200–9). Several bureau-shaping strategies are suggested including major internal reorganisations to promote policy work over routine activities, transformations of internal work practices, redefinition of relations with external partners to enhance policy contacts, competition with other bureaux to protect the scope of interesting work, load shedding, hiving off and contracting out functions which are seen as undesirable (Dunleavy, 1991, pp. 203–4). The bureau-shaping model has been developed as an explanation of privatisation and de-institutionalisation in the public sector (Dunleavy, 1986, 1991, pp. 236–48) to examine reform of a finance ministry (Wallis and Dollery, 2001), changes in the Australian Federal budget sector (Dollery and Hamburger, 1986), changes in local government including contracting out (Biggs and Dunleavy, 1995; Cope, 1995; Aulich, 1999) and privatisation of government owned oil industries (Hoopes, 1997).

153 Appendix 2: The Formal Bureau-Shaping Perspective on Executive Agency Reform

The preferences of an individual senior official for the organisation of his or her department can be expressed formally and is analogous to the simple economic model of consumer preference subject to a budget constraint. For the sake of clarity, the figures in Chapter 2 are drawn schematically. The preferences of an individual senior official are represented by the utility function

1– 1– U ϭ X2 ϩ Y 2 where U is level of utility, X is budget per senior official and Y is proportion of policy work time in total work time. The constraint on the official imposed by politicians is

Y ϭ 1 Ϫ aX where 1 is the limited work time available to the senior official, a is the proportion of management time in total work time which politicians insist an official must spend supervising each unit of budget per official and 0 Ͻ a Ͻ 1. The slope of each indifference curve is given by the marginal utility of X divided by the marginal utility of Y

Ϫ1– Ϫ1– 1– 1– d—YϭϪ΂1– X 2΃ ΂1– Y 2 ΃ϭϪY 2/X 2 dX 2 / 2

The slope of the constraint is given by

d—YϭϪa dX

At the interior optimum, the slopes of the constraint and indifference curve are equal Y1/2/X1/2 ϭ a, or Y ϭ a2X, which can be solved with the constraint to yield the optimum values of X and Y,

1 Y* ϭ 1ϩ(1/a)

1 X* ϭ a (1ϩa)

154 Appendix 2 155

The function used in the formal perspective assumes independence of the marginal utilities of X and Y implying that policy work time and budget per senior official affect utility only by the sum of their separate contributions and not by forming particularly desirable or undesirable combinations. The level of policy work is largely independent of the level of budget per senior official. A negligible level of budget per senior official is required to undertake policy work compared to that involved in executive activity because policy work tends to be more labour intensive in terms of senior officials and less intensive in other resources than executive activity. The perspective assumes a stable relationship between changes in executive activity and budget per senior official and between changes in the level of policy work and proportion of policy work time. Stability requires that the number of senior officials and efficiency in the use of budget and policy work time are constant. Without these assumptions budget per senior official, for example, could be reduced by increased efficiency leaving the level of executive activity unchanged. The tightening of politicians’ constraint on senior officials shown in Figure 2.3 is expressed formally by a rise in a. The equations for optimum X and Y imply that a rise in a will cause a fall in X and a rise in Y. The rise in a causes a rise in Y because the substitution effect of a rise in a outweigh the income effect which reduces the available ‘income’ for both X and Y. Appendix 3: Interviews Conducted for the Study

The interviews were conducted on a Chatham House basis such that interviewees’ comments are not attributed to them by name. The first set of interviews are coded ‘Ix’ and were conducted exclusively for this study. The second set of interviews were conducted jointly with the ESRC funded ‘Bureaucratic Gamekeeping’ project and are coded IAx. For this latter set of interviews, the interview number in brackets indicates the ‘Bureaucratic Gamekeeping’ project code (Hood et al., 1999, pp. 228–30).

Interviews

I1 9/8/97 Senior Official, Cabinet Office I2 9/8/97 Senior Official, Cabinet Office I3 9/8/97 Senior Official, Cabinet Office I4 30/3/00 Official, Benefits Agency I5 30/3/00 Official, National Audit Office I6 4/4/00 Senior Official, National Audit Office I7 4/4/00 Senior Official, National Audit Office I8 4/4/00 Senior Official, National Audit Office I9 14/4/00 Senior Official, Department of Social Security I10 10/5/00 Senior Official, Benefits Agency I11 16/5/00 Senior Official, Benefit Fraud Inspectorate I12 17/5/00 Senior Official, National Audit Office I13 1/6/00 Senior Official, Benefits Agency I14 15/6/00 Senior Official, Department of Social Security I15 20/7/00 Senior Official, Benefits Agency I16 24/10/01 Senior Official, Cabinet Office

Additional interviews conducted jointly with the ESRC funded ‘Bureaucratic Gamekeeping’ project

IA1 11/1/96 (I7) Senior Official, HM Treasury IA2 16/1/96 (I8) Senior Official, HM Treasury IA3 18/1/96 (I9) Senior Official, HM Treasury IA4 12/2/96 (I13) Senior Official, HM Treasury IA5 13/2/96 (I14) Senior Official, HM Treasury IA6 20/2/96 (I15) Senior Official, National Audit Office IA7 22/2/96 (I16) Senior Official, Cabinet Office IA8 26/2/96 (I17) Senior Official, HM Treasury

156 Appendix 3 157

IA9 1/3/96 (I18) Senior Official, Cabinet Office IA10 25/6/96 (I23) Senior Official, Parliamentary Commissioner for Administration IA11 27/6/96 (I24) Senior Official, Home Office IA12 1/6/96 (I25) Senior Official, National Audit Office IA13 11/10/96 (I33) Senior Official, Northern Ireland Audit Office IA14 7/4/97 (I36) Senior Official, Department of Finance and Personnel Northern Ireland IA15 8/4/97 (I37) Senior Official, Northern Ireland Ombudsman IA16 11/9/96 (IEE7) Senior Official, HM Prison Service Appendix 4: Census of 173 Executive Agencies Created between 1988 and 2001

The executive agencies are classified by the department in which the member of the government to which they reported, generally the Secretary of State, was located at the time of their establishment. The date of establishment is given and * indicates a trading agency. The information for the classification was principally gathered from the Next Steps annual reviews from 1990 onwards (Prime Minister and Minister for the Civil Service and the Minister of State, Privy Council Office, 1990, 1991; Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998; Minister for the Cabinet Office, 1999, 2000; Office of Public Service Reform and HM Treasury, 2002). The departments with executive agencies are listed below, in order of the number of bodies created. There were, in addition, departments that were des- ignated as operating on ‘agency lines’. These included Customs and Excise from 1991, Inland Revenue from 1992, the Crown Prosecution Service and Serious Fraud Office from 1997. In 2001, these bodies employed 90,440 staff making 367,000 staff working in agencies or bodies working on ‘agency lines’, or 76 per cent of all civil servants (Cabinet Office, 2002, p. 18). However, the reforms in these departments were principally alterations to internal management arrangements rather than a full application of the executive agency model and are not counted as a full use of the model.

Executive agencies Year

Ministry of Defence (fifty-two executive agencies) Army Base Repair Organisation 1993 Armed Forces Personnel Administration 1997 Army Base Storage and Distribution 1995 Army Individual Training Organisation 1996 Army Personnel Centre 1996 Army Technical Support 1995 Chemical and Biological Defence 1991 Defence Accounts 1991 Defence Analytical Services 1992 Defence Animal Centre 1993

158 Appendix 4 159

Executive agencies Year

Defence Aviation Repair Agency* 2001 Defence Bills Agency 1995 Defence Clothing & Textile Agency 1994 Defence Codification 1996 Defence Communications Service Agency 1998 Defence Dental Agency 1996 Defence Estates 1997 Defence Evaluation and Research Agency 1995 Defence Geographic and Imagery Intelligence Agency 2000 Defence Housing Executive 1999 Defence Intelligence and Security Centre 1996 Defence Operational Analysis 1992 Defence Postal and Courier Service 1992 Defence Research 1991 Defence Science and Technology Laboratory* 2001 Defence Storage and Distribution Agency 1999 Defence Transport and Movements 1999 Defence Transport and Movements Executive 1995 Disposal Sales 1994 Duke of York’s Military School 1992 Hydrographic Office* 1990 Joint Air Reconnaissance Intelligence 1996 Logistic Information Systems Agency 1994 Maintenance Group Defence 1994 Medical Supplies Agency 1996 Military Survey 1991 Ministry of Defence Police 1996 Meteorological Office* 1990 Naval Aircraft Repair 1992 Naval Base and Supply Agency 1996 Naval Manning Agency 1996 Naval Recruitment and Training Agency 1995 Pay and Personnel Agency 1996 Queen Victoria School 1992 Royal Air Force Logistics Support Service 1996 Royal Air Force Maintenance Group Defence Agency 1991 Royal Air Force Signals Engineering Establishment 1994 Royal Air Force Training Group Defence Agency 1994 Service Children’s Education 1996 Service Children Schools 1991 Ships Support Agency 1996 Warship Support Agency 2001 160 Appendix 4

Executive agencies Year

Northern Ireland (NI) Departments (twenty-four executive agencies) Business Development Service 1996 Compensation 1996 Driver and Vehicle Licensing (NI) 1993 Driver and Vehicle Testing Agency* 1992 Environment and Heritage Service 1996 Forensic Science Agency (NI) 1995 Forest Service 1998 Government Purchasing Agency 1996 Health Estates (NI) 1995 Industrial Research and Technology Unit 1995 Land Registers of (NI) 1996 NI Child Support Agency 1993 NI Prison Service 1995 NI Statistics and Research Agency 1996 Ordnance Survey (NI) 1992 Planning Service (NI) 1996 Public Record Office (NI) 1995 Rate Collection Agency 1991 Rivers Agency (NI) 1996 Roads Service 1996 Social Security (NI) 1991 Training and Employment (NI) 1990 Valuation and Lands (NI) 1993 Water Service 1996

Department of Trade and Industry (eleven executive agencies) Accounts Services 1991 Companies House* 1988 Laboratory of the Government Chemist 1989 National Engineering Laboratory 1990 National Physical Laboratory 1990 National Weights & Measures Laboratory 1989 Patent Office* 1990 Radiocommunications Agency 1990 Small Business Service 2000 The Insolvency Service 1990 Warren Spring Laboratory 1989

Scottish Office Departments and Scottish Executive (eleven executive agencies) Communities Scotland 2001 HM Inspectorate of Education 2001 Historic Scotland 1991 Appendix 4 161

Executive agencies Year

Registers of Scotland* 1990 Scottish Agricultural Science Agency 1992 Scottish Court Service 1995 Scottish Fisheries Protection 1991 Scottish Office Pensions 1993 Scottish Prison Service 1993 Scottish Record Office 1993 Student Awards for Scotland 1994

Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) and subsequent Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (eleven executive agencies) ADAS 1992 Central Science Laboratory 1994 Central Veterinary Laboratory 1990 Forest Enterprise 1996 Forest Research 1997 Intervention Board 1990 Meat Hygiene Service 1995 Pesticides Safety Directorate 1993 Rural Payments Agency 2001 Veterinary Laboratories Agency 1990 Veterinary Medicines Directorate 1990

Cabinet Office (ten executive agencies) Buying Agency 1991 Central Computer and Telecommunications Agency 1996 Central Office of Information* 1990 Chessington Computer Centre 1993 Civil Service College 1989 Her Majesty’s Stationary Office 1988 Occupational Health Service 1990 Property Advisers to the Civil Estate 1996 Recruitment and Assessment Services 1991 Security Facilities Executive 1993

Department of Transport (merged to form the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions) (ten executive agencies) Coastguard 1994 Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency 1990 Driving Standards Agency* 1990 DVOIT 1992 162 Appendix 4

Executive agencies Year

Highways Agency 1994 Marine Safety 1994 Maritime and Coastguard Agency 1998 Transport Research Laboratory 1992 Vehicle Certification Agency 1990 Vehicle Inspectorate* 1988

Department of Social Security and subsequent Department for Work and Pensions (eight executive agencies) Appeals Service Agency 2000 Information Technology Services Agency 1990 Jobcentre Plus 2002 Social Security Benefits Agency 1991 Social Security Child Support Agency 1993 Social Security Contributions Agency 1991 Social Security: Resettlement Agency 1989 Social Security War Pensions Agency 1994

HM Treasury (seven executive agencies) Central Statistical Office 1991 Debt Management Office 1998 National Savings 1996 Office for National Statistics 1996 Paymaster 1993 Royal Mint* 1990 Valuation Office 1991

Department of the Environment (merged to form the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions) (six executive agencies) Building Research Establishment 1990 Historic Royal Palaces 1989 Ordnance Survey* 1990 Planning Inspectorate 1992 QEII Conference Centre* 1989 The Rent Service 1999

Department of Health (five executive agencies) Medical Devices Agency 1994 Medicines Control Agency* 1991 National Health Service Estates* 1991 National Health Service Pensions 1992 National Health Service Purchasing and Supply Agency 2000 Appendix 4 163

Executive agencies Year

Lord Chancellor’s Department (five executive agencies) Court Service 1995 Her Majesty’s Land Registry* 1990 Public Guardianship Office 2001 Public Record Office 1992 Public Trust Office 1994

Home Office (four executive agencies) Fire Service College* 1992 Forensic Science Service* 1991 Her Majesty’s Prison Service 1993 UK Passport 1991

Treasury Solicitors Department (two executive agencies) Government Property Lawyers 1993 Treasury Solicitors Department itself became an 1996 executive agency of the Attorney General

Welsh Office and subsequently Welsh Assembly (two executive agencies) CADW: Welsh Historic Monuments 1991 Welsh European Funding Office 2000

Department of Employment (merged to form Department for Education and Employment) (one executive agency) Employment Service 1990

Department of National Heritage (merged with Culture Media and Sport) (one executive agency) Royal Parks 1993

Department of Education (merged to form Department for Education and Employment) (one executive agency) Teachers’ Pensions Agency 1992

Foreign and Commonwealth Office (one executive agency) Wilton Park 1991

Overseas Development Administration (one executive agency) Natural Resources Institute 1990 164 Appendix 4

A few executive agencies were nominally departments in their own right, although they still reported to ministers in ‘full’ departments. These bodies were the Central Office of Information, Central Statistical Office, HM Land Registry, Intervention Board, National Savings, Ordnance Survey, Paymaster, Public Record Office, Registers of Scotland, Royal Mint, Scottish Record Office, Treasury Solicitor’s Department. A few executive agencies had multiple reporting lines, ADAS reported to MAFF and the Welsh Office, Forest Enterprise reported MAFF and the Welsh Office, the Intervention Board reported to MAFF and the Scottish, Welsh and Northern Ireland Offices, the Meat Hygiene Service reported to MAFF and Scottish and Welsh Offices, and the Planning Inspectorate reported to the Department of the Environment and Welsh Office. The proportion of staff who ended up in executive agencies, in general terms, reflected variation in the significance of executive activity handled by departments and is summarised in Table A4.1. The reform was most signifi- cant in the Department of Social Security with the first wave of reform putting 97 per cent of staff in six executive agencies. The Lord Chancellor’s Department, Home Office and the Department of Employment, before the latter Department’s merger with Education in 1995, all had 80 per cent of their staff in executive agencies (Cabinet Office, 1991, 1992). The majority of departments had between 20 and 50 per cent of staff in executive agencies. In contrast, the sole executive agency of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office contained less than 1 per cent of the Department’s total staff. Appendix 4 165

Table A4.1 Percentage of departments’ staff in executive agencies and staffing figures

Per cent of All Civil Civil staff in Servants Servants in agencies agencies

Social Security 97 89,000 86,500 Lord Chancellor’s Department 90 12,000 10,500 Department for Employment 80 50,000 40,000 Home Office 80 50,000 40,000 Department for the 74 19,000 14,000 Environment Transport and the Regions Northern Ireland 50 16,000 8,000 Trade and Industry 50 10,000 5,000 Scottish Office 46 13,000 6,000 Cabinet Office/Office of 40 2,500 1,000 Public Service Ministry of Agriculture 35 11,500 4,000 Fisheries and Food Overseas Development 33 1,500 500 Administration Ministry of Defence 26 122,000 32,000 (including military staff) Department for Education 20 2,500 500 Wales 20 2,500 500 Treasury 13 15,000 2,000 Foreign and Commonwealth Ͻ 1 6,000 30 Office

Source: Civil Service Statistics (Cabinet Office, 1991, 1992, 1995b). Appendix 5: Central Government Accounts Audited

Table A5.1 summarises the results of a survey of NAO financial audit of all central government accounts including executive agencies’ accounts between 1993 and 1999.

Table A5.1 Central government accounts audited 1993/94 to 1998/99

Average 1993/ 1994/ 1995/ 1996/ 1997/ 1998/ 1993–99 94 95 96 97 98 99

Agency 78 66 72 78 76 81 96 accounts Agency 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 qualified Agency 3 4 5 4 1 6 0 reported Per cent 6 9 10 6 3 10 2 qualified/ reported Central govt 491 446 514 516 465 473 530 accounts Central 36 40 37 34 46 33 26 qualified/ reported Per cent 7 9 7 7 9 7 5 qualified/ reported

Source: Compiled from NAO, 1996c, 1997, 1998d, 1999b, 2000b.

166 Bibliography

Aulich, C. (1999) ‘Bureaucratic Limits to Markets: The Case of Local Government in Victoria, Australia’ Public Money and Management Vol. 19, No. 4, pp. 37–43. Barberis, P. (1996) The Elite of the Elite: Permanent Secretaries in the British Higher Civil Service Aldershot, Darmouth. Bardach, E. (1998) Getting Agencies to Work Together Washington D.C., Brookings Institute. Barker, A. (1998) ‘Political Responsibility for UK Prison Security – Ministers Escape Again’ Public Administration Vol. 76, No. 1, pp. 1–23. Barry, B. (1990) Political Argument : A Re-issue with a New Introduction Hemel Hempstead, Harvester Wheatsheaf. Bartlett, W., Roberts, A. and Le Grand, J. (1998) ‘The Development of Quasi- market in the 1990s’ in Bartlett, W., Roberts, A. and Le Grand, J. (eds) A Revolution in Social Policy University of Bristol, The Policy Press. Barzelay, M. (2000) The New Public Management: Improving Research and Policy Dialogue Berkley, University of California Press. Benefits Agency (1991) Framework Document London, HMSO. Benefits Agency (1992a) Interim Annual Report 1991–92 London, Benefits Agency. Benefits Agency (1992b) Benefits Agency Business Plan Leeds, Benefits Agency. Benefits Agency (1993) Interim Annual Report 1992–93 Leeds, Benefits Agency. Benefits Agency (1994) Annual Report 1993–94 HC 474, Session 1993–94 London, HMSO. Benefits Agency (1995a) Annual Report 1994–95 HC 621, Session 1994–95 London, HMSO. Benefits Agency (1995b) Framework Document London, Department of Social Security. Benefits Agency (1996) Annual Report 1994–95 HC 489, Session 1994–95 London, HMSO. Benefits Agency (1997) Benefits Agency: Annual Report and Accounts 1996/97 HC 78, Session 1996–97 London, The Stationery Office. Benefits Agency (1998) Annual Report and Accounts 1997/98 HC 901 London, The Stationery Office. Benefits Agency (1999a) Annual Report and Accounts 1998–99 HC 580 London, The Stationery Office. Benefits Agency (1999b) Supplementary Memorandum Submitted by the DSS Benefits Agency to the Public Accounts Committee Report on Vote 1 Appropriation Account 1996–97: Class XII (Administered Social Security Benefits and Other Payments) HC 419 I, Session 1998–99 London, The Stationery Office.

167 168 Bibliography

Benefits Agency (2000) Annual Report and Accounts 1999–2000 HC 640 London, The Stationery Office. Benefits Agency (2001) Annual Report and Accounts 2000–01 HC 153 Session 2000–01 London, The Stationery Office. Benefits Agency (2002) Annual Report and Accounts 2001–02 HC 929, Session 2001–02 London, The Stationery Office. Benefit Fraud Inspectorate (1999a) Report on London South Directorate (AD3) Benefits Agency London, Benefit Fraud Inspectorate. Benefit Fraud Inspectorate (1999b) Report on East Devon Devon District Council London, Benefit Fraud Inspectorate. Benefit Fraud Inspectorate (1999c) Report on the Social Security Contributions Agency London, Benefit Fraud Inspectorate. Benefit Fraud Inspectorate (1999d) Annual Report: Securing the System London, Benefit Fraud Inspectorate. Bichard, M. (1999) Modernising the Policy Process London, Public Management and Policy Association. Biggs, S. and Dunleavy, P. (1995) ‘Changing Organisational Patterns in Local Government: a Bureau-shaping Analysis’ in Lovenduski, J. and Stanyer, J. (eds) Contemporary Political Studies 1995: Volume II, Belfast, Political Studies Association. Benyon, J. and Edwards, A. (1999) ‘Community Governance of Crime Control’ in Stoker, G. (ed.) The New Management of British Local Governance London, Macmillan, pp. 145–67. Blais, A. and Dion, S. (1991) The Budget Maximising Bureaucrat: Appraisals and Evidence Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Press. Butler, D. and Kavanagh, D. (1992) The British General Election of 1992 London, Macmillan. Butler, D. and Kavanagh, D. (1997) The British General Election of 1997 London, Macmillan. Butler, R. (1991) ‘Foreward’ in Goldsworthy, D. Setting Up Next Steps London, HMSO, pp. i–ii. Butler, R. (1994) ‘Reinventing Government: A Symposium’ Public Administration Vol. 72, No. 2, pp. 263–70. Cabinet Office (1988) The Civil Service Yearbook London, HMSO. Cabinet Office (1989) The Civil Service Yearbook London, HMSO. Cabinet Office (1990) The Civil Service Yearbook London, HMSO. Cabinet Office (1991a) Civil Service Statistics London, HMSO. Cabinet Office (1991b) The Civil Service Yearbook London, HMSO. Cabinet Office (1992) Civil Service Statistics London, HMSO. Cabinet Office (1992b) The Civil Service Yearbook London, HMSO. Cabinet Office (1993) The Civil Service Yearbook London, HMSO. Cabinet Office (1994) The Civil Service Yearbook London, HMSO. Cabinet Office (1995a) Guidance on Agency Reviews London, Cabinet Office. Cabinet Office (1995b) Civil Service Statistics 1995 London, HMSO. Cabinet Office (1995c) Public Bodies 1995, London, HMSO. Cabinet Office (1995d) The Civil Service Yearbook London, HMSO. Bibliography 169

Cabinet Office (1996) The Civil Service Yearbook London, The Stationery Office. Cabinet Office (1997a) The Civil Service Yearbook London, The Stationery Office. Cabinet Office (1997b) Next Steps Briefing Note March 1997, London, Cabinet Office. Cabinet Office (1998a) Next Steps Briefing Note September 1998, London, Cabinet Office. Cabinet Office (1998b) The Civil Service Yearbook London, The Stationery Office. Cabinet Office (1999) Civil Service Statistics 1999 London, The Stationery Office. Cabinet Office (2000) Civil Service Statistics 1999 London, Government Statistical Service. Cabinet Office (2001a) Agency Policy Review Team Presentation to Chief Executives’ Conference October 2001 http://www.civilservice.gov.uk/agencies/ ace/con_intro.htm (last accessed 17 June 2001). Cabinet Office (2001b) Civil Service Statistics 2000 London, HMSO. Cabinet Office (2002a) Civil Service Statistics 2001 London The Stationery Office. Cabinet Office (2002b) Former Agencies Information www.civilservice.gov.uk/ agencies (last accessed 1st December). Caiden, G.E. (1991) Administrative Reform Comes of Age London, Walter de Gruyter. Campbell, C. and Wilson, G. (1995) The End of Whitehall: Death of a Paradigm? Oxford, Blackwell. Carter, N. and Greer, P. (1993) ‘Evaluating Agencies: Next Steps and Performance Indicators’ Public Administration Vol. 71, No. 4, pp. 407–16. Carter, N., Klein, R. and Day, P. (1992) How Organisations Measure Success: The Use of Performance Indicators in Government London, Routledge. Centre for Management and Policy Studies (2001) Centre for Management and Policy Studies Portfolio Including the Civil Service College Directory 2001–2002 London, Cabinet Office. Chadwick, A. and May, C. (2003) ‘Interaction between States and Citizens in the Age of the Internet: E-government in the US, Britain and the European Union’ Governance Vol. 16, No. 2. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (1992) The Next Steps Agencies Review 1992 Cm 2111 London, HMSO. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (1993) Next Steps: Agencies in Government Review 1993 Cm 2430 London, HMSO. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (1994) Next Steps Review 1994 Cm 2750 London, HMSO. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (1995) Next Steps Review 1995 Cm 3164 London, HMSO. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (1997) Next Steps Agencies in Government Review 1996 Cm 3579 London, The Stationery Office. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (1998) Next Steps Report Cm 3889 London, The Stationery Office. 170 Bibliography

Chancellor of the Exchequer (1987) The Government’s Expenditure Plans 1987–88 to 1989–90 Vol. II Cm 56-II London, HMSO. Chancellor of the Exchequer (1991) Competing for Quality – Buying Better Public Services Cm 1730 London, HMSO. Chancellor of the Exchequer (1994) Public Expenditure Statistical Supplement to the Financial Statement and Budget Report 1994–95 Cm 2519 London, HMSO. Chancellor of the Exchequer (1998) Public Expenditure Statistical Analyses 1998–99 Cm 3901 London, The Stationery Office. Chancellor of the Exchequer (1999) Public Expenditure Statistical Analyses 1999–2000 Cm 4201 London, The Stationery Office. Chancellor of the Exchequer (2002) Public Expenditure Statistical Analyses 2002–03 Cm 5401 London, The Stationery Office. Charkham, J.P. (1994) Keeping Good Company: A Study of Corporate Governance in Five Countries Oxford, Clarendon Press. Chief Secretary to the Treasury (1998) Public Services for the Future: Modernisation, Reform, Accountability: Comprehensive Spending Review: Public Service Agreements 1999–2002 Cm 4181 London, The Stationery Office. Chief Secretary to the Treasury (2000) 2000 Spending Review: Public Service Agreements Cm 4808 London, The Stationery Office. Christensen, T. and Laegreid, P. (2001) New Public Management: The Transformation of Ideas and Practice Aldershot, Ashgate. Citizen’s Advice Bureau (1998) Short Changed London, Citizen’s Advice Bureau. Civil and Public Services Association (1997) Better Government London, Civil and Public Services Association. Clifford, C. (2000) ‘Transforming Civil Service Employee Relations: Executive Agencies, Managerial Freedom and the New Public Management’ Paper presented to the British Universities Industrial Relations Association 50th Conference 7–9th July 2000, University of Warwick. Coase, R. (1960) ‘The Problem of Social Costs’ Journal of Law and Economics Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 1–44. Conservative Party (1987) The Next Moves Forward: The Conservative Manifesto 1987 London, Conservative Central Office. Conservative Party (1992) The Best Future for Britain: The Conservative Manifesto 1992 London, Conservative Central Office. Cope, S. (1995) Contracting-out in Local Government: Cutting by Privatising’ Public Policy and Administration Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 29–44. Council of Civil Service Unions (1996) Evidence to the House of Lords Select Committee on the Public Services London, Council of Civil Service Unions. Crouch, C. and Streeck, W. (1997) Political Economy of Modern Capitalism London, Sage. Deakin, N. and Parry, R. (2000) The Treasury and Social Policy Basingstoke, Palgrave. Department of Social Security (1993) Social Security Departmental Report: The Government’s Expenditure Plans 1993–94 to 1995–96 Cm 2213 London, HMSO. Department of Social Security (1995) Benefits Agency Framework Document 1995–2000 London, DSS. Bibliography 171

Department of Social Security (1999a) Social Security Departmental Report: The Government’s Expenditure Plans 1999/2000 Cm 4214 London, The Stationery Office. Department of Social Security (1999b) A New Contract for Welfare:Safeguarding Social Security Cm 4276 London, The Stationery Office. Department of Work and Pensions (2001) Departmental Report: The Government’s Expenditure Plans 2002/3 to 2003/4, Cm 5424 London, The Stationery Office. Dollery, B. and Hamburger, P. (1996) ‘Modelling Bureaucracy: The Case of the Australian Federal Budget Sector 1982–1992’ Public Administration Vol. 74, No. 3, pp. 477–507. Domberger, S. (1998) The Contracting Organisation: A Strategic Guide to Outsourcing Oxford, Oxford University Press. Dopson, S. (1993) ‘Are Agencies an Act of Faith? The Experience of HMSO’ Public Money and Management Vol. 13, No. 3, pp. 17–23. Dowding, K.M. (1995) The Civil Service London, Routledge. Dowding, K.M. and Kang, W-T. (1998) ‘Ministerial Resignations 1945–97’ Public Administration Vol. 76, No. 3, pp. 411–29. Dudley, G. (1993) ‘Next Steps Agencies, Political Salience and the Arms-length Principle: Barbara Castle at the Ministry of Transport 1965–68’ Public Administration Vol. 72, No. 2, pp. 219–40. Dunleavy, P. (1985) ‘Bureaucrats, Budgets and the Growth of the State: Reconstructing an Instrumental Model’ British Journal of Political Science Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 299–328. Dunleavy, P. (1986) ‘Explaining the Privatization Boom: Public Choice Versus Radical Approaches’ Public Administration Vol. 64, pp. 13–34. Dunleavy, P. (1989a) ‘The Architecture of the British State, Part One: Framework for Analysis’, Public Administration Vol. 67, pp. 249–75. Dunleavy, P. (1989b) ‘The Architecture of the British State, Part Two: Empirical Findings’ Public Administration Vol. 68, pp. 3–28. Dunleavy, P. (1991) Democracy, Bureaucracy and Public Choice Hemel Hempstead, Harvester Wheatsheaf. Dunleavy, P. (1994) ‘The Globalisation of Public Services Production: Can Government be “Best in World?” ’ Public Policy and Administration Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 36–64. Dunleavy, P. and Margetts, H. (2000) ‘The Advent of Digital Government: Public Bureaucracy and the State in the Internet Age’ Paper presented to the Annual Conference of the American Political Science Association Washington D.C., 4th September. Dunsire, A. and Hood, C.C. (1989) Cutback Management in Public Bureaucracies Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Efficiency Unit (1988) Improving Management in Government: The Next Steps London, HMSO. Efficiency Unit (1991) Making the Most of Next Steps London, HMSO. Efficiency Unit (1993) Career Management and Succession Planning Study London, HMSO. 172 Bibliography

Efficiency Unit (1996) Competing for Quality Policy Review: An Efficiency Unit Scrutiny London, HMSO. Evans, P. (1994) ‘Members of Parliament and Agencies: Parliamentary Questions’ in P. Giddings (ed.) Parliamentary Accountability: A Study of Parliament and Executive Agencies London, Macmillan. Ferlie, E., Ashburner, L., Fitzgerald, L. and Pettigrew, A. (1996) The New Public Management in Action Oxford, Oxford University Press. Fesler, J.W. and Kettl, D.F. (1996) The Politics of the Administrative Process Chatham, New Jersey, Chatham House. Flinders, M.V. and Smith, M.J. (1999) Quangos, Accountability and Reform: the Politics of Quasi-government London, Macmillan Press. Fogden, M.E.G. (1993) ‘Management Change in the Employment Service’ Public Money and Management Vol. 13, No. 3, pp. 9–16. Friel, B. (1999) Perfromance Based Organisations Back in Style http://www. govexec.com/dailyfed/0299/020399b1.htm (last accessed 15 August) Fulton Comittee (1968) The Civil Service Report of the Committee 1968–88 Vol. I Cm 3638 London, HMSO. Gains, F. (1999) ‘Implementing Privatisation Policies in “Next Steps” Agencies’ Public Administration Vol. 77, No. 4, pp. 713–30. Goldsworthy, D. (1991) Setting Up Next Steps London, HMSO. Greer, P. (1994) Transforming Central Government: the Next Steps Initiative Buckingham, Open University Press. Greve, C., Flinders, M.V. and Van Thiel, S. (1999). Quangos: What’s in a Name? Defining Quangos from a Comparative Perspective. Governance Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 29–46. Hansard (1988) Official Report, Session 1987–88 London, HMSO. Harlow, C. (1999) ‘Accountability, New Public Management, and the Problems of the Child Support Agency’ Journal of Law and Society Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 150–74. Heclo, H. and Wildavsky, A. (1981) The Private Government of Public Money London, Macmillan. Hennessy, P. (1989) Whitehall London, Secker and Warburg. Heseltine, M. (1987) Where There’s a Will London: Hutchinson. Hirose, K. (2000) ‘Regulating Government in Japan’ Paper presented to workshop Comparing Regulation of Public Sector Bodies, London School of Economics, October. Hoggett, P. (1991) ‘A New Management in the Public Sector’ Policy and Politics Vol. 19. No. 4, pp. 243–56. Hogwood, B.W. (1995) ‘Whitehall Families: Core Departments and Agency Forms in Britain’ International Review of Administrative Sciences Vol. 61, pp. 511–30. Hogwood, B.W. (1997) ‘The Machinery of Government 1979–97’ Political Studies Vol. 45, No. 4, pp. 704–15. Hogwood, B., Judge, D. and McVicar, M. (1997) ‘The “Pondlife” of Executive Agencies: Parliament and “Informatory Accountability” ’ Public Policy and Administration Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 95–115. Hood, C.C. (1991) ‘A Public Management for All Seasons?’ Public Administration Vol. 69, No. 1, pp. 3–19. Bibliography 173

Hood, C.C. (1994) Explaining Economic Policy Reversals Buckingham, Open University Press. Hood, C.C. and James, O. (1997) ‘The Central Executive’ in Dunleavy, P. et al. (eds) Developments in British Politics 5 London, Macmillan, pp. 177–204. Hood, C.C. and Jones, G.W. (1990) ‘Progress in the Government’s Next Steps Initiative’ Memorandum Submitted to the Treasury and Civil Service Committee included in Appendices to the Minutes of Evidence of the Eighth Report Progress in the Next Steps Initiative HC 481 Session 1989–90 London, HMSO. Hood, C.C., James, O. and Scott, C.D. (2000) ‘Regulation in Government; Has it Increased, Is it Increasing, Should it be Diminished?’ Public Administration Vol. 78, No. 2, pp. 283–304. Hood, C.C., James, O., Jones, G.W., Scott, C. and Travers, T. (1998) ‘Regulation Inside Government: Where New Public Management Meets the Audit Explosion’ Public Money and Management Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 61–8. Hood, C.C., Scott, C.W., James, O., Jones, G.W., Travers, T. (1999) Regulation Inside Government: Waste-watchers, Quality Police and Sleaze-busters Oxford, Oxford University Press. Hoopes, S. (1997) Oil Privatization, Public Choice and International Forces London, Macmillan. Hori, M. (2002) ‘Japanese Public Administration and its Adaptation to New public Management from an Optimist’s View’ Paper presented to Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association Conference, Boston M.A., Sept 1st. Horton, S. and Jones, J. (1996) ‘Who are the New Public Managers? An Initial Analysis of Next Steps Chief Executives and their Managerial Role’ Public Policy and Administration Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 30–46. Howlett, M. and Ramesh, M. (1995) Studying Public Policy: Policy Cycles and Policy Subsystems Oxford, Oxford University Press. Hyndman, N.S. and Anderson, R. (1998) ‘Performance Information, Accountability and Executive Agencies’ Public Money and Management Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 23–30. Information Technology Services Agency (1996) Annual Report and Accounts, HC 443, Session 1995–96 London, The Stationery Office. Information Technology Services Agency (1997) Annual Report and Accounts, HC 22, Session 1996–97 London, The Stationery Office. Information Technology Services Agency (1998) Annual Report and Accounts, HC 846, Session 1997–98 London, The Stationery Office. James, O. (1995a) ‘The Agency “Revolution” in Whitehall: A Bureau-shaping Analysis’ in Lovenduski, J. and Stanyer, J. (eds) Contemporary Political Studies 1995: Proceedings of the Political Studies Association’s 1995 Annual Conference Queen’s University, Belfast, UK Political Studies Association. James, O. (1995b) ‘Explaining the Next Steps in the Department of Social Security: The Bureau-shaping Model of Central State Reorganisation’ Political Studies, Vol. 43, No. 4, pp. 614–29. James, O. (2000) ‘Regulation Inside Government: Public Interest Justifications and Regulatory Failures’ Public Administration Vol. 78, No. 2, pp. 327–44. James, O. (2001) ‘Business Models and the Transfer of Business-like Central Government Agencies’ Governance Vol. 14, No. 2., pp. 233–52. 174 Bibliography

James, O. (2002) ‘Beyond the “New Public Management”: Regulated Partnerships in Britain’ in Ahn, B., Halligan, J. and Wilks, S. (eds) Reforming Public and Corporate Governance Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, pp. 61–82. James, O. and Manning, N. (1996) ‘Public Management Reform: A Global Perspective’ Politics Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 143–50. John, P. (1998) Analysing Public Policy London, Pinter. Jordan, G. and O’Toole, B. (1995) ‘The Next Steps: Origins and Destinations’ in O’Toole, B. and Jordan, G. (eds) (1995) Next Steps: Improving Management in Government? Aldershot, Dartmouth, pp. 3–16. Kaneko, Y. (1999) Government Reform in Japan Management and Co-ordination Agency, Government of Japan. Kemp, P. (1990) ‘Next Steps for the Civil Service’ Governance, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 186–96. Kickert, W.J.M., Klijn, E-H. and Koppenjan, J.F.M. (1997) Managing Complex Networks: Strategies for the Public Sector London, Sage. Kutlu, O. (2001) Administrative Reform in the UK: the Next Steps Agencies Reform and its Applicability to Turkey Exeter, University of Exeter PhD Thesis. Lane, J.E. (1993) The Public Sector: Concepts, Models and Approaches London, Sage. Lawson, N. (1993) The View from Number 11 London, Bantam Press. Lewis, D. (1997) Hidden Agendas: Politics, Law and Disorder London, Hamish Hamilton. Lomax, R. (2002) New Services, New Department Presentation to the Chief Executives’ Spring Conference, Edinburgh, 15th March. Lord President of the Council (1981) Efficiency in the Civil Service, Cm 8293 London, HMSO. Margetts, H. (1999) Information Technology in Government: Britain and America London, Routledge. Marsh, D., Smith, M.J. and Richards, D. (2000) ‘Bureaucrats, Politicians in Whitehall: Analysing the Bureau-shaping Model’ British Journal of Political Science Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 461–82. Marsh, D., Richards, D. and Smith, M.J. (2001) Changing Patterns of Goverance: Reinventing Whitehall Basingstoke, Palgrave. Massey, A. (1995) After Next Steps London, Cabinet Office. Matsuda, T. (1999) Some Points for Independent Administrative Corporation System Management and Co-ordination Agency, Government of Japan. Mellon, E. (1993) ‘Executive Agencies: Leading Change from the Outside-in’ Public Money and Management Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 25–31. Milgrom, P. and Roberts, J. (1992) Economics, Organisation and Management London, Prentice Hall. Minister for the Cabinet Office (1999) Next Steps Report 1998 Cm 4273 London, The Stationery Office. Minister for the Cabinet Office (2000) Executive Agencies 1999 Report Cm 4658 London, The Stationery Office. Moodie, M., Mizan, N. Heron, R. and Mackay, B. (1988) The Business of Service London, DHSS. Bibliography 175

Mueller, A.E. (1989) Public Choice II Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Muramatsu, M. and Krauss, E.S. (1996) ‘Japan: the Paradox of Success’ in Olsen, J.P. and Peters, B.G. (eds) (1996) Lessons from Experience: Experiential Learning in Administrative Reforms in Eight Democracies Oslo, Scandinavian University Press, pp. 214–43. National Audit Office (1988) Department of Health and Social Security: Quality of Service to the Public at Local Offices HC 451, Session 1987–88 London, HMSO. National Audit Office (1989) The Next Steps Initiative HC 410, Session 1988–89 London, HMSO. National Audit Office (1992) Department of Social Security: Resettlement Agency HC 22, Session 1991–92 London, HMSO. National Audit Office (1995a) Protecting and Presenting Scotland’s Heritage Properties HC 430, Session 1994–95 London, HMSO. National Audit Office (1995b) The Banking Services Provided by the Office of HM Paymaster General HC 513, Session 1994–95 London, HMSO. National Audit Office (1995c) The Meteorological Office Executive Agency HC 693, Session 1994–95 London, HMSO. National Audit Office (1996a) Management of Telephones in the Benefits Agency HC 126, Session 1995–96 London, HMSO. National Audit Office (1996b) Information Technology Services Agency: Outsourcing the Service Delivery Options HC 255, Session 1995–96 London, HMSO. National Audit Office (1996c) General Report of the Comptroller and Auditor General for 1994–95 on Appropriation and Other Accounts 15-XIII London, The Stationery Office. National Audit Office (1997a) Financial Auditing and Reporting 1995–96 General Report of the Comptroller and Auditor General 11-XII London, The Stationery Office. National Audit Office (1997b) Measures to Combat Housing Benefit Fraud HC 164, Session 1997–98 London, The Stationery Office. National Audit Office (1998a) Underpayments to Public Service Pensioners on Invalidity Benefit HC 681, Session 1997–98, London, The Stationery Office. National Audit Office (1998b) Benefits Agency: Performance Measurement HC 952, Session 1997–98 London, The Stationery Office. National Audit Office (1998c) Department of Social Security: Progress on Measures to Combat Housing Benefit Fraud HC 31, Session 1998–99, London, The Stationery Office. National Audit Office (1998d) Financial Auditing and Reporting 1996–97 General Report of the Comptroller and Auditor General 251-XIX London, The Stationery Office. National Audit Office (1999a) Department of Social Security: progress on Measures to Combat Housing Benefit Fraud HC 319, Session 1998–99 London, The Stationery Office. National Audit Office (1999b) Financial Auditing and Reporting 1997–98 General Report of the Comptroller and Auditor General 251-XIX London, The Stationery Office. 176 Bibliography

National Audit Office (1999c) Government on the Web HC 87, Session 1999–2000 London, The Stationery Office. National Audit Office (2000a) State Earnings-related Pension Scheme: The Failure to Inform the Public of Reduced Pension Rights for Widows and Widowers HC 320, Session 1999–2000 London, The Stationery Office. National Audit Office (2000b) Financial Auditing and Reporting 1998–99 General Report of the Comptroller and Auditor General 11-XIX London, The Stationery Office. National Audit Office (2000c) The Cancellation of the Benefits Payment Card Project HC 857 Session 1999–2000 London, The Stationery Office. National Audit Office (2001) Measuring the Performance of Government Departments, HC 301, Session 2000–01 London, The Stationery Office. National Audit Office (2002a) Better Public Services Through E-Government HC 704-I, Session 2001–2002 London, The Stationery Office. National Audit Office (2002b) Government on the Web II HC 764, Session 2001–2002 London, The Stationery Office. National Performance Review (1996) Reinvention’s Next Steps: Governing in a Balanced Budget World http://www.npr.gov/library/papers//bkgrd/balbud.htm (last accessed 10 August 2001). National Performance Review (1998) Creating the Government’s First Performance Based Organisation to Modernise Student Aid Delivery http://www.npr.gov/library/news/pbofact.html (Last accessed 10/8/01). National Performance Review (1999) Summary of Next Steps: the UK Central Government Management Reform http://www.npr.gov/21cent/nextstep.html (last accessed 10 August 2001). Natzler, D. and Silk, P. (1994) ‘Departmental Select Committees and the Next Steps Programme’ in Giddings, P. (ed.) Parliamentary Accountability: A Study of Parliament and Executive Agencies London, Macmillan, pp. 71–94. Next Steps Project Team (1995a) The Strategic Management of Agencies: Models for Management London, Office of Public Service. Next Steps Project Team (1995b) The Strategic Management of Agencies: Full Report and Case Studies London, Office of Public Service. Next Steps Team (1996) Next Steps Briefing Note: Feb. 1996, Cabinet Office, London. Next Steps Team (1997) Next Steps Briefing Note: Oct. 1997, Cabinet Office, London. Next Steps Team (1998) Next Steps Briefing Note, Sept. 1998 London, Cabinet Office. Niskanen, W.A. (1971) Bureaucracy and Representative Government Chicago, Aldine-Atherton. Niskanen, W.A. (1991) ‘A Reflection on Bureaucrats and Representative Government’ in Blais, A. and Dion, S. (eds) The Budget-Maximising Bureaucrat: Appraisals and Evidence Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Press, pp. 13–31. OECD (1995) Public Management Developments Update 1995 Paris, OECD. OECD (1998) Survey of Public Management Developments Paris, OECD. Bibliography 177

OECD (2002) Distributed Public Governance: Agencies, Authorities and other Autonomous Bodies Paris, OECD. Office of the Minister for the Civil Service (1989) Developments in the Next Steps Programme: The Government Reply to the Fifth Report from the Treasury and Civil Service Committee, HC 348, Session 1988–89 London, HMSO. Office of Public Services Reform and HM Treasury (2002) Better Govern- ment Services: Executive Agencies in the 21st Century London, The Cabinet Office. Orzechowski, W. (1977) ‘Economic Models of Bureaucracy: Survey, Extensions and Evidence’ in Borcherding, T.E. (ed.) Budgets and Bureaucrats: The Sources of Government Growth Durham, North Carolina, Duke University Press, pp. 229–59. O’Toole, B. and Jordan, G. (1995) Next Steps: Improving Management in Government? Aldershot, Dartmouth. Parliamentary Commissioner for Administration (1990) Parliamentary Commissioner for Administration: Third Report Annual Report for 1989 HC 353, Session 1989–90 London, The Stationery Office. Parliamentary Commissioner for Administration (1998) Parliamentary Commissioner for Administration: Summary of Annual Report for 1997–98 London, Parliamentary Commissioner for Administration. Parliamentary Commissioner for Administration (1999) Parliamentary Commissioner for Administration: Seventh Report Annual Report for 1998–99 HC 572, Session 1998–99 London, The Stationery Office. Parry, R., Hood, C.C. and James, O. (1997) ‘Reinventing the Treasury: Economic Rationalism or an Econocrat’s Fallacy of Control’ Public Administration Vol. 75, No. 3, pp. 395–415. Parsons, W. (1995) Public Policy: An Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Policy Analysis Aldershot, Edward Elgar. Pendlebury, M., Jones, R. and Karbharti, S. (1992) ‘Accounting for Executive Agencies in the UK Government’ Financial Accountability and Management Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 35–48. Performance and Innovation Unit (2000) Wiring It Up: Whitehall’s Management of Cross-cutting Policies and Services London, The Stationery Office. Pliatzky, L. (1980) Report on Non-Departmental Public Bodies Cm 7797 London, HMSO. Pliatzky, L. (1992) ‘Quangos and Agencies’ Public Administration Vol. 70, No. 4, pp. 555–63. Polidano, C. (1999) ‘The Bureaucrat Who Fell Under a Bus: Ministerial Responsibility, Executive Agencies and the Derek Lewis Affair’ Governance Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 201–29. Pollitt, C. (1993) Managerialism and the Public Services Oxford, Blackwell. Pollitt, C. (1995) ‘Justification by Works or Faith? Evaluating the New Public Management’ Evaluation Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 133–54. Pollitt, C. and Bouckaert, G. (2000) Public Management Reform Oxford, Oxford University Press. 178 Bibliography

Pollitt, C., Birchall, J. and Putnam, K. (1998) Decentralising Public Service Management London, Macmillan. Pollitt, C., Bathgate, K., Smullen, A. and Talbot, C. (2000) ‘Agencies: A Test Case for Convergence?’ Paper presented to the Fourth International Symposium on Public Management Erasmus University Rotterdam, April. Price Waterhouse (1993a) Agencies in Government London, Price Watehouse. Price Waterhouse (1993b) Executive Agencies: Facts and Trends London, Price Waterhouse. Prime Minister (1990) Progress in the Next Steps Initiative, Cm 1263 London, HMSO. Prime Minister (1991) The Citizen’s Charter, Cm 1599 London, HMSO. Prime Minister and Minister for the Civil Service (1970) The Reorganisation of Central Government Cm 4506 London, HMSO. Prime Minister and Chancellor of the Exchequer (1982) Efficiency and Effectiveness in the Civil Service: Government Observations on the Third Report from the Treasury and Civil Service Select Committee, Session 1981–82, Cm 8616 London, HMSO. Prime Minister and Minister for the Cabinet Office (1999) Modernising Government Cm 4310 London, The Stationery Office. Prime Minister and Minister for the Civil Service and the Minister of State, Privy Council Office (1990a) Progress in the Next Steps Initiative Cm 1263 London HMSO. Prime Minister and Minister for the Civil Service and the Minister of State, Privy Council Office (1990b) Improving Management in Government: The Next Steps Agencies Review 1990 Cm 1261 London, HMSO. Prime Minister and Minister for the Civil Service and the Minister of State, Privy Council Office (1991) Improving Management in Government – The Next Steps Agencies Review 1991 Cm 1760 London, HMSO. Prime Minister, Chancellor of the Exchequer and Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (1994) The Civil Service: Continuity and Change Cm 2627 London, HMSO. Prison Service (HM) (1996) Prison Service Annual Report and Accounts HC 247, Session 1996–97 London, The Stationery Office. Prison Service (HM) (1997) Prison Service Annual Report and Accounts HC 274, Session 1997–98 London, The Stationery Office. Prison Service (HM) (1998) Prison Service Annual Report and Accounts HC 998, Session 1997–98 London, The Stationery Office. Prison Service (HM) (1999) Prison Service Annual Report and Accounts HC 748, Session 1998–99 London, The Stationery Office. Prosser, T. (1986) Nationalised Industries and Public Control: Legal, Constitutional and Political Issues Oxford, Blackwell. Public Accounts Committee (1989) 36th Report The Next Steps Initiative HC 420, Session 1988–89 London, HMSO. Public Accounts Committee (1999) Minutes of Evidence Wednesday 28th April 1999 HC 419 I, Session 1998–99 London, The Stationery Office. Public Accounts Committee (2000) Appropriation Accounts 1997–98, Class XII, Vote 1 (Central Government Administered Social Security Benefits Bibliography 179

and Other Payments) HC 103, Session 1999–2000 London, The Stationery Office. Public Information Office, Department of the Library, House of Commons (1997) House of Commons: Sessional Information Digest 1995–96 London, The Stationery Office. Public Service Committee (1996) 2nd Report Ministerial Accountability and Responsibility HC 313-I, Session 1995–96 London, HMSO. Rhodes, R.A.W. (1997) Understanding Governance: Policy Networks, Governance, Reflexivity and Accountability Buckingham, Open University Press. Richards, D. and Smith, M. (2002) Governance and Public Policy in the UK Oxford, Oxford University Press. Samuels, M. (1997) Benchmarking Next Steps Executive Agencies London, Cabinet Office. Samuels, M. (1998) Towards Best Practice: An Evaluation of the First Two Years of the Public Sector Benchmarking Project 1996–8 London, Cabinet Office. Secretary of State for Social Security and Chief Secretary to the Treasury (1999) Social Security Departmental Report: the Government’s Expenditure Plans 1999/2000 Cm 4214, London, The Stationery Office. Sen, A. (1973) ‘Behaviour and the Concept of Preference’ Economica Vol. 40, No. 3, pp. 241–59. Smith, P. (1995) ‘On the Unintended Consequences of Publishing Performance Data in the Public Sector’ International Journal of Public Administration Vol. 18, pp. 277–310. Social and Community Planning Research (1991) British Social Attitudes Survey Compilation 1983–1991 University of Essex, UK Data Archive. Social Security Committee (1993) 1st Report The Operation of the Child Support Act HC 69, Session 1993–94 London, HMSO. Social Security Committee (1994) 5th Report The Operation of the Child Support Act: Proposals for Change HC 470, Session 1993–94 London, HMSO. Social Security Committee (1995) 2nd Report The Performance and Operation of the Child Support Agency HC 50, Session 1995–96 London, HMSO. Social Security Committee (1998) Social Security Committee: Minutes of Evidence: Thursday 21st May 1998 HC 587iii, Session 1997–98 London, The Stationery Office. Social Security Committee (1999) Social Security Committee: Seventh Report The ONE Service Pilots HC 412, Session 1998–99 London, The Stationery Office. Talbot, C. (1996) ‘Ministers and Agencies: Responsibilities and Performance’ in The Public Service Committee Second Report Ministerial Accountability and Responsibility Volume II Minutes of Evidence HC 313, Session 1995–96 London, HMSO, pp. 39–55. Talbot, C. (1998) ‘Small Step or Giant Leap? Evaluating Ten Years of the “Next Steps” Agencies in the UK (1988–98)’ Research Paper University of Glamorgan. Talbot, C. (2002) So Who Needs Agencies: A Handbook Exploring the Issues of Using ‘Agencies’ as a Reform Device in Central Government University of Glamorgan. Talbot, C., Pollitt, C., Bathgate, K., Caulfield, J., Reilly, A. and Smullen, A. (2000) ‘The Idea of Agency: Researching the Agencification of the (Public 180 Bibliography

Service) World’ Paper presented to the American Political Studies Association Annual Conference Washington D.C., August. Thain, C. and Wright, M. (1995) The Treasury and Whitehall : the Planning and Control of Public Expenditure, 1976–1993 Oxford, Clarendon Press. Thatcher, M. (1993) The Downing Street Years London, Harper-Collins. Theakston, K. (1995) The Civil Service Since 1945 Oxford, Blackwell. Thomas, M. (1996) Management Practices No. 16: Special Operating Agencies: Audit and Evaluation Canadian Centre for Management Development. Treasury (HM) (1988a) Civil Service Statistics 1988 London, HMSO. Treasury (HM) (1988b) Civil Service Staff in Post 1988 Manpower Statistics Division, HM Treasury. Treasury (HM) (1989) The Financing and Accountability of Next Steps Agencies Cm 914 London, HMSO. Treasury (HM) (1990) Civil Service Statistics 1989–90 London, HMSO. Treasury (HM) (1991) Competing for Quality Cm 1730 London, HMSO. Treasury (HM) (1992a) Executive Agencies; a Guide to Setting Targets and Monitoring Performance London, HMSO. Treasury (HM) (1992b) Private Finance Guidance London, HMSO Treasury (HM) (1996) Public Expenditure Statistical Analyses 1996–97 Cm 3201 London, HMSO. Treasury (HM) (2000a) The Government’s Expenditure Plans 2000–2001 to 2001–2002: Chancellor of the Exchequer’s Department Part of Cm 4601–4621 London, The Stationery Office. Treasury (HM) (2002) Public Expenditure Statistical Analyses 2002–3, Cm 5401 London, The Stationery Office. Treasury and Civil Service Committee (1982) Treasury and Civil Service Committee, Third Report, Efficiency and Effectiveness in the Civil Service, HC 236 Vol. II- Minutes of Evidence, Session 1981–82 London, HMSO. Treasury and Civil Service Committee (1990) Eighth Report: Progress in the Next Steps Initiative Session HC 481 Session 1989–90 London, HMSO. Treasury and Civil Service Committee (1993) 5th Report The Role of the Civil Service Volume II Minutes of Evidence HC 27-I, Session 1993–94 London, HMSO. Trosa, S. (1994) Next Steps: Moving On London, Office of Public Service. Wallis, J. and Dollery, B. (2001) ‘Understanding Cultural Changes in an Economic Control Agency: The New Zealand Treasury’ Journal of Public Policy Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 191–212. Weimer, D.L. and Vining, A.R. (1996) ‘Economics’ in Kettl, D.F. and Milward, H.B. (eds) The State of Public Management Baltimore, John Hopkins University Press, pp. 92–117. Wilson, D. and Game, C. (1994) Local Government in the United Kingdom Basingstoke, Macmillan. Wilson, R. (1999) Report to the Prime Minister: Civil Service Reform London, Cabinet Office. Yoon, B-S. (2001) The New Public Management: Its Applicability to Administrative Reform in Korea Exeter, University of Exeter PhD Thesis. Zifcak, S. (1994) Administrative Reform in Whitehall and Canberra Buckingham, Open University Press. Index

accountability, see Benefit Fraud relationship with Parliament, 67, 85 Inspectorate, Citizen’s relationship with users, 86, Charter/Service First, Financial 115–16, 119–33 Management Initiative, systemic performance, 114–23, Parliamentary Commissioner 132, 138–9 for Administration, Public Bichard, Michael, 63, 115, 119 Accounts Committee, see under Bouckaert, Geert, 2 Benefits Agency, executive budget-maximising agencies, ministers, National civil servants’ behaviour and Audit Office, Parliament budget outcomes, 48, 88–92, administrative reform, see bureau- 102, 109–10, 130–2 shaping, Next Steps reform, Niskanen budget-output public interest perspective maximising model, 10, 32–5 Barzelay, Michael, 1 budget systems, see under Benefits benchmarking, 136–7, see also Agency, executive agencies, Business Excellence Model Treasury (HM) Benefit Fraud Inspectorate, 117–18, bureau-shaping 144 bureau-shaping perspective on Benefits Agency executive agencies and accountability, 79–82 hypotheses, 10–11, 23–37, Citizen’s Charter standards for the 154–5; hypotheses about Benefits Agency, 83, 97, 142 reform and consistency with creation as part of Next Steps reform, 41–68; hypotheses reform, 61–4, 129 about performance and economy, 90–2, 130 consistency with outcomes, effectiveness and efficiency, 88–107, 109–24; relative 96–100, 131 merits of bureau-shaping and effect of executive agency public interest perspectives, structures on performance, 127–133; relevance of the 101–5, 114–23, 131 perspective for reforms in employment flexibilities, 82, 102, other countries, 148–9 121 Dunleavy bureau-shaping model, information technology, 122–3 10, 23–5, 153 reform to create Working Age Business Excellence Model, 93–4 agency and Pension Service as Butler, Sir Robin, 12, 51 part of Department of Work and Pensions, 144–6 cabinet committees, see Economic relationship with Department for Affairs (Welfare to Work) Social Security, 74–6, 115–17, Committee, Public Expenditure 162 Committee

181 182 Index

Cabinet Office, 43–5, 54–5, 83, 135, Economic Affairs (Welfare to Work) 137, 141–2, 147 Committee, 144 central government, see departments, economy executive agencies, economy, defined, 8–9 effectiveness, efficiency of individual executive agencies, Charter Mark, 85–6 88–92 chief executives, see under executive systemic economy, 109–10 agencies effectiveness Child Support Agency, 85, 95–6, defined, 9 145 of individual executive agencies, Citizen’s Charter/Service First, 83, 92–100 97, 141–2 systemic effectiveness, 111–23 civil servants efficiency numbers of and trends in number allocative efficiency, 9 of over time, 7, 43, 56–8, 110, efficiency of individual executive 158 agencies, 92–100 traditional conceptions of, 1 productive efficiency, 9 see also departments, Senior Civil systemic efficiency, 111–23 Service, see also under budget Efficiency Unit, 17–18, 48–50, 54–5, maximising, bureau-shaping 128 Civil Service Management e-government, 7, 112–14, 121–3 Committee, 140 Employment Service, 73, 90, 114, Clifford, Christopher, 101 119–21, 143–4 Competing for Quality Initiative, employment systems, see under 53–4, 82–3 Benefits Agency, executive consumers, 34–5, see also Citizen’s agencies Charter executive agencies contracts, see Competing for Quality accountability, 3–5, 76–80, 83–6, Initiative, see under executive 102–5, 118–19, 122–3 agencies budget flexibilities, 3–4, 80–2 Contributions Agency, 118, 162 census of bodies created, 158–64 chief executives, 3–4, 19–20, 67, Department for Work and Pensions, 72–6, 78–9, 81–2, 84, 129–30 144–6 employment flexibilities, 3–4, 82 Department of Social Security executive agency model, 2–7; and Next Steps reform, 61–4 influence of new institutional relationship with Benefits Agency, economics including 74–6, 115–17 principal–agent models, 51–2; departments, see Department of influence of Anglo-American Social Security, Department for private sector business Work and Pensions, Treasury models, 50–1 (HM) Framework Documents, 70–1, devolution, 134, see also Northern 74–5, 83, 145 Ireland, Scotland, Wales future prospects for use in UK, Dowding, Keith, 130 134–46 Dunleavy, Patrick, 113, see also under growth in number, 56–8 bureau-shaping individual performance, 88–100

182 Index 183

executive agencies – continued Fraser Report, 76 international experience with Fulton Report, 6 similar forms of organisation, 1–2, 146–50 Gains, Francesca, 135 mainstream agencies, 71, 73, 129 governance, see departments, see management flexibilities, see under accountability, executive budget flexibilities, agencies, ministers, Parliament employment flexibilities, government expenditure, see budget semi-detached organisation systems, Public Expenditure mergers between agencies, 139, Committee, see under economy, 144–6 executive agencies Ministerial Advisory Boards, 77 Government Performance and non-trading agencies, 3–4, 34, Results Act (US), 148 56–8, 60–1, 72–3, 87, 89–90, Greer, Patricia, 54 113, 129–30 Heseltine, Michael, 43–5 pattern of reform, 58–60, 129, Hood, Christopher, 1, 140, 156–7 158–66 Housing Benefit, 114–15, 117–18, performance contracts, see 124, 138, 143 executive agency model, human resources, see under Benefits Framework Documents, Agency, civil servants, executive performance targets agencies performance targets, 3–4, 38, 76–81, 83, 87, 129 Ibbs, Sir Robin, 48–9 policy/administration split, 3–4, implementation, see under Benefits 10, 19–20, 61, 63–4, 66–8, 71, Agency, executive agencies, 74–5, 112, 115–17, 129, 133, Next Steps reform 135, 145 incentives, see under accountability, privatisations, 135–6 executive agencies, Next Steps regulation of, 140–6, see also reform accountability Income Support, 97–9, 103, 117–18 reintegration with departments, Independent Administrative 135 Institutions (in Japan), 148–50 relationships with Treasury, 72, 81 information technology, 7, 121–2, semi-detached organisation, 3–4, see also e-government, 70–6, see also budget Information Technology flexibilities, employment Services Agency flexibilities, policy/ Information Technology Services administration split Agency, 64, 145, 162 systemic performance, 109–23, international issues, see 132 Organisation for Economic trading agencies, 3–5, 20–1, 35, Cooperation and Development, 56–8, 60–1, 70–3, 81, 85, see under executive agencies 89–90, 106, 113, 129–30, 133, Investors in People, 141 135, 138, 158–64 Jobcentre Plus, 144–5 Financial Management Initiative, Jobseeker’s Allowance, 90, 103, 114, 45–6, 50 117, 119 184 Index

joined-up government, 111–12, 121 report of 1988; and executive agency model, 2–3; and Kemp, Sir Peter, 12, 54, 56 public interest perspective, 9–10, 18–23 Lewis, Derek, 79 Niskanen, William, 10, 26, 32–4 local government, 6, 41, 53, 63, Non-departmental public bodies, 6, 111, 114–15, 117–18, 120–1, 52, 111, 148 138–9, 144, 153 Northern Ireland, 59, 134 managerialism, 45–6, 50, 134–5 ONE/Single Work Focused Gateway, Margetts, Helen, 113 120–1 market testing, see Competing for organisation, see under departments, Quality Initiative executive agencies, New Public Marsh, David, 46–7, 128 Management Mathison, Peter, 104, 120 Organisation for Economic methodology, 11–14, 156–7 Co-operation and Development, ministers 146–7 ministerial resignations, 130 outcome and output measures, see role in Next Steps reform, 43–6, performance, performance 127–8 targets satisfaction with executive agencies’ performance, 94–5 Parliament Modernising Government Report, 7, committees and executive 111–12, 121 agencies, 44, 81–6 Parliamentary questions about National Audit Office executive agencies, 66–7 financial audit of executive see also Public Accounts agencies, 92–3, 166 Committee, Social Security value for money studies, 84, 113, Committee, Parliamentary 143 Commissioner for National Performance Review (US), Administration 149 Parliamentary Commissioner for networks, 139–46 Administration, 97, 99 new institutional economics, 50–2 pay systems, see under executive New Labour, 111–12, 116–17 agencies, New Public New Public Management, 1–2, 4–6, Management 50–2, 111–12, 133–4, 146–7 Pensions Service, 144–5 Next Steps performance, see under Benefits implementation of reform, 55–64, Agency, economy, effectiveness, see also under Benefits efficiency, executive agencies Agency Performance and Innovation Unit, initiation of reform, 41–55 111 Marsh, Richards and Smith’s Performance Based Organisations (in study, 46–7, 128 US), 147–9 Prime Minister’s announcement performance targets, see Public of reform, 17–18 Service Agreements, see under Project Team, 54–6, 69 executive agencies Index 185

personnel systems, see under reform, see under bureau-shaping, executive agencies, New Public Next Steps reform, public Management interest perspective politicians, see under ministers, regulation Parliament, preferences inside government, 140 Pollitt, Christopher, 1–2, 7, 11 systemic regulation of executive preferences agencies in central of ministers, 28 government, 140–6 of senior officials for the reorganisation, see bureau-shaping, organisation of their Next Steps reform, public departments, 24, 27–36 interest model Prison Service (HM), 67, 71, 79, Rhodes, Rod, 10 95–6, 130 Richards, David, 46–7, 128 privatisation of executive agencies, 135–6 Scotland, 59, 134 of public utilities, 52–3 Senior Civil Service, 67–8, 140 see also under New Public Smith, Martin, 46–7, 128 Management Social Security Committee, 119, productivity, see under efficiency, 121–2 executive agencies Special Operating Agencies (in Public Accounts Committee, 81–2, Canada), 147 96 strategic planning, see Public Service Public Expenditure Committee, Agreements, see also under 142–4 executive agencies public interest perspective defined, 9–10, 17–23 Talbot, Colin, 7 hypotheses about performance targets, see performance targets and consistency with Theakston, Kevin, 54 outcomes, 88–107, 109–24 trading funds/agencies, see under hypotheses about reform and executive agencies consistency with reform, Treasury (HM) 41–68 co-ordination of government, relative merits of bureau-shaping including Public Service and public interest Agreements, 111, 136, 141–3 perspectives, 127–33 role in reforms including Next public sector externalities, 35–6, Steps, 44–5, 54–5, 144 138–9 Public Service Agreements, unions, 54, 63–4 142–3 Wales, 59, 134 quasi-markets, 5 Whitehall, 7, see also under Benefits Agency, civil servants, rational choice, 10, see also departments, executive Niskanen, Dunleavy, see also agencies, ministers under budget-maximising, bureau-shaping Zifcak, Spencer, 50