Carrifran Wildwood Project
Native woodland restoration in the Southern Uplands of Scotland
Management Plan
Prepared by the Wildwood Group of the Borders Forest Trust
Editors: Adrian Newton and Philip Ashmole
Contacts:
Dr Philip Ashmole, Project Co-ordinator
Hugh Chalmers, Project Officer
Willie McGhee, Director, BFT
Borders Forest Trust, Monteviot Nurseries, Ancrum, Jedburgh, Roxburghshire, Scotland TD8 6TU. Tel. 01835 830750, Fax 01835 830760, email: [email protected]
Further information on the project can be obtained by visiting the Wildwood website at:- http://www.carrifran.org.uk
1 CONTENTS
Preface 5
1. Introduction 6 1.1 Mission statement 1.2 Context and history of the Wildwood project 1.3 Ethos and general approach 1.4 Development of the management plan
2. Description of the site 12 2.1 Location 2.2 Status of the site 2.3 Physical characteristics 2.3.1 Climate 2.3.2 Hydrology 2.3.3 Geology 2.3.4 Geomorphology 2.3.5 Soils 2.4 Biological characteristics 2.4.1 Current distribution and status of woodland 2.4.2 Vascular plants 2.4.3 Vegetation 2.4.4 Bryophytes 2.4.5 Fungi and lichens 2.4.6 Mammals 2.4.7 Birds 2.4.8 Fish 2.4.9 Other vertebrates 2.4.10 Insects and other invertebrates 2.5 Archaeology 2.6 Land use 2.6.1 Historical 2.6.2 Current 2.7 The existing landscape 2.7.1. Landform 2.7.2. Landcover 2.8 Access and recreation
3. Objectives and general approach 27 3.1 Long-term objectives of Carrifran Wildwood Project 3.1.1 Ecological objective 3.1.2 Long-term development of the woodland 3.2 Medium-term objective 3.3 Management structure 3.4 Management approach 3.5 Financial management 3.5.1 Approach to fundraising during the land purchase 3.5.2 Fundraising and financial management during the restoration phase 3.6 Management of access and recreation 2 3.7 Education and research 3.7.1 Education 3.7.2 Interpretation 3.7.3 Research
4. Woodland establishment plan 36 4.1 Woodland composition 4.2 Woodland structure 4.2.1 Use of existing ESC to define appropriate woodland composition 4.2.2 Use of existing NCV communities to define appropriate woodland composition 4.2.3 Comparison of the two approaches 4.2.4 Selection of woodland communities for restoration 4.2.5 Spatial structure 4.2.6 Planting density 4.3 Proposed distribution of woodland communities to be established 4.4 Treeline 4.5 Mountain shrub communities 4.6 Open ground, peatland and freshwater communities 4.6.1 Area to be left open 4.6.2 Peatland 4.6.3 Freshwaters 4.7 Grazing management 4.8 Establishment and maintenance 4.8.1 Natural regeneration 4.8.2 Direct seeding 4.8.3 Protection from herbivores 4.8.4 Ground treatment and weed control 4.8.5 General approach to establishment 4.8.6 Provision of planting stock 4.8.7 Nursery approaches 4.9 Management for biodiversity 4.9.1 Species introductions 4.9.2 Habitat features 4.9.3 Incidence of disturbance 4.9.4 Towards a habitat network
5. Detailed management prescriptions 71 5.1 General information 5.2 Woodland Grant Scheme application submitted in October 1999 5.3 Second WGS application (to be submitted in January 2004) 5.4 Treeline Woodland WGS applications 5.5 Planting schedule summary
6. Environmental impact assessment 78 6.1 Physical characteristics 6.1.1 Hydrology 6.1.2 Geology 6.1.3 Soils 6.2 Biological characteristics 3 6.2.1 Vascular plants 6.2.2 Bryophytes 6.2.3 Fungi and lichens 6.2.4 Mammals 6.2.5 Birds 6.2.6 Fish 6.2.7 Insects and other invertebrates 6.3 Archaeology 6.4 Landscape 6.4.1 Short and medium term changes to the landscape 6.4.2 Boundary fences 6.4.3 Deer fences 6.4.4 Visual impact of tree cultivation 6.4.5 Long-term changes to the landscape 6.5 Socio-economic impact 6.6 Monitoring
7. References 88
Appendices 1. Climate data for Eskdalemuir 2. Vascular plant flora 3. Vegetation: list of NVC communities 4. Bryophytes 5. Fungi 6. Birds 7. Species reintroductions 8. Monitoring 9. Application of Ecological Site Classification to Carrifran 10. Deer management 11. A description of farming life at Carrifran 12. Hydrological assessment 13. Landscape assessment 14. Research at Carrifran 15. Analysis of constraints and opportunities
4 Preface
This Management Plan describes the plan for woodland restoration at Carrifran as of October, 2000. It represents the fourth main iteration of a document which was begun some three years previously. Much of the text is the same as the Environmental Statement which accompanied the application to the Forestry Commission for support under the Woodland Grant Scheme in late 1999; however, the structure has been amended to provide a more coherent narrative. By late 2000, as the process of restoration had already begun, some minor amendments to the original management plan had already been made – evidence of the adaptive management approach in action! These changes are indicated in the text. It should be emphasized that this document does not represent a final word on how restoration will be achieved at Carrifran, but rather a flexible set of blueprints which will need to be adapted to changing circumstances, as the project develops. However, one of the key aims of this Plan was to state clearly the long-term objectives and overall ethos of the project, so that our successors will be able to understand what we hoped to achieve at the outset.
This document was compiled from the collective input of members of the Wildwood Group of the Borders Forest Trust. The following people contributed to the series of discussion meetings of the Ecological Planning Subgroup on which this statement is based, and/or commented on draft versions of it: Stuart Adair, Crinan Alexander, Michael Allen, Anna Ashmole, Myrtle Ashmole, Philip Ashmole, Ian Carr, Hugh Chalmers, Jeremy Cunningham, Kinnaird Cunningham, Lynn Davy, Derek Dunsire, Nick Fiddes, Ann Goodburn, Peter Gordon, John Hamilton, Jim Knight, Jim Lockie, Fi Martynoga, Michael Matthews, Willie McGhee, Douglas McKenna, Chris Moffat, Pam Moncur, George Moffat, Ray Murray, Bill Mutch, Adrian Newton, David O'Neill, Andrew Raven, Derek Robeson, John Rogers, David Rook, Chris Sawers, Alex Smith, Pip Tabor. Additional members of the Wildwood Group contributed to the development of the document in other ways. The illustrations in this statement are mainly the work of Myrtle Ashmole, Jim Knight and Adrian Newton. Graham Pyatt kindly provided the ESC maps. The photographs were taken by Philip Ashmole.
The Wildwood Group is indebted to the following individuals who have supported the development of the management plan on which this document is based, by so generously offering their time and expertise: Dick Balharry, Fiona Doake, Peter Duncan, David Goffin, Peter Harrison, Kate Heal, Alasdair Hendry, John Hunt, Felix Karthaus, David Ledger, David Long, Peter McCracken, John Mayhew, Douglas McKean, Chris Miles, Gordon Patterson, George Peterken, Elizabeth Pickett, Graham Pyatt, Rob Soutar, Muir Sterling, Richard Tipping, Gunardjo Tjakrawarsa, Roy Watling and Peter Wormell. Apologies and thanks are extended to other people who have helped in significant ways but who are not listed here.
It is difficult to communicate the excitement that we collectively shared when on the 1st January 2000, work on establishing the Carrifran Wildwood finally began, after years of hard preparatory work by the many people involved. The maps and plans described here suddenly started to take shape in the form of trees planted in the ground, and as 2000 progressed, we were greatly encouraged by the speed of progress and the tremendous on-going support received from volunteers. Our heartfelt thanks to everyone who has helped to start turning these dreams into reality.
Adrian Newton & Philip Ashmole, October 2000
5 1. Introduction
1.1 Mission statement
The Wildwood Project aims to re-create, in the Southern Uplands of Scotland, an extensive tract of mainly forested wilderness with most of the rich diversity of native species present in the area before human activities became dominant. The woodland will not be exploited commercially and human impact will be carefully managed. Access will be open to all, and it is hoped that the Wildwood will be used throughout the next millennium as an inspiration and an educational resource.
1.2 Context and history of the Wildwood project
The project is a response to the increasing worldwide realisation that in areas where natural ecosystems have almost entirely disappeared, conservation of surviving relict fragments needs to be complemented by more positive action. In extensive ecologically degraded areas there is a compelling case for re-creation - as far as this is possible - of some areas of natural habitat. These can act as refuges for native wildlife, provide inspiration for people who value wild places and demonstrate the value of positive action to restore the environment. At the start of the new millennium, the Carrifran Wildwood project accepts the eloquent challenge of biologist and conservationist Edward O. Wilson (1992):
"We should not knowingly allow any species or race to go extinct. And let us go beyond mere salvage to begin the restoration of natural environments, in order to enlarge wild populations and stanch the hemorrhaging of biological wealth. There can be no purpose more enspiriting than to begin the age of restoration, reweaving the wondrous diversity of life that still surrounds us."
On a more local scale, many residents in the Southern Uplands of Scotland have become increasingly uneasy at the fact that their familiar, beautiful, but mainly naked countryside is ecologically devastated, with only a fraction of the biodiversity that was once present. Campaigns to halt the current destruction of tropical rainforests can seem hypocritical if we make no attempt to restore our own forests, lost centuries ago.
A few people have been aware of these problems for a long time. For example, two eminent Scottish ecologists - one of them now actively involved in the Carrifran Wildwood project - wrote three decades ago:
"A well-farmed and thoroughly domesticated countryside and untouched, natural terrain with its vegetation and wildlife complexes intact can both be deeply satisfying. But an inherently infertile region devastated by deforestation and repeated burning, largely depopulated and then opened to heavy and uncontrolled sheep grazing is a distressing sight to anyone with some appreciation of ecological principles." (McVean & Lockie 1969)
It is unrealistic to suppose that one can put the clock back to the stone age. Many people, however, are now convinced that we should try to provide an opportunity for children and adults in the future to experience - in at least a few places - approximations of the natural ecosystems of their local areas or of other regions that they visit. At present there is nowhere in the Southern Uplands - and few places
6 in Britain south of the Highlands - where one can get a feel for the natural vegetation of the countryside on a reasonably large scale.
The motivation to do something locally was stimulated by initiatives taken in the Highlands, which inspired members of Peeblesshire Environment Concern to organise a conference, held at St Boswells in November 1993, on the theme "Restoring Borders Woodland" (Ashmole 1994), where many aspects of native woodland restoration were discussed. The vision of the Wildwood, as outlined in the current Mission Statement, was first publicly presented at that meeting.
The origins of the Wildwood project lie within the context of a series of native woodland initiatives in the Southern Uplands. As early as 1987 a group of people led by sculptor and furniture maker Tim Stead had founded Borders Community Woodlands and had purchased Wooplaw Woods near Lauder, with help from the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF). The Restoring Borders Woodland conference had brought together a wide range of interested people, and during 1995 a group of them developed a strong Borders bid to the Millennium Forest for Scotland for lottery funds from the Millennium Commission. With the bid approved in principle, the group went on to form Borders Forest Trust (BFT) as a legally established charity.
The members of Peeblesshire Environment Concern who had organised the Restoring Borders Woodland conference formed the initial core of the Wildwood Group of BFT, which took the initiative in developing the project reported here. With the advent of the Millennium Forest for Scotland (MFS) in 1995 it suddenly seem feasible for local people to initiate native woodland restoration on a substantial scale. Although it proved impossible to locate an available and suitable site in time to obtain Millennium Commission funds for land purchase, crucial momentum was gained.
It was intended from the start that the Wildwood should be located in the area historically referred to as Ettrick Forest, a loosely defined upland region roughly enclosed by a line joining Peebles, Biggar, Moffat, Hawick and Galashiels; it includes the upland massif of the Tweedsmuir and Moffat Hills, whose rounded summits rise to over 800 m (Dollar Law is 840 m and in the south of Scotland second only to Merrick at 844 m). Ironically, this is one of the regions of Britain most lacking in natural woodland, although the last half century has seen some of it heavily plastered with plantations of non- native conifers. In Peeblesshire, for instance, only about 0.1% of the land area has long-established woodland with its origins in the original 'wildwood' that once covered the Border hills; in adjacent Ettrick & Lauderdale the situation is a little better with about 0.4% (Badenoch 1994).
The woodland fragments are mainly thin ribbons beside burns in the most precipitous parts of the cleuchs, where the lie of the ground has enabled trees to grow out of reach of sheep and goats. It was an encounter with such a fragment on a steep bank in a barren valley near Talla, and a distant view of the solitary clump of birches on a tiny islet in Loch Skeen, which engendered the idea of restoring the wildwood to a whole valley.
The vision was of the entire upper part of a catchment area - a watershed in the American sense - returned to something like its pristine state: in George Peterken's terminology, to "original-natural" woodland (Peterken 1996). The aim is thus to establish all (and only) the species of trees and shrubs that were present in the area prior to major human impact commencing roughly 6,000 years ago. This aim may be viewed as naive and ultimately unattainable, because of changes in climate and soils and the advent of exotic species in the interim. The Wildwood Group are unembarrassed by such views, feeling that an attempt to pursue a clear vision has virtue as an example and potential inspiration to
7 others. In the long run, harsh reality may render compromise advisable in some aspects of the project, but at present the intention is to work in a professional way towards the attainment of a purist goal.
During 1995 and 1996, with support from MFS and Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH), the Wildwood Group systematically investigated all the promising sites in the area of Ettrick Forest, advertising, working with land agents, looking at ownership maps and contacting the owners individually. The criteria were that the site should constitute a discrete visual and ecological entity, should be of the order of 800 ha (2000 acres) in extent and rise to at least 600 m, and should not have large conifer plantations or intrusive man-made structures. Some ten sites were investigated in more detail and serious negotiations were entered into in relation to two farms, but in the end neither proved to be available. Eventually, however, an option was negotiated for the purchase of Carrifran, probably the most satisfactory valley in the whole of the Southern Uplands in which to undertake the project. It was an entire catchment, scenically magnificent though ecologically degraded, with a large range of altitude and extending to 650 ha (1600 acres).
A major element of interest is added to Carrifran by the discovery on the site of an Early Neolithic flatbow, made of yew and dated at 4040-3640 BC; it had been broken and was presumably discarded by a hunter, after which it lay preserved in the peat until it was found in 1990 by a hill-walker, Dr Dan Jones. This is the oldest bow ever found in Britain and is now exhibited in the Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh.
As a result of the discovery of the bow an analysis of fossil pollen has recently been made at Rotten Bottom, constituting the longest unbroken sequence known from any upland British site and providing a record of the plants in the area back to the end of the last ice age, some 10,000 years ago. Relevant data are also available from several sites nearby (Tipping 1998). The ecological restoration planned for Carrifran will be based on this record of the natural vegetation, supplemented by historical data (e.g Badenoch 1994). Because of the great range in altitude (by British standards) it will be feasible to re-create a full altitudinal range of habitat types, while preserving the rare montane plants on the crags.
The Rotten Bottom bow also provided an invaluable focus for the fundraising effort, which during 1998 and 1999 raised a third of a million pounds to buy Carrifran. Of this money, more than 80% was from private individuals, 600 of whom paid £250 or more to become Founders of the Wildwood. The remainder came from charitable trusts; no public money was used for the purchase. The success of the fundraising effort enabled Borders Forest Trust to exercise its legal option on Carrifran valley, and entry was arranged for 1st January 2000. Subsequently, an additional forty thousand pounds was raised to purchase additional land on one flank of the valley.
1.3 Ethos and general approach
The Wildwood Group, formed in October 1995 on the basis of the core membership of Peeblesshire Environment Concern, achieved the purchase of Carrifran valley. The group as then constituted contained 40-45 active members with an impressive range of expertise. They included professional foresters, ecologists, botanists and zoologists, but also people with a high proportion of the other professional skills - for instance law, education, horticulture, information technology and business management - needed to carry through such an ambitious project. Inspiration and outreach to the wider community were provided by the strong representation of artists in the group. The high level of motivation is indicated by the way in which members worked on a volunteer basis for more than two
8 years, attended countless meetings and a series of disappointments, and stayed with the project to the stage where a legal option on a prime site had been exercised.
The acquisition of the site in January 2000, through the contributions made by many hundreds of private individuals, created a large group of stakeholders in the project. At the same time, commencement of the work of ecological restoration on the site required access to other sources of funding. The new definition of the Wildwood Group, and the management structure which was established in early 2000, is designed to reflect this new situation (see Section 3.3).
The basic relationships, however, still reflect the original framework, in which the Wildwood Group operated as a devolved unit within BFT, gaining the status conferred by being a component of a legally established charity, with professional staff available to provide office services and to ensure firm financial control. Nonetheless, during the development of the project, a very high proportion of the work has been done by volunteers. The group was well represented among the Trustees of BFT, and the progress of the project was typically reported to the Board rather than being controlled by it. As the project develops it will inevitably become more dependent on input by paid professionals, but the members of the Wildwood Group are determined that the project should retain its fundamentally "grass-roots" rather than "top-down" character. In these days of complex partnerships and funding packages, this represents a significant and exciting challenge, and the development of the project is likely to be closely watched by comparable groups elsewhere.
A key strength of the integration of the Wildwood Group into Borders Forest Trust is that the Wildwood project can be clearly seen as one element in an integrated set of initiatives with a broad base in the community. Borders Forest Trust was legally established in January 1996 after a long period of informal development. Its structure was formalized in response to the requirements of the Millennium Forest for Scotland initiative, and with strong support from Scottish Natural Heritage, Scottish Borders Enterprise and the local authority. BFT is a community-based membership organisation with local residents as elected trustees. Its general aim is to enable local people to restore native woodland as part of their own environment, and to promote the resurgence of a woodland culture. In such a culture, inspiration, enjoyment, education and employment all accrue from woodlands created by the joint efforts of local people and the geographically wider community.
BFT focuses its attention on the entire geographical region of the Borders rather than being limited to the area defined by the local authority boundaries. It is fostering and co-ordinating the many local and regional initiatives concerned with native trees which have arisen during the past decade, as well as developing new initiatives. The Trust organises a wide variety of projects ranging from timber marketing and a woodschool, a series of arts and educational initiatives, to woodland inventory, biodiversity conservation, and a variety of community woodlands.
BFT's largest projects focus on restoration of devastated ecosystems: they are Carrifran Wildwood and an innovative scheme - in partnership with WWF and the Forestry Commission - for restoration of the floodplain woodlands of the Ettrick Valley. BFT is also playing a significant role in the Tweed River Heritage Project, an ambitious scheme supported by the Heritage Lottery Fund, and has been instrumental in the establishment of the Southern Uplands Partnership, which aims to facilitate the development of a new strategy for land use in the region. The Trust maintains close relations with many other organisations concerned with the environment of the south of Scotland.
BFT was originally funded mainly by Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) and Scottish Borders Enterprise (SBE), but it has become one of the largest recipients of National Lottery funds via the Millennium Forest for Scotland Trust (MFST) and is also in receipt of funds from the National Lottery Charities 9 Board. It is now receiving major support from the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) and from Scottish Borders Council in relation to Landfill Tax, as well as from SNH, the European Union and the Forestry Commission.
For the long-term success of the Wildwood project, it is important that the Wildwood Group of BFT retains the greatest possible freedom of action. The initial decision to acquire the site for the Wildwood by purchase (rather than working through a management agreement with a sympathetic landowner) was based on a conviction that in such a long-term endeavour, anything short of ownership would eventually undermine the integrity of the project. Some constraints are inevitably imposed by the SSSI (and potential future SAC) status of the valley, but discussions with staff of SNH suggest that there is little conflict between the aims of the project and the need to maintain the quality of the site as defined in the SSSI schedule. Similarly, structures of archaeological interest in the valley must be preserved, but the primary archaeological significance of the site relates to the Rotten Bottom bow, and restoration of the pristine landscape is viewed as an appropriate response to its discovery.
More difficult issues relate to the interaction between constraints imposed by a variety of sources of funding on the one hand, and the requirements for authentic ecological restoration on the other. The Wildwood Group of BFT is already cooperating with a wide variety of organisations, some of which are providing financial support of the restoration process and long-term management at Carrifran. It will be reluctant, however, to accept funds from any individuals or organisations likely to impose conditions that might compromise the basic vision of the Wildwood or jeopardize the outcome in practice.
Acquisition of the site has been achieved primarily by means of donations from private individuals responding to the vision of the project, and the group therefore has an implicit mandate to undertake the restoration using their own professional assessment of the best means of achieving the aim. The Founders of Carrifran Wildwood and all other contributors to the project can have full confidence that the spirit of the Mission Statement will be respected.
Carrifran is a small valley, and although it comprises a natural entity in landscape terms it cannot be isolated ecologically from adjacent areas. Borders Forest Trust will seek to establish constructive relationships with landowners in the area, and hopes that long-term changes in land use may gradually create "buffer zones" marching with Carrifran where management of plants and animals will be in harmony with the development of the Wildwood ecosystem.
For a project in which benefits can be expected to accrue over many centuries, it is important to make arrangements that will maximise the chance of long-term continuity in management of the site. Experience worldwide suggests that complete security cannot be achieved, but that the framework established at the start is of critical importance. With this in mind, Borders Forest Trust has negotiated an association with the John Muir Trust in relation to the Carrifran Wildwood project, which is designed to evolve into a more formal partnership now that the site has been purchased. This step was taken because of the status of the John Muir Trust as a vibrant and well-established organisation with aims fully compatible with those of the Wildwood Group. The John Muir Trust sets out to show that the damage inflicted on the wild over the centuries can be repaired; that the land can be conserved on a sustainable basis for the human, animal and plant communities which share it; and that the great spiritual qualities of wilderness, of tranquillity and solitude, can be preserved as a legacy for those to come.
10 The members of the Wildwood Group of BFT intend to provide a demonstration that a grass-roots enterprise initiated by volunteers and funded largely by private individuals can achieve an ambitious and valuable environmental objective; it is hoped that the example of Carrifran Wildwood will inspire others to attempt analogous projects, as it was inspired by those that came before. Few - if any - ecological restoration projects on a scale comparable to that of Carrifran Wildwood have been attempted in Britain south of the Highlands, and much of the relevant experience relates to woods dominated by pine. The Wildwood Group have therefore been determined to ensure that the project should be exemplary: procedures must be based on explicit principles and experience must be fully documented, so as to pave the way for analogous projects in climatically similar regions.
1.4 Development of the management plan
As befits a community-based organization, it was decided at an early stage that the management plan for the project should be developed through a process of discussion. To this end, an "Ecological Planning Subgroup" of the Wildwood Group was created, with membership open to anyone within the Wildwood Group who was interested in participating. After a number of preliminary meetings, during which the contents of the plan were agreed in outline, a series of six meetings were held at intervals of a month during 1998, focusing on particular aspects of the proposed plan. In each case, the objective was to identify the key decisions which needed to be made, and to reach these decisions through a process of discussion. The meetings were attended by between six and thirteen participants, with an average of ten. Once consensus had been reached and documented in the minutes of each meeting, the key decisions were relayed to the broader membership of the Wildwood Group at an open meeting, and comments invited.
The present plan therefore represents a summary of a series of decisions reached collectively by members of the Wildwood Group who attended the relevant meetings (a full listing of those involved is provided at the end of this document). We recognise that this Plan differs substantially from more typical woodland management plans, in terms of its structure and content. To a large extent this reflects the novel nature of the project, both in terms of its objectives, and the method of reaching management decisions through a process of discussion. As a result, this plan provides a great deal of background information, giving the context for many of the decisions made. For example, before detailed management prescriptions could be produced, key decisions needed to be made concerning which species should be considered native to the site, and how and where they should be established; these aspects are therefore described here in detail. The Plan thus partly serves as a record of how and why such decisions were reached. Detailed management prescriptions, describing practical implementation of this Plan, will continue to be developed by the Project Officer, supported by the Site Operations Team and the Wildwood Steering Group (see Section 3.3).
To assist the development of the management plan, a Discussion Meeting was organized during November 1997, as a joint venture between the Biodiversity Unit of the University of Edinburgh, and the Borders Forest Trust (BFT). The meeting, under the title "Native woodland restoration in southern Scotland: principles and practice", was held at the Royal Botanic Garden in Edinburgh and was attended by 180 delegates; it included presentations by specialists on a number of different technical issues relating to native woodland restoration, as well as a series of discussion workshops. The proceedings were published in 1998 by BFT (Newton and Ashmole 1998a), and a synopsis of the meeting was published in Scottish Forestry (Newton and Ashmole 1998b). These publications have been extensively drawn upon in the development of this plan.
11 2. Description of the site
2.1 Location
Carrifran is situated in Moffat Dale in eastern Dumfriesshire (Dumfries and Galloway) at 55°24' North and 3°20' West, National OS Grid reference NT 1513 (in 10 km square 3161). The valley lies in the west of the Moffat-Tweedsmuir Hills in the central Southern Uplands of Scotland. These hills form the western part of the area traditionally known as Ettrick Forest. They lie immediately east of the M74 (the Carlisle to Glasgow road) and are the first significant area of high ground seen by the traveller arriving in Scotland from England by road or rail. Carrifran is six miles (10 km) northeast of Moffat on the A708 road to Selkirk, which ascends Moffat Dale to the watershed at Birkhill and on to St. Mary's Loch and the Yarrow Valley in the Scottish Borders.
Carrifran (Figure 10) is the central valley in a group of three (Black Hope, Carrifran and the valley of Loch Skene) which run roughly southwards from the east-west spine of the Moffat Hills formed by the ridge from Hart Fell (808 m) in the west to Hartfell Rig, Firthhope Rig (801 m) and Lochcraig Head (800 m) in the northeast. Carrifran is bounded to the northwest by Rotten Bottom (a peaty hollow on the watershed at over 600 m where the Gameshope Burn rises and flows north to Talla Reservoir); Carrifran marches here with Talla and Gameshope, which is used principally for sheep grazing. In the northeast, between Carrifran and Loch Skene, lies the rounded mass of White Coomb (821 m), the fourth highest point in the South of Scotland, whose summit is bisected by the Carrifran boundary. Running south from here is the prominent ridge of Carrifran Gans, which separates Carrifran from land to the east owned by the National Trust for Scotland (NTS) but with an agricultural tenancy; this includes the Grey Mare's Tail waterfall, which at 70 metres is one of Britain's highest cascades and a local tourist destination. The conifer plantations of Polmoody (recently sold by FE) border the property in the southeast, while the southern boundary is formed by the A708 road. On the west Carrifran is flanked by Peat Hill and the dramatic ridge of Saddle Yoke and Under Saddle Yoke (745 m) and west of this, by the parallel valley of Black Hope which runs up to Hart Fell (808 m) and Hart Fell Rig; this valley forms part of Capplegill Farm, which previously included Carrifran.
Carrifran itself is a deep U-shaped valley with its origin in a hanging valley between Firthhope Rig and White Coomb, from which the Firthhope Burn descends in a long series of scenically attractive falls. Initially the burn trends southwestwards, but it then turns south and is joined by Games Gill draining Rotten Bottom and then by Priest Gill to form the Carrifran Burn, which turns again to run almost southeastwards towards the mouth of the valley, finally skirting to the west of the terminal moraine. Between Games Gill and Priest Gill is the magnificent cliff of Raven Craig, which dominates the view northwards up the valley from its mouth. The project area comprises almost the entire catchment of the Carrifran Burn and amounts to about 650 ha (1600 acres), including an additional piece of flanking land on Peat Hill which was purchased later than the main valley. The area now owned by BFT represents an ecological and scenic entity conforming closely with the ideal envisaged by the originators of the project.
2.2 Status of the site
Carrifran Valley previously formed about one third of Capplegill Farm, owned by John and Wendy Barker, from whom the Borders Forest Trust purchased Carrifran at the end of 1999. The valley lies within both a Regional Scenic Area established under the local authority Structure Plan and an Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA). The Moffat Hills are classified as a Grade 1 Nature Conservation Review Site (NCC 1991), and Carrifran lies entirely within the Moffat Hills Site of Special Scientific 12 Interest, which also includes the rest of Capplegill Farm and the Grey Mare's Tail. During 2000 the Moffat Hills SSSI (including Carrifran) was designated as a candidate Special Area of Conservation (SAC) under European Union legislation.
The original SSSI notification was in 1956 and renotifications have taken place in 1972, 1974 and 1988. The current schedule for the Moffat Hills SSSI states:
Geological / geomorphological
"The richest assemblage of montane and sub-montane plant species in the Southern Uplands; the site has a wide range of upland plant communities and includes the only high altitude oligotrophic loch in Annandale and Eskdale District. The site is noted further for its features of geological and geomorphological interest.
This upland massif [of] Silurian greywackes and shales forms a watershed between the Tweed and Annan river systems. The summits of the hills, many above 750m, are flat or rounded but the valleys are steep-sided and often broken by crags whilst the subsidiary streams have cut deep ravines.
Glacial landforms as developed in the Southern Uplands, are exceptionally well developed in this site. The key erosional features include the corrie at the head of Loch Skene and the fine example of a hanging valley which it forms above the classic fault-guided glacial trough of Moffat dale with the spectacular waterfall of the Grey Mare's Tail plunging from the hanging valley into the trough below. This waterfall (over 200m high) comprises a series of cascades of varying size which fall over protruding bedrock benches into plunge pools below. The origin of the waterfall is due to more intense glacial erosion within the main valley (now occupied by Moffat Water), than in the tributary valley of the Tail burn. The bedrock is critical in defining the controls on the present channel as the strike of the underlying Silurian greywackes is at right angles to the flow of the water, thus accentuating the role of the protruding bedrock benches.
The Loch Skene area was an important source of ice accumulation during the Loch Lomond Stadial and supported part of the largest glacier system in the Southern Uplands. It is particularly significant in this context since Loch Lomond Stadial glaciers developed at relatively few sites in the Southern Uplands compared with the Highlands. Loch Skene is also noted for a fine assemblage of hummocky moraines and end moraines, the form and distribution of which suggest that the glacier in the Loch Skene basin may have receded actively, in contrast to most other Loch Lomond Stadial glaciers in Scotland.
Dob's Linn is a site of immense palaeontological stratigraphical and historical interest, containing the classical graptolitic sites and succession upon which Lapworth erected the sequence of Upper Ordovician graptolite zones now used in world wide correlation. The site is currently the subject of great international attention, being a candidate as the Ordovician/Silurian System boundary stratoype. This classic locality also shows the standard section for the base of the Llandovery Series and the base of the Silurian Period. Its graptolite-rich sequence shows a graptolite zonation (from the persculptus to the maximus zone) spanning the Ashgill-Llandovery boundary and including the Upper Hartfell Shale, Birkhill Shale and Gala Greywacke. This outstanding site is one of Britain's most important stratigraphic localities."
Biological
13 "The richest assemblage of montane and sub-montane plant species in the Southern Uplands; the site has a wide range of upland plant communities and includes the only high altitude oligotrophic loch in Annandale and Eskdale District.
Acid grassland comprising bent (Agrostis spp.) and fescue (Festuca spp.) grasses and including viviparous fescue (Festuca vivipara), cover much of the site but in damper peatier areas heath rush (Juncus squarrosus) and mat-grass (Nardus stricta) are widespread. Extensive areas of blanket bog occur, especially around Loch Skene and are dominated by heather (Calluna vulgaris) and hare's-tail cottongrass (Eriophorum vaginatum). Cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus) is abundant in these areas. Towards the summits are examples of snow-bed heath dominated by bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) and Mountain crowberry (Empetrum hermaphroditum), and areas of dwarfed heather whilst on the summits themselves montane grassland with stiff sedge (Carex bigelowii) and dwarf willow (Salix herbacea) is extensive and patches of Racomitrium lanuginosum heath occur in rockier areas. Numerous springs, rills and soligenous mires occur, many of them base-enriched and dominated by bryophytes such as Philonotis fontana and Bryum weigellii. Parsley fern (Cryptogramma crispa) is abundant on areas of scree and relic fragments of oak-ash-wych elm woodland survive in the lower parts of some ravines.
The major botanical feature of this site is its floristic richness due, in part, to the refuge provided by the numerous crags and the calcareous nature of the substrate. Rare and notable plant species vary in their abundance, some with only one or two locations, and include holly fern (Polystichum lonchitis), purple saxifrage (Saxifraga oppositifolia), pyramidal bugle (Ajuga pyramidalis), downy willow (Salix lapponum), alpine saw-wort (Saussurea alpina) and alpine cinquefoil (Potentilla crantzii). On ledges a tall herb community that includes roseroot (Sedum rosea), alpine scurvygrass (Cochlearia alpina) and mountain sorrel (Oxyria digyna) is well represented, whilst in springs and soligenous mires alpine foxtail (Alopecurus alpinus), sheathed sedge (Carex vaginata), hairy stonecrop (Sedum villosum) and pale forget-me-not (Myosotis brevifolia) are found. Other notable species typical of more acidic habitats include bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva ursi), bog bilberry (Vaccinium uliginosum) and dwarf cornel (Chamaepericlymenum suecicum). A number of rare hawkweeds (Hieracium spp.) occur on the site, some of them endemic to the area and include H. longuilobum, H. chrysolorum and H. stenophyes.”
2.3 Physical characteristics
2.3.1 Climate The New Statistical Account of 1834, in describing the climate of Moffat, the nearest town, says "The climate and temperature of the village of Moffat may be stated most intelligibly by comparison, being neither so cold as in Edinburgh, nor so wet as in Glasgow and not so warm as in Dumfries and Annan, no haar, nor the Solway fogs." The climate is influenced by the prevailing westerly winds and frontal patterns coming from the Atlantic with mist, cloud and grey skies with rain being common. Rainfall in this area appears to be well distributed throughout the year with the driest months being April, May and June.
The Meteorological Office weather station at Eskdalemuir is situated approximately 12 km S.E. of Carrifran and at a similar altitude (Carrifran 180 - 820 m and Eskdalemuir 242 m). The average statistics for the thirty year period of 1951 - 1980 cover rainfall, snow lie, bright sunshine hours and averages and extremes of temperature. Further climatological means and extremes for the period 1954 - 1992 are given in Appendix 1. According to recent statistics, there are 60 days of the year when snow 14 /sleet fall but only 30 when it is lying. There are 1199 hours of bright sunshine in a year and the absolute temperatures range between -19 °C (January) and 29.8 °C. (July) (see Appendix 1). The latter compares with an absolute maximum of 30 °C recorded for the Royal Botanic Garden in Edinburgh. The average annual rainfall recorded at Brockhoperig on the upper Ettrick water (approx. 6 km east of Carrifran, 260 m.a.s.l.) between 1941-1970 was 1938 mm, with a 5 year maximum two day rainfall of 87.5 mm and an effective mean soil moisture deficit of 3.0 mm (McEwen 1998).
Snow falls recently have not been large but there have been infamous storms in the past (see James Hogg’s description of the storms of the 17th & 18th centuries in the Yarrow, Ettrick and Moffat Water area, written for Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine under the general title of "The Shepherd's Calendar”). The greatest of these, known as the "Thirteen Drifty Days" ravaged the countryside in 1620. Nothing like it has been known before or since; almost 90% of the sheep in the area were killed and the history of the present sheep stock can be dated from this storm. The Ettrick Shepherd James Hogg - the famous self-taught writer of the area - describes a later storm of his lifetime in 1794 when 17 shepherds perished and whole flocks were overwhelmed. He writes "The greater part of the rivers on which the storm was most deadly run into the Solway Firth, on which there is a place called "the beds of Esk" where the tide throws out and leaves, whatsoever is carried into it by the rivers. When the flood after the storm subsided there were found in that place and the shores adjacent 1840 sheep, 9 black cattle, 3 horses, 2 men, 1 woman, 45 dogs and 180 hares besides a number of meaner animals." In the nearby Ettrick water, the most extreme floods generally occur in the early winter (September - November). Extreme frontal summer storms also occur, although rarely (McEwen 1998).
2.3.2 Hydrology The Carrifran catchment has an area of 600 ha and is drained by a fourth order stream, the Carrifran Burn. The main stem of the burn flows NW to SE in the Carrifran valley, and passes under the A708 road, before entering the Moffat Water shortly after leaving the site. This ultimately joins the river Annan which flows south to the Solway Firth. The main tributaries of the Carrifran Burn are Firthhope Burn, Little Firthhope Burn, and the burns in Priest Gill and Games Gill which drain the peat plateaux of the upper catchment. The latter two streams drain extensive areas of blanket bog on the plateaux surrounding Carrifran Valley itself.
The Firthhope Burn rises on the western flanks of White Coomb and falls to the valley floor through a series of scenically significant waterfalls. The Firthhope Burn and the other feeder streams form a significant confluence at the head of the valley (NT152131). From this point, the Carrifran Burn drains to the SE in an essentially linear channel, with a gravel or rock bed. At the entrance to the valley the burn is diverted to the west by morainic deposits, through a narrow channel.
A separate watercourse rises at Keld Pot (NT161121) which in the past (apparently with human assistance) has drained SSE to the east of the end moraine, leaving the site some 200 m from the main burn and providing the water supply to Carrifran cottage. This diversion has recently beein reinstated, but it is hoped in future to supply the cottage through a buried pipe and to allow the surplus to follow its natural course to the west. This spring now drains mainly SW into the Carrifran Burn, but some minor springs still maintain a small flow in the earlier channel. In addition, although not of hydrological significance, a line of springs occur on the eastern slopes of the catchment at around the 400 m contour which contribute base-rich waters to the burn and lower valley slopes. The most significant of these occur as a group of six streams forming a mire (NT 158123); other small wet flushes and mires occur throughout the site.
15 Major floods are reported periodically in the area; most extreme floods occur in early winter although severe summer floods are also known. The extent of flooding at Carrifran itself is unknown; the general lack of alluvial deposits suggests that such flooding may be rare and limited in extent.
An analysis of streamflow and water quality at Carrifran undertaken during 1999 is described in Appendix 12.
2.3.3 Geology In 1999, the British Geological Survey undertook a resurvey of the Moffat Hills. The staff concerned have visited the site with members of the Wildwood Group and have provided an up-to-date assessment of the geology of the Carrifran valley (see Figures 1 and 2).
The rocks in the Carrifran area are typical of those of the western Borders, being composed of early Silurian (c.430 Ma) sedimentary 'greywacke' (shale, siltstone and sandstone) sequences known as the Gala group. Two slivers of Moffat Shale (the oldest of the greywacke rocks) slant across the valley in a northeast to southwest direction, one from Carrifran Gans and one near the mouth of the valley. These shales are rich in fossil graptolites and some of them contain calcium carbonate, giving rise to local areas with relatively base-rich soils. An intrusive dolerite dyke (probably Tertiary in age) forms a band of very hard rock running from below Games Gill in the northwest of the site to just above Keld Pot in the southeast. Of wider interest is Dob's Linn (some 5 km from Carrifran, near the Grey Mare's Tail) which is the international type site for the Silurian / Ordovician boundary as well as an important locality for graptolite fossils.
The solid geology is covered by a layer of unconsolidated sands, gravels and clays which formed towards the end of the last (Devensian) period of glacial activity about 10,000 years ago. Examples of glacial features which occur in the area include the 'U' shaped valley of Carrifran itself, and the cirques or hollows around the valley heads and tops. Sediments deposited after such erosion events include piles of sand and gravel forming linear features (lateral moraine) or isolated mounds (hummocky moraine) which are evident at Carrifran. The nearby Grey Mare's Tail is a good example of a hanging valley, which was left elevated above the level of Moffat Dale as a result of more intense glacial erosion in the main valley.
2.3.4 Geomorphology The Southern Uplands of Scotland consist of a series of smooth rounded hills with only a small percentage of the area attaining altitudes in excess of 600 m and only very limited areas over 800 m. These uplands have a strong south-west to north-east structural trend which is reflected in ridge and valley orientation; the drainage is east to the North Sea via the Tweed Basin, south to the Solway via the Annan Basin and northwest to the Clyde.
Carrifran's geomorphology mainly reflects the action of the last ice age. The steepness of the valley sides, the cliffs of Raven Craig, Gupe Craig and Carrifran Gans, the hummocky moraines and the sediments of sand, gravel and clay all bear witness to the heavy glaciation of this area. These features partly reflect the impact of the valley glaciers of the Loch Lomond Re-advance radiating from Loch Skene in the neighbouring valley. A plateau ice-cap developed on the higher ground between Broad Law and Hart Fell (generally above 700 metres) from which a series of small valley glaciers descended to altitudes of between 300 and 400 m. This later glaciation accounts for the more rugged appearance of Carrifran. The Moffat Water valley glacier overdeepened its bed because of a fault and the associated shatter zone beneath it which made its erosive power stronger and accounts for its remarkable straightness. All the tributary valleys lie high above that of the Moffat Water. Carrifran Valley faces south; the valley slopes are steep and scree-covered in many places.
16 2.3.5 Soils The Soil Survey of Scotland (Sheet 7 1:25,000, Macaulay Institute of Soil Research) and the National Trust Survey of the Grey Mare's Tail property (which adjoins this valley) indicate that on the valley floor and slopes there are peaty soils, podzols and brown forest soils while on the tops there is blanket peat.
A survey of Carrifran valley was undertaken during the summer of 1998 to assess spatial variation in soil type across the site (Sterling 1998); advice was also provided by Dr Graham Pyatt (then of the Forestry Commission) during site visits. Six main soil types were recorded in the valley (see Fig 2). The soils are in general poor. The valley bottom and lower slopes are largely characterised by acidic brown earths. These form a mosaic with gleyed soils on wetter sites, primarily associated with patches of mire and streamsides. Occasional bracken patches indicate areas of relatively free drainage. The most extensive areas of podzol were encountered near the entrance to the valley, where soils have developed on a relatively freely draining glacial moraine. Incipient iron pan formation was also noted at higher elevations, although in such areas, podzols were found to be limited in extent. Upper slope soils are generally immature, with a thin layer of organic material developed on a very rocky substrate. These soils are classified here as upland brown earths, and are essentially poorly developed soils on relatively unstable scree. Such soils form a mosaic with intergrade podzols on sites with greater soil depth and a more pronounced organic layer, with noticeable surface gleying. The ridgetops and highest slopes are mantled with peat, which reaches greatest depth in localized bogs (eg Rotten Bottom).
2.4 Biological characteristics
2.4.1 Current distribution and status of woodland Carrifran valley is almost entirely denuded of trees, although a few individuals of ash, downy birch, rowan, willow, hazel, hawthorn, dog rose and burnet rose survive as relicts in precipitous places by the burn, along with ivy and honeysuckle; there is a clump of bird cherry below the waterfall and at least one holly on Raven Craig and the dying stump of another on the Firthhope Burn. There seem to be no exotic tree species on the site at present, though invasion from the conifer plantation to the east could occur in future under relaxed grazing pressure and both sycamore and beech are present by the road at the southern limit of the site.
2.4.2 Vascular plants The Moffat Hills area, within which Carrifran is situated, is of considerable botanical interest. A list of the vascular plants recorded on site is provided as Appendix 2. It holds a wide range of upland plant communities, including herb-rich flushes and calcareous ledge communities, and as a result contains the richest assemblage of montane and sub-montane plant species in the Southern Uplands (Ratcliffe 1959, SWT 1997). Most of the site has suffered from overgrazing, which appears to have reduced the area of heather (Calluna vulgaris) and has effectively halted tree regeneration except on the most inaccessible ledges (SWT 1997, Hutcheon and Bates 1997).
The SSSI designation lists a number of key botanical features of the area, an account largely based on the work of Derek Ratcliffe (Ratcliffe 1959). Ratcliffe noted that White Coomb has patches of completely prostrate and dwarfed heather carpet - a community characteristic of upper slopes in the Highlands, but totally eradicated everywhere else in the Southern Uplands by fire and sheep. Even on White Coomb, Ratcliffe noted signs of reduction of the extent of the heather ground, accompanied by apparent disappearance of the bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) which used to occur there. The Moffat Hills were also formerly an important site for the fern Woodsia ilvensis before excessive collection (perhaps combined with overgrazing) virtually wiped it out (Mitchell 1980). A few colonies 17 still survive in the area. The Woodsia ilvensis Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) provides for the reinstatement of the species at some of its former stations in the Moffat Hills.
Ratcliffe pointed out that the mountain flora of the Moffat Hills is much richer than that on higher ground at Broad Law and Cramalt Craig a short distance to the north, and argued that this is due to the presence in the Moffat area of calcareous rocks occurring as steep outcrops at high altitude. The true montane plants of the area represent a relict element of survivors from a previous colder period, which have been eliminated from places with suitable soils elsewhere by a combination of the direct effect of adversely high temperatures and the associated spread of more luxuriant vegetation, together with burning and heavy grazing. Among the few plants mentioned by Ratcliffe as occurring on Carrifran are Rhinanthus borealis (= R. minor ssp. borealis), the Bog Bilberry Vaccinium uliginosum and Cloudberry Rubus chamaemorus; the latter is present in Rotten Bottom and elsewhere on the site. Parsley Fern Cryptogramma crispa is conspicuous in many areas and is clearly an important pioneer on the screes.
During the last few years the National Trust for Scotland have carried out substantial botanical field work on that part of the SSSI owned by NTS, which is immediately adjacent to Carrifran. In 1995 Halcrow surveyed the scarce montane plant species and made recommendations for management (Halcrow 1995). That report lists 17 nationally scarce and 13 regionally rare species occurring on Grey Mare's Tail (see Table 1 in Appendix 2). In order to assess whether these species are present on Carrifran, a preliminary survey of the plants on the crags and ledges of Raven Craig was carried out using rope access in October 1997 (Borders Forest Trust 1997). The ledges accessible to herbivores have a mixture of grassland and heath communities; stands in which heather Calluna vulgaris is the dominant plant are rare and bell heather Erica cinerea and blaeberry Vaccinium myrtillus are ubiquitous. The inaccessible ledges, in contrast, harbour a well-developed tall-herb flora including roseroot Sedum rosea, lady's mantle Alchemilla glabra, globeflower Trollius europaeus, devil's-bit scabious Succisa pratensis and hogweed Heracleum sphondylium. On these ledges, two of the noteworthy species listed by Halcrow (1995) were located during the 1997 Raven Craig survey: lady's mantle Alchemilla wichurae and mountain male-fern Dryopteris oreades.
The Raven Craig survey noted that the steeper rock faces are generally free of vascular plants, but have some ferns and a variety of mosses and lichens which have not yet been studied. On small ledges and cracks the dominant vascular plants were often sea campion Silene uniflora (S. vulgaris maritima), Sedum rosea and viviparous sheep's-fescue Festuca vivipara. Woody species on the steeper cliffs included burnet rose Rosa pimpinellifolia, bramble Rubus fruticosus agg., holly and rowan. Soft downy- rose R. mollis was tentatively identified. A record of grey willow requires checking in the light of an independent and confirmed record of Salix x tetrapla (S. myrsinifolia x S. phylicifolia) at the base of the cliffs. The southwest wall of the gorge at the top of Games Gill and below Rotten Bottom has one additional species of note, mountain sorrel Oxyria digyna.
In June 1998 the Botanical Society of Scotland undertook an excursion to Carrifran, to record the plants present. This survey recorded 183 flowering plants and ferns, and located populations of an additional six of the key species listed by Halcrow (1995). Of particular importance was the location of Myosotis stolonifera (brevifolia), a nationally scarce species, which was not recorded on the Grey Mare's Tail by Halcrow (1995) despite having been recorded previously by Ratcliffe, suggesting that it may have declined in that area.
2.4.3 Vegetation In 1997, a Habitat Condition Assessment of vegetation of the western part of the Moffat Hills was undertaken by environmental consultants, on behalf of SNH (Hutcheon and Bates 1997). The area
18 surveyed includes Carrifran and the valley of the Blackhope Burn immediately to the west. The findings of this survey are summarized below.
Eight habitat types were mapped during this survey (see Table 3.1). In general, smooth grassland was found to be associated with the valley bottom, giving way to tussock grassland on the slopes. These grassland communities occured in a mosaic with patches of bracken and localised flush areas. The upper slopes were generally characterised by dwarf-shrub heath, with blanket bog covering the plateaux. Between the dwarf shrub heath and adjacent grassland communities lying downslope lay a Vaccinium myrtillus-dominated zone, which was interpreted as indicating a long-term and historical loss of Calluna. Tall herb communities were found to be very limited in extent (< 1% of survey area), but were found near the top of Saddle Yoke and Under Saddle Yoke, and beside Priest Craig and Rispie Lairs. Wind-clipped summit heath was similarly found to be restricted in extent, and was found on the highest tops (particularly White Coomb and Carrifran Gans).
As noted by the authors, in this area the predominant land-use impact is grazing/browsing /trampling and the main herbivores are sheep, cattle and feral goats. All communities were found to be subjected to grazing, with medium to high impacts recorded in many areas. Lowest areas of impact were recorded on the slopes where a sward height of 6 cm was recorded. The report recommended that grazing be reduced to maintain the characteristics of existing communities. If the existing grazing regime were to continue, then it was predicted that annuals and tall herbs might be lost, erosion would probably increase, the area of dwarf shrub heath would decline, and the structural variation of existing vegetation would decline.
A National Vegetation Classification (NVC) survey was undertaken in 1997 by SWT on behalf of SNH (SWT 1997) to complement the Habitat Assessment Survey (see above). A total of 41 NVC types (including subcommunities) were recorded over the entire SSSI, of which 34 were recorded at Carrifran (including subcommunities). This survey recorded the following NVC types at Carrifran which were not recorded by the (less intensive) survey of Hutcheon and Bates (1997): U21, M17, M18. A list of the NVC types recorded is provided, with accompanying notes, in Appendix 3, and a map of the distribution of NVC types is appended (Fig. 4).
2.4.4 Bryophytes A report by Dr David Long is presented in Appendix 4. Carrifran supports a rich bryoflora with a blend of montane, oceanic and calcicolous elements. From two visits in June 1998, 179 species have been recorded so far. The most important habitat for bryophytes are the flush communities with which a wide variety of species are associated. For example, out of sixteen species of Sphagnum found in the valley, nine were found in these flush communities, including the local fen species S. contortum and S. teres and the very rare S. platophyllum, new to Dumfriesshire. Another significant discovery was the very rare oceanic calcicole Trichostomum hibernicum, found on wet rocks. Throughout the whole valley several species are widespread (e.g. Campylopus atrovirens, Breutelia chrysocoma, Thuidium delicatulum and Jungermannia exsertifolia subsp. cordifolia), which are much rarer further east and contribute to the more 'western' character of the bryoflora.
2.4.5 Fungi and lichens Carrifran has now been surveyed for fungi on two occasions. A number of records were made by Prof. Roy Watling (and associates) during the BSS excursion to Carrifran on 28 June 1998. A list of the records made is given in Appendix 5. This list suggests that Carrifran has the typical fungal communities of upland grasslands, with few notable species recorded to date, although Dacrymyces minor (found on deadwood) is considered to be rare. On September 30th 1999, a team of specialists from the British Mycological Society surveyed the site, and found a large number of species typical of 19 unimproved grassland sites, including some 15 species of Hygrocybe, and Entoloma cruentatum, apparently new for Scotland. The montane Salix herbacea communities were also briefly surveyed, which could also be of mycological importance; as few species were found on this visit further survey work is required to determine their importance. A detailed list produced by this survey is currently under preparation. Carrifran has not yet been surveyed intensively for lichens.
2.4.6 Mammals Wild mammal populations on Carrifran at present are very limited. Sika deer have been seen on site at least once in the last few years, and there are signs of sika as well as roe in the conifer plantation immediately east of the site. Fox earths have been found in the valley and a fox was killed on site during 1998. Both brown and mountain hares have been seen on the site. Otter spraint has been seen in 2000 in Rotten Bottom and south of Broomy Gutter. We are not aware of recent records of badgers, and have not seen stoats, weasels or rabbits; however, rabbits were abundant in the area of Saddle Yoke half a century ago. Rodents have not yet been investigated, but voles were obviously abundant in parts of the valley in summer 2000. Moles are present in a limited area at the top of Raven Craig and in some other parts of the valley.
Feral goats have been present in the Moffat Hills since at least 1910 (Smith and Bullock 1993) and probably much earlier; they are referred to in the SSSI Schedule as being of ‘biological interest’. Ecological and behavioural studies of the population have been made in the past (Bullock 1982, Pickering 1983) and the authors of these studies have provided helpful information about the goats to the Wildwood Group. The total population in the Moffat Hills was 80-112 in the period 1978-80 (censuses in October), but by 1992 it had risen to 184, in spite of at least two large-scale removals of goats by the Hill Farming Research Organisation in the period 1980-90; there are some indications that numbers in 1999 may be even higher.
Table 2.1. Vegetation types recorded in western Moffat Hills by Hutcheon and Bates (1997) together with corresponding NVC types recorded at Carrifran by SWT (1997)
Vegetation type Corresponding NVC types Smooth grassland U4 Festuca ovina - Agrostis capillaris - Galium saxatile grassland Flush M4 Carex rostrata- Sphagnum recurvum mire M6 Carex echinata - Sphagnum recurvum / auriculatum mire M15 Scirpus caespitosus - Erica tetralix wet heath M32 Philonotis fontana - Saxifraga stellaris mire Tall herb U16 Luzula sylvatica - Vaccinium myrtillus tall herb community Blanket bog M1 Sphagnum auriculatum bog pool M2 Sphagnum cuspidatum / recurvum bog pool M3 Eriophorum angustifolium bog pool M15b Scirpus caespitosus - Eriophorum vaginatum blanket mire M19 Calluna vulgaris - Eriophorum vaginatum blanket mire Wind-clipped U10 Carex bigelowii - Racomitrium lanuginosum moss heath summit heath Dwarf-shrub heath H10 Calluna vulgaris - Erica cinerea heath H12 Calluna vulgaris - Vaccinium myrtillus heath H18 Vaccinium myrtillus - Deschampsia flexuosa heath Tussock grassland M23 Juncus effusus / acutiflorus - Galium palustre rush-pasture M25 Molinia caerulea - Potentilla erecta mire U5 Nardus stricta - Galium saxatile grassland U6 Juncus squarrosus - Festuca ovina grassland 20 U7 Nardus stricta - Carex bigelowii grass-heath Bracken U20 Pteridium aquilinum - Galium saxatile community
2.4.7 Birds Birds which are specially protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 include peregrine falcon, which occurs at Carrifran. Peregrine and black grouse are also listed in the EU Birds Directive, which states that member states shall take the necessary measures to preserve, maintain or re-establish a sufficient diversity and area of habitats for all species listed. Peregrine, black grouse and red grouse are all Red Data Book species. A significant but declining black grouse population is known to occur in the area.
The SSSI Schedule refers to the Moffat Hills SSSI as being home to ‘a wide range of upland breeding birds’. However, the rolling acres of Borders 'sheep walk', typified by thin close-grazed grasses, are notoriously poor for birds. Carrifran, at this stage, has the anticipated low diversity. The expected meadow pipit, skylark and wheatear are present along with ubiquitous species, such as wren, and birds such as chaffinch straying from nearby woodland. Typical upland birds such as carrion crow, kestrel and buzzard are present. Ring ouzels have been seen in several parts of the valley. The crags offer nesting places for significant bird species including peregrine falcon and it is a delight that the raven, which gives its name to the valley, is often seen. The burn brings in a few other species: goosander, grey heron, dipper and pied wagtail have been seen, as well as grey wagtail on the waterfall. Red grouse seem to be scarce or absent, but black grouse have been seen on a number of occasions; certain other species which are closely associated with heather have yet to be seen, such as golden plover and hen harrier; however, merlin have been sighted. Bullfinches have been seen feeding on heather and siskins have been noted on thistles. In autumn 1997 many fieldfares were seen close to the summit of White Coomb and snow buntings have been seen on high ground.
Breeding season surveys were carried out in 1998 by Peter Gordon (RSPB) and John Hamilton, followed by a series of less intensive surveys through autumn and winter. Surveys have also been done in 2000. Details of the survey methodology and results are given in Appendix 6.
2.4.8 Fish The Carrifran Burn has been surveyed by Nick Chisholm, Ecological Manager of the Annan Fisheries Board. The only species found was brown trout Salmo trutta but eels Anguilla anguilla may also be present. Sea trout, the migratory form of Salmo trutta, may reach the burn but it is certain that salmon Salmo salar do not penetrate this far up the Moffat Water system. A large fish seen in autumn 1999 in the Carrifran Burn within the site was therefore presumably a sea trout. The low diversity is not untypical of upland streams of this character.
Densities of brown trout are low. The steep gradient of the burn is a contributory factor in some stretches but elsewhere overgrazing is likely to be detrimental to the fish populations. Further survey work will use methodology agreed by the Scottish Fisheries Co-ordination Centre, which will yield data directly comparable to those from other sites.
2.4.9 Other vertebrates The viviparous lizard Lacerta vivipara is present on site to altitudes probably exceeding 400 m. Slow worm and adder have not been recorded as far as we are aware, but adders are present within 10 km of the site. Frog spawn and tadpoles were seen in ruts on the main track in 1998 and 1999, and an unidentified newt was seen; toads have not been recorded.
2.4.10 Insects and other invertebrates 21 A member of the Wildwood Group carried out some preliminary trapping of invertebrates on Carrifran in summer 1997, with advice and practical help from staff of the Royal Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh. A Malaise trap was used for flying insects and pitfall traps for surface-living invertebrates. Identification of specimens and analysis of the data have not yet been carried out; they require require substantial input of time by people with appropriate skills, who may be either volunteers or contracted staff. Contact is maintained with the entomologists involved with the Initiative for Scottish Insects, and one of these has already spent some time on Carrifran. During summer 2000 additional invertebrate collections were made, using both pitfall traps and a Malaise trap, and a one-day survey of terrestrial molluscs was also carried out. It is likely that during the next few years it will be possible to arrange more work on site by a number of invertebrate specialists.
The SSSI Schedule, referring to the Moffat hills as a whole, mentions an "invertebrate fauna that includes Arctic-alpine sawflies (Hymenoptera) and the northern moth Anarta melanopa." The presence of either of these on Carrifran has not been confirmed.
2.5 Archaeology
A report on the archaeology of Carrifran commissioned by Historic Scotland in relation to the Wildwood project (Halliday and Carter 1999) became available while this Environmental Statement was in press; it includes a series of colour photographs of the sites. This report is briefly summarized here. Information on archaeological remains in Carrifran valley and the surrounding area is also provided by RCAHMS (1997). Sites recorded within the valley include a farmstead, shielings, clearance cairns and enclosures, most of them apparently of medieval or later date, and a small slate quarry (Halliday and Carter 1999).
The discovery on the watershed above Carrifran valley (Site 10) of the Rotten Bottom bow - the oldest bow known from Britain - provides a major element to the interest of the valley. This early Neolithic flatbow, dated from 3-4000 BC, is now exhibited in the Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh. It was found by a hill walker (Dr Dan Jones) in 1990, protruding from the peat at an altitude of 660 m, just within the north west boundary of the site at grid reference NT 146144. It is made of yew, a tree that does not now grow in the area. Bows are thought to have been objects of trade from very early times; this one was evidently discarded by a hunter when it broke, and was preserved in the peat.
Eleven features, or groups of features, of archaeological interest at Carrifran are mapped in Figure 3 (based on Halliday and Carter 1999). Two large cairns of probable Bronze Age date on the summit of White Coomb (not visited during the survey by Halliday and Carter) are notable for being in a particularly high position compared with similar ones in the area, and probably contain burials or cremations of notable people. Elsewhere in Moffat Dale the occurrence of small forts of a similar - or possibly slightly later - date indicate that the valley was an important pre-historic route-way between the south and the Forth. The largest of these forts, in this case probably Iron Age, is found at the Giant's Grave at the foot of the Grey Mare's Tail where it commands the route over the watershed into the Yarrow Valley to the east (RCAHMS 1997). A smaller example lies on the south side of the road between Capplegill and Roundstonefoot. There are traces of two other forts on Crofthead and Selcoth, but none on Carrifran itself.
Indication of early cultivation of Carrifran is provided by groups of small clearance cairns, where the ground has been cleared of stones to make small, irregular fields. Those at Site 1, at the south end of a terrace on the east side of the Carrifran burn (near the southern extremity of the land owned by Borders Forest Trust), appear to underlie peat and are probably prehistoric in date. Those at Site 6 possibly result from improvement of pasture by shepherds in the 19th century. 22
Several other features tell of the Medieval farming history of the valley, although close dating of features formed within the past 1000 years is rarely possible from survey evidence alone. Immediately to the left of the gate is a substantial farmstead (Site 2) comprising two units with buildings ranged with their yards, outbuildings and accompanying enclosures. Turf banks run off on two sides, suggesting that the farmstead was located on a head dyke marking the upper limit of enclosed arable land.
Further up the valley are loose clusters of small buildings and enclosures. Those at Sites 3, 4 and 5 (7 huts and 3 enclosures) are probably too close to the farmstead to have been used at the same time, and are interpreted by Halliday and Carter (1999) as the shieling huts and stock pens used by people from farms further down Moffat Dale when they brought their livestock up to graze the valley in summer. Site 7 extends over 450 m at the head of the low part of the valley and contains at least 8 huts and 3 enclosures. Site 8, with 5 huts and 2 enclosures, is located where the ground begins to rise steeply to Raven Craig. Site 11 is an isolated building at Games Castle and provides the only evidence that livestock was deliberately kept up on the high ground that surrounds Carrifran. Halliday and Carter (1999) suggest that it is unlikely that all these shieling structures were in use at one time, but consider that the distribution of sites indicates only one or two families occupying each of three traditional shieling grounds.
Of particular interest at Carrifran is the possibility of a relationship between the shieling sites towards the head of the valley (Sites 7, 8 and 11) and the remains of the farmstead near the entrance. Rather few sites in southwest Scotland provide evidence of relationships of this type (Jane Brann, personal communication).
All these remains represent a system of seasonal grazing which went on for several hundred years. The shielings probably fell out of use in the 18th century when the new farming methods promoted by the supporters of agricultural improvement radically changed both land use and tenure (Halliday and Carter 1999). The extensive mediaeval farmstead at Carrifran was replaced by the present much smaller steading which served a specialist stock farm. The large stells and other visible stone structures were built at this time, and more intensive sheep husbandry became the order of the day.
The small slate quarry identified by Halliday and Carter (1999) on Raven Craig (Site 9) is likely to have been active in the late 18th and early 19th century, when substantial mortared stone buildings with slate roofs were replacing the less permanent stone, turf and timber structures of the preceding period.
The name Carrifran (caer - y - fran) is itself derived from Cymric/Celtic, and means raven's crag or fort; a free translation would be "Seat of Ravens".
2.6 Land use
2.6.1 Historical The natural tree cover that was undoubtedly present in the lower part of the Carrifran watershed was lost long ago. The preliminary pollen analysis from a core taken on Rotten Bottom at NT 145145 indicates that pastoralism in the area was intense by the latter part of the first millennium a.d., and moor burning is indicated from c.1550 a.d. (R. Tipping, personal communication). The area was used as a Royal hunting forest during the Middle Ages. Between the years of approximately 1300 and 1600 there was constant Border Reiving. In Moffat Dale peel towers were built at Bodesbeck, Roundstonefoot (Runstonfoot), Craigieburn and Pocornel.
23 The period from 1400 to 1707 was remarkable for the rapid expansion of sheep farming in the south of Scotland, attended by a continued decrease in the high-lying forest area (Badenoch 1994). Sheep had been first introduced into Southern Scotland during the 12th century, and expanded significantly after the Union of the Crowns in 1603.
The track up Moffat Dale - marked as "The Birkhill Path" on the Roy map from the mid 18th century - was much improved in 1793 to help the carters ply their trade between Moffat and Selkirk. By the mid 19th century the road had become the route for the mail coaches pulled by four horses and used also by the first tourists who boarded the "Ettrick Shepherd" or the "Tibbie Shiels" to go on the Lochs Run.
The 18th century saw the agricultural revolution. Thomas Gillespie, the farmer at Carrifran in 1759 and tenant of "Correferran and Capplegill, renewed his tenancy of both these farms on a 9 year lease at a yearly rent of 150 and 100 pounds sterling of entry money for Correferan and 73 rent and 120 pounds entry money for Capplegill". Carrifran valley would at this time still have been predominantly sheep walk. Many of the dry-stane dykes in the valley were built before 1800.
2.6.2 Current During the present century the predominant land use at Capplegill Farm (including Carrifran) has been sheep grazing, with a little grouse shooting. In the time of Mr Haig Douglas, who farmed Capplegill from 1938 to 1972, Carrifran was split into two hirsels, "The Gangs" and "The West Side"; together, these carried 660 ewes and 160 hoggs (yearlings). However, when Mr Barker took over in 1994 he initiated a different regime, putting on large numbers of cattle as well as maintaining high stocking with sheep. In November 1996 he had 2100 ewes plus 750 yearlings, and 620 cows plus 608 calves, on the whole 5000 acres of Capplegill. However, there is sometimes high mortality among the cattle on Carrifran in bad weather.
Cattle manure has latterly been applied to the semi-improved pasture on the moraine at the entrance to Carrifran. According to Hutcheon and Bates (1997) the land at Carrifran has not been burnt during current ownership.
In terms of woodland cover, nearly all the woodlands in Moffat Dale are post-war conifer plantations. However, there are some fragments of older woodland to be found. The largest of the ancient woods in the Moffat Dale area is Craigieburn which covers about 35 hectares, stretching about a mile along the West side of the main road to the North of Craigieburn Farm (about four miles from Carrifran). It is now embedded in a large Forest Enterprise plantation. It seems likely this is the natural wood described in the Statistical Account of 1791 as being 50 acres in extent. Much of the remaining woodland is restricted to steep-sided cleuchs (ravines) throughout the catchment. The Roy map of 1755-60 shows no trees in Carrifran, although a few are indicated in Black Hope (the next valley to the west) and also on islets in the Moffat Water.
2.7 The existing landscape
2.7.1 Landform Carrifran Valley is one of a series of side valleys, of glacial origin, which open onto the main valley of the Moffat Water. This river, in turn, drains to the River Annan which flows to the Solway Firth. Carrifran lies close to the centre of the Tweedsmuir Hills which are themselves the geographical centre of the Southern Uplands of Scotland. White Coomb at 821 m.a.s.l. is the fourth highest point in the Southern Uplands and forms part of the north-eastern boundary of the site.
24 The site is, effectively, the entire catchment of the Carrifran Burn. To the south west lies the Blackhope Burn and the Spoon Burn and to the east and north east, the Polmoody Burn and Tail Burn which drains Loch Skeen over the well known Grey Mare's Tail waterfall. All of these systems drain into the Moffat Water. The north-western site boundary however, between Firthhope Rig and a peaty plateau known as Rotten Bottom, is part of the boundary of the River Tweed catchment basin.
2.7.2 Landcover The landscape around Carrifran is highly influenced by current patterns of land use as well as by the topography. The area is characterised by deeply incised and steep-sided glacial valleys, which at Carrifran itself are dominated by craggy summits. The predominant use of land for grazing has produced a mosaic of rough pasture on the valley sides and heather moorland at higher elevations, giving an effect of vegetation zonation with altitude.
Native woodlands currently are a minor landscape feature; in Moffat Dale itself, coniferous plantations are far more significant. At present, conifer plantations cover extensive areas of both sides of the main valley of the Moffat Water, including areas immediately adjacent to and opposite the mouth of Carrifran valley (Polmoody).
(N.B. A landscape assessment is included in section 4.5. In addition, a photographic survey of the landscape within and surrounding Carrifran has been undertaken to demonstrate the context of the site in the landscape, and to help in understanding the likely effects of the proposals on the landscape.)
2.8 Access and recreation
The Grey Mare’s Tail, immediately adjacent to Carrifran, is a popular tourist destination. Facilities include an interpretation area, a car park, an on-site ranger and provision of guided walks. Most visitors arrive by car, predominantly along the A708 from Moffat which passes by Carrifran.
At Carrifran there is currently a track which runs from the mouth of the valley to the point of junction of the Firthhope Burn with Priest Gill; there is a single bridge crossing the Carrifran Burn a little way downstream from the junction. This track is not a public right of way, and indeed there is no such right of way on the site. However, Carrifran is regularly used by hillwalkers. A modern walkers' guide (Manson 1998) describes a number of walks that pass through Carrifran or along one of its marches at Rotten Bottom, Carrifran Gans or Saddle Yoke. It is not known how many people currently use these routes each year, but the numbers are likely to be in the low hundreds rather than thousands. During visits to the site during preparation of this Statement, walkers were sometimes sighted, usually on the high ridges on either side of the valley.
25 3. Objectives and general approach
3.1 Long-term objectives of Carrifran Wildwood Project
The objectives of the project are summarized in the Mission Statement in section 1.1.
3.1.1 Ecological objective Peterken (1996) differentiates between three different objectives of native woodland restoration: original- natural woodland, comprising all the species which were present prior to human impact; present-natural, comprising those locally native species now on the site and any others which colonize naturally; and future-natural, comprising all native, naturalized and planted species now on the site and any others which might colonise by natural regeneration in the future. In this project, our aim is to establish original- natural woodland, according to these definitions. Although the restoration of original-natural woodland may in many cases be impracticable or unattainable, Peterken (1996) notes that there is justification for seeking to restore this kind of woodland on completely deforested sites; in such circumstances planting may be legitimately undertaken to ‘simulate’ the original forest.
Peterken (1996) also considers the options regarding restoration of land form and soil status. In other words, in taking a ‘purist’ stance to restoration, changes in the soil which have occurred since deforestation would be reversed, and artefacts resulting from human impact (such as walls, banks and quarries) would be destroyed. The alternative would be to accept the present condition and configuration of the site. In this project we have decided not to attempt to alter the soil characteristics excepting those changes which will occur naturally as a result of reforestation activities. Artefacts resulting from human impact (such as walls, banks and remains of buildings) will be removed except where they are deemed to be of archaeological or cultural value, or are of practical value to the restoration programme. The most important consideration in this context is whether drains should be removed. Decisions on this aspect will be made on a case-by-case basis considering the likely impacts of such changes (e.g. effects on plants in wet flushes). However, in broad terms we are committed to restoring the natural drainage of the catchment, as far as is practicable or ecologically desirable.
The long term aim of the project is to establish a woodland within the Carrifran Valley, Moffat Dale, composed exclusively of native species, in which natural processes will be allowed to predominate as far as possible. Native species are defined as those present in the pollen record for the site prior to the onset of human impact, and/or on the basis of the best available ecological information on the composition of ancient woodland fragments in the area. The silvicultural prescriptions required to achieve this objective consist of a combination of natural regeneration of existing woodland relicts and establishment of native tree species by planting and sowing, having identified the most appropriate woodland commmunities for each individual area within Carrifran with respect to site type. In the establishment and post- establishment phases populations of deer and other herbivores will be controlled so as to permit the successful development of mature woodland and active measures will be taken to exclude non-native tree species.
3.1.2 Long-term development of the woodland The woodland established on Carrifran will be allowed to develop naturally as far as is possible. In the long term, the structure and composition of the woodland will therefore be determined by the intensity and frequency of natural forms of disturbance, such as windthrow, localized flooding, tree fall etc., and its impact on natural succession. We have no fixed view on what the structure and composition and structure of the woodland will be in the long term, as a key objective is to allow natural processes to predominate. However, we intend that the woodland established be viable and self-supporting in the long term. In other words, the maintenance of woodland cover will depend upon 26 the regenerative abilities of the different tree species present on the site, and the availability of suitable microsites for regeneration. It is conceivable that, as a result of predation and herbivory, the regenerative capacity of some tree species may be severely restricted. Some interventions may therefore be required in the future, but these should be limited to the minimum necessary to ensure that some form of woodland cover is able to persist over the greater part of the site.
In general, rather little is known about the natural dynamics of native Scottish woodland. However, it is clear that most of the species that might be considered native to Carrifran are shade intolerant. In other words, the persistence on the site of many species (such as oak and birch) will depend on the occurrence of natural disturbance at a frequency and intensity sufficient to enable regeneration to occur. As noted by Peterken (1998), the only species considered native to Carrifran which are shade tolerant are hazel, holly, rowan and wych elm. In the absence of significant canopy disturbance and of mortality resulting from disease (particularly in the case of elm), these species can be expected to dominate with time. Interestingly this correlates closely with the kind of woodland which Tipping (1998) considered to have been originally present on the site, which may have been dominated by hazel with some oak and elm. It is conceivable that the woodland at Carrifran valley, regardless of what we plant initially, may in places in the very long term develop into a rather open scrubby woodland, dominated by hazel.
We also intend that the composition of the woodland should be limited to those tree species which we consider to be native to the site, as defined elsewhere in this document. In other words, colonisation by non-native tree species (including larch, spruce, sycamore and beech) should be prevented, as far as is practicable. However, we recognize that in practice it may be very difficult to prevent colonisation by these species, and that future generations responsible for managing the site may decide to tolerate their presence. We also recognise and accept that the woodland may ultimately be of lower floristic and structural diversity than that established initially. We believe that even if the original aims as specified here are not eventually met in full, something valuable will still have been created in the process.
Given these aims, the wide range of elevation at Carrifran should permit restoration of a full spectrum of natural vegetation zones, generating much greater diversity than on a site with lower relief. On the valley floor a rich mixed woodland will probably develop, initially with much downy birch but eventually co-dominated by oak, with wych elm and ash on the richer soils and bird cherry and alder in the wettest areas; locally, there will be stands of aspen. The understorey will contain many of the shrubs native to Scotland, including hazel, holly, willows and guelder rose, together with rose, ivy and honeysuckle. On the slopes, the woods will probably have a more open structure; the species will be much the same but more birch and hawthorn is likely. Higher still, a woodland of rowan, birch and juniper will probably grade into montane scrub of juniper and willows near the summit of White Coomb. The natural establishment of a 'tree-line' would be of particular interest, since this ecological transition zone survives hardly anywhere in Britain (one Cairngorm pinewood site offering the best approximation).
The notable herbaceous plant species already present on the site are characteristic of rocky ledges at high altitude, and should be little affected by the development of woodland on the less precipitous areas; reduction of grazing could lead to recovery of the populations of some of the rarer species. Similarly, the montane heath on White Coomb is currently adversely affected by intensive grazing and would be favoured by the management programme envisaged under the project.
3.2 Medium-term objective
27 The immediate aim will be to re-establish native woodland cover on a large proportion of the site. This will be achieved over a period of ten years following purchase, using a combination of planting, direct sowing and encouragement of natural regeneration. Only native tree species will be established, and all non-native tree species which colonize will be removed. The aim will be to establish tree communities reflecting spatial variation in site conditions, and the altitudinal zonation that is supposed to have been present in the past. The woodland cover will be established up to an altitude which conforms with a conservative estimate of the supposed natural tree line in the area. Below this altitude, trees will be established over as much of the ‘plantable’ area as is practicable, with open areas restricted to sites of particular archaeological or ecological interest, together with any glades required for herbivore control. Above the treeline, the existing montane shrub vegetation will be encouraged by protection from grazing.
It is recognised that the full achievement of the project aims will take many decades. Detailed management decisions beyond the initial 10-year establishment phase will be deferred until a future date. The activities outlined in this plan therefore refer primarily to the first decade following following purchase of the site.
It should be emphasized that there is much more to a forest ecosystem than trees and shrubs. The long- term ecological objective, clearly indicated in the Mission Statement, is to re-create as much of the original ecosystem of the valley as practicable. At least in the early stages, intervention will necessarily focus on the establishment of woody species. As woodland cover develops it may become evident that many fungi, plants and animals not now obvious on the site actually have relict populations there; other species will colonize naturally. Consideration will then be given to the possible reinstatement of species which are initially absent from the site and do not colonize quickly, but which are considered appropriate to the restored habitats that develop. Future introductions of ground flora, fungi and insects will therefore only be considered when an appropriate woodland environment has developed, and will be decided on the basis of which species have been able to colonise naturally.
3.3 Management structure
The Carrifran Wildwood project is managed on a day-to-day basis by the Site Operations Team (SOT), composed of the Project Coordinator (Philip Ashmole), the Borders Forest Trust Woodland Co- ordinator (Willie McGhee) and the Project Officer (Hugh Chalmers). The post of Project Officer is currently funded by Scottish Natural Heritage. The SOT is supported by the Wildwood Steering Group, which represents the broader membership of the Wildwood Group and provides a forum for addressing the key management decisions which need to be made. The activities of the SOT are thereby directed by the decisions of the Wildwood Steering Group, which is composed of core members of the Wildwood Group able to participate in regular management meetings. Decisions are made collectively by reaching consensus through a process of discussion. The management structure of the project may therefore be illustrated as follows:
28
However, it must be remembered that the legal owner of the Wildwood and recipient of charitable gifts is Borders Forest Trust (BFT), of which the Wildwood Group is a component. BFT is a Company Limited by Guarantee Registered in Scotland No. 162581, and Registered as a Charity in Scotland No. SC24358. A brief account of the role of the trust in the community is included in section 1.3. The legal and financial responsibility of BFT for the Wildwood project implies that the ultimate decision-making body is the Board of Trustees of BFT. Accordingly, the Wildwood Steering Group (which normally includes BFT Trustees and has BFT staff in attendance) reports regularly to the BFT Trustees, and key decisions (such as those relating to land purchase and employment) are confirmed by the Board.
3.4 Management approach
The aim will be to adopt an adaptive style of management, in which results of previous actions are monitored and incorporated into the management process. This will maintain flexibility and enable the management plan to be amended according to the experience gained. It should therefore be recognized that the management plans as set out here may need to be amended in the light of experience, and should be interpreted flexibly.
The approach will be to favour natural ecological processes wherever possible, and to make minimum intervention once the trees are established successfully. Liaison with relevant parties (SNH, FC, JMT, RSPB, NTS, SWT etc.) will ensure that the ongoing development of the management plan is a fully transparent and consultative process. For example, specific advice is gathered on how to ensure that key bird species (peregrine falcon, black grouse) are not adversely affected by the management programme.
29 At all times Forestry Commission Guidelines concerning water, planting, nature conservation and archaeology will be strictly observed. In addition recommendations for application of chemicals in FC Fieldbook 8 will be adhered to; for management of wildlife advice will be drawn from FC Forestry Practice Guide 9 and relevant advice notes. Close consultation with Scottish Natural Heritage will continue in relation to all aspects of the project, to ensure that the value of the valley as part of a Site of Special Scientific Interest is not jeopardised by any operations.
A GIS database has been created for the site in MAPMAKER to provide a valuable management tool. This incorporates a digitised OS map (with relief, hydrology, natural and man-made features). Additional overlays have been created describing current vegetation type, soils, site type and archaeological features. These have been used to generate plans for woodland establishment, which are represented by further overlays.
3.5 Financial management and sources of funds
3.5.1 Approach to fundraising during the land purchase The fundraising campaign for the land purchase, which in two years raised about £400,000 (including money used for printing brochures), was run by the volunteers in the Fund-raising and Publicity Subgroup of the Wildwood Group, supported by the BFT office. Both the John Muir Trust (JMT) and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) gave important advice on fundraising in the early stages, and JMT strongly supported the project through appeals to its members. Endorsements were provided by a number of well known figures and an appeal video was produced and broadcast. Many articles about the project were written by group members and published in a variety of carefully selected magazines. In some of these, the appeal brochure was also distributed as an insert. Brochures used in this way were coded, so that success in approaches to different target audiences could be assessed.
Funds were sought from a variety of sources, including charitable trusts at home and abroad, companies and private individuals. In the end, however, more than four-fifths of the money came from individuals, with almost all of the remainder from charitable trusts. Most successful was a scheme by which people giving £250 or £500 'adopted' half-hectare or hectare plots and thus became Founders of Carrifran Wildwood, with a permanently recorded stake in the project.
A web-site was quickly established at www scotweb.co.uk/environment/wildwood/ which generated many enquiries, of which a significant proportion led to donations. A list is maintained on the website of all Wildwood Founders who wish their names to be made public; many of the Founders have added eloquent dedications. The website also provides a full account of the project, and includes full text of a number of relevant documents, including the Management Plan and the Proceedings of two conferences held during development of the Wildwood idea.
Although the land has now been purchased, the website will play an important role in future fundraising aimed at securing funds to cover restoration and maintenance costs. It will also serve to provide background information and current news about the project, both to interested members of the public and to students, academics and other professionals. This is important, since Wildwood Group members are busy volunteers and the small BFT staff are overstretched, so that it is not possible to respond individually to large numbers of requests for information, or to provide personal support to student projects based on the Wildwood.
3.5.2 Fundraising and financial management during the restoration phase The initial ten-year restoration programme will cost considerably more than the land, and financial management of the project now requires more professional input. Day to day management of cash flow 30 is the responsibility of the Site Operations Team (SOT) explained in section 3.3. Additional BFT staff members concerned with the financial management of Borders Forest Trust participate in SOT discussions as necessary. A Business Plan for the coming decade was prepared in late 1999 at the request of - and with the help of - the Millennium Forest for Scotland Trust. This plan is subject to ongoing revision and is therefore not presented here. The provisional budget for the purchase and ecological restoration of the site over the next decade envisages total expenditure and income of about £1,100K.
In the restoration phase, donations by members of the public and charitable trusts are expected to make significant contributions to funding of the work. The Fundraising and Publicity Subgroup of the Wildwood Group retains responsibility for fundraising from these sources. A new fund-raising brochure, to succeed the one that was the primary tool of the fundraising campaign for land purchase, is being produced in autumn 2000. It inaugurates the category of Stewards of Carrifran Wildwood to complement the existing category of Founders; like Founderships, the Stewardships are based on donations of £250, £500 or more. The new brochure also solicits single donations of any amount, as well as regular donations by Direct Debit or under Pay as you Earn schemes. Under the new tax rules, all donations are potentially eligible for Gift Aid tax relief, provided that the donor is a UK taxpayer and completes a Gift Aid declaration.
For the first time, the suggestion is made that supporters of the vision of the Wildwood should consider leaving a legacy to help build up a Wildwood Endowment Fund, so as to ensure the long-term welfare of the Wildwood.
In the restoration phase, however, new sources of funding are also needed, and accessing some of them requires considerable input by BFT staff as well as volunteers. In the early years, the main sources (other than private individuals and trusts) will be the Forestry Commission, Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH), and the Millennium Commission via the Millennium Forest for Scotland Trust (MFST).
Grant from the Forestry Commission comes through the Woodland Grant Scheme (WGS). A five-year contract was entered into in January 2000, covering planting on some 180 hectares of the site. Plans for planting of nearly another 120 ha in the subsequent three years were detailed in the Environmental Statement prepared in connection with the WGS application, and are expected to be embodied in future contracts. The WGS grant could eventually amount to over £300,000 in relation to the entire area to be planted, but establishment of the trees at the specified density has to be demonstrated. Given the risks associated with planting broadleaves on upland sites, great caution must be used in budgeting.
Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) are providing full-time funding of the Project Officer for the year 2000 and half-time funding for two further years. Some assistance with management costs in future years is possible but cannot be assumed. SNH are also able to help with small grants with specific conservation value, such as baseline surveys of rare plants.
The Millennium Forest for Scotland Trust have approved funding for the project up to a maximum of £125,000 in the year 2000, but subject to restrictions which may prevent drawdown of the whole of this sum. The Millennium Commission will be closing down after the end of 2000 and no future funding from this source can be expected.
One important possibility for long-term funding of the restoration work is through a "carbon sequestration" scheme involving a commitment to establish woodland in Carrifran valley and to maintain it permanently without exploitation, thus contributing to efforts to offset global emissions of
31 carbon dioxide caused by human activities. This possibility will be further explored as planting proceeds.
A number of other potential sources of relatively small-scale funding have been identified, and BFT staff and the Wildwood Group are actively investigating them.
Ongoing management costs are naturally a concern. Management of a Wildwood is by definition minimal, but there will be significant recurring costs. Maintenance of fences, herbivore control, insurance and the provision of facilities for visitors are likely to be the major commitments, and they may require employment of at least a part-time site manager or ranger for the indefinite future. An endowment is the most secure arrangement for covering recurrent costs, and this is best secured through individual donations and legacies, which will be actively sought, as indicated above.
3.6 Management of access and recreation
As emphasized in the Mission Statement, access to the Wildwood will be open to all. Visitors will be welcome at any time, except when they might be endangered by deer-culling operations. At the heart of the project is an intention to create a place with a sense of wildness, and to provide visitors with inspiration and appreciation of a landscape where human influence is minimal. Access arrangements will therefore be carefully managed so as to limit the effect that visitors have on each other and on the site itself, and visitors will be encouraged to avoid endangering the tranquillity of the Wildwood. Furthermore, although the policy will be to encourage visits by all those who have an interest in the project, there will be no attempt to attract casual visitors who will be better served by the Grey Mare's Tail NTS property two miles further up the A708. This approach conforms to the apparent view of the residents of Moffat Dale, as expressed at a public meeting to which all were personally invited. There will be no permanent interpretation centre or accommodation on the site beyond the sheep stell mentioned below, although a temporary shelter is being improvised near the head of the valley, to provide storage for tools during woodland establishment.
There will be no public vehicular access to the valley. The existing grassy track, accessed by a field gate 40 m southwest of the cattle grid on the A708 at the southeast corner of the property, will retain its present use for access during operations on the site (fencing, planting and herbivore control) and possibly for deer management purposes thereafter. However, in the long term the gate by the road will be kept locked (but with a key held locally) and planting will be done in critical places to make the track less conspicuous; minor re-routing is also a possibility.
A small car park (accommodating six cars) was constructed in mid 2000 on the site of an existing old gravel pit on the north side of the A708, 100 m northeast of the bridge over the Carrifran Burn. There is an unlocked gate at the entrance and parked cars will be entirely hidden from the road by the existing gravelly banks, which have been modified for the purpose. This car park is not designed to accommodate coaches. Planting of bushes on the bank at the back of the car park will screen it effectively from almost all parts of the site itself.
Entrance to the site on foot from the car park will be via a "kissing-gate". An unobtrusive path will lead up to the sheep stell at the top of the glacial moraine that blocks the lower end of the valley. This path goes close by the site of a small Blackcock lek (c.2 males), but this is occupied primarily in early mornings in spring, so disturbance to the birds is unlikely to be greater than that caused by current agricultural use of the existing track. Recent observations (2000) suggest that the lek may no longer be in use. The sheep stell provides a magnificent view up the valley and in the long run interpretive 32 material will be provided there (see section 3.7.2). Since the footpath from the car park is steep, individuals needing access to the sheep stell by wheelchair will need to make arrangements to reach it by car; relevant information will be available in the car park.
From the stell, a footpath will enable able-bodied visitors to walk through a beautiful part of the Wildwood and return to the car park by a different route. The path will go steeply down the slope to the burn and cross a footbridge built in late 2000. It will then follow the burn downstream opposite a dramatic example of natural erosion of the face of the moraine, to reach the first of the old ash trees that line the gorge leading out of the valley. These ashes are of great significance, as they are the largest trees to have survived the long agricultural use of Carrifran; furthermore, their 1996 seed crop gave rise to most of the young ash trees planted in the valley during 2000. At this point the footpath will cross back over the burn by means of a set of specially constructed stepping stones and climb the bank, then following the top of it southwards across an ancient field boundary built of turf and stone and returning to the car park. During the circular walk of rather less than half a mile, visitors will obtain excellent views of the major archaeological site near the road; this is an old farmstead, the significance of which will be explained in the material at the sheep stell.
It is expected that a large proportion of visitors will only wish to explore this lower part of the valley. No other signed footpaths will be developed, but walkers will be able to make their way into the valley along the east bank of the Carrifran Burn and so reach the junction of Priest Gill with the Carrifran Burn (near the cairn). People who use this route will have the option of returning along the existing track (see above).
It is recognised that hillwalkers may wish to pass through the area and stiles are provided at appropriate points on boundary stock fences. Those wishing to view the Wildwood from above will be able to gain height quickly by diverging to the right from the path leading from the car park to the stell and following the boundary along the ridge up to Dun Knowe and Carrifran Gans, and subsequently round the head of the valley or on up to White Coomb. Walking around the perimeter will also be feasible, although walkers reaching Saddle Yoke are likely to continue southwards and descend by the Spoon Burn rather than facing the awkward scramble down the eastern face of Peat Hill.
3.7 Education and research
3.7.1 Education Throughout the development of the Wildwood there will be emphasis on the educational value of the project. The aim will be to help children of all ages to understand the environmental history of the Southern Uplands, as well as learning about the operation of fundamental ecological processes in a local context. School visits to the Wildwood will be arranged, especially after woodland has been established. Use by adult education groups is also anticipated, and the site is already being used by the University of Edinburgh for teaching purposes. However, because maintenance of the wilderness character of the Wildwood site is a high priority, active participation of young people in woodland activities will be focused more on the various community woodland sites that are being developed in the Borders by BFT and in Dumfries and Galloway by Southwest Community Woodlands (with whom BFT is in close contact). The project web-site is already a useful educational resource and will continue to be developed.
3.7.2 Interpretation The sheep stell near the entrance to the site provides a good vantage point. Interpretation boards and a map will be provided there, explaining the concept of the Wildwood and details of the restoration 33 plans. However, the purchase agreement of Carrifran permits the previous owner to use the stell for a few years for sheep management purposes, while grazing on the site is being phased out. In the short term, therefore, interpretation panels will be installed outside the stell but close to it. Features suitable for interpretation include geology and archaeology, as well as the ecology of the site. The cultural history of the area will also receive attention (see Appendix 11). Further into the valley there will be no interpretation materials or signposting, in keeping with the intention to convey a sense of wildness.
3.7.3 Research
The Wildwood Group recognises the value of research, both for achieving the project objectives, and for disseminating experiences to others. The Group also recognises that the project will offer tremendous potential for research, particularly with respect to the development of a functioning woodland ecosystem on a site which has been largely deforested for millennia. Such research findings could be of great assistance to other restoration projects elsewhere. However, the purpose of the Wildwood project is not research, but the practical restoration of a woodland habitat at Carrifran. Some research activities could interfere with the broader aims of the project, and in particular, with the creation of a ‘wild’ area where human input will be minimal. Research can be visually intrusive (e.g. labels, marker posts or equipment sited in the field), and some operations could be ecologically damaging (e.g. harvesting of organisms for analysis).
As Carrifran is an SSSI, there is a legal requirement that anyone wishing to undertake research in the area will first need to gain permission of the landowner (Borders Forest Trust) and Scottish Natural Heritage. The Wildwood Group therefore requires that any research project to be undertaken at Carrifran is first vetted by the Wildwood Steering Group (or individuals nominated by them), acting on behalf of the Borders Forest Trust. Any individual or organisation wishing to undertake research at Carrifran will need to submit a formal research proposal (see Appendix 14). This same requirement applies also to members of Borders Forest Trust itself. Before a research proposal is submitted, informal advice should be sought from BFT, who will provide details of the information required in the proposal.
The proposal will be considered by the Wildwood Steering Group, and the proposer then notified of the result. The Steering Group currently meets approximately every two months but it should be recognised that decisions may take longer than this, depending on pressure of work. In order to be successful, research proposals will need to demonstrate that they are of value to the Carrifran Wildwood project, and that ecological and visual impact will be minimal. Proposers should explain why the intended research should be undertaken specifically at Carrifran, rather than some other site.
A report detailing the research results will need to be deposited with the Wildwood Group of BFT at the completion of the research, including a copy of any theses or publications arising out of the work. It is intended to create an archive of research results pertaining to Carrifran. The Wildwood Group also reserves the right to use research findings for publicity or educational purposes.
4. Woodland establishment plan
4.1 Woodland composition
The decision about which species are native to the site depends on three main sources of evidence: pollen analysis, historical records and inference from the remaining ancient woodland fragments in the area. Pollen analysis data for the Rotten Bottom site at 620 m OD at Carrifran are presented by Tipping (1998 and in press). This constitutes the longest unbroken sequence known from any upland British site, and 34 provides a vegetation record back to the end of the last glaciation. Additional data are available from a core at Crunklie Moss at 520 m OD less than 3 km NNW of Rotten Bottom (Gulland 1997, Tipping 1998), and from Talla Moss at 400 m OD 6 km to the north (Chambers et al. 1997, Tipping 1998). A lowland site has been investigated at Catharine Hill (NT 106992) at 85 m OD in the valley of the River Annan (of which the Moffat Water is a tributary) some 15 km to the SSW (Tipping 1998).
As noted by Peterken (1996), deciding which baseline date to accept as a basis for defining which species are native to the site is essentially an arbitrary one. Tipping (1998) suggests that the most appropriate baseline for original forest composition is around 6500 - 6000 years ago, when the composition of the forest which developed after glacial retreat was relatively stable. This period represents the development of maximum floristic diversity in the tree flora and coincides with the postglacial climatic optimum. The impact of Neolithic people on the forest in southern Scotland is detectable in the pollen record from about 5800 years BP. For the purposes of this project, we define the time ‘before human activities became dominant’ (as given in the Mission Statement) as 6000 years ago. The preliminary pollen analysis from Rotten Bottom indicates that pastoralism in the area was intense by 800 a.d., and moor burning is indicated from c.1550 a.d.
On the basis of pollen analysis and the ecological characteristics of tree species in the Carrifran area, Tipping (1998) presented the following description of what the woodland in the area may have looked like, prior to human impact:
‘Hazel would probably be the dominant tree, on the drier glacial drift mounds and rising up the well-drained vegetated scree slopes. It would probably be accompanied by oak and probably (but to a lesser extent) elm. Alder, birch and willow would occupy damper soils and stable alluvium. Scots pine may occupy some parts of the valley, probably on the colder east- facing slopes and tucked into the foot of the corrie. Rising above the valley-floor with hazel would be birch with ash, poplar, rowan, hawthorn, blackthorn and wild cherry. Holly would be present, and ivy. With increasing altitude the woodland would become increasingly open, and grasslands would replace trees. On the plateau juniper may have persisted away from blanket peat, although extensive sub-alpine scrub comparable to that in Scandinavia is currently questioned (Horsfield and Thompson 1997; Tipping 1997d).’
Tipping (1998) also stresses the great diversity of these woodlands, and points out that ‘present- natural’ and ‘future-natural’ options for woodland re-creation focus attention on woodland models which are themselves degenerate and species-poor. Tipping (1998) therefore supports the use of ‘original-natural’ woodland composition as a basis for re-creation, which is consistent with establishing ‘most of the rich diversity of native species’ as included in our Mission Statement.
Pollen analysis alone provides insufficient basis for defining the composition of the woodland flora. Some tree species produce very little pollen, and may therefore have left no pollen record despite having been present on the site. Pollen data may also give a poor indication of the relative abundance of different species on the site, even if the data are corrected for variation between species in pollen production, because the source area for the pollen preserved in the peat profile is unknown, and may be much larger than Carrifran Valley itself. An additional problem with choosing a baseline for forest composition around 6000 years ago is that the climate and soils have changed substantially since then (Tipping 1998). Some species which were originally present on the site may now be unable to survive there (Peterken 1996).
Given these problems, definition of which species are native to the site requires reference to other sources of data. Historical information for the area is slight: the Roy map of 1755-60 shows no trees in Carrifran, 35 although a few are indicated in Black Hope (the next valley to the southwest) and also on islets in the Moffat Water. The old name Birkhill, which appears on the Roy map, implies that the upper part of Moffatdale was wooded in the past, and may indicate the local presence of birch. More useful information may be gathered from surveying the ancient woodland fragments which remain in the area. Although these are few, and may include only a portion of the tree species originally present in the area, they are a valuable indication of which native species are able to tolerate current growing conditions. However, as many of these woodlands have been heavily altered as a result of human impact, the status of some species present in ancient woodlands (particularly those missing from the pollen record) as locally native will be open to some doubt.
Comparing these different sources of information (Table 4.1) indicates that there is general consensus regarding which species are considered to be native to the site. There are, however, some controversial points:
• Pine is considered to have been present in the vicinity at around 6000 years BP, but is no longer present in ancient woodland in the area. • A single pollen grain of yew was found in the core from Talla Moss at about 6000 BP and ancient pollen has also been found in the Cheviot Hills (Tipping 1998); although yew seems to be no longer present in a wild state in southern Scotland it was part of the woodland in northwest England more than 6000 years ago, as it is today (Birks 1982, Dickson 1993, 1994). Yew is strongly but not exclusively connected with calcareous soils and is tolerant of dry conditions (Peterken pers. comm.); it may be appropriate for some cliff ledges at Carrifran. As only a single pollen grain of this species was recorded, evidence for its local occurrence is equivocal. However, because of its cultural importance (the Rotten Bottom bow was made of yew), a small number of individuals may be established at the site. • Holly, guelder rose and elder are generally not well represented in pollen analyses. Despite their absence in pollen records for Carrifran, they should be considered native to the site. At least two holly trees are present in remote parts of the Carrifran valley, guelder rose is present in a cleuch immediately adjacent to Carrifran and in at least two other cleuchs within 10 km, and elder grows on alluvial deposits beside the Moffat Water close to the site. • Blackthorn has not been found on the site but is present in a cleuch only 3 km to the southwest and in other woods nearby. • The status of the different willow species is somewhat confused, given the difficulty of differentiating them morphologically and as pollen types; it is clear, however, that several taxa could be considered as native to the site. • Lime (Tilia sp.) pollen is present at the lowest levels of the pollen record at Talla Moss (about 6000 BP: Chambers et al. 1997) and is known to have occurred in the far north of England at about the same time (Birks 1989). Currently, populations of lime at the northern limit of its distribution generally fail to reproduce because of low summer temperatures, but the exceptionally warm summer of 1995, which may provide a foretaste of future conditions, was probably responsible for the exceptional seed set of lime species in the Glasgow area in 1996 (Gray, Grist & Hansen 1999, Ashmole 1999). There are no current plans for planting of lime at Carrifran.
36 Table 4.1 List of tree and shrub species considered native to Carrifran, with supporting evidence
Currently Not Present in Listed by Listed by present in present pollen Badenoch Peterken Carrifran at record at (1994) as (1998) as Valley Carrifr c.6000 BP present in probably an but in ancient native to present Carrifran woodlands Carrifran within area of Borders (based on 10 km (Tipping area+ Rodwell and 1998)* Patterson 1994) TREES Alnus glutinosa, alder No Yes Yes Yes Yes Betula pendula, silver birch No ? }Yes Yes Yes Betula pubescens, downy birch Yes } Yes Yes Fraxinus excelsior, ash Yes Yes Yes Yes Pinus sylvestris, Scots pine No Yes Yes Populus tremula, aspen No Yes Yes Yes Yes Quercus petraea, sessile oak No Yes }Yes Yes Yes Quercus robur, pedunculate oak No Yes } Yes (hybrid) Yes Ulmus glabra, wych elm No Yes Yes Yes Yes
SMALL TREES / SHRUBS Corylus avellana, hazel Yes Yes Yes Yes Crataegus monogyna, hawthorn Yes Yes Yes Yes Ilex aquifolium, holly Yes Yes Yes Juniperus communis, juniper No Yes Yes Yes Yes Prunus avium, gean No Yes Yes Yes Prunus padus, bird cherry Yes }Yes Yes Yes Prunus spinosa, blackthorn No Yes } Yes Salix aurita, eared sallow Yes (not explicit) Yes Salix caprea, goat willow Yes } Yes Yes Yes Salix cinerea, grey sallow ? } Yes Yes Salix pentandra, bay willow No Yes } (not explicit) Yes Salix phylicifolia, tea leaved No Yes } (not explicit) willow Sambucus nigra, elder No Yes Yes Sorbus aucuparia, rowan Yes Yes Yes Yes Taxus baccata, yew Yes Tilia cordata, small-leaved lime Yes Viburnum opulus, guelder rose No Yes Yes Yes
OTHER WOODY PLANTS Calluna vulgaris, heather Yes Yes Cornus suecica, dwarf cornel No Yes Yes Genista anglica, petty whin No ? Rubus chamaemorus, Yes Yes cloudberry Salix herbacea, dwarf willow Yes Yes 37 Rubus idaeus, raspberry ? Yes Yes Rubus fruticosus agg., bramble ? Yes Yes Hedera helix, ivy Yes Lonicera caprifolium, Yes honeysuckle Ulex spp. gorse No ? Sarothamnus scoparius, broom No ? Rosa canina (agg.) Yes Rosa pimpinellifolia Yes
*The pollen data must necessarily be treated with caution. Presence of pollen is no guarantee that the species was growing locally, and similarly absence from the pollen record does not necessarily indicate that the species was absent. Pollen analysis is also unable to distinguish between different willows, birches or oak species. Corylus and Myrica share the same pollen type, and similarly Crataegus and Sorbus cannot be differentiated with certainty.
+ Spindle is listed by Badenoch (1994) as a doubtful native. It occurs in ancient woods near Newcastleton and Innerleithen.
4.2 Woodland structure
In natural woodlands, tree species are not distributed randomly, but tend to occur in associations or communities. A thorough description and analysis of the different woodland communities occurring in Britain is provided by Rodwell (1991), as part of the National Vegetation Classification (NVC). Rodwell and Patterson (1994) suggest that the NVC can constitute a valuable working tool for the design and management of new native woodlands, by providing lists of the most ecologically appropriate species to plant, and enabling predictions to be made concerning the kind of woodland that might be expected to develop naturally on a site. The 19 NVC woodland types described by Rodwell (1991) have been widely adopted as a standard both in ecological and forestry circles.
This project will use the National Vegetation Classification (NVC) system to provide a basis for defining the woodland communities that we aim to recreate. This is with the caveat that the NVC classification is imperfect for Scotland; some types were not described thoroughly during the original survey and may even be missing from the classification (eg hazel and aspen woodland). For example, the original vegetation of Carrifran described by Tipping (1998) on the basis of pollen analysis, in which hazel was possibly dominant, does not correspond closely to any available NVC type. We also note the comment by Peterken (1998):
"I would also argue against exact 1:1 matching of species to site (e.g. by NVC mapping, then determining a list of species for each NVC unit). In nature, colonist trees spread wider than in mature woodland, and in any case the ecosystem should be allowed to work out its own characteristics, not slavishly mimic the classification that happens to be in general use in the late 20th century. Boundaries to NVC units should therefore be treated flexibly, and some trees should be planted on 'inappropriate' sites. Tree species are not rigid in their ecological preferences: witness the establishment of alder on very dry sites over a clifftop about 70 m above the river in Lady Park Wood, Forest of Dean."
In spite of Peterken's caution, the current proposals are based firmly on the predictions from the NVC analysis; we assume, however, that the resulting prescriptions do not preclude the planting of small
38 numbers of trees (<<1%) within woodland types for which they are not specified by the design prescriptions (Rodwell and Patterson 1994).
Very little woodland currently exists on Carrifran; the remnant stands are so limited in extent that they do not feature on the NVC map (Figure 4) produced by SWT (1997). The SWT survey classified the relict woodlands of the Moffat Hills as NVC types W9a (Fraxinus excelsior - Sorbus aucuparia - Mercurialis perennis) and W11 (Quercus petraea - Betula pubescens - Oxalis acetosella).
On a site with such a limited amount of woodland, two main approaches are available for determining the pattern of woodland communities to be established: (i) the Ecological Site Classification (ESC) approach (see earlier, Section 4.4), and (ii) inference from the NVC communities which currently exist on the site (mostly heath, mire and grassland communities in this case).
4.2.1 Use of ESC to define appropriate woodland composition It is fundamental to any woodland establishment programme that tree species should be matched to appropriate site types for establishment to be successful. The relationship between native woodland communities and the ecological characteristics of the sites with which they are associated has been the subject of intensive recent research. The Ecological Site Classification (ESC) system, which has been developed by the Forestry Commission, is based on an assessment of three principal factors which determine site ‘quality’: climate, soil moisture regime and soil nutrient regime. Once the climate zone has been defined by locating the site on climatic maps, soil quality may be assessed by reference to maps of soil type, existing vegetation, humus form or analysis of soil nutrient regime. The ESC classification can then be used to infer which NVC woodland types are appropriate for establishment on a particular site. The approach is described in detail by Pyatt and Suárez (1997).
Analysis of elevation, windiness and temperature at Carrifran indicated that nine NVC woodland types would be considered appropriate for establishment at Carrifran, using the ESC methodology. These are W4, W7, W8, W9, W10, W11, W16, W17 and W19. This approach generated a clear altitudinal zonation, and also suggested that the entire site could support a woodland community, with no natural treeline (see Fig. 5).
To define the site types occurring at Carrifran with greater precision, the site was surveyed during summer 1998 to assess variation in soils, using the map of current NVC types as a guide to sampling (Sterling 1998). On the basis of this field survey, a soil map was produced for the site (see Fig. 6). The combination of soil and vegetation data were then used to classify the site types present at Carrifran according to the ESC scheme (for details see Appendix 9). These results indicate that the Soil Nutrient Regime (SNR) is uniformly poor to very poor according to the ESC scheme, whereas Soil Moisture Regime (SMR) ranges from fresh to very moist (Table 4.2).
39 Table 4.2 The soil quality grid and the range of soil quality at Carrifran (latter indicated by shaded area).
Soil Quality Grid Soil Nutrient Regime (SNR) Very Poor Medium Rich Very rich Carbonate poor Very dry Mod. dry Soil Slight. dry Moisture Fresh Regime Moist (SMR) V. moist Wet Very wet
Given these soil conditions, according to the ESC approach, NVC woodland communities W6, W7, W8, W9 and W10 would not be appropriate for the site types present at Carrifran, leaving W4, W11, W16, W17 and W19. W16 (Quercus - Betula - Deschampsia flexuosa woodland) is confined to very acid, oligotrophic soils in the southern lowlands of Britain and the upland fringes of the Pennines (Rodwell 1991). Southern Scotland would appear to be marginal for this community; according to the map of Rodwell and Patterson (1994), Moffat Dale is situated right on the limit of its distribution. Rodwell (1991) states that W16 is replaced by W17 in the north-western uplands; the key difference between the communities in this context is the greater abundance of bryophytes associated with the latter. Given the abundance of bryophytes at Carrifran (see Appendix 4), W17 is proposed here rather than W16. The ESC analysis indicates that the site conditions at Carrifran are optimal for W17, as well as W4.
A number of sites present at Carrifran are unsuitable for planting trees: the deep peats associated with the blanket bogs on the higher slopes and plateaux; the crags and rocky screes; and the relatively base-rich flush areas on the valley floor. The latter environments are particularly important as a habitat for bryophytes and some scarce vascular plants, and should therefore be left unplanted (see later section on flora).
Given these constraints, we propose that approximately half of the area (300 ha) is appropriate for woodland establishment, leaving the upper slopes and the land around the summits free from trees. The project will generally adopt a planting limit of approx. 450 m, which is below the lower limit of the crags. The aim of the project is to establish below this limit a complex mosaic of woodland communities according to variation in site type, and with time, to allow woodland to expand naturally onto the upper slopes and rockier areas which will initially be left unplanted.
The suggested altitudinal zonation produced by the ESC analysis may be usefully compared with the schema produced by Badenoch (1994) based on the results of a survey of native woodland in the Borders undertaken in the period 1973-79 (Table 4.3). This provides a general overview but is lacking in detail (e.g. no data are available on the actual altidudinal ranges of individual species). These approaches give a similar overall result: juniper, downy birch and a variety of willows at higher altitudes; a mixed downy birch - sessile oak woodland on the slopes with some hawthorn, hazel and rowan; and a mixed broadleaved woodland on the valley floor with ash, pedunculate oak, silver birch, hawthorn and hazel. The main difference between these two approaches is at the higher altitudes; Badenoch (1994) describes
40 a dwarf shrub heath whereas the ESC gives juniper woodland (Table 4.3). The status of dwarf shrub heaths in the area is uncertain; data from pollen analysis provides very little evidence for this community either in Carrifran, or anywhere else in the region (Tipping 1998). However areas of this kind of vegetation remain in the area (e.g. on Grey Mare’s Tail), and therefore there are opportunities to encourage this vegetation type within Carrifran.
Table 4.3 Schema of altitudinal distribution of different native tree species for Carrifran
Altitude Appropriate vegetation composition according Appropriate vegetation composition to Badenoch (1994) according to ESC approach High dwarf shrub heaths with dwarf cornel, cloudberry, W19 (juniper with Scots pine, rowan, dwarf mountain willow downy birch)
downy birch, eared willow, grey sallow
rowan, juniper W4 and W17 (downy birch, grey sallow sessile oak with alder, goat holly, hazel, sessile oak, hawthorn willow, bay willow, eared willow, holly, rowan) silver birch (bird cherry, aspen)
goat willow, ash, (alder) W7 / W9 and W11 (downy birch, wych elm, ash, guelder rose, hybrid oak, gean, sessile oak, alder, ash, hawthorn, hazel, raspberry, bramble, elder, tree willows, osiers, grey sallow, rowan with holly, (spindle?) pedunculate oak, goat willow, blackthorn, elder, guelder rose, wych Low alder / willow carr elm, bird cherry)
As indicated by these analyses, the prospects for establishment of diverse woodland at Carrifran are greater on the more sheltered valley bottom, where the better soils are concentrated. The presence of some seed trees in the valley also suggests that some natural regeneration may occur when grazing pressure is reduced.
4.2.2 Use of existing NVC communities to define appropriate woodland composition The description of NVC types presented by Rodwell (1991 et seq.) include information about their presumed successional relationships. Averis (1998) also provides guidance for native woodland establishment in Scotland according to an open ground NVC survey. Using these sources, and on the basis of the map (Figure 4) of existing NVC communities at Carrifran provided by SWT (1997), the following woodland types would appear to be appropriate for establishment at this site: W1, W4, W11, W17, W18, W19, and possibly W7, W10 and W20 (Table 4.4, 4.5).
4.2.3 Comparison of the two approaches Both the ESC approach and that based on successional relationships of NVC communities indicate that W4, W11, W17 and W19 are appropriate communities for establishment at Carrifran. If Scots pine is considered as native to the area, then both approaches also support the establishment of W18. Four communities not suggested by ESC are considered possible using the NVC approach: W1 (Salix cinerea - Galium palustre woodland), W7 (Alnus glutinosa - Fraxinus excelsior - Lysimachia 41 nemorum woodland), W10 (Quercus robur - Pteridium aquilinum - Rubus fruticosus woodland) and W20 (Salix lapponum - Luzula sylvatica montane scrub). W1 is a community of relatively rich, wet sites; although localised base-rich areas do occur in Carrifran these are generally too limited in extent to have been mapped in the NVC survey. Similarly W7 and W10 are associated with relatively nutrient rich sites, and for this reason are excluded using the ESC approach when the soil conditions are taken into account. The reasons why W20 was not suggested by ESC are less clear; the soil nutrient and moisture regimes would appear to be appropriate, and climatically the site would also appear to be suitable, based on the information given in Pyatt and Suárez (1997). It is possible that the higher altitudes are too windy, according to ESC, for this community to develop.
Interestingly W16 (Quercus - Betula - Deschampsia flexuosa woodland) is suggested by ESC but not by the NVC approach. This community is confined to very acid, oligotrophic soils in the southern lowlands of Britain and the upland fringes of the Pennines (Rodwell 1991). Southern Scotland would therefore appear to be marginal for this community; according to the map of Rodwell and Patterson (1994), Moffat Dale is situated right on the limit of its distribution. Rodwell (1991) states that W16 is replaced by W17 in the north-western uplands; the key difference between the communities in this context is the greater abundance of bryophytes associated with the latter.
4.2.4 Selection of woodland communities for restoration Given the agreement between the NVC and ESC approaches described above, the following woodland communities are selected for restoration at Carrifran: W4, W11, W17 and W19, with smaller areas analogous to W7/W9. This choice is based on the following points:
• Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) is considered to be native to the site, given the definitions adopted. This is a minor constituent of W19 and will therefore be established as part of the latter, on a limited scale, rather than as W18 (where it is dominant). • The other woodland communities which could be considered native to the site, according to the analysis above, are W1, W7, W10, W16 and W20. Given the evidence from the existing NVC communities, and the abundance of bryophytes at the site, W17 is preferred to W16. As noted above, W1 and W10 are associated with relatively rich soils, which are very limited in extent at Carrifran, tending to occur as wet flushes or along streamsides within a mosaic of more acidic soil types; these types will therefore not be selected as an explicit target of restoration through planting. W20 occurs at relatively high altitudes, above the chosen planting limit, and will therefore not be an explicit target of restoration in the immediate future. • W9 (mixed broadleaved with dogs mercury) is indicated as present in the Moffat Hills area by SWT (1997), and is also supported for Carrifran by ESC on climatic grounds, but not by the NVC approach. This type is generally associated with relatively rich soils and will therefore be appropriate to Carrifran on relatively base-rich sites, which are limited in extent. This type often occurs in a matrix with W7, which occurs on relatively wet microsites, and is supported by the NVC approach in limited areas. These two vegetation types will therefore be established as a mosaic along the valley bottom, close to the streamsides.
The characteristics of these woodland communities and their associated site types are summarized in Table 4.5.
4.2.5 Spatial structure A key aspect of the project is that it will attempt to create a woodland ecosystem analogous to the one that existed naturally on the site long ago. It is recognized that the approach to a natural condition can be only approximate and that the time-course will be long, but it is considered important to avoid - during the establishment phase - procedures that will hinder the development of a natural-looking 42 woodland. When considering the spatial structure within each woodland community on the site, a design will be adopted mimicking natural patterns as far as possible, avoiding the appearance of rows and grids and aiming to provide ultimately a range of light and other conditions which should favour wildlife diversity (Rodwell and Patterson 1994). Once establishment has been completed, the development of pattern in the woodland community at Carrifran will be left entirely to natural processes.
The planting proposals will follow the recommendations made by Rodwell and Patterson (1994), namely that a combination of planted clumps and open areas should be used, providing an opportunity for woodland expansion through natural regeneration in the longer term. Following these authors and Peterken (1998) trees to be planted at Carrifran will be in single-species clumps in most cases. A variety of different planting patterns, densities etc. will be employed, varying each of the six variables listed by Rodwell and Patterson (1994). Denser planting will accelerate canopy closure and therefore assist in weed control as well as providing greater opportunity for the colonization of shade-tolerant plants and animals. The guidelines provided by Rodwell and Patterson will be used flexibly and the pattern will be dictated primarily by the character of the site (e.g. considering variation in microtopography and aspect, etc.). Spacing will be varied both within and between clumps. Such a procedure has recently been tried experimentally on a small scale by the Forestry Commission (Harmer 1999), with the aim of creating structural diversity across a site in conformity with the recommendations of Rodwell and Patterson. The procedure was considered successful and estimates suggested that there was little difference in the time required to establish woodland under even and variable spacing.
Even within clumps where uniform density is intended, trees will be planted at irregular spacing, with an attempt to avoid any appearance of unnatural regularity. While recognizing that self-thinning of naturally regenerated trees leads eventually to spacing that is more regular than random, an appearance of irregularity persists for many years and some trees occur much closer together than foresters would normally arrange. Given that the planted woodland will inevitably have a relatively uniform age-structure, ensuring relatively irregular spacing between trees will - along with selection of appropriate species - be one of the most effective ways of achieving the aims espoused by the Forestry Commission in the statement:
"There are frequently opportunities to think in terms of encouraging whole communities of native trees and shrubs appropriate to the site with the aim of approaching the appearance and ecological integrity of semi-natural woodland" (Rodwell and Patterson 1994 - italics theirs)
Success will have been achieved at Carrifran if it is eventually difficult to ascertain whether the woodland in the valley was originally planted rather than established by natural regeneration (cf. Watson Featherstone 1999).
4.2.6 Planting density In the WGS requirements, a planting density of 1100 trees ha-1 is defined as appropriate for new native woodlands on semi-natural habitats or in areas adjacent to existing semi-natural woodlands. However, on sites (such as Carrifran) where establishment may be difficult, with high initial losses expected, a mean planting density of 1600 trees ha-1 will be required across the site (excluding areas defined as open ground on a landscape, ecological or archaeological basis).
43 Table 4.4 Habitat characteristics and successional relationships of NVC types recorded at Carrifran (adapted from Rodwell 1991 et seq. and Averis 1998)
NVC communities Habitat / soils Successional relationships U4 Festuca ovina - Agrostis capillaris - Galium well-drained base-poor mineral W17 Quercus petraea - Betula pubescens - Dicranum majus saxatile grassland soils (especially on (e)). W11 Quercus petraea - Betula pubescens – Oxalis acetosella on better soils; also W18 / W19 U5 Nardus stricta - Galium saxatile grassland moist peaty mineral soils, base- W17, W4 Betula pubescens - Molinea caerulea. W18 Pinus poor, infertile sylvestris - Hylocomium splendens on better soils. Problems with tree establishment owing to peaty mat layer and dense- litter choked herbage; also W11, W19 U6 Juncus squarrosus - Festuca ovina grassland moist peats, peaty mineral soils, On drier soils through heath to W4, W17 base-poor, infertile U7 Nardus stricta - Carex bigelowii grass heath snow-bound slopes, high Possibly U12 Salix herbacea - Racomitrium heterostichum altitudes, peaty mineral soils snow bed, or possibly a succesional endpoint U10 Carex bigelowii - Racomitrium lanuginosum high to very high altitudes, cold, Possibly a succesional endpoint moss heath humid, windswept U16 Luzula sylvatica - Vaccinium myrtillus tall herb inaccessible ground, cold, wet, Possibly W20 Salix lapponum - Luzula sylvatica montane community base-poor, usually above treeline scrub or at lower altitudes W17 U20 Pteridium aquilinum - Galium saxatile deeper, well-drained, base-poor, W11, W17, possibly W18, W19 Juniperus communis - Oxalis mainly podzols and brown earths acetosella; also possible W10 U21 Cryptogramma crispa - Deschampsia flexuosa screes, boulder fields on hard W17; also W19 community acidic rocks at moderate altitudes H10 Calluna vulgaris - Erica cinerea heath dry, free-draining soils W17 on the poorer soils, W11 on better soils. Possibly W19, W18 at higher altitudes with downy birch the dominant canopy tree H12 Calluna vulgaris - Vaccinium myrtillus heath free-draining mineral soils As H10 H18 Vaccinium myrtillus - Deschampsia flexuosa moist but free-draining base-poor At high altitudes may be a successional endpoint. Moderate to circumneutral soils altitudes W19, low altitudes W11; also W18 M1 Sphagnum auriculatum bog pool community waterlogged peat M2 Sphagnum cuspidatum / recurvum bog pool waterlogged peat community M3 Eriophorum angustifolium bog pool community waterlogged peat M4 Carex rostrata - Sphagnum recurvum mire peat, peaty gleys W4 44 M6 Carex echinata - Sphagnum recurvum / peat, peaty gleys, base-poor W1 Salix cinerea - Galium palustre woodland, W4 auriculatum mire M15 Scirpus caespitosus - Eriophorum vaginatum peat and peaty mineral soils W4, W11, W17, W18; also W7 blanket mire M17 Scirpus caespitosus - Eriophorum vaginatum waterlogged peat M15, wet heath; also W4, W18 blanket mire M18 Erica teralix - Sphagnum papillosum raised waterlogged peat W4, W18 and blanket mire M19 Calluna vulgaris - Eriophorum vaginatum waterlogged peat W4, W18 blanket mire M23 Juncus effusus / acutiflorus - Galium palustre moist acid to neutral peaty and W1, W4, also W7 rush pasture mineral soils M25 Molinia caerulea- Potentilla erecta mire moist but well-aerated acid to W4; also W7 neutral peats / peaty mineral soils M32 Philonotis - Saxifraga stellaris spring wet sites on acid / neutral peaty community and mineral soils
45 Table 4.5 Composition of woodland NVC types appropriate to Carrifran, according to Rodwell and Patterson (1994)
NVC Woodland name Associated soil types Associated soil Major recommended Minor recommended Recommended code (according to (after Rodwell and characteristics (after tree species* tree species* shrubs Rodwell and Patterson 1994) Pyatt and Suarez Patterson 1994) 1997)* W4 Birch with purple Acid peats, peaty poor-medium, v. moist - downy birch alder, goat willow grey sallow, eared moor grass surface-water gleys and wet willow, bay willow base-rich groundwater gleys W7 Alder-ash with Moderately base-rich rich - very rich, v. moist alder, ash downy birch, goat grey sallow, hazel, yellow pimpernell surface-water gleys and - wet willow, oak, rowan, hawthorn flushed brown earths holly, bird cherry, W9 Upland mixed Calcareous / basic rich - very rich, fresh - ash, downy birch, oak, wych elm, alder, hazel (major), broadleaved with brown earths, and base- moist rowan holly, aspen, bird hawthorn, elder, grey dogs mercury rich surface-water cherry sallow (minor) gleys W11 Upland oak-birch Acidic brown earths medium, sl. dry - moist downy birch, sessile holly, rowan, aspen, hawthorn, hazel, with bluebell and podzolic brown oak silver birch, juniper earths pedunculate oak W17 Upland oak-birch Rankers, podzolic rich - very rich, v. moist downy birch, sessile holly, rowan, silver hawthorn, hazel, with blaeberry brown earths and - wet oak birch, pedunculate oak juniper podzols W19 Juniper with wood Brown earths with mull poor-medium, v. moist- juniper Scots pine, rowan, sorrel or moder humus, and fresh downy birch podzols with mor
46 4.3 Proposed distribution of woodland communities to be established
For a woodland establishment project to be successful, it is essential that trees are planted on appropriate site types. The appropriate site types for each of the NVC communities that are considered appropriate for Carrifran are given in Table 7.2, along with their corresponding composition of tree species, as recommended by Rodwell and Patterson (1994). Using these recommendations together with the maps of site type, soil and existing NVC communities (Figures 4, 5 and 6) enables the location of woodland communities to be established at Carrifran to be defined (see Figure 7).
A number of features of Figure 7 merit explanation: • As noted earlier, the results of the ESC analysis and use of the NVC approach generated somewhat different suggestions in terms of the appropriate woodland communities for the site. In particular, W8, W10 and W16 are not supported by the NVC approach, although these are suggested as appropriate for much of the lower elevations on the site according to ESC. In these areas, we have therefore followed the NVC approach, which suggests W11 is the appropriate community for establishment on U4 grassland. • ESC suggests that W7 and W9 are appropriate for the site in terms of climatic limits, but not in terms of soil conditions. The NVC approach however indicates that W7 could be considered an appropriate community for some of the mire communities which occur on the site (e.g. M23, M25 and M15). W7 and W9 are compositionally similar, and we envisage that localised areas of W9 would be appropriate on more base-rich microsites within this area. We have therefore mapped this area as a mosaic of W7 and W9, extending to 50 m either side of the burn. There is some scope for natural regeneration within the area, principally from the few remaining ash individuals; this will be encouraged, to complement the planned planting. • Mire communities, where these have been mapped in the NVC survey, will generally be left unplanted and have been mapped as 'open area' (together with the archaeological sites). These sites will also be used for deer control purposes; most are concentrated around Carrifran Burn. Some appropriate tree planting (e.g. willow W1; birch W4) may be considered in some of these areas (e.g. to attract deer and provide some cover). However, wet flushes of particular botanical or bryological interest will be left unplanted. • The upper altitudinal limit of W11 as indicated by ESC closely corresponds to that suggested by the NVC approach. ESC also suggests, however, that this community type will be replaced by W17 / W4 at higher elevations. In our plan, we have been guided by the NVC approach, which suggests that W17 is the appropriate community for tussock grassland sites (e.g. U5). This is consistent with ESC, which suggests that W17 is associated with poorer soils than W11. The result of this is that W17 is preferred to W11 over the slopes at the head of the valley, and there is no clear altitudinal zonation between these woodland types. It is realised that establishment of oak in W11 and W17 woodland at high altitudes may be difficult, with slow growth and frost damage in spring likely (Tracy and Nelson 1991). However, oak woodland occurs up to 550 m in the Lake District (Pearsall 1950). Establishment of oak at the highest altitudes may become easier after the development of pioneer stands of birch. • Clearer evidence of zonation is seen with W4, which replaces W11 at higher altitudes on relatively wet sites. The distribution of W4 in the plan was generated using the NVC approach, but in some areas (e.g. the western side of the valley) has produced a distribution precisely coincident with that suggested by ESC. • As noted earlier, 450 m was selected as a planting limit, based on conservative estimates of treeline in the area, and the pragmatic concern that this altitude roughly coincides with the base of extensive areas of crag at Carrifran. This altitude also corresponds closely to the transition from grassland to heathland communities on the site; given that there is no soil difference across this boundary, we consider that this boundary represents an artefact of previous grazing management. On the basis of the NVC approach, we anticipate that these heathland areas will succeed naturally to W17 with time, or to
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W19 at higher altitudes, generating a natural treeline. This natural regeneration will be encouraged but will generally not be supplemented by planting. • According to ESC, W19 is climatically appropriate at higher elevations, and is also appropriate on the basis of soil conditions. As W19 is also supported by the NVC approach at higher altitudes, we have preferred W19 to W17 on north-facing slopes of Rispie Lairs, and surrounding scree areas under Priest Craig. The former location is precisely coincident with the distribution of W19 according to ESC; the latter occurs at a slightly lower elevation than that suggested by ESC, but we consider this location to be suitable for colonization by W19 because of the extensive scree areas and exposed mineral soils occurring in this area. • The 450 m planting limit will be adhered to fairly closely across the site, although in preparation of this planting map, we have mapped woodland units according to existing NVC communities rather than to contours. In two areas, however, we intend to establish trees significantly above this limit: these are discussed in section 7.3. • Although the boundaries of existing NVC communities have been used as a basis for the establishment plan, these will be interpreted flexibly (following the suggestions of Peterken 1998) and the boundaries between different woodland communities will therefore be diffuse rather than sharp. • It is also recognised that most of the NVC communities, as mapped, occur as mosaics with other community types at a scale too small to be mapped accurately. Attention will therefore be paid to the small-scale variation in microtopography and site type during planting operations; for example, wetter areas within U4 grassland will be planted preferentially with birch / willow / ash / alder; wetter areas of W7 will be planted preferentially with alder, bird cherry (etc.).
4.4 Treeline
Previous discussions of the level of treeline have been confused by the difficulty of defining it. Two recent publications (Forestry Authority {Scotland} 1998 and Hale et al. 1998) offer practical definitions. 'Treeline woodland' refers to open woodland above the 'commercial treeline' (or 'timber line') which is the level above which altitude and exposure prevent the growth of marketable timber other than firewood. 'Natural treeline' is a rather abrupt transition from tall trees to scattered stunted trees or - in some areas - to 'montane scrub' consisting of communities of low-growing shrubs. The 'scrubline' or 'biological limit' is the level at which trees and shrubs cannot grow and are completely replaced by montane heaths and grasslands.
The position of the natural treeline in southern Scotland is uncertain and has been the subject of some debate. Given the lack of ancient woodland fragments at high altitudes, the main source of evidence is pollen analysis. As pollen within an individual sampling site may be collected from a broad area, the position of the treeline inferred from pollen data will be a rough approximation at best. Birks (1988) suggested a treeline in the Galloway hills of approximately 450 m. This is considered by Tipping (1998) to be a conservative estimate, and his opinion is supported by modern occurrences in the Highlands of stunted Scots pine between 600 and 680 m and of a natural birch treeline at 630 m (Hale et al. 1998); treeline in the Southern Uplands is likely to be higher than this, although it will inevitably vary substantially with exposure.
At Rotten Bottom in Carrifran Valley, at an altitude of 660 m.a.s.l., there is evidence for tree cover of some sort throughout most of the post-glacial period, possibly including oak and elm (Tipping 1998); fossil pine wood has also been found in the peat at Rotten Bottom. Even today, rowan saplings grow on ledges out of reach of goats at around 550 m. As noted by Tipping (1998), it is conceivable that no part of Carrifran (with a maximum altitude of 821 m), or indeed anywhere in the Southern Uplands lay above the natural treeline. The ESC analysis (see earlier) is consistent with this suggestion, in that in terms of environmental characteristics, the entire altitudinal range of Carrifran would appear to be suitable for woodland growth.
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The persistence of relict populations of several species of low-growing montane willows near the summits of the Moffat Hills suggests that the natural treeline was below this altitude before the intervention of man, although caution is needed since the willows persist on crags unfavourable for tree growth and may always have been largely restricted to these. The case for natural treeline and perhaps even scrubline at a level below the summits is strengthened by the presence of patches of snowbed heath dominated by bilberry and mountain crowberry, with areas of dwarf heather, and of the presence on the summits themselves of montane grassland with Carex bigelowii and dwarf willow, with patches of Racomitrium lanuginosum heath in rockier areas.
For these reasons, this project will not adopt a dogmatic approach to natural treeline. As a pragmatic solution, we will follow the suggestion of Peterken (1998) that trees should be established up to the bottom of the scree slope (about 450 m) and that natural regeneration should be encouraged above this altitude, with small-scale experimental plantings of both trees and shrubs at higher elevations at two sites: (i) in Rispie Lairs, a bowl-shaped hanging valley east of the Saddle Yoke ridge; (ii) in a hanging valley above the cascades on the Firthhope Burn.
Again, in both of these areas, the boundary to planting will follow boundaries of existing NVC types. Rispie Lairs is selected primarily for landscape reasons; this is a major landscape feature visible from much of the site (see Panoramic View 4) and we anticipate the eventual development of a natural treeline towards the top of the ridge. The aim of planting in this area is to avoid a sharp woodland edge at a given altitude; instead planting will be undertaken upslope of 450 m (to approx. 600 m) following the landform. The area below the source of the Firthhope Burn (between Firthhope Rig and White Coomb) is south- facing and soils are relatively free-draining, so we envisage successful tree growth at relatively high altitudes (up to about 650 m). This small valley is visually obscured from the rest of the site.
4.5 Montane shrub communities
The restoration of this scarce habitat has been the focus of some interest recently, reflected in a recent conference (Gilbert et al. 1997). Pollen analysis data indicate that at higher altitudes the woodland at Carrifran was originally relatively open, perhaps a mixture of sparse woodland, scrub and grassland (Tipping 1998). The history of montane shrub communities on this site is unclear, as the pollen record for shrub species (especially willows) is poor. However, the occurrence of some of these species in neighbouring areas of the Grey Mare’s Tail, coupled with their ecological value, is sufficient justification to consider restoration of this community at Carrifran.
This then raises the issue of which species should be considered for establishment. Salix caprea ssp sphacelata, essentially an upland variety of S. caprea, has been found at Talla and Bodesbeck Burn. Salix aurita is actually present on Carrifran, and it should prove possible to encourage it through natural regeneration; it forms significant natural stands on hillsides in a few places in the Tweedsmuir Hills, for instance at 300-350 m on a west-facing slope at Mountbenger and at over 400 m in the south-facing valley of Ling Hope near Megget Reservoir. Salix herbacea, the dwarf willow, is also present at Carrifran, on exposed west-facing rocky ridges and on the summits in areas of snow lie. This is a genuine montane species of some ecological interest and should definitely be encouraged on the site. Of the other montane willows, only the hybrid S. tetrapla (S. myrsinifolia x S. phylicifolia) has been found at Carrifran (at the foot of Raven Craig). None of the other rare willows are known to be present on Carrifran, but S. lapponum, S. myrsinifolia (= nigricans) (fide STACE) and S. myrsinites are all present on Grey Mare’s Tail in small numbers, mostly limited to inaccessible ledges. These are all considered as nationally scarce plants. They may therefore be considered as candidates for restoration at Carrifran. Juniper, although not currently present on the site, is present nearby (e.g. head at the head of Manor Valley and at Chapelhope only 6 km from Carrifran) and will be
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established on the site at higher altitudes (it appears as a relevant species to plant using the ESC approach).
Having decided which species should be established, the next key decision is where to plant them. How might appropriate sites be identified? The soil map (Figure 6), NVC map (Figure 4) and application of ESC (Figure 5) may help identify areas suitable for establishment of montane willows. Most apparently prefer somewhat base-rich sites, which appear to be rather limited at Carrifran. Many of the more calcareous flushes may also be too small to have been accurately mapped on the NVC survey. It may therefore be necessary to survey the site specifically for appropriate localities for establishing these shrubs. The experience gained by other projects could obviously be of value in this context. It is possible that special ground preparation or protection will be needed, and these plants will need to be protected from grazing animals (eg by small exclosures).
Salix caprea ssp sphacelata, Salix aurita and juniper will therefore be established as part of the main reforestation effort, and will potentially be widely distributed on appropriate sites throughout Carrifran. Areas where Salix herbacea is present will be monitored (fencing, for example, could potentially have a negative effect by influencing snow-lie and increasing competition from other shrubs).
Salix lapponum, S. myrsinifolia (nigricans) and S. myrsinites could all potentially be established at Carrifran in the future. Any efforts at restoration of these species that are attempted will initially be on a small (pilot) scale, and would necessarily involve close collaboration with NTS and SNH. Planting stock would probably have to be derived from plants available on the Grey Mare’s Tail. However, there are problems regarding the sex ratio in these remaining populations and seed set is known to be low. It may therefore be most appropriate to establish a number of plants in the nursery from cuttings and then to multiply them vegetatively; however, introduction of material from elsewhere in Scotland might be necessary to establish genuinely viable populations.
The ericaceous species (such as Empetrum, Erica, Calluna) will not be considered for specific restoration action (because of their relatively high abundance) but will simply be allowed to develop naturally on the site. Calluna is present in the pollen record for Carrifran (suggesting its genuinely native status) and should probably be considered as an appropriate constituent of the vegetation at higher elevations on the poorer sites.
The impact of reforestation activities on montane herbaceous species (including ferns) will also need to be monitored; most are currently confined to cliff ledges, and some may even be able to colonise the developing woodland once grazing is controlled.
4.6 Open ground, peatland and freshwater habitats
4.6.1 Area to be left open Large parts of the Carrifran site are excluded from the plan to establish woodland; these include most of the land above 450 m (see section 7.2) and all of the major crags. No attempt will be made to establish woodland in these areas. However, open ground will also be left within the area considered appropriate for woodland. The importance of open areas within woodlands in maintaining diversity of wildlife is widely recognized. For example, the UK Nature Conservation Guidelines suggest that up to 20% of a forested area should remain unplanted, a figure consistent with the WGS criteria and the draft Forestry Standard. Open areas are often mainly in places least suitable for tree growth, such as wetland, crags, screes, shallow soils and exposed ridges (Rodwell and Patterson 1994). At Carrifran, they include relatively base-rich flushes on or near the valley floor, which currently support plant communities of considerable interest; these areas will be left unplanted.
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The pattern of planting, as described above and in the Planting Schedule, will incorporate open areas to an overall proportion of a little less than 20%. The exact proportion proposed for open ground differs among the compartments. In some, relatively small open areas will be left in order to maintain diversity, but in others, large areas will be left unplanted for landscape, botanical or archaeological reasons; some of these areas will become shaded as the canopy develops, and some may be colonized naturally by trees in the future.
It is important to consider how vegetation will develop on areas which are left unplanted. It might be expected that as a result of natural succession, shrubs and trees may invade grassland areas protected from grazing. On the other hand, as mentioned previously, many tree species may find it difficult to colonise grassland swards, particularly when local seed sources are lacking. Observations of pasture elsewhere in the Southern Uplands would suggest that gorse may be the most likely colonist initially; however, there is apparently no immediately local source of gorse on Carrifran.
The major unplanted areas at Carrifran will comprise the high plateaux, crags and the larger areas of scree. In all of these, the reduction in grazing pressure will lead to natural vegetation changes, and intervention will be kept to a minimum. An area about 10 m wide around existing woodland relicts will be left for natural regeneration, including a strip on either side of Carrifran burn at the lower end of the valley. Here, and in the open ground included elsewhere within the planting scheme, natural plant communities will in general be allowed to develop. Within a few areas, however, there may be some obligation to maintain space free of trees, or with only sparse tree cover:
• Eleven sites of archaeological or historical importance that have been identified by independent survey (see Figure 3). All these sites will be left unplanted and their future management will be subject to recommendations resulting from the recent survey; in some cases it may be expressly requested that the sites are of such value that they should be maintained free of woody vegetation. • Areas required for deer management, principally Sika. Advice from the Deer Commission suggests that two or three glades of 0.5 - 2 ha in extent will suffice (see Appendix 10). Suitable places will be on relatively level ground close to the Carrifran Burn, especially where growth of herbaceous vegetation is likely to be lush. In practice, these will be largely within areas that will be left unplanted for botanical or landscape reasons. • Wet flushes of particular botanical interest that Scottish Natural Heritage may require to be protected from modification by regenerating woody vegetation.
4.6.2 Peatland The extensive areas of blanket bog which cover the ridgetops and high-altitude plateaux are an important habitat in their own right, which have suffered from the effects of grazing and trampling, and consequent erosion (Hutcheon and Bates 1997). The blanket bog primarily lies above the planting limit of 450 m and therefore no trees will be planted on this habitat. Except in the two areas discussed in sections 4.4 and 5.4, restoration activity will be limited to protection from grazing, allowing natural recovery. We anticipate that the reduction of grazing will result in the expansion of heather at higher altitudes and the gradual recovery of eroded blanket bog.
4.6.3 Freshwaters Carrifran Burn and its tributaries are themselves an important wildlife habitat. The hydrology of the site has doubtless been much affected by grazing impacts through destruction of bankside vegetation. This may have affected the pool and riffle structure of the streams, and their consequent value for wildlife. However, no intervention is planned, beyond restoring the bankside vegetation through reduction of grazing pressure. With time, this should enable the habitat quality of the freshwater system to improve, as has been found in the Tweed catchment in areas where such management has been implemented (Campbell 1994).
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4.7 Grazing management
The management of grazing, particularly by sheep, is of overriding importance for woodland establishment on the site. As part of the purchase agreement, there will be a phased removal of sheep grazing from the site over a period of at least six years. Provisional details of this grazing agreement are given below.
After the date of entry, grazing rights for sheep will be leased to Mr Barker on an annual basis under a short-term grazing lease, according to the following programme. Changes to the programme will be permissible at the time of each annual renewal. The areas referred to below are outlined on Figure 8.
2000-2001. After the date of entry by BFT (1st January 2000) grazing will be permitted on the whole area of the site except Compartment 1, which comprises the land to the south of the existing permanent electric fence, plus a narrow area extending up the centre of the valley almost to the cairn (see Figure 9). Additional areas, not exceeding 10 acres in total extent and selected by mutual agreement, may also be protected from grazing by erection of temporary fences around existing trees elsewhere in the valley; the main such area is subcompartment 2d, surrounding a fragment of woodland that survives near Broomy Gutter. Access to the grazed area for sheep farming operations will start along the existing track from the A708 road. Sheep will be driven in, when necessary, through a gate at the northern tip of subcompartment 1b and then along the eastern march fence as far as the boundary with subcompartment 2b, where there is an existing gate.
2002-2003. At the start of this period (1st January 2002) sheep will be removed from Compartment 2, comprising the eastern side of the valley, as far north as Broomy Gutter (Figure 9). A stock fence will be erected from near the cairn in the centre of the valley between subcompartments 2c and 4b and will join a deer fence round 2d, then continuing between 2c and 3b, on along the southern boundary of 3a and straight up the hill to the eastern boundary of the site. Sheep will enter the remaining grazed areas (Compartments 3 and 4) by the same route as before, but continuing through subcompartments 2b and 2c, close to the fence along the northeast boundary of 1g; at the tip of 1g they will cross the burn and go through a gate in the fence between 1g and 2d, thus gaining access to Compartments 4 and 3.
2004-2005. At the start of this period (1st January 2004) sheep will be removed from Compartment 3, and a stock fence will be erected from the northern tip of 2d along the western boundary of 3c and then across Rotten Bottom to the march fence north of Games Castle.
2005. At the start of this period (1st January 2005) stock will be excluded from Subcompartment 4a, but Mr Barker may arrange a temporary fence along Priest Gill to permit stock to remain in the southern part of Compartment 4 for another year.
Careful shepherding on the site will be necessary throughout the period when sheep are still present on parts of it; if sheep were to gain access to a newly planted area even for a few days they could cause significant damage. Close attention from the Project Officer will be necessary to minimize this risk.
4.8 Establishment and maintenance
4.8.1 Natural regeneration Given the aims of the project, to establish as nearly natural woodland as possible, natural regeneration would clearly be the preferable means of establishing trees on the site. Woodlands established by natural regeneration tend to display a more irregular structure, and are more likely to preserve local
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genetic distinctiveness than planting (Rodwell and Patterson 1994). However, there are two serious constraints at Carrifran:
(i) The existing woodland relicts on the site are very reduced in extent, and few ancient / semi-natural woodlands are located nearby. The source of propagules for natural regeneration will therefore be very limited. (ii) The main factors limiting seedling establishment and growth on the site at present are grazing by herbivores (sheep, goats, deer, and probably smaller mammals such as voles and hares), and the lack of suitable sites for colonization.
Because of these constraints, woodland creation by natural regeneration is not considered practical over most of the valley. However, it is hoped that natural regeneration will occur in two situations:
(i) within those subcompartments where planting will take place but where a few trees still survive: open ground will be left adjacent to these, and low impact ground preparation will be used to encourage establishment of seedlings; there is also a potential for direct seeding in these areas (see below); (ii) in the areas above the planting zone (see Figure 7) where some seedling rowans and a few other trees have already been noticed and where many other seedlings suppressed by grazing may be present; relaxation of grazing pressure in these areas should ensure establishment of scattered naturally regenerated trees which will blur the edges of the planted area.
What is the potential for natural regeneration on the site? Rodwell and Patterson (1994) suggest that most tree species, particularly those with heavier seeds, are unlikely to be able to establish themselves at significant densities at distances of more than 100 m from a seed source. Given this criterion, the scope for natural regeneration at Carrifran is very limited indeed. Following a good year for seed production two years previously, a large number of ash seedlings were visible on the site in early 1998, close to stands of ash growing along the riverbank close to the entrance to the site. These seedlings were largely restricted to within 20 m of the mature trees. An estimate of 100 m as a likely limit of seed dispersal may therefore be somewhat optimistic for this site at present.
The potential for natural colonization will clearly vary for different species, dependent on their means of dispersal and on the proximity of a source of colonists. We might expect that small-seeded, wind- dispersed species (such as birch and willow) and bird-dispersed species (such as rowan and bird cherry) may be able to colonize the site more readily. The likely probability of natural colonization of different species, based on their dispersal characteristics, probability of seed production and presence locally, is estimated in Table 4.6. During the project, it will be useful to monitor which species are able to colonise naturally, since a few species that are not being considered for planting on a large scale initially could potentially be introduced at a later date if natural colonization fails to take place.
Table 4.6 summarises proposed methods of establishment. It refers primarily to the area below 450 m; planting will occur above this height in a few subcompartments, using appropriate species. Regeneration of the montane shrubs (e.g. Salix herbacea, Rubus chamaemorus) is likely be restricted to higher elevations.
Even those species for a which a local seed source is present, and which are able to disperse onto the site, will not be able to become established unless suitable colonization sites are available. Within fenced areas, natural regeneration will therefore be encouraged by a variety of means, as the opportunity offers:
(i) provision of bird perches to encourage deposition of bird-dispersed seeds;
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(ii) some form of site cultivation, such as hand screefing to provide a seedbed without excessive disturbance; this would be timed for late summer to precede seedfall (Rodwell and Patterson 1994); (iii) maintenance of moderate grazing (Peterken 1996) or encouragement of particularly heavy grazing immediately prior to establishment as a form of ground preparation (Rodwell and Patterson 1994); (iv) weed control by application of selective herbicides; (v) controlled burning; (vi) intensive short-term stocking by pigs or cattle.
Some or all of the above techniques will be applied on a trial basis at Carrifran, at the discretion of the Site Operations Team, and those methods which prove to be most successful may then subsequently be implemented on a larger scale.
The effect of the relaxation of grazing on the grassland swards, and its consequent effect on provision of microsites suitable for tree seedling establishment, is difficult to predict. Reduction in grazing is likely to result in rapid growth of the grassland plants, which would further reduce the scope for tree establishment. However some tree or shrub species may be able to colonise grassland areas naturally once grazing has been removed. This is more likely to occur on the slopes rather than the valley bottom, because the grass is likely to be less vigorous in the former. However, this process may be very slow and some areas may remain as grassland for a prolonged period, perhaps with a gradual decline in the diversity of herbaceous species present.
Both gorse and broom are absent from the site at present, but both could potentially be invasive of grassland and could perhaps help as a ‘nurse’ for tree establishment, although their presence could also have negative effects on tree establishment. Neither of these species will therefore be encouraged; any natural colonization of the site will be monitored to assess their effects on tree seedling establishment.
4.8.2 Direct seeding. As the scope for natural regeneration at Carrifran is so limited, trees will also have to be established by other means. One approach is direct seeding. Clearly this will only be practicable for those species where seed is in plentiful supply, and where this method of establishment is likely to be successful. Seeding is most likely to be successful with birch, but also potentially alder (although seed germination is often low), willows, rowan, and possibly pine and ash. It is also recognized that appropriate ground preparation may be required prior to sowing (eg burning, turf removal, or some form of cultivation). Sown areas should be fenced although some sowing could be attempted prior to the fences being erected. Sowing will be focused on the rocky slope / scree areas which will require less site preparation, and which will generally be less suitable for planting. Because of limited seed supply, direct seeding will only be carried out on a small scale. Table 4.6 Proposed methods of establishment of woody plant species at Carrifran.
Natural Sowing Planting regeneration
TREES Alnus glutinosa, alder + + ++ Betula pendula, silver birch - - (+) Betula pubescens, downy birch + + +++ Fraxinus excelsior, ash + + ++ Pinus sylvestris, Scots pine - - + Populus tremula, aspen - - ++
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Quercus petraea, sessile oak - - +++ Quercus robur, pedunculate oak - - (+) Ulmus glabra, wych elm - - + SMALL TREES / SHRUBS Corylus avellana, hazel + - +++ Crataegus monogyna, hawthorn + - ++ Ilex aquifolium, holly + - ++ Juniperus communis, juniper - - + Prunus avium, gean - - (+) Prunus padus, bird cherry + - ++ Prunus spinosa, blackthorn - - + Salix aurita, eared sallow ++ - ++ Salix caprea, goat willow + + + Salix cinerea, grey sallow + + + Salix pentandra, bay willow - + + Sambucus nigra, elder - - + Sorbus aucuparia, rowan ++ - +++ Taxus baccata, yew - - (+) Viburnum opulus, guelder rose - - + OTHER WOODY PLANTS Calluna vulgaris, heather +++ - - Cornus suecica, dwarf cornel - - (+) Genista anglica, petty whin - - (+) Hedera helix, ivy - - + Lonicera caprifolium, honeysuckle + - + Rosa canina (agg.) dog rose + - + Rosa pimpinellifolia burnet rose + - + Rubus chamaemorus, cloudberry + - - Rubus fruticosus agg., bramble + - - Rubus idaeus, raspberry + - - Salix herbacea, dwarf mountain willow + - - Sarothamnus scoparius, broom - - (+) Ulex spp. gorse - - (+)
Key: +++ on a large scale; ++ on a moderate scale; + on a small scale; (+) doubtfully appropriate; - unlikely, at least in the short term
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There will be a particular opportunity for direct seeding shortly after entry to the site. Fencing on either side of the burn, some 30-90 metres from it on the east and west, is planned for years 1-2. Existing trees are largely distributed in linear fashion on steep banks and cliffs along the burn, and few seeds from these will fall far from the burn, especially on the east. By collecting seed from the existing trees and scattering it (after some ground preparation) within the fenced area it may be possible to achieve significant regeneration. This will be best done in the first year after entry, before the grasses have responded to relaxation of grazing. Available seeds (depending on crops) would be downy birch, ash, hazel, eared sallow, goat willow, rowan, hawthorn and rose.
4.8.3 Protection from herbivores Sika and roe deer are present or very close to Carrifran, a herd of feral goats is hefted to the valley, and there are also hares and voles; all these herbivores can adversely affect tree establishment. Rabbits are apparently not now present, but have been in the past. The sheep now present on the site, which is part of Capplegill farm, will be progressively removed as planting progresses, as explained above.
The project is legally committed to providing a boundary on the western side of the property. There is no legal commitment to fence the eastern boundary, and a fence here is not desirable on scenic grounds, as well as because of the danger to grouse. However, fencing will be required, since it is essential to exclude sheep and goats. It will be a stock fence (heavy duty six wire; not a net) of 45 inches height, following Henderson et al. (1997). Access points (stiles) for walkers across the fence will be provided; their locations will be decided after consultation with hillwalking groups. The perimeter fencing will be completed during 2000.
It is not considered practical to fence out deer, and they will therefore need to be controlled. A deer Management Plan is presented in Appendix 10, and explains that there will be no attempt to define in advance the appropriate deer numbers for the site. Instead, the performance of the trees themselves will be used to determine the appropriate levels of culling.
There appears to be no alternative to culling in the case of deer, but in principle the project is reluctant to cull any animal (especially native species). Any culling undertaken will be the minimum required to ensure woodland establishment on the site, and will use the most humane methods possible.
The presence of feral goats in the valley is considered incompatible with the aim of the project to restore broadleaf woodland. Consultations have been carried out with the ecologists who have studied the Moffat Hills population of feral goats (Drs David Bullock and Simon Pickering), who are both supportive of the Wildwood project and have offered to provide advice and help. As they emphasize, the public must be reassured that there is no intention to endanger the long-term survival of goats in the Moffat Hills, which are valued by many residents and are of interest to visitors.
It is proposed to catch and remove the goats that are now hefted to Carrifran valley, leaving untouched those on the Grey Mare's Tail and those associated with the Spoon Burn and Black Hope. Provisional arrangements have been made for the bulk of the goats to go to a hill farm in Lancashire, and for most of the others to go to the Highlands; a small group may be sent to the south of England. Opposition has been expressed in the Moffat area to the removal of the Carrifran goats. The Wildwood Group are convinced that it is impractical to retain any goats in the Carrifran valley while restoring woodland there, because of the extreme destructivenss of goats to trees. In view of local feeling, however, only a minimum number of goats will be removed, concentrating on those most clearly hefted to the valley; any groups that appear to spend time in adjacent properties as well as on Carrifran will simply be fenced out. The removal and fencing out of goats from the whole site should be completed during autumn 2000.
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Although high stock fencing excludes most goats, determined individuals may get over, especially soon after the fence has been erected; these will have to be driven out through flake gates left for the purpose, or caught or shot. There may be particular problems with rutting billies in the early years of the project.
Brown hares may also have to be controlled while the trees are becoming established, if they prove to be a problem. A few mountain hares have been seen within the heather zone above the planting line; they will be culled only if they appear to be causing significant damage to recently planted trees.
Tree-shelters have recently been extensively used in planting schemes for broadleaf trees. Their advantages and disadvantages as a means of protection against herbivores are summarized in Table 4.7. The project does not intend to cover the site with tree shelters, but they offer some benefits and will be used on a limited scale. Shelters will be used preferentially in the lower ground to protect tree species that are of particular value or especially vulnerable. Species such as ash and alder can establish well without shelters (in the absence of grazing), but species such as oak may be much more difficult to establish without them. Those species for which planting stock is scarce will require closer attention and it is with these species that shelters will be preferentially used.
Table 4.7 Advantages and disadvantages of using tree shelters
Disadvantages Advantages Unsightly Provide shelter for tree Limited to better ground; cannot easily be Provide protection against grazing established on thin or very stony soil Leads to tall, leggy trees Protect against herbicides if used for weed control Expensive to install and maintain Help in location of trees Not needed permanently - can sometimes be re-used
The relative merits of plastic tubes versus spiral guards have been considered by the project membership. Spiral guards are cheaper but provide no protection against herbicides. The Tweed Foundation, who are involved in native woodland establishment in the Ettrick valley near to Carrifran, have found spiral guards to be highly ineffective. Tubes (with stakes) cost around four times the price of an unguarded tree. A height of 75 cm is necessary to protect against hares, but shorter shelters produce more robust trees.
A variety of types and sizes of tree shelter may be used in the early stages, and the project will learn from experience. For example, if shorter shelters are found to be relatively unsuccessful because of hare browsing, then the project should obviously consider using taller ones. This approach will maintain flexibility.
It is recognised that voles may present a major challenge to tree establishment, since voles normally increase dramatically when sheep are removed from hill grassland. Natural biological control (ie predation by raptors, owls etc) are being encouraged by provision of perches (poles) an approach being used by Borders Community Woodlands at Wooplaw; provision of extra nest sites (boxes and artificial nests) will also be tried (Petty 1998). Assistance with this aspect of the project may be obtainable from naturalists in the Moffat area, or from Edinburgh. Burning of herbaceous vegetation to limit vole habitat is also a possible option.
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During the planting in spring 2000 it was decided to use 12 inch transparent plastic vole guards for all cell-grown trees. This decision was taken because of the apparent risk of rapid large-scale losses of trees within a few months of planting, either during the summer or in the winter following planting, when it might not be noticeable - in the presence of snow cover - until it was too late for protective measures to be taken. By late summer 2000 it was noted that a few trees accidentally left without vole guards were suffering significant bark damage, although no tree deaths could be definitely attributed to voles. There are signs that voles are abundant even at high levels on the site in summer 2000, so vole guards will be used for all cell-grown trees to be planted in season 2000/2001.
4.8.4 Ground treatment and weed control The following points are taken from Rodwell and Patterson (1984): • Site cultivation and drainage may be required to assist tree establishment, to provide well-aerated, weed-free planting sites. The advantage of cultivation is that it may distrupt subsurface barriers to root penetration such as iron and clay pans and indurated layers. However, deep and extensive forms of cultivation (notably ploughing) disrupt the natural profile of the soil, increase nutirnets availability at the surface and reduce the variation in physical conditions, perhaps restricting the range of microsites available and the consequent development of the woodland flora. • Drainage can lead to destruction of existing flushes and bogs and wastes the opportunity of using these to encourage wetter woodlands. Where these types are desired, all mechanical cultivation and drainage is best avoided, the sites being left unplanted or provided with aerated planting positions by hand-turfing. • Superficial patch scarification may have relatively little effect on the long-term development of the flora and fauna and should be preferred to more intensive cultivation techniques • Fertilization should be confined to sites where they are essential for establishment and even then only applied around the individual trees and shrubs, to avoid widespread enrichment. Special care should be taken near streams and flushes. The careful selection of appropriate species should minimise the need for fertiliser. • Herbicides may often be preferable to cultivation in suppressing weeds and hestening tree growth especially on fertile brown earths. They should be applied as selectively as possible eg one-metre spot applications around the planted trees preferable to band or overall treatments, except where the aim is to eradicate bracken or pernicious exotics. • Techniques for herbicide application should follow FC Fieldbook 8.
Additional information on approaches which may be required in terms of site preparation, protection and maintenance are summarized on Table 4.8.
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Table 4.8. Operations which may be needed to ensure rapid woodland establishment within 15 years. From Harmer and Kerr (1995)
Natural Direct seeding Planting colonization Year 1-5 Deer/rabbit fencinga ** ** ** Individual tree protectionb * - ** Plants - - ** Ground preparation ** ** * Vegetation management ** ** ** Years 5 - 10 Individual protection * * - Plants * * - Ground preparation * - - Vegetation management * * - Thinning * * - Maintenance * * * Years 10 - 15 Individual protection * * - Plants * * - Ground preparation * - - Vegetation management * * - Thinning * * - Maintenance * * *
** Probable requirement * possible requirement - No requirement a: for planting, will not fence if using tree shelters b: tree shelters, vole and rabbit guards etc.
With respect to Carrifran, the following points apply: • Iron pans on the site generally appear to be rather incipient and generally at the higher altitudes, so there should be no need for deep ploughing or other major intervention for site preparation • It is noted that the issues of weed control and site preparation interact; e.g. certain types of ground preparation (eg fire) may reduce the subsequent need for herbicides post-planting. • For both ground preparation and weed control, it may be necessary to vary the approach in different parts of the site (e.g. weed growth is likely to be more vigorous in the valley bottom). However this will not involve a set of formal trials or experiments; but essentially an ‘ad hoc’ adaptive approach, trying out different methods of establishment to assess which are most successful for this site. Some areas will be established without the use of herbicides. • Fertilizers have been considered in some detail as soils on the site are relatively nutrient poor. Slow release fertilisers may be included as standard in the potting mix used for cell-grown plants. Beyond this, use of fertilisers should be unnecessary, particularly if tree species are matched correctly to appropriate sites. It is recognised that use of fertilisers would increase weed growth substantially.
On the basis of advice provided by Rodwell and Patterson (1994) and Harmer and Kerr (1995), a variety of different methods of site preparation will be adopted by the project (see Table 4.9).
Weed control is fundamental in successful establishment of trees and for large schemes the use of herbicides is generally considered essential. It should be noted, however, that it is not a panacea. Experiments by the Forestry Commission on four upland sites (Tracy and Nelson 1991) showed uniformly poor survival of bare-rooted birch, with insignificant differences among controls, hand weeding, polythene mulching and chemical weeding; increment, however, was increased by polythene mulching and to a lesser extent by chemical weeding. With bare-rooted oak, survival was
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reasonable but growth poor; at one site polythene mulching and chemical weeding gave significant improvement in survival.
With cell-grown trees weed control is more critical. The project has reservations about the use of herbicides because of their negative environmental side-effects, but accepts that there is no practical alternative to ensure successful weed control for cell-grown trees (which will be used extensively: see below) at the scale of Carrifran. Herbicides will be used as described below: • Herbicides will be restricted to spot (i.e. localised) rather than general applications. • Application of herbicides will follow Forestry Authority Fieldbook 8, ‘The use of herbicides in the forest’. • Glyphosate (‘Roundup’) is likely to be the main chemical of choice (particularly pre- establishment), having relatively little impact on invertebrates or vertebrates (it is not classed as a poison). There is a risk of run-off (particularly on peat or gleys) but apparently a low risk of leaching. It will need to be applied when the weeds are actively growing (spring) but care is needed in shielding planted trees (one advantage of shelters). Planting can occur 7 days after application. If applied in summer the effects may persist until following winter / spring. • Propyzamide (‘Kerb’) may also be useful; it has the advantage that planted trees are relatively unaffected by it (so useful post-establishment; also for pre-planting application in winter). It also has the advantage that it can be applied in granular form (easier to handle). The effects last 3-6 months. It is not effective on soils with a high organic content, and is harmful to fish. • Chemicals are available for treating bracken (eg Asulam; harmful to fish). However recent work indicates that two cuts with a flail are sufficient to reduce biomass of bracken the following season. This may be practical on a small scale, avoiding the need for herbicide (although if the bracken is killed, the grass may increase to compensate). Rather than attempt to destroy all the bracken, it may be preferable to clear in localised areas or to break up large bracken stands. It is noted that rowan can apparently tolerate bracken shade. As soils are relatively thin over most of the site, bracken does not grow luxuriantly, and it is not envisaged that it will be a significant constraint on establishment. • It is recognised that herbicides need to be applied by trained personnel so they will normally be used by contractors rather than volunteers. However, some volunteers have received special training and will be able to use them. • Willowherb is unlikely to colonise grass swards but may be a problem in any areas where establishment by direct sowing is attempted, and in areas which are burnt. This may be difficult to control subsequently, and herbicides may be required if it becomes a problem. • Mulch mats have been considered in some detail as a possible alternative to herbicides. These may be composed of tarred paper or felt, or made from polypropylene. They need weighing down with stones or digging / pegging in, may provide habitat for voles, and can be labour-intensive to install. However they are fairly cheap. Mulch mats are considered impractical on a large scale but will be tested on a small scale in some areas, especially close to watercourses where use of most herbicides is inappropriate.
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Table 4.9 Comparison of different site preparation and establishment operations, and their application at Carrifran
Type Definition Advantages / disadvantages Agreed application to Carrifran Mounding / Involves machinery Useful on poorly drained None dolloping to excavate mounds sites, and can greatly assist of soil, onto which establishment; very disruptive the trees are planted of soil profiles and visually intrusive, at least initially Ploughing Involves machinery Disruptive of soil profiles and None to create deep visually intrusive; creates furrows linear features Scarifying Involves use of a Useful for direct seeding / Probably none although harrow to disrupt turf natural regeneration; but will we should investigate tend to create linear features options (eg patch (unless use patch scarifier?) scarifier) Screefing Turf is removed, Assists with weed control Yes, on a small scale. revealing mineral soil (although not as effective as Agreed that use of cattle onto which trees herbicide); provides good / pigs will be planted / sown; may seedbed for sowing investigated (advantage be done by hand (eg - would generate with mattock). Could ‘natural’ features) also use cattle / pigs Hand Turf is turned over Gives better root distribution Could be done with turfing and tree planted on than ploughing; only particularly valuable top applicable to wetter sites; trees; may not be labour intensive necessary Drainage Involves creation of Negative effect on plants / Can be avoided by ditches / drains animals of wet flushes establishing trees appropriate for each microsite (eg bird cherry / willows on wetter areas) Fire Controlled burn of Needs dry weather, need to Yes, on a small scale; grass or heather notify neighbours (written could learn from swards notice and 24 hours warning) experience gained in and have sufficient beaters; neighbouring grouse good as prelude to direct moors; it may not be seeding (eg of birch); may successful in killing also encourage some weeds grass (bracken, willowherb) Herbicide Can be used to clear The most effective method of Yes, by spot treatment broad areas or small controlling weeds around before or after planting; patches of ground individual trees; perhaps also for broad areas the use useful as a site preparation for of fire is preferred direct sowing
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4.8.5 General approach to establishment The project will make use of voluntary help wherever possible. It may be feasible to hold volunteer work weeks, possibly in collaboration with the John Muir Trust. A division may usefully be drawn between planting particularly valuable species, on a relatively small scale, with a relatively high degree of protection (eg shelters etc.), which is perhaps best done by volunteers. In contrast, larger- scale planting of relatively abundant species will be allocated to contractors, who will be in a position to use herbicides (and perhaps make relatively limited use of shelters). Particularly important / sensitive sites (eg wetter areas) will also be left to volunteers, under close supervision by the Project Officer.
4.8.6 Provision of planting stock As the restoration programme will depend mainly on planting, the sourcing of planting stock is a vitally important issue. In order to minimise the risk of failure, planting material should be well adapted to the site. As the woodland relicts at Carrifran are so restricted in area, most of the stock will have to be obtained from elsewhere. However, seed is being collected almost entirely by members of the group in the local area. In choosing sources of seed, a number of issues have been addressed.
Important decisions have been required on the maximum distance from Carrifran within which propagules may be safely collected, and from which kinds of site, to ensure that the degree of adaptation to the site is acceptable. It is also necessary to ensure that the extent of genetic variation within the planting stock used is sufficient to ensure that viable populations of the tree species may become permanently established. Populations with a narrow genetic base are susceptible to inbreeding effects and genetic drift, reducing their viability in the long term. The aim of restoration efforts should be the creation of a woodland resource which has the capacity to evolve in the future and respond to environmental change. At the present time the populations of native trees that exist in southern Scotland are small and isolated, and consequently their evolutionary viability may be restricted (Ennos 1998).
To ensure a relatively high degree of adaptation, seed collection for the project is being limited - wherever possible - to trees in ancient woodland (ie those listed on the NCC/SNH surveys) or in long- established semi-natural woodland. Some small woodland areas for which no historical information is available but which are apparently natural / self-sown, are also being used for collecting. In such cases, the reasons for collecting from such sites will be made as explicit as possible. Species lists from SSSIs (provided by SNH) are proving to be an important additional source of information about potential seed sources.
It is recognised that designation of a woodland as ancient or long-established semi-natural is no guarantee in itself that all tree species within it are of native or local origin (pedunculate oak is a particular case where planting has been widespread). The following species have been identified as those where particular care is needed to ensure that the planting material is of genuine local origin, because extensive planting has taken place: silver birch, ash, Scots pine, pedunculate oak, hawthorn, holly, gean.
To define suitable sources of planting stock with precision, information would be required on the extent of regional adaptation within the selected species. Unfortunately, very little is known about the pattern of genetic variation in native tree species, either in southern Scotland or in Scotland as a whole. It is therefore difficult to generalize how far away from a site seed may be safely collected; suitable distances may vary in different species from a few kilometres to over 100 km (Ennos 1998).
In the absence of detailed information from provenance tests, the aim should be to select the most appropriate seed sources on the basis of matching environmental characteristics of the planting site to those of the source population. Although this may lead to some failure, such losses should be
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minimised as the source populations will not be too far from optimal adaptation (Ennos 1998). The key environmental variables which should be considered are altitude, rainfall and soil type.
To date (late 1999) seed has been collected largely from sites within a 20 km radius of Carrifran. Where insufficient seed is available within this area, then sites further away have been considered; each species is treated individually and a case has to be made for each collection beyond the 20 km area. Collecting beyond 20 km should head west rather than any other direction (higher rainfall). The following species may require collection of seed or cuttings beyond 20 km: Scots pine, aspen, oak, holly, juniper, guelder rose.
However, a slight change of approach may now be appropriate, in view of the publication by the Forestry Commission in August 1999 (Herbert et al 1999) of guidance on provenance based on a consultation carried out in 1997, in which the Wildwood Group participated. This inaugurates a system of local seed zones and makes recommendations on provenance of stock, but does not change current grant scheme requirements. The framework for the new zonation is an earlier system involving four broad Regions of Provenance in Britain (Nos. 10, 20, 30 and 40) based on climatic similarity. The new seed zones are subdivisions of these, based on climatic and geological variation and landform boundaries; elevation is considered as an additional factor, with a division at 300 m. It is recognised by Herbert et al (1999) that these zones constitute a ‘best guess’ only, and are based more on climate and physiography than on information about the pattern of genetic variation in native trees, and that sometimes a local interpretation may need to be used, based on particular knowledge of a species.
Carrifran falls within Region 10 and seed zone 109, which is bounded in the west by the River Nith, extends as far south as Carlisle and includes the Cheviots, much of Northumberland and the upper parts of the Yarrow and Ettrick valleys; however, it excludes much of the Borders (for instance Peebles, Galashiels, Selkirk and Jedburgh). Carrifran lies rather close to the boundaries of zone 107 to the northwest and of Region 20 (zone 204) to the east.
The project will take careful account of these zones when collecting seed, and realises that it will be necessary to justify to the Forestry Commission the collection of seed outside zone 109. Information is being collected on each site from which seeds are collected. As far as practicable seedlings will be planted in groups, using material from individual sites, so that it will be possible to monitor the performance of different seed origins after establishment. This may be important for identifying seed origins that are poorly adapted to the site.
The relative altitudes of seed collecting and planting sites are of considerable concern, since key environmental variables change rapidly with elevation, and adaptation to particular altitudes may be significant. The lowest point at Carrifran is 175 m, and planting will occur at all altitudes between that and 450 m (and exceptionally to about 650 m). This large range in elevation within the planting area suggests that seed collecting sites should be matched to particular parts of Carrifran rather than accepting a match to an average elevation.
However, a complication facing those who attempt to establish a diverse natural woodland which will be sustainable in the long term is that global environmental conditions are changing rapidly as a result of human activities. Current forecasts suggest that continuing emission of greenhouse gases may lead to a mean temperature rise in Britain of the order of two degrees centigrade during the next half century. Environmental change of this magnitude could lead to poor adaptation (for instance in timing of budburst) in trees with genotypes evolved under cooler conditions (Ennos et al 1998). Furthermore, low genetic variation may limit the capacity of populations of native trees such as birch to respond rapidly to the changing selective pressures and so maintain an adequate degree of adaptation (Billington and Pelham 1991). Under these circumstances it is appropriate to collect some seed from
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each of the species to be established at Carrifran from altitudes significantly below that at which the trees will be planted. For tree species appropriate to the valley bottom some seed will therefore be collected from sites down to around 100 m.
It is of course essential that adaptation of the planted stock is adequate to ensure survival of a high proportion of the trees to reproductive age and so to secure future generations of trees. However, given the uncertainty surrounding predictions of climate change, it may be that ensuring the presence of high genetic variation and thus evolutionary potential in the planted population is of greater importance than attempting a precise match between seed sources and planting sites.
In order to ensure adequate genetic variation when restoring endangered plant populations, the recommended number of populations which should be sampled for each species is 1-5, and the number of individuals which should be sampled per population is 10-50 (Falk and Holsinger 1991, p 236); a similar approach is called for in creating a new woodland.
In the area around Carrifran it is difficult to define what the size of populations actually is: are the small remaining woodlands interbreeding with each other? If they are, they may be considered to be part of the same population. If they are reproductively isolated, then each small patch of woodland could be considered as an individual population. This aspect is currently being addressed by a research programme at the University of Edinburgh. In some species (e.g. holly, guelder rose, oaks, wych elm, bird cherry) single trees or tiny populations are present on Carrifran or in cleuchs within a few kilometres, while large natural populations are available only at much greater distances. In such cases seed from local stands will be collected, but this will be supplemented by seed from larger, though more distant, populations.
4.8.7 Nursery approaches Planting stock will be cell-grown where this is possible, particularly for oak, pine, birch, ash and perhaps blackthorn. Cell-grown stock can be planted out when smaller (which has implications for weed control etc.) and is more likely to be successful on shallow soils or difficult sites. For bare root transplants undercutting and wrenching is recommended. Pine and birch are suggested as particularly unsuitable for establishment as bare-root stock, although in the case of silver birch high survival can be obtained provided that precautions are taken against dessication of roots and frost damage to shoots in spring (McKay 1999).
The use of cell-grown stock will clearly have significant cost implications for the project, as this is a relatively expensive approach to raising stock. However, cell-grown trees can also be raised economically by group members on a small scale, and this is already underway.
Much of the nursery work has so far been undertaken by project members on their own land. Local schools will be encouraged to raise trees for the project; progress is being made in this area through BFT. The involvement of project members in nursery work is seen as desirable because it maintains the strong community involvement of the project. However, large-scale raising of planting stock by commercial nurseries is also clearly necessary. When dividing nursery work between commercial and community-based initiatives, the project has decided that propagation by group members, community organizations, schools etc. should focus on the rarer, more special trees which require close attention but are rewarding for volunteers to propagate.
The provision of planting stock will be a significant constraint on the establishment of the selected woodland communities. In particular, oak is a major component of both W11 and W17, which are the main communities to be established, yet few native oakwoods are available locally and seed supply is erratic. For this reason the project has decided to encourage the widespread establishment of birch over areas assigned to W11/W17, as this is a major constituent of these communities and seed is more
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readily available. This will start the process of woodland succession and rapidly create a woodland habitat, and follows a suggestion made by Ferris-Kaan (1995). Oaks will be added to the birch- dominated stands as planting stock becomes available.
4.9 Management for biodiversity
Although the plan described here logically focuses on the establishment of trees, this is simply the first step towards the establishment of an ecosystem, incorporating the ecological interactions between different species, the development of ecological communities and associated ecosystem function. The choice of tree species and the structure of any woodland established will have a major influence on which other groups of organisms are able to colonise the new woodland habitat created (Newton and Humphrey 1997). The following points were identified at the workshop convened to address native woodland restoration in southern Scotland in 1997 (Newton and Smith 1998; see also Appendix 7).
4.9.1 Species introductions Firstly, species will be able to colonize a newly established woodland if appropriate habitat is available, if there is a source of colonists available within dispersal range, and if the means of dispersal is available. If species do not colonize naturally, then there may be a need to consider artificial introductions. For any particular group of organisms, some species will be readily able to colonise a new site, whereas others will be much slower to arrive, because of particularly exacting habitat requirements, a lack of a suitable source of colonists and / or a limited ability to disperse.
Generally it was felt at the workshop that artificial introductions of species should be treated very cautiously. Decisions about such introductions should be deferred until species have been given the opportunity to colonize naturally. Some consideration was given to which species might be considered appropriate for introduction. These should be demonstrably native or ecologically appropriate to the area in question, of particular conservation importance, or of particular ecological value (e.g. mycorrhizal fungi, pollinators and seed dispersers, soil fauna).
In response to these points, a cautious approach to translocating species (other than trees) is proposed for this project. Any such introduction would first require the provision of appropriate woodland habitat, which will take some years to develop. The monitoring programme will indicate which species are able to colonize naturally. If particular species are identified which are considered an important component of the developing ecosystem, but which for some reason appear unable to colonize naturally, then artificial introduction can be considered at some future date.
4.9.2 Habitat features Nesting sites As many bird species are relatively mobile, it was considered at the workshop that the main constraint to the development of bird populations in a newly established woodland would be provision of suitable habitat. Boxes could potentially be installed to provide nesting or roosting sites for birds and bats whose populations may otherwise be limited by shortage of these, but boxes are visually intrusive and would detract from the sense of wildness of the valley.
Species whose numbers are likely to be increased by the provision of nestboxes fall into two classes: raptors, in which high numbers might benefit the project by keeping down numbers of herbivores, especially voles; and other species, which would be appropriate components of the restored ecosystem but which would not benefit the project in a practical way. A provisional decision has been taken to instal nestboxes for diurnal raptors (particularly kestrels) and owls as soon as practicable during the establishment phase. A decision on the possible provision of nestboxes and/or roosting boxes for bats or for other bird species will be taken later.
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Open space For many vertebrates, including deer and small mammals such as voles, the extent and distribution of open areas is likely to be critical. Open space is a habitat type for which it might be desirable to develop a network, linking individual patches within a site. However, such networks might encourage deer movement within a site and perhaps have an adverse impact on tree establishment in other areas. There will also be a considerable area above natural treeline which will remain free from trees. A network of open areas at lower elevations, sited primarily on the mires, is planned for Carrifran (see accompanying maps).
Deadwood. Both snags (standing dead trees) and deadwood rotting on the ground (sometimes referred to in North America as 'coarse woody debris' or CWD, or in the UK as 'large woody debris' or LWD) are almost completely lacking from Carrifran. Deadwood plays a key role in the ecology of mature woodland and its removal from highly managed woods leads to curtailment of nutrient cycling and major loss of biodiversity. It is a resource for the growth of mosses, lichens and fungi, and provides habitats for a wide variety of insects and other invertebrate animals. Snags also provide nest sites for woodpeckers and other woodland birds.
Deadwood could be generated by killing trees at some stage after establishment, either by ring- barking or poisoning. However, such drastic intervention does not conform to the principles of the project, and within 15-20 years of establishment some stems will be dying naturally through self- thinning and through disease; the establishment of elm will generate deadwood relatively rapidly as a result of Dutch elm disease. Deadwood will therefore be allowed to acccumulate naturally. It is recognised that many organisms dependent on deadwood are doubtless absent from the site at present, and the communities of such newly created deadwood may therefore be depauperate. Translocations of deadwood from other sites could therefore be considered in future, but advice from Scottish Natural Heritage suggests that this should not be encouraged.
Freshwater habitats Originally there was probably a running marsh in many valley bottoms in southern Scotland, rather than a burn; valley woodland would have been very marshy, perhaps encouraged by beaver activity and the accumulation of deadwood. At Carrifran, such conditions will be allowed to develop naturally rather than by active intervention.
Bogs The issue of bogs was raised at the workshop in the context of whether they might need special intervention to help restore them; reversal of previous drainage activity seemed the most logical starting point. Tree planting should perhaps be kept clear of bog habitat, although there is some interest currently in ‘bog woodland’ which is a habitat type poorly represented in the UK. At Carrifran, bog restoration will be limited to reduction of grazing. However, there is some trace of old drainage work near the watershed in Rotten Bottom, and consideration will be given to the possibility of blocking any functioning drains in the hope of accelerating the restoration of the bog. There appear to be few drains to remove elsewhere except in the field at the entrance to the site, sometimes referred to as the paddock (which is not included in the WGS application); drains there will be backfilled as far as possible.
4.9.3 Incidence of disturbance It is recognised that natural forms of disturbance, such as wind, are an integral feature of the ecological dynamics of temperate forests. As the guiding principle for this project is to let natural processes predominate wherever possible, damage to trees caused by natural forms of disturbance will be tolerated. However, it is recognised that the natural disturbance regime of the original forests of Scotland is not known with precision. In particular, the role of fire is poorly defined. There may be a particular risk of human-set fires affecting Carrifran, as a result of muir burning in the vicinity and accidental fires caused by visitors. The general approach will be to accept disturbance events such as fire, so long as they appear to have a natural origin. However, human-set fires will be controlled wherever possible. If severe natural disturbance events, such as extensive fire or wind damage, occur
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early in the restoration process and are seen as likely to significantly reduce the viability of the established woodland, then management interventions may be used to mitigate these effects (eg by additional tree planting). If such disturbance occurs after mature woodland has developed, there will be a presumption against intervention; the aim of the project is to create a natural, functioning ecosystem, and such systems are subject to occasional, drastic, natural disturbance.
4.9.4 Towards a habitat network The colonization of the developing woodland by different groups of organisms will be markedly influenced by linkages with other woodland areas. At present, native woodlands are being established along the Moffat Water, which will connect with the woodland planned for Carrifran. This linkage will provide a valuable step towards a woodland ‘habitat network’ as suggested by and Peterken et al. (1995). In the long term, the increased expansion of native woodland in the vicinity would enhance the ecological value and resilience of the woodland to be established at Carrifran.
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5 Detailed management prescriptions
5.1. General information.
1. All trees for the project will be grown from seed gathered in ‘semi-natural’ or ‘ancient’ woodlands at an appropriate altitude close to Carrifran. Since there will be a shortage of certain key species (mainly oak) these will be added when they become available (almost certainly within the 5 years of the WGS), mimicking accelerated natural succession; the initial planting, however, will be at an overall density of 1600/ha.
2. Because the project has substantial landscape implications and the boundaries of the woodland are especially sensitive, and because of the existence of botanically mportant mire communities, we have made full use of the allowance for open ground under WGS rules. Open ground is used generously in those areas most visible from outside the site, and at higher altitudes where natural woodland would be expected to become patchy in the approach to treeline.
3. The first WGS application envisages planting of 180.47 ha over five planting seasons, within which 35.70 ha (19.8%) is planned as open ground. A second WGS application, to be submitted in January 2004, will embody the later stages in the main planting schedule, with the intention of planting another 119.28 ha over three seasons; 23.22 ha (19.5%) of this is planned as open ground. The total area to be planted in the two main WGS applications is thus 299.75 ha, including 58.92 ha (19.7%) of open ground.
4. Two special WGS applications relating to Treeline Woodland will be submitted respectively in January 2001 and January 2005. They will explain a plan for the gradual establishment of small areas of treeline woodland at high levels in the far north and the far west of the site. They will focus on areas of 7.89 ha and 13.89 ha respectively, but within these only small amounts of planting will be done, to provide a focus for natural regeneration.
5. The pattern of planting to be used at Carrifran is fully discussed in section 4.2.5. It conforms to the recommendations of Rodwell and Patterson (1994) relating to the creation of new native woodlands (see also Appendix 15).
6. Weed control will be a core component of the establishment procedure and is discussed in section 4.8.4. Following advice from the Forestry Commission details of herbicide applications are not specified here; operations will be carried out as needed to control weeds effectively, both at the time of planting and subsequently. Need for post-planting applications of herbicide will be determined through monitoring (Appendix 8).
7. Because the project is community-based and has made use of extensive input from volunteers, an attempt will be made to involve volunteers also at the planting stage. It is recognised, however, that application of herbicides and the planting of large subcompartments against tight deadlines and in variable weather will require extensive use of contractors. Dependence on contractors may be reduced as the scheme progresses if volunteer input can be developed and a sufficiently high standard of planting can be achieved.
5.2 Woodland Grant Scheme application submitted in October 1999
Compartment 1.
Entry and stock exclusion from early 2000.
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This comprises the southernmost section of the valley, plus a tongue running up the centre on either side of the Carrifran Burn almost as far as the cairnThis compartment includes the lowest land on the site; altitude of the burn is c.175 m at the road bridge and c.255 south of the cairn. The highest land in this compartment is c.450 m east of Peat Hill.
Subcompartment 1a. 3.95 ha P-year 2000 W11
This is the area east and immediately north of the main sheep stell and adjacent to the boundary with Forest Enterprise, in the southeastern part of the site. It will be planted mainly by volunteers. There will be 1.98 ha (50%) open ground, around the mires associated with Keld Pot. Planting area 1.97 ha.
To be planted with 75%PBI, 9%ROW, 5%Holly, 1%ASP, 10%WSH (Hazel, shrub willows). SOK (up to 15%), additional holly (up to a total of 8%) and Hawthorn (in WSH) will be added when available.
Subcompartment 1b. 0.86 ha P-year 2003 W4
This comprises a strip along the eastern margin of the recently fenced paddock, from the gate on the road up to the sheep stell; it marches with the FE plantation at Polmoody. This subcompartment will be planted largely by volunteers. It will have 0.17 ha (20%) open ground, allowing the drier parts adjacent to the rest of the paddock (which is excluded from WGS) to be left largely unplanted and so giving a blurred edge to the woodland. The area along the watercourse does not have special botanical interest. Planting area 0.69 ha.
To be planted with 60%PBI, 15%AR, 15%GWL, 10%WSH (Bay Willow, Grey Sallow, Eared Willow).
Subcompartment 1c. 14.75 ha P-year 2000 W7/W9
Relatively low land on either side of the burn. There will be 5.10 ha (35%) of open ground; this will be partly to maintain the open view into the valley from the sheep stell which will be the main site for interpretation, but also to avoid planting on an important series of mires. Planting area 9.65 ha.
To be planted with 50%PBI, 20%AH, 18%ROW, 3%Holly, 1%XB (including Bird Cherry), 0.5%AR, 0.5%ASP, 7%WSH (HAZ, Blackthorn, Eared Willow, Wych Elm, Dog Rose). SOK (up to 3%) and Hawthorn and Guelder Rose (in WSH) will be added in later years.
Subcompartment 1d. 11.53 ha P-year 2001 W11
The lower northeastern and eastern slopes of Peat Hill. This will have 2.88 ha (25%) open ground for landscape reasons, since it marches with the rest of Capplegill Farm which will continue to be open grassland. Planting area 8.65 ha.
To be planted with 67%PBI, 17.5%ROW, 5%Holly, 0.5%ASP, 10%WSH (Hazel, Juniper, shrub willows). SOK (up to 15%) and Hawthorn (in WSH) will be added when available.
Subcompartment 1e. 6.88 ha P-year 2001 W4
The upper slopes of Peat Hill, including craggy areas. This will have 2.06 ha (30%) open ground, to enable appropriate landscape transition from grassland on Capplegill farm. Planting area 4.82 ha.
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To be planted with 72%PBI, 18%AR (mainly in the lower part), <1%GWL, 10%WSH (shrub willows).
Subcompartment 1f. 1.82 ha P-year 2000 W7/W9
A deer-fenced exclosure on either side of the Carrifran Burn immediately north of the permanent electric fence. This will be planted by volunteers; natural regeneration will also be encouraged. There will be 0.18 ha (10%) open ground. Planting area 1.64 ha.
Species mix as for 1c: 50%PBI, 20%AH, 18%ROW, 3% Holly, 1%XB (including Bird Cherry), 0.5%AR, 0.5%ASP, 7%WSH (HAZ, Blackthorn, Eared Willow, Wych Elm, Dog Rose). SOK (up to 3%) and Hawthorn and Guelder Rose (in WSH) will be added in later years.
Subcompartment 1g. 15.81 ha P-year 2001 W7/W9
A tongue extending along the burn north of the permanent electric fence from the deer-fenced exclosure (1f) to a point just south of the junction of the burns near the cairn. There will be 1.58 ha (10%) open ground, mainly around archaeological features. Planting area 14.23 ha. Note. The boundaries of this subcompartment and the adjacent 2b and 2c may require amendment because of difficulties encountered in fencing the northeastern bounday of 1g.
Natural regeneration will be encouraged, but planting will also be used to give approximately 62%PBI, 14%ROW, 13%AH, 5%Holly, 1%XB (including Bird Cherry), 0.5%AR, 0.5%ASP, 4%WSH (HAZ, Blackthorn, Eared Willow, Wych Elm, Dog Rose). SOK (up to 3%) and Hawthorn and Guelder Rose (in WSH) will be added when available.
Compartment 2.
Entry and stock exclusion from early 2002.
This comprises the eastern part of the valley, below Dun Knowe and Carrifran Gans. Also included is a proposed deer-fenced exclosure around Broomy Gutter Wood. Stock will be excluded from the compartment by a new fence running from the northernmost point of Subcompartment 1g (southeast of the cairn) northwards on the eastern side of the Firthhope Burn to meet the deer fence around Broomy Gutter Wood. From the northernmost point of this deer fence a stock fence will run eastwards to the nearest point of subcompartment 3a and then follow its boundary upslope, skirting the northern edge of the crags of Carrifran Gans and continuing straight to the nearest point of the march fence.
Subcompartment 2a. 3.56 ha P-year 2002 W4
High up on the edge of the forestry on Dun Knowe. This will be planted by volunteers. There will be 0.89 ha (25%) open ground, since this area is at the upper limit of planting at c.450 m. Planting area 2.67 ha.
To be planted with 70%PBI, 10%AR, 10%GWL, 10%WSH (shrub willows).
Subcompartment 2b. 35.31 ha P-year 2002 W11
Southern half of Carrifran Gans slopes, southeast of a line from the fence around subcompartment 1g opposite the sheep stell at NT 153127, upslope northeastwards to the heather line below Carrifran Gans (this boundary will not be fenced). There will be 3.53 ha (10%) open ground, mainly around mires with special botanical interest. Planting area 31.78 ha.
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To be planted with 70%PBI, 21%ROW, 1%ASP, 8%WSH (Hazel, Juniper, shrub willows). SOK (up to 15%), Holly (up to 5%) and Hawthorn (in WSH) to be added when available.
Subcompartment 2c. 35.07 ha P-year 2003 W11
Northern half of Carrifran Gans slopes, northwest of the line defining Subcompartment 2b. There will be 5.26 ha (15%) open ground, mainly along the Carrifran Burn. Planting area 29.81 ha.
To be planted with 70%PBI, 19%ROW, 1%ASP, 10%WSH (Hazel, Juniper, Hawthorn, shrub willows). SOK (up to 15%) and Holly (up to 5%) to be added when available.
Subcompartment 2d. 3.03 ha P-year 2001 W11/W17
A deer-fenced exclosure around 'Broomy Gutter Wood', the existing group of trees at the foot of Broomy Gutter. This will be planted by volunteers; natural regeneration will also be encouraged. There will be 0.61 ha (20%) open ground, mainly along the burn. Planting area 2.42 ha.
To be planted with 50%PBI, 20%AH, 14% ROW, 5% Holly, 1%ASP, 10%WSH (Juniper, HAZ, Hawthorn, Burnet Rose, shrub willows). SOK (up to 15%) will be added in later years.
Compartment 3.
Entry and stock exclusion from early 2004.
This compartment is limited in the south by the northern boundary of Compartment 2. In the west it is defined by a new stock fence from the northwest side of the deer fence around Broomy Gutter Wood (2d); it will run northwards above the west side of the Firthhope Burn, cross Games Gill near the junction of this with the Firthhope Burn and continue NNW along the northeast bank of Games Gill, up into Rotten Bottom, and then pass north of Games Castle to the existing march fence. This compartment includes the whole of the head of the valley and implies planting of appropriate woodland types up to an altitude of around 650 m; the mix of tree species and the spacing between trees will be modified according to altitude within subcompartments and the figures given on the WGS form represent averages.
Subcompartment 3a. 18.31 ha P-year 2004 W17
The grassy slope rising to about 650 m on the crest between Gupe Craig and Carrifran Gans, and the upper part of the slopes below the crags of Gupe Craig, bounded in the northwest by the waterfall on the Firthhope Burn. There will be 4.58 ha (25%) open ground, mainly in small patches on scree and near treeline in the upper parts. Planting area 13.73 ha.
To be planted with 50%PBI, 17%ROW, 17%SOK, 5%Holly, 1%XB (including Bird Cherry),10%WSH (Juniper, HAZ, Hawthorn, shrub willows). Juniper will be included as the main shrub in the planting mix, with the aim of establishing woodland type W17d: the Rhytiadelphus triquetrus (a moss) sub-community.
Subcompartment 3b. 10.45 ha P-year 2004 W11
The lower slopes east of the Firthhope Burn and north of Broomy Gutter. There will be 2.09 ha (20%) open ground, mainly along the burn. Planting area 8.36 ha.
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To be planted with 50%PBI, 18%ROW, 15%SOK, 5%Holly, 1%ASP, 1% (including Bird Cherry), 10%WSH (Hazel, Hawthorn, Juniper, shrub willows).
Subcompartment 3c. 19.14 ha P-year 2004 W17
The steep southern slopes of Firthhope Rig, from the waterfall westwards as far as the new fence running up to Rotten Bottom east of Games Gill. There will be 4.79 ha (25%) open ground, mainly along the Firthope Burn and in the highest parts where open woodland will be appropriate. Planting area 14.35 ha.
To be planted with 55%PBI, 20%ROW, 10%SOK, 4%Holly, 1%XB (including Bird Cherry),10%WSH (Juniper, HAZ, Hawthorn, shrub willows).
5.3 Second WGS Application (To be submitted in January 2004)
Compartment 4.
Stock will be excluded from Subcompartment 4a in early 2005 but Mr Barker may arrange a temporary fence along Priest Gill to permit stock to remain to the southern part of the compartment for another year.
Subcompartment 4a. 46.61 ha P-year 2005 W17
East-facing slopes below Raven Craig, defined in the south by Priest Gill, and with planting up to 500 m at the foot of the crags. There will be 10.25 ha (22%) open ground, mainly in the flatter areas along the burns. Planting area 36.36 ha.
To be planted with 55%PBI, 15%ROW, 15%SOK, 5%Holly, 10%WSH (Juniper, HAZ, Hawthorn, shrub willows).
Subcompartment 4b. 43.74 ha P-year 2006 W17
Slopes below Priest Craig, up c.400 m. There will be 7.87 ha (18%) open ground, mainly in patches on the screes. Planting area 35.87 ha.
To be planted with 55%PBI, 15%ROW, 15%SOK, 5%Holly, 10%WSH (Juniper, HAZ, Hawthorn, shrub willows).
Subcompartment 4c. 13.69 ha P-year 2007 W11
Lower slopes below Rispie Lairs and Peat Hill. This will have 2.05 ha (15%) open ground, mainly around mires of botanical interest and archaeological sites. Planting area 11.64 ha.
To be planted with 55%PBI, 15%SOK, 14%ROW, 5%Holly, 1%ASP, 10%WSH (Hazel, Hawthorn, shrub willows).
Subcompartment 4d. 15.24 ha P-year 2007 W4
Upper slopes below Rispie Lairs and Peat Hill. There will be 3.05 ha (20%) open ground, mainly around the crags. Planting area 12.19 ha.
To be planted with 70%PBI, 10%AR, 10%GWL, 10%WSH (shrub willows).
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5.4 Treeline Woodland WGS Applications
To be submitted in January 2001 and January 2005.
Two areas are proposed for the establishment of treeline woodland, in accordance with the recent Forestry Commission Guidance Note. In both areas planting will be required to establish treeline woodland, but it will be done in small patches, permitting gradual natural colonisation of the intervening ground.
Compartment 5. 7.89 ha P-years 2002-2006 W17
This is a minor hanging valley above the waterfall, close to the head of the Firthhope Burn at an altitude of 650 to 700 m, with gentle slopes and a southwesterly aspect. It is envisaged as a higher altitude version of the community to be established in subcompartment 3a. It is possible that Sessile Oak will grow here as a low scrub, with some stunted Downy Birch and perhaps even Rowan; Juniper is likely to become the dominant shrub.
Planting will be done by volunteers, with each species in small pure stands surrounded by open ground which may eventually be colonised.
Compartment 6. 13.89 ha P-years 2006-2009 W19
This is mainly in Rispie Lairs, a high-level east-facing bowl between 500 and 650 m, but in the north it also extends below the crags of Priest Craig at around 450 m. This will be woodland type W19, dominated by Juniper but also with Downy Birch, Rowan and Scots Pine. This is a more sheltered environment than Compartment 5a and more continuous planting will be appropriate. Pine is envisaged mainly on the northeast-facing slopes among the lower crags of Priest Craig.
5.5 Planting Schedule Summary
Note. Planting areas listed here exclude the treeline woodland schemes.
Planting-year 2000 (Oct 1999-Sep 2000) Total 20.52 ha. Open ground 7.26 ha. Planting area 13.26 ha. Volunteers will do up to 3.61 ha of actual planting (excluding open ground), which is 5776 trees.
Planting-year 2001 (Oct 2000-Sep 2001) Total 37.25 ha. Open ground 7.13 ha. Planting area 30.12 ha. Volunteers will do up to 2.42 ha of actual planting (3872 trees).
Planting-year 2002 (Oct 2001-Sep 2002) Total 38.87 ha. Open ground 4.42 ha. Planting area 34.45 ha. Volunteers will do up to 2.67 ha of actual planting (4272 trees) and start work on treeline C5.
Planting-year 2003 (Oct 2002-Sep 2003) Total 35.93 ha. Open ground 5.43 ha. Planting area 30.50 ha. Volunteers will do 0.69 ha of actual planting (1104 trees) and work on beating up and treeline C5.
Planting-year 2004 (Oct 2003-Sep 2004).
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Total 47.90 ha. Open ground 11.46. Planting area 36.44. Volunteers will work on treeline C5 and on beating up.
Planting-year 2005 (Oct 2004-Sep 2005). Total 46.61 ha. Open ground 10.25 ha. Planting area 36.36 ha. Volunteers will work on treeline C5 and on beating up.
Planting-year 2006 (Oct 2005-Sep 2006) Total 43.74 ha. Open ground 7.87 ha. Planting area 35.87 ha. Volunteers will start work on treeline C6 and on beating up.
Planting-year 2007 (Oct 2006-Sep 2007) Total 28.93 ha. Open ground 5.10. Planting area 23.83. Volunteers will work on treeline C6 and on beating up.
Total planting
Area of land in scheme 299.75 ha. Open ground 58.92 ha (19.66%). Planting area 240.83 ha.
@ 1600 trees / ha this is c.385,000 trees.
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6 Environmental impact assessment
6.1 Physical characteristics
6.1.1 Hydrology A detailed report on hydrological impacts is presented in Appendix 12, based on survey work undertaken by Dr Kate Heal (University of Edinburgh) and her students during the summer of 1999. This analysis identified the following key hydrological impacts of the proposals.
Firstly, the establishment of a woodland canopy is likely to reduce the annual catchment water yield. This is primarily due to increased interception losses from the forest canopy. The precise impact is difficult to estimate with precision, but based on previous studies, each 10% increase in forest cover over the catchment is likely to reduce water yield by between 17-25 mm. Any changes in water yield are likely to be proportional to the growth of the stand, i.e. any reduction in yield will be small initially, and will increase until canopy closure.
Forest establishment may also affect the flow regime of the burn due to changes in hydrological pathways under a forest floor. It is likely that moisture retention capacity will increase after tree establishment, increasing infiltration capacity of the soil, which results in larger soil moisture storage. This will have the effect of reducing flow variability in the burn and increasing baseflow.
Probably the most marked hydrological changes in the Carrifran catchment will occur as a result of the presence of large woody debris (LWD) in the burn after woodland restoration. LWD and leaf litter inputs have been shown to improve the habitat quality and aquatic ecology of temperate river systems through the creation of pools and the provision of low velocity areas, shelter, shade and food for fish and other species.
The volume of LWD in the river channel is expected to vary over time and space within the Carrifran catchment owing to the nature of the river channel and the development of the forest. The river channel in Carrifran is mainly in bedrock and is therefore likely to remain relatively stable. The river reach where LWD jams will most probably develop is at the confluence of the major tributaries where banks are less stable and lower flow velocities occur. In other river reaches, jams will be less likely to occur from bank erosion which undermines trees, but where LWD does reach the channel, blockages are likely since the channel width is less than the trunk height of mature trees. The hydrological effects of LWD in the channel will be to increase overbank flows, and perhaps enhance bank erosion, though the latter is less probable, given the apparently stable river channel. To reduce the risk of blockage of the road bridge at the catchment outlet, the debris should be trapped upstream and the trap cleared periodically, especially from November to May when high flows are most likely. Avoiding planting on eroding banks immediately adjacent to the river channel will also minimise the formation of LWD jams.
Prediction of the effects of tree establishment and growth on water chemistry is dependent on the soil type, inputs of atmospheric acidity, tree species, planting density, forest structure, climate, and catchment hydrology. Thus any changes in catchment hydrology and water yield, as discussed above, may also affect surface water chemistry. The main negative water chemistry effect from forest establishment is acidification of catchment soils and surface waters due to enhanced interception of marine salts and acidic species from the atmosphere by a tree canopy, compared with grass. Conifers are known to be more effective than broadleaved species at intercepting atmospheric pollutants. As the current proposals focus on the establishment of broadleaved trees rather than conifers over most of the site, these impacts are likely to be substantially less than in neighbouring conifer plantations.
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Analysis of surface water chemistry across the site suggests that some areas may be susceptible to acidification, although the buffering capacity of the deeper soil horizons is unknown. Conifer afforestation in the UK uplands has also been shown to increase the suspended sediment concentration and decrease water temperature in surface waters. These effects are not expected be significant in Carrifran because of the planting and management methods which will be employed. It is difficult to assess whether acidification will occur because the current acid inputs to the catchment are unknown. Furthermore, the effect of leaf litter on soil structure and chemistry may counteract any enhanced acid inputs arising from the presence of trees. Monthly monitoring of streamwater chemistry in the Carrifran and Blackhope Burns will allow a close watch to be kept on any changes in water chemistry which may occur.
6.1.2 Geology No negative effects on geology are anticipated. The main outcrops of interest occur in localised areas along the burns, and these will be unaffected by tree establishment. The geological interest of the area will make a valuable contribution to interpretation on the site.
6.1.3 Soils Woodland establishment at Carrifran will undoubtedly alter the soil characteristics at the site. The development of the woodland will lead to an accumulation of organic matter, and a reduction in soil compaction is envisaged with the planned reduction in grazing. It is conceivable that the establishment of tree cover may increase soil acidity through increased litter deposition, although the widespread establishment of birch should lead to nutrient enrichment of surface soil layers and should also counter any trend towards acidification.
Despite these envisaged impacts, because of the nature of the woodland and the establishment techniques to be used, impact will be substantially less than in commercial afforestation projects. In particular the lack of any site cultivation will enable soil vertical structure to be maintained. As no drainage or tree establishment on peats is envisaged, no loss of peat through erosion or oxidation is envisaged. Conspicuous sheet erosion on the steep grassy northwest-facing slopes near the summit of Carrifran Gans should be arrested by relaxation of grazing by sheep and goats.
6.2 Biological characteristics
6.2.1 Vascular plants As grazing is reduced, heather is likely to expand (SWT 1997), and may become a dominant in the ground cover of the more open parts of the woodland. Halcrow (1995) suggests that grazing impacts are the main threat to relatively rare vascular plants on Grey Mare's Tail. The reduction of grazing pressure should therefore directly encourage these species. This is also recognised by McKean (1999), who speculates that the planned reduction of grazing should enable these species to spread from the cliffside refuges to which they are currently restricted. The extent to which such species are able to colonise the developing woodland will depend on their reproductive characteristics and their ability to tolerate the shade of a woodland canopy. Those species intolerant of shade could conceivably be negatively affected by woodland development; however as the crags and cliffs are likely to remain free of trees (even after the reduction in grazing), their future status on the site should be assured.
Similarly, plants of the high-altitude blanket bogs are unlikely to be negatively affected by the establishment of woodland, as little woodland establishment is envisaged at the altitudes at which they occur. Certainly, no trees will be planted onto sites of significant peat depth (>20 cm), and natural colonization of blanket bog by trees is unlikely as long as their hydrological status is maintained. The reduction of erosion caused by grazing animals should enable bog habitats to recover naturally from adverse impacts of previous management.
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The vascular plants which may be more immediately threatened by woodland development are those associated with the mire communities on the valley floor and lower slopes. Some species of conservation importance, such as Myosotis stolonifera, are associated with such flushed areas, and these will therefore be avoided during the planting programme.
Montane shrub communities should also benefit from the reduction in grazing, although some species may suffer as a result of increased competition from grasses and shrubs. Monitoring will therefore be required to assess these impacts.
Overall, the diversity of vegetation types present at the site should increase as woodland communities are established; all of the vegetation types currently present at the site should benefit from the proposals, although grassland swards will be reduced in extent. The ecological value of the proposed woodland will be strengthened by the proposed linkage with the woodland habitat network developing along the Moffat Water.
6.2.2 Bryophytes Dr David Long (Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh) has provided valuable advice on the bryophytes of the site. His most serious concern from a bryological perspective relates to the effect of cessation of grazing on the open bryophyte-rich flush communities. If grazing ceases totally these communities will probably disappear within 10 years due to competition with vascular plants. The species-rich flushes (with Bryum weigelii) occurring at relatively high altitude (above Rotten Bottom) should be less affected. Following the advice of Dr Long, the key approach will be to monitor the changes in the vegetation as trees become established. As there are probably similar flushes around most of the Tweedsmuir Hills losses may not be considered too significant. Although some losses are likely, these are likely in Dr Long’s opinion to be outweighed by the gains.
The bryophytes associated with the high altitude blanket bogs, which will not be planted, should benefit from the reduction in grazing and consequent reduction in erosion caused by trampling. The effects of the project on these communities should therefore be entirely positive.
6.2.3 Fungi and lichens Given the lack of woodland at Carrifran, the diversity of mycorrhizal species and saprotrophs associated with deadwood is extremely low. However, the unimproved grassland which covers much of the site can also be an important habitat for some of the larger fungi. Observations suggest that significant populations of wax caps (Hygrocybe spp.) are present on the site. Wax caps as a group are threatened internationally as a result of the effects of habitat loss and pollution; a national project is currently assessing the status of these diverse fungal communities (Rotheroe et al. 1996). As part of this survey, the grassland fungi of the site were assessed in detail in September 1999. At least 15 Hygrocybe and 5 Entoloma species were recorded, although neither of the species included in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (H. calytpriformis and H. spadicea) were encountered. The site is therefore at least of regional importance for these fungi. Such grassland species are likely to be negatively affected by the development of woodland. These impacts will be mitigated by avoiding planting on the base-rich flushes with which these fungi are predominantly associated. However, the relaxation of grazing in such areas is likely to result in enhanced grass growth, which appears to be deleterious to grassland fungi. It is possible that populations of these taxa may persist, particularly in areas of grass under shrubs, but it is very likely that many may disappear from the site in the longer term. The development of a diverse woodland fungal flora on the site should compensate for these losses.
Another potentially important habitat mycologically are the montane heaths, especially the woody shrub communities of which Salix is a part. Salix herbacea, for example, is associated with a diverse and interesting mycoflora, including some nationally important ectomycorrhizal species. These
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communities would merit further mycological survey; few characteristic species of this habitat were encountered during the survey undertaken in September 1999. These species are likely to be positively influenced by these management plans through the intended reduction of grazing.
Overall, we envisage that the fungal diversity of the site will increase substantially as a result of this project, as species colonise the developing woodland habitat. For example, scarce species such as Dacrymyces minor, associated with deadwood, and a wide variety of ectomycorrhizal species should benefit form the increased provision of habitat in future.
6.2.4 Mammals The development of a substantial area of woodland will provide a habitat for a variety of mammals which are currently scarce or absent on the site, such as badger and bats. The developing woodland will also be highly attractive to deer, and although deer numbers will need to be heavily controlled during the woodland establishment phase, in the longer term it is intended that a population of deer be permitted on the site, at a density low enough to permit natural regeneration to occur (see Appendix 10). The improvement of bankside vegetation and associated positive effects on fish populations should also improve the habitat for otters. The reduction in grazing is itself likely to result in a large increase in populations of small mammals and their associated predators. Species dependent on large areas of open habitat (particularly hares) may decline with time; however, in the Moffat Hills the mountain hare is largely restricted to the summit plateaux, and hardly any planting is envisaged on these; losses are therefore likely to be minimal.
6.2.5 Birds (Note. This section has been contributed by Peter Gordon, RSPB Conservation Officer for Lothian & Borders and a member of the Wildwood Group, with additional input from Ray Murray) Breeding bird populations found at Carrifran today are typical of the impoverished grassy sheepwalk of much of the Southern Uplands. This is particularly true of the valley floor and the lower slopes, the areas which will be profoundly changed by this project. The likely effects upon Carrifran's commoner birds and their conservation status are summarised below.
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Species Conservation status Conservation status Likely change UK: Southeast Scotland: population as pairs/ population as pairs/ territories (Stone et territories (Murray al 1997) et al 1998) Meadow 2 M 127,000 Most/all will be quickly lost from pipit valley floor and lower slopes but higher birds will remain Wheatear 56,000 5000 Some reduction in numbers but will remain on unplanted screes Skylark 2.1 M 54,400 Most/all will be lost quickly from valley floor and lower slopes but higher birds will remain Ring ouzel 5,500-11,000 300 Some decline likely as grazing of grassy feeding areas diminishes Wren 7.6 M 150,000 No effect on current birds (above 450 m) but huge increase likely within 5 years of tree planting
The reduction in numbers of meadow pipit cannot be considered a significant impact in view of their abundance elsewhere. As scree slopes will be unplanted and woodland regeneration of this habitat will be extremely slow (and substantial open areas will be left along the main burn), wheatears will decline rather than disappear and losses will be significant only at a very local level. Rather few skylarks were found in the valley floor and lower slopes and these birds will be lost to tree planting. This species is of high conservation importance - it is a Priority Species in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan - on account of the very large population declines which have occurred over the past 25 years. Nevertheless, it remains a very common bird and the loss of a handful of pairs at this site could easily be compensated by appropriate management of a single arable field. As with meadow pipit, pairs on higher ground unaffected by woodland establishment are likely to persist.
On the higher slopes, ring ouzels are noteworthy, but only small numbers were found at Carrifran during a survey carried out in summer 1999. A population estimate of 5,500-11,000 breeding pairs in the UK may be over-optimistic in view of recent RSPB work which suggests a severe decline in numbers in south Scotland and more generally, and even the recent estimate of 300 pairs in SE Scotland may be unduly generous. It is difficult to judge the likely effect of planting proposals on this species - most individuals are recorded above the 450 m contour but feed largely on invertebrates in close-grazed turf during summer months so a reduction in grazing by sheep and goats may have an impact. The loss of, perhaps, three territories is perhaps the most significant adverse impact on birds of the current proposals to be considered against any possible benefits.
There is no reason to suppose that the type of planting proposed at Carrifran will have any adverse impact upon the few waterside birds - pied and grey wagtail, common sandpiper, grey heron and goosander - and it may allow numbers to increase. The peregrines are unlikely to be affected. Ravens are likely to find less carrion within Carrifran when sheep are removed. However, they will still have access to sheep in adjacent areas and, in the longer term, their prey base will increase as other mammals and birds colonise with development of open woodland.
The establishment of a mixed broadleaved woodland will undoubtedly lead to rapid and profound changes in bird populations. Unlike some other taxa birds are very mobile and their migratory and dispersive tendencies mean colonisation will be swift.
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Some caution might be exercised concerning the highest level areas of the site at White Coomb and Priest Craig. Whilst not recorded recently there are old records from the 1970’s and early 1980’s of golden plover, dotterel and dunlin on the summit ridges, particularly of White Comb. Indeed dotterel have nested on the nearby Hartfell Rig, one of the handful of definite breeding reports in Southern Scotland in the 20th century. What impact the reduction of grazing pressure on the summit vegetation might have on such species is unknown. In the short term it may be beneficial, encouraging a flush of vegetation and its associated invertebrates on which they feed. However dotterel and golden plover prefer short swards, so any development of a taller sward may be detrimental in the longer term. The degree to which the short sward on the summit ridges is due to wind damage or due to grazing is not known.
Examples elsewhere in southern Scotland comparable to this ambitious attempt to establish a woodland of this type across this altitudinal range are lacking; coniferous plantations are legion and forestry schemes acceptable to Forestry Authority for WGS generally have a small broadleaved component, usually along lower edges and by watercourses, but a new extensive, mixed broadleaved woodland is a novelty. Nevertheless, sufficient information exists on birds' preferences for woodland species and structure to make a realistic prediction of at least the broad-brush bird communities we might expect to see at Carrifran (Smart and Andrews 1985, Fuller 1982).
Turning to bird gains, these will vary as planting proceeds and woodland develops and matures. Within just 3-5 years of planting, we can envisage a considerably richer bird population both in terms of species diversity and total numbers. Largish numbers of willow warblers, whinchats, chaffinches and wrens (perhaps 10-100 pairs of each) will colonise early, with scarcer species such as grasshopper warbler. Song thrush and blackbird, blackcap and garden warbler will quickly follow along with tree pipits, spotted flycatchers and finches such as bullfinch and greenfinch. Tits - great, blue, coal and longtailed - and treecreepers will find suitable crevices fairly early but the shortage of larger holes will inhibit pied flycatchers, redstarts and stockdoves for several decades (unless nestboxes are provided). Great spotted woodpeckers will soon respond to presence of any dead timber but green woodpeckers may take longer.
Many other woodland species will have colonised by the time the woodland has reached its first half- century; they will include sparrowhawk, jay, tawny owl and woodcock but within such a timescale accurate prediction of colonists is a much chancier affair. Nuthatches are expanding their range rapidly in the Scottish Borders and by 2050 effects of climate change on bird populations may be dramatic with southern species such as hobby, woodlark and nightingale spreading northward. Equally, some eastern species are rapidly spreading towards the UK with thrush-nightingale, bluethroat and scarlet rosefinch possible colonists of Carrifran.
Current bird conservation priorities may have altered considerably long before trees at Carrifran approach maturity. Nevertheless, to offer a perspective valid in 1999, the following species which are likely to colonise the area under this project are recognised as Priority Species under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan: spotted flycatcher, bullfinch, song thrush, tree sparrow and perhaps nightjar. In addition, linnet and reed bunting are likely to appear for a few years after tree-planting and may persist in small numbers for longer.
One species not mentioned so far in this section is black grouse. This species does occur here, perhaps as no more than one or two males, and very few live in the immediate vicinity. Black grouse is of high conservation concern and is listed as a Priority Species in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan. One of the factors known to adversely affect black grouse elsewhere is fence-strikes, but erection of stock fences is considered essential to this project. On the other hand, reduction of grazing pressure and planting of a range of tree species are known to be associated with pockets of higher densities of black
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grouse. A judgement must be made regarding relative costs and benefits and I consider that the long- term benefits to black grouse which accrue from planting far outweigh the likely losses from collision with stock fences. Proper attention to fence siting and design will further balance the equation in favour of the planting proposals in this area.
Summary for birds • Profound changes in bird populations will occur as a result of this project. • Losses of birds will not be significant, with the exception of the ring ouzel. • Numbers of individual birds and of breeding species will increase rapidly once trees are planted. • Some of these colonising species are current conservation priorities. • As woodland develops, different bird species will colonise but it is difficult to make accurate predictions of all likely species over such a time-scale.
6.2.6 Fish The improvement of bankside vegetation following the reduction in grazing should substantially improve the habitat for fish, by directly improving food quality and quantity and indirectly by reducing bank erosion, improving the pool and riffle structure of the stream itself. The most significant negative effect of tree establishment is a possible change in water chemistry, which will require monitoring as the woodland develops.
6.2.7 Insects and other invertebrates Those species of insects and arachnids associated with open vegetation may decline as the area of woodland increases, although losses are unlikely from the site as substantial open areas will be maintained. Most species should benefit directly from the reduction in grazing and the consequent development of the ground flora. The woodland will also provide a habitat for a wide variety of phytophagous and saproxylic insects which are at present virtually absent from the site, along with their associated predators and parasites. The spider fauna will also increase substantially in diversity.
6.3 Archaeology
The plan for woodland establishment described earlier in this document indicates areas that will be left unplanted around each of the features which have so far been identified as of interest by archaeologists. These include a number of shielings and small enclosures and field clearance cairns (Figure 3). Areas of at least 5 m have been earmarked as open ground around each of these features.
The remains of a farmstead near the entrance to the valley from the public road extends over a substantial area; the fenced field within which it lies is not included in the Woodland Grant Scheme application.
Other, later, structures in Carrifran valley include a memorial cairn (which has the initials RJC and the date of 1938), and a number of sheep stells which are probably part of the 19th century farm. These may need to have small areas left unplanted around them, but perhaps do not need a more sensitive approach as they are standard survivors from the time of the agricultural improvements.
Continuing consultation with the Regional Archaeologist for Dumfries and Galloway (Jane Brann) will enable Borders Forest Trust to ensure that all recorded archaeological sites at Carrifran are treated sensitively, and are maintained free of woody vegetation where this is considered appropriate.
6.4 Landscape
The proposals have been designed to ensure that the woodland which develops on the site will blend into the wider landscape, emphasize the landform of the site and enhance existing woodland
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remnants. The result will be a much more diverse landscape than at present. For details of the landscape assessment of the site, see Appendix 13.
6.4.1 Short and medium term changes to the landscape
The proposed woodland will be significantly more appropriate to the scale and shape of the landscape than the conifer plantations which have been established in Moffat Dale. Open areas will be left unplanted to provide viewpoints of key landscape features, particularly the waterfall and crags. The open plateaux and skylines will also remain unplanted. Overall, the project should have a highly positive effect on the landscape, and in particular, the proposals will seek to augment the enclosed nature of the site and its wild character. However, there are some potentially adverse effects on the landscape, as follows:
6.4.2 Boundary fences The boundary fencing will produce marked linear features. The northern margin bordering Gameshope is already fenced, as is the southeastern boundary with Polmoody, but the creation of new fences along the eastern and western margins (Saddle Yoke and Carrifran Gans respectively) will have an undesirable landscape impact. This can be mitigated by ensuring that fencelines are concealed behind skylines and do not run along ridgecrests. The most significant visual feature will be the boundary running along the western margin near the entrance to the site, up Peat Hill, which is easily visible from the public road. It has been suggested that this initial section should be marked by construction of a drystane dyke (rather than a stock fence), providing a landscape feature characteristic of landuse in Moffat Dale. However, an alternative view is that a stock fence could provide a less conspicuous boundary. The Wildwood Group would welcome comment on this point. The woodland establishment plan will anyhow pay special attention to this margin, given its visibility from the public road. A transition zone will be required to avoid the creation of a hard straight edge along the fence line. A grading out of the forest cover to scrub and open ground will provide a more natural looking edge but active management will be needed to maintain this.
6.4.3 Deer fences Two small deer-fenced exclosures were erected in early 2000 in the interior of the valley (see Figure 9); they will be not be visible from the public road. These fences are viewed as temporary and the need for their retention will be regularly reviewed.
6.4.4 Visual impact of tree cultivation Landscape impacts are inevitable during the woodland establishment phase. However, these will be minimised by: • the avoidance of visually intrusive ground preparation techniques such as ploughing and mounding; • only limited use of tree shelters; • where tree shelters are used, they will be removed once the tree is self supporting; • the effects of spot applications of herbicide as part of the planting procedure will be conspicuous only at short range and is only a temporary effect; • planting at regular spacing and in straight lines will be avoided.
6.4.5 Long term changes to the landscape The long-term result of the project will be a dynamic natural forest growing in an uncontrolled, unplanned way in response to natural processes. It is difficult to predict precisely what the eventual outcome will be. A dense woodland with open ground and patches of regeneration is likely along the lower slopes and following the burns. As soil and climatic factors become increasingly limiting at higher elevations, the vegetation cover will diminish in height and, probably, in density, framing and drawing attention to the open rocky crags on the steepest slopes. The gradually extending cover of
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low and scattered trees and shrubs on the higher slopes will create a soft visual boundary between woodland and open hill, as well as enhancing biodiversity (Dunsmore 1998). On the upper areas where exposure is extreme, a montane scrub will develop on better drained and more sheltered ground, with peat bogs where drainage is impeded and open ground where the land is too rocky or the climate too cold. In every sense, this will be a forest/landcover determined by soils, drainage and climate which in turn are all determined by topography. By deliberately keeping human influence to an absolute minimum, man-made landscape impacts will be almost eliminated.
6.5 Socio-economic impact
Carrifran valley will be open to the general public and will provide significant social benefits in terms of education and inspiration. Adverse effects of visitor use will be minimised by careful signing and management in consultation with Local Authorities and other relevant parties.
Although traditional employment will be reduced to a small extent by removal of Carrifran from agricultural use, a strongly positive net effect during the initial stages of the project will be assured by the employment of a project officer (full-time initially), the purchase of trees from commercial nurseries and the provision of contract work in fencing and planting. Employment on the project will decline after the first decade, but will continue indefinitely in relation to deer control, fence maintenance, wardening and management of education and recreation. Local contractors will be employed whenever possible.
Although a precise calculation of the employment benefits is impractical, the approximate scale can be estimated. In a survey of the forestry industry in Great Britain in 1993/94 it was calculated that total employment in the industry was about 35,000, and of this, 3350 workers were employed in nurseries or in establishment work (Forestry Industry Council of Great Britain, Handbook 1998). In 1994 nearly 34,000 ha were planted (with roughly equal areas in conifers and broadleaves). This implies an average of about one worker per 10 hectares of forest planted, employed in nursery or establishment work. Extrapolating this calculation to Carrifran, the intention is to plant 300 hectares over eight years, which is equivalent to employment for a little less than four people throughout the period. Given that this figure is based on an average of broadleaves and conifers and the former are considerably more expensive to raise and esablish, a figure of five job-equivalents for eight years seems conservative. Long-term employment prospects are more difficult to forecast, but there will be ongoing requirements for deer-control, fencing repairs and wardening / interpretation on the site; these are likely to be equivalent to approximately one full-time job. In addition, visitors to the site will contribute significantly to the local economy.
6.6 Monitoring
The impacts of the project on all of these aspects will be carefully monitored, and by use of an adaptive approach to management, if any adverse impacts are noted then the management can be amended accordingly. Brief details of the proposed monitoring programme are given in Appendix 8.
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7 References
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