The Periglaciation of Great Britain Colin K

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-31016-1 - The Periglaciation of Great Britain Colin K. Ballantyne and Charles Harris Index More information

Index

Abbot's Salford, Worcestershire, 53 aufeis, see also icings, 70 bimodal flows, see ground-ice slumps Aberayron, Dyfed, Wales, 104 Australia, 179, 261 Binbrook, Lincolnshire, 157 Aberystwyth, Dyfed, Wales, 128, 206, 207 Austrian Alps, 225 Bingham flow, 231 Acheulian hand axes, see hand axes avalanche activity, 219-22; 226-30, 236, 244, Birling Gap, Sussex, 102, 108 Achnasheen, NW Scotland, 233 295, 297 Black Mountain, Dyfed, 231, 234 active layer, see also seasonal thawing, 5, 27, avalanche boulder tongues, 220, 226, 295 Black Rock, Brighton, Sussex, 125, 126 35,41,42,114-18, 140,175 avalanche cones, 220, 226 Black Top Creek, EUesmere Island, Canada, 144 detachment slides, 115, 118, 276 avalanche impact pits, 226 Black Tors, Dartmoor, 178 glides, 118 avalanche landforms, 7, 8 blockfields, 8, 164-9, 171, 173-6, 180, 183, processes, 85-102 avalanche tongues, 227, 228 185,187,188,193,194 thickness, 107-9,281-2 avalanche-modified talus, 226-30 allochthonous, 173 Adwick-Le-Street, Yorkshire, 45, 53 Avon, 132, 134, 138, 139 autochthonous, 174, 182 aeolian, processes, see also wind action, 141, Avon Valley, 138 blockslopes, 173-6, 187, 190 155-60,161,255-67,296 Axe Valley, Devon, 103, 147 blockstreams, 173 aeolian sediments, see also loess and Bodmin Moor, Cornwall, 124, 168 coversands, 55, 96, 146-7, 150, 168, Badwell Ash, Essex, 101 Bohemian Highlands, 181 169, 257-60 Baffin Island, 103, 143,219 Boreal period, 21, 22 Afon Cerniog, Central Wales, 212 Bain, River, Lincolnshire, 49, 148 Boulder Creek, Yukon, Canada, 144 air thawing index, 85 Balderton Terrace, 56-7 boulder lobes, 189, 190, 208-14, 218 alas, 72, 73 Ballaugh, Isle of Man, 79, 83 boulder sheets, 187, 190, 208-14, 218 Alaska, 40, 41, 43, 67, 72-3, 90, 97, 118, 141, Banks Island, NWT, Canada, 42, 49, 65, 115, Bournemouth, Hampshire, 279 142, 143, 155, 165, 246,247,249,275, 118,120,146,155 Bowland Fells, NW England, 234 277, 280 Baosbheinn, NW Scotland, 232, 237, 240, 242 Bowscale Fell, Lake District, 261 alluvial fans, 7, 250-1, 252 Barham Sands and Gravels, 12 Boxgrove, Sussex, 158 alpine climates, 27, 28 Barham Structure Soil, 9, 52, 100, 108, 112, 149 Braeriach, Cairngorms, 23 alpine tundra, 28, 120 Barrow, Northamptonshire, 106, 108 braid bars, 145-6, 152 alpine zone, 29 Baston, Lincolnshire, 48, 49 braided rivers, 103, 144-52 Alps, 230, 242, 243 Bath, Avon, 132, 133, 138, 139 breccia, 121 Am Faochagach, northern Scotland, 185 Bealach Dubh, Grampians, 227 Breckland, Cambridgeshire, 97, 159, 160, 201, amino acid dating, 11, 14, 57 Beazley End, Essex, 112 289 An Teallach, NW Highlands, 166, 168, 170-3, Beckford, Worcestershire, 61, 278 Brecon Beacons, 18, 110, 113, 252 175-7, 188-9, 210, 222, 224-6, 231, bedded growan, 252 Bredon Hill, Worcestershire, 138 232-5, 239, 248-50, 256-60, 262-6, Beenham Grange Terraces, 150, 283 Brent Tor, Dartmoor, 79, 82, 83 294, 296 Beeston, Norfolk, 53 brickearth, 125, 156 Andes, 27 Beestonian stage, 53, 100 Bridestones, Yorkshire, 178 angle of repose, 219 beetle assemblages, see coleoptera Brighton, Sussex, 125 model of talus accumulation, 220 Beetley, Norfolk, 15 Brimham Rocks, Pennines, 178 Anglesey, north Wales, 17, 82, 106, 108, 110, Beinn Alligin, NW Scotland, 243 Brimpton, Berkshire, 15 157 Beinn an Fhurain, Assynt, 194, 195 Brimpton Interstadial, 12, 15 Anglian Glacial Stage, 11-15, 24-5, 53^, 100 Beinn an Lochain, Grampians, 243 Brinziehill, Kincardineshire, Scotland, 128 Anglian ice sheet, 54, 124 Beinn Mheadhoin, Cairngorms, 178, 181 Brittany, 279 Anglian till, 11-12, 52, 54, 101, 148 Belgium 73 Broad Law, Southern Uplands of Scotland, 172, Angus, Scotland, 6, 16 Believer Quarry, Dartmoor, 130 176, 177, 184 Antarctica, 29, 42, 43, 44, 117 Ben Alder, Grampians, 227 Broadstairs, Kent, 102 Aonach Beag, Grampians, 227 Ben Arkle, northern Scotland, 215, 256, 257 Brook, Kent, 153^ Applecross Peninsula, Scottish Highlands, 170 Ben Avon, Cairngorms, 178 Brooks Range, Alaska, 67 arctic nival river regimes, 141-3 Ben Lawers, NE Scotland, 184, 214 Broomfield, Essex, 52, 101 arctic tundra, 28, 120 Ben Loyal, Sutherland, 178, 181 Broughton, Kent, 132 Ardessie Burn, An Teallach, northern Scotland, Ben More, Mull, 216 Buchan, NE Scotland, 16, 60-1 173, 233, 254 Ben Nevis, Scottish Highlands, 22, 23, 24, 214, Buckinghamshire, 14, 102, 288 Ardnamurchan, western Scotland, 268, 269 227,229,231,237 Bury Hill, Staffordshire, 133 Argyle Stone, Cairngorms, 181 Ben Rinnes, NE Scotland, 181 Arran, 167 Ben Wyvis, Scottish Highlands, 22, 166, 167, Cadeby, Leicestershire, 106, 108 Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh, 231 175, 176, 177, 187, 188, 189, 200-3, Cader Idris, Wales, 18, 222, 252 Assynt, Scottish Highlands, 193 210, 211, 213, 216, 217, 248-50, 261, Cairngorm Mountains, 5, 16, 20^, 166, 168, Aston Flamville, Leicestershire, 106 294 169, 171-3, 178, 179, 181, 188, 191, asymmetrical valleys, 143, 154-5 Bennachie, NE Scotland, 181 193, 194, 196, 197, 208, 209, 210, 213, Atherfield Clay, 138 Berkshire, 15, 97, 102, 151-2, 288 214, 215, 221, 224, 227, 228, 231, 232, Atlantic period, 21,22 Berkshire Downs, 153 233, 235, 237-9, 242-3, 245, 250, 252, Atterberg Limits, 113, 129, 134-6, 207, 218 bevelled cliffs, 137 254-7, 260, 261, 290, 291, 294

325

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-31016-1 - The Periglaciation of Great Britain Colin K. Ballantyne and Charles Harris Index More information

326 INDEX

Cairnsmore of Fleet, Southern Uplands of coombe rock, 4, 6, 55, 74, 125-7, 153 57-63, 74-83, 97, 98, 101, 112, 131, Scotland, 168 coombes, 152-5 147, 148, 150, 180, 248-9 Caistor St Edmunds, Essex, 112 corestones, 171, 173, 179, 180, 181 Devensian till, 50, 103, 128 Caithness, 14, 16, 17, 24, 166, 169, 178, 186, Cornwall, 7, 61, 105, 121, 122-5, 157, 168, 280, Devil's Point, Cairngorms, 238, 239, 240 260, 261 284 Devon, 5-8, 79, 82, 83, 103, 104, 110, 120, 123, Cam Loch, Sutherland, 251 Cornwallis Island, NWT, Canada, 143, 250 124, 125, 127, 129, 130,147,157,168, Cam Valley, Essex, 134 Corton, Suffolk, 11, 12,54 169, 171, 173, 178-81, 199, 246-7, 252, cambering, 5, 133, 137-9, 180, 276 Corton Beds, 54 280 Cambridgeshire, 5, 47, 48, 81-2, 83, 102, 148 Costorphine, near Edinburgh, 251 Devon Island, NWT, Canada, 120, 143 Canada, 29, 30, 31, 32, 39, 40, 41, 42, 45, 49, Cotentin Peninsula, France, 279 diapiric injection, 91, 93, 102 65, 103, 115, 118, 120, 143, 146, 201, Cotswold Hills, 132, 137, 138, 139, 288 Dietrich River, Alaska, 142 267 coversands, see also aeolian sediments, 6, 7, 93, differential frost heave, 94, 96 Canadian Rocky Mountains, 115 155,156,157, 158-60, 276, 288 differential frost susceptibility, 93 capillary theory of frost weathering, 164 Cox Tor, Dartmoor, 199, 246-7 differential weathering, 178, 179 Cardigan Bay, Wales, 104, 128 crags, 121 Dimlington Stadial, 11, 12, 15-17, 50, 61, 62, Cam Gorm, Ben Wyvis, Scottish Highlands, Creag Meagaidh, Scottish Highlands, 210 75, 77, 81-3, 102-3, 110, 128, 132, 136, 167, 174, 175 creep, see also frost creep, 83, 295 150, 158, 195, 208, 250, 253, 275, Carneddau Mountains, Snowdonia, 196, 198, Cromer Till, 11,54 279-86 210,216 Cromerian Interglacial Stage, 12, 53, 54 discrete rockfall model of talus accumulation, Carpathian Mountains, 174 crop marks, 45, 53 220 Carsington, Derbyshire, 133 Cross Fell, western Pennines, 23 Dix's Pit, Oxfordshire, 49 Cerniog River Valley, Central Wales, 212 Crouch, River, Essex, 55 Docking Common, Norfolk, 102, 103 chalkland dry valleys, see dry valleys cryogenic mounds, 68-70 Dorset, 127, 134, 135, 154 chalkland patterned ground, 96-8 cryohydrostatic pressures, 94 drainage density 151 chalkland solutional weathering, 126 cryopediments, 137, 154, 247 Druidstone, Pembrokeshire, 125 Charnwood Forest, Leicestershire, 178 cryostatic pressure, 91 Drumochter Hills, Grampians, 200, 202, 210, Chelford, Cheshire, 14, 60 cry otic, 31 214, 215, 216, 217, 294 Chelford Interstadial, 11, 12, 14, 15, 60 cryoturbation, 29, 30, 47, 79, 85-109, 112, 148, Drumochter Pass, Grampians, 231 Chelford Sands Formation, 60, 147 160, 200, 203, 278 dry avalanching, 219 Cheltenham Sands Formation, 278 amplitude of, 99 dry valleys, 125-7, 151, 153-5 chemical weathering, 165, 166, 172-3, 250, 294 structures, see also involutions, 8, 49, 94-6, dunes, 159 Cheshire, 14, 59, 60, 61, 147, 286 115,158,276,281-2,297 Durham County, 157 Chettisham Fen, Cambridgeshire, 81 Cuillin Hills, Skye, 223, 224 Dyfed, Wales, 61, 104, 122, 128, 206, 231, 234 Cheviot Hills, 16, 113, 124, 168, 178, 181, 205, Cumbria, 17, 74, 79, 80, 83, 248 206, 207, 246 Current Valley, Worcestershire, 278 Eagle Rock, Pennines, 179 Chichester, Sussex, 125 cutans, 108, 298 Early Devensian, 12, 14-15, 24, 58-61, 101, Chiltern Hills, 97, 127, 154 Cwm Du, mid Wales, 246 103, 147, 148, 158, 298 China, 141 Cwm Tinwen, mid Wales, 246 Early Pleistocene deposits, 148 Churchdown Hill, Gloucestershire, 130 earth hummocks, 7, 90-2, 191, 199-203 Chwefru Valley, mid Wales, 253 Dalmulzie, SE Grampians, 238, 239, 240 East Anglia, 11, 51-2, 58, 83, 96-7, 108, 134, Clatford Bottom, Wiltshire, 126, 127 Dalton-in-Furness, Lancashire, 106, 108 159, 160,279, 285, 288, 289 clay minerals, 165, 173 Dartmoor, 5, 7, 8, 79, 82, 104, 110, 120, 127, eboulis ordonnees, 252 clay-rich head, 130-5, 276 129, 130, 168, 169, 171, 173, 178-81, Edale, Vale of, Derbyshire, 122, 206 clay-with-flints, 126 199,209, 213, 246-7, 252, 280 Edinburgh, 223, 251 Cledan River Valley, Central Wales, 212 Daventry, Northamptonshire, 132 Eglwyseg Escarpment, north Wales, 222 Cledlyn Valley, Wales, 76-7 Dead Crags, Lake District, 239, 240 electron spin resonance dating, 57 Cletwr Valley, Wales, 76-7 debris cones, 4, 220, 230, 231, 296 Ellesmere Island, NWT, Canada, 97, 117, 118, climatic classification, 27-8 debris flow deposits, 6, 227-35 119,142, 143,144,225,248 Climatic Optimum, 21, 275 debris flows, 9, 161, 187, 220, 221, 224, Elstead, Surrey, 75 Clisham, Outer Hebrides, 193 227-35, 254, 295, 296 Ely, Cambridgeshire, 81, 83 clitter,5, 171, 179 debris islands, 193 English Lake District, 5, 18, 20, 112, 166, 167, coefficient of consolidation, 113 debris tails, 226 168, 177, 181, 183, 193, 196, 197, 198, Coire Beanaidh, Cairngorms, 242, 243 debris-mantled slopes, 173, 176-8, 190 222-30, 237, 239, 240, 242, 244, 251, Coire Lagan, Skye, 221 debris-mantled surfaces and plateaux, 173, 253, 290 Coire na Ciste, Ben Nevis, 227-9, 295 176-8, 190 English Midlands, 12, 53, 137, 156, 158, 279 Coire nan Tota, An Teallach, northern Scotland, deflation, see also aeolian processes and wind environmental reconstruction, see 249 action, 92, 146, 247, 256-7, 260-1 palaeoenvironmental reconstruction coleoptera, 15, 18, 20, 31, 60, 152, 278, 282, deflation scars, 260, 264, 295 Eocene Clay, 131 286, 289, 292 deflation surfaces, 155, 187, 256-7, 266, 296 Eppleworth, Yorkshire, 16, 158 colluviation, 292 deflation terraces, 264 Esk River, Yorkshire, 248 colluvium, 67, 124, 136, 289 dellen, 152 Essex, 51-2, 55, 99-101, 112, 113, 134, 158 Colorado Front Range, USA, 114, 115, 116, 241 dells, 152^1 Eston Beacon, Tees Valley, 128, 288 Colville Delta, Alaska, 41 density inversion, 94, 96 Eurasia, 31, 32 Colville River, Alaska, 141-3 Deptford pericline, 80 Eureka, Ellesmere Island, Canada, 28 Colwyn River Valley, Wales, 212 depth of zero amplitude, 32 Exmoor, Devon, 6, 178, 179 Congleton, Cheshire, 14, 61 Derbyshire, 122, 133, 181, 206 Conington Fen, Cambridgeshire, 80 Derwent River, 247 fabrics, see macrofabrics and microfabrics consolidated horizon see fragipan desiccation, 91 Falkland Islands, 174 Constantine Bay, Cornwall, 125 detritus, see mountain-top detritus fall sorting, 219, 220-3 Continental climates, 27 Devensian, see also Early, Middle and Late Fannich Mountains, Scottish Highlands, 164, contraction cracking, 39-43, 93 Devensian 166,210,215,217,218 convection, Devensian glacial limits, 13, 15-17, 24-5, 58, Farcet Fen, near Peterborough, 80 soil, 93, 198-9 61, 75, 99, 104, 124, 125 Farleton Fell, Lake District, 248, 249 water, 94, 198-9 Devensian Glacial Stage, 11, 12, 14-20, 48, fast ice, 143

INDEX 327

fauna of the periglacial zone, 30-1 Glen Etive, Scottish Highlands, 231, 235 hillslope debris flows, see debris flows Fenland Basin, 49, 80-2, 136 Glen Feshie, Scottish Highlands, 231, 234, 235, Holbury, Hampshire, 158 Fenland depressions, see also thermokarst 252 Holderness, 16 depressions, 284 Glen Roy, Scottish Highlands, 251, 252, 270 Holdsworth Down, north Devon, 246 Feshie Hills, Cairngorms, 181 Glen Spean, Scottish Highlands, 270 Holmstrombre, West Spitsbergen, 156 Feshie, River, Cairngorms, 255 Glen Torridon, northern Scotland, 18 Holocene, see also Flandrian, 11,21, 130, 147, Fife, Scotland, 16, 61, 222, 225, 226, 231 Glencoe, Scottish Highlands, 167, 169, 170, 171, 172, 187, 190, 200, 215, 218, 224, Firth of Clyde, 62 231,235 235, 244, 249, 298 Flandrian Interglacial, see also Holocene, 18, Glendye, NE Scotland, 255 Holocene alluvium, 141 21-2, 75, 148, 161, 201, 206, 210, 212, gliding blocks, see ploughing boulders Holocene slope processes, 98 213,215, 251, 252, 259, 269, 293-7 Gloucestershire, 49-51, 130, 138 Hope Cove, Devon, 123 Flandrian Interglacial peat, 82 Glyders, Snowdonia, 194, 195, 216 Horsecombe Vale, Avon, 132, 288 Flandrian Interglacial sea levels, 137 Gower Peninsula, Wales, 14, 16, 120, 124, 125 Hound Tor, Dartmoor, 178 floral refugia, 182 grainflow, 231 Howgill Fells, NW England, 231, 233, 236 flowslides, 244 Grampian Mountains, 16, 18, 20, 21, 168, 183, Hoxne, Suffolk, 55 fluvial activity, 289 186, 194, 195-7, 199, 200, 202, 210, Hoxnian Interglacial Stage, 11-13, 53, 54-5, 58 fluvial processes, 254-5 217, 227, 231, 232, 239, 252, 290 Hudson Bay, 267 fluvial sediments, 31, 48, 49, 53, 56-60, 74 granular disintegration, see also hummock stripes, 190, 199-203 fluvioperiglacial processes, 141-55, 160, 250-1 microgelivation, 171, 175, 176 hummocks, see also earth hummocks, 89-92 Foinaven, Sutherland, 256 granular head deposits, 122-5, 276 hydration hypothesis of rock weathering, see Ford, Kent, 157 granulometry, ordered water hypothesis, Fort Good Hope, NWT, Canada, 28 aeolian sands, 156 Four Ashes, Staffordshire, 14, 15, 60 head, 134 ice, fragipans, 110, 275, 276, 288 loess, 157 injection, 34, 65, 69 France, 156, 157, 279 niveo-aeolian sand, 259 interstitial, 241 freeze-thaw activity, 163-226, 236-50, 292^1 Grasmoor, Lake District, 198, 242 matrix, 241 freeze-thaw cycles, 92, 172, 175, 249 Great Barn of Bynack, Cairngorms, 178 segregation, see ice lenses freeze-thaw soil structure, 109, 110 Great Dun Fell, Pennines, 23, 193, 200, 255 ice lenses, 32-5, 85-8, 90, 111, 113-18, 129, freezing front, 65, 113, 115 Great Staple Tor, Dartmoor, 173 131,218,241,250 freezing point depression, 86 Great Waltham, Essex, 112 ice-wedge casts, 5, 6, 7, 8, 14, 15, 39-63, 79, frost action see freeze-thaw activity Greatrigg Man, Lake District, 193 283-6, 288-90 frost cracks, 5, 9, 42, 50, 60, 279, 280, 288, Green Lakes Valley, Colorado Front Range, interformational, 45, 49 292 USA, 241 intraformational, 45, 56-7, 60, 148, 149, 150 frost creep, 5, 7, 97, 114, 128-9, 135, 174, 198, Greenland, 103, 114, 155, 202, 225 stratigraphically superimposed, 49 213,218,264-6,295,296 grezes litees, 6, 252, 254 stratigraphy, 53-62 frost fissures, see frost cracks ground-ice, 32-5, 39^2, 65-73, 85-7 supraformational, 45, 60 frost heave, 87, 90, 113, 114, 127, 128, 139, ground-ice depressions, see also thermokarst ice-wedge polygons, see also tundra polygons, 177,197,198,264, 295 depressions, 7, 8, 58, 74-83, 277, 289 39^1, 146 frost mounds, 70, 82 ground-ice mounds, 70, 83 ice wedges, see also wedge ice, 5, 9, 11, 39^4-1, frost sorting, 5, 88, 93, 98, 174, 263 ground-ice slumps, see also retrogressive thaw 80,281-3 frost susceptible soils, 86, 92-3, 114, 118, 122, flow slides, 29, 118-19,276 epigenetic, 41 198, 207, 210, 213, 214, 293, 294 growan, see gruss syngenetic, 41 frost weathering, 5, 7, 98, 125, 163-72, 173-92, Grunty Fen, 81-2 ice veins, 60 219,267-71 gruss, 104, 163, 179, 181, 186, 207 Iceland, 256 frost wedging, see also macrogelivation, 164, gulls, 137-9 icings, see also aufeis, 70 170, 180, 219, 271 Gwash Valley, Northamptonshire, 137 imbrication, 145, 147 frost-weathered regolith, 166-92, 245, 287 Gwynedd, north Wales, 61, 106, 108 indurated horizons, 6, 110-12 frozen fringe, 85-6, 125 Gwynedd Readvance, 17 insect assemblages, see coleoptera interglacial soils, 100 Gaick Plateau, Grampians, 18, 210 Hampshire, 61, 97, 125, 151, 158, 279 intrusive ice, see injection ice gallery pediments, 148 hand axes, Inverness, 185 Garry Island, NWT Canada, 39, 115 Acheulian, 55, 57, 148 involutions, see also cryoturbation structures, Gault Clay, 48, 132, 133 Levalloisian, 101 5-7, 9, 11, 15, 47, 53, 60, 94, 99-107, gelifluctate, see also gelifluction deposits, head, Harris, Outer Hebrides, 183, 291 148, 150 81,104,120,136,205-18,284 Harrogate, Yorkshire, 179 Ipswichian cliffs, 124, 136 gelifluction, 4, 97, 114-18, 121-9, 135, 143, Hastings, Sussex, 138 Ipswichian Interglacial Stage, 11-14, 16, 53, 174, 175, 205-6, 213-15, 218, 254, 295 Haytor Rocks, Dartmoor, 168, 178 56-7, 60, 124, 125, 187, 298 gelifluction deposits, see also gelifluctate, head, head, see also solifluction deposits and Ireland, 268 103 gelifluctate, 4, 5, 6, 7, 63, 121-36, 156, Irish Sea Basin, 157,284 gelifluction lobes, see solifluction lobes 205 Irish Sea glaciation, 12-13 gelifraction, see also frost weathering, 163 Heatherslade Bay, Gower, Wales, 121 Islay, Inner Hebrides, 268, 269, 270 geotechnical properties of head, 113-14, 121, Hebrides, 16, 18, 20, 167, 183, 187, 193, 194, Isle of Man, 79, 206, 288 134 208, 222, 239, 241, 268-70, 271, 291 IsleofThanet, 101 Gipping Valley, Suffolk, 151, 289 Helvellyn, Lake District, 196, 208 IslesofScilly,7, 125, 157,181 Glanllynau, north Wales, 104, 288, 298 Hemlock Stone, Nottingham, 179 isotope studies, 171 Glas Maol, Scottish Highlands, 210 Herefordshire, 16, 122, 124 Glas Meall Liath, An Teallach, Scottish Hertfordshire, 102, 124, 149 Jan Mayen Island, 28, 262 Highlands, 174, 175 high arctic climate, 27 Japanese Alps, 236 Glas Tholl, An Teallach, Scottish Highlands, High Heron Rock, Gloucestershire, 49-51 Jostedals Ice Cap, 291 226 High Pike, Lake District, 196 Jotunheimen Mountains, Norway, 94, 117, 267, Glasgow, 128 Highcliffe, Hampshire, 61, 279 291 Glean Einich, Cairngorms, 181 Highlands of Scotland, see Scottish Highlands Jura, Inner Hebrides, 241, 243, 291 Glen Ballyre, Isle of Man, 288 Highwood Pass, Canadian Rocky Mountains, Glen Doe, 271 226 Kennet valley, 150-1, 152, 283

328 INDEX

Kent, 101, 102, 108, 130-2, 138, 153^1, 156, Mackenzie Delta, NWT, Canada, 65, 118, 120 needle ice, 114, 129, 177, 249, 260, 264, 294 157,283 macrofabrics, see also fabric analysis, 6, 117, Nene Valley, Cambridgeshire, 148 Kesgrave Formation, 52, 100, 149-50 123^1, 176, 177, 206, 207, 210 Netherlands, 73 Keskadale, Lake District, 237 macrogelivation, 163-5, 167-72, 179, 187, 190, New Forest, Hampshire, 152 Keswick, Cumbria, 253 219, 292 Newark, Nottinghamshire, 56 Kinlochewe, northern Scotland, 233 Maidenhead, Surrey, 139 Newman equation, 113 Kintyre, western Scotland, 268 Main Lateglacial Shoreline, Scotland, 268 Newney Green, Essex, 51-2, 101 Kirkhill, Buchan, 14, 60 Main Rock Platform, western Scotland, 268-70, nival flood, see also snowmelt flood, 141-3 Knock Fell, Pennines, 193 271, 289 nival meltwater, 141-3, 150-1, 203, 250, 252-4 Makendon, Cheviot Hills, 208 nivation, 4, 5, 7, 143, 153, 245-50, 292-3, 297 laboratory studies, 88, 164, 165, 171 mammalian faunal assemblages, 15, 31, 55-7 nivation benches, 5, 161, 245-6, 249 Labrador-Ungava, Canada, 183 Mamores, Grampians, 168 nivation cirques, 246-7, 249 Lairig Ghru, Cairngorms, 221, 227, 228, 230, Maoile Lunndaidh, northern Scotland, 256 nivation hollows, 187, 190, 249-50, 253, 245-6, 233, 236-9, 295 maritime periglacial environment, 24, 273, 249 Lake District, see English Lake District 292-6 niveo-aeolian deposits, see also windblown sand lake shorelines, 252, 268, 270-1 Marlborough, Wiltshire, 127 deposits, 7, 18, 155, 172, 187, 191, Lamorna Cove, Cornwall, 121 mass displacement of soil, see also 292-7 Lancashire, 106, 156, 158-60, 284 cryoturbation, 83, 85, 88, 94, 193 niveo-aeolian sand, 249, 256, 257-60, 266 landslides, 231, 296 mass movement, 5, 91-2, 114-20, 176, 177, niveo-fluvial processes, 141-7 Langland Bay, Gower, Wales, 125 185,200,205-18,249,261 Niwot Ridge, Colorado, USA, 28, 116, 256 Lannacombe, Devon, 110, 111, 124 mass-wasting, see also mass movement, Nodwydd Valley, Central Wales, 212 Late Devensian, see also Devensian Glacial 113-37, 140 Nome Creek, Alaska, 116 Stage, 15-21, 24, 73, 81, 161, 180, 187, matrix ice see ice nonsorted patterned ground, see patterned 193, 194, 205, 208, 210, 248, 275, 298 McMurdo Sound, Antarctica, 42, 44 ground Late Devensian ice sheet, see also Devensian Meall Uaine, Grampians, 227 nonsorted solifluction sheets and lobes, 209 ice limits, 182, 193, 195, 224, 278-9 mean annual air temperature (MAAT), 70-1, active, 215-16 Late Devensian Lateglacial, 6, 151, 170, 171, 83, 276-7, 289-90 relict, 210-14 187, 201, 202, 213, 214, 224, 235, 244, Dimlington Stadial, 279-83 Norfolk, 15, 16, 53, 54, 58-60, 79, 96-7, 101, 251,252,268 Loch Lomond Stadial, 289-90 102, 108,115 latent heat, 85, 101 mean annual ground temperature (MAGT), normal asymmetry, 143 Latrigg, Cumbria, 252 70-1 Norra Storfjall, Sweden, 115 Leicestershire, 61, 106, 108, 288 mean annual precipitation North America, 28, 32, 39, 141 lenticular soil structure, 109-10, 297 Dimlington Stadial, 282-3 North Atlantic, 14, 16, 18, 22, 284, 286, 290 Liathach, NW Scotland, 168 Loch Lomond Stadial, 290-1 North Atlantic Drift, 21, 22 Lias Clay, 131, 133 Medway Valley, Kent, 138 North Downs, 127, 153 Lincoln, 56 Meldon Valley, Dartmoor, 178 North Sea, 14, 157, 185,284 Lincolnshire, 16, 48, 49, 97, 106, 131, 132, 148, Melville Island, NWT, Canada, 120 North York Moors, 16,231 157,158,160, 288, 289 Mepal Fen, 80-1, 136 Northamptonshire, 106, 108, 132, 137 Lismore, western Scotland, 269 Messingham, South Humberside, 159, 160 Northfleet, Kent, 101 Little Ice Age, 21, 22, 195, 202, 212, 224, 235, Mheall a'Chrasgaidh, Fannich Mountains, 175 Northumberland, 167, 208 259,261, 275,292 microfabrics, 6, 123 Norway, 32, 94, 112, 236, 250 Llangurig, Powys, 75, 83 microgelivation, 163-5, 167-72, 174, 176, 190, Norwegian strandflat, 268 Llanon, Dyfed, 104 193, 194, 213, 264 Nottinghamshire, 56, 179, 183 Llyn Peris, Snowdonia, 254 micromorphology, 6, 110-12, 157 nunataks, 181-7,298 load casting, 94, 99 Middle Devensian, 15, 80, 81, 103, 148, 150, nunatak hypothesis, see nunataks lobate rock glaciers see rock glaciers 284 lobate solifluction sheets, see solifluction sheets Middle Pleistocene, 53-8 ocean cores, 24 Loch Creran, 20 Midlands, see English Midlands Ochil Hills, Central Scotland, 196, 231, 233, 251 LochEtive, 181 Midlothian, 6 Okstindan, Norway, 115 Loch Lomond, 20 mineral palsas, 68, 82 Old Kilpatrick, Scotland, 62 Loch Lomond Readvance, 13, 182-7, 191, 194, Moidart, western Scotland, 269 Oldbury on Severn, Gloucestershire, 49 205, 206, 209, 212, 224-6, 237, 242, molluscan faunas, 79, 150, 153 openwork block deposits, 187 266, 290, 291, 292 Mongolia, 67 ordered water hypothesis, 164, 172 Loch Lomond Stadial, 7, 11, 12, 15, 18-21, 26, Montrose, Scotland, 62 Orkney, 14, 16, 169, 256, 257, 260, 261, 262 32, 61-2, 73, 75, 77, 79, 83, 104, 106, morainic rock glaciers, see rock glaciers Ouse, River, 82 107, 111, 128, 131, 132, 152, 153, 163, Morar, western Scotland, 233 Outer Hebrides, see Hebrides 170, 171, 176, 190, 201, 208, 212, 213, Moray Firth, 16 Oxford, 150 224-6, 227, 237, 238-40, 242, 246, 250, Morecambe Bay, 106 Oxford Clay, 49 251, 252, 253, 268, 269, 270, 271, 275, Morfa Bychan, Dyfed, 122, 127 Oxfordshire, 14, 41, 49, 57, 103, 108, 132, 150 279, 283, 285, 286-92 Moruisg, northern Scotland, 256 Oxwich Point, Gower, Wales, 120 LochTay, 18 Morven, Caithness, 169 oxygen isotope stages, 6, 12, 13, 14, 15, 57 Loch Tulla, 271 Morvern, western Scotland, 231 Lochaber, Cairngorms, 254 mountain flora, 24 palaeoclimatic reconstruction, 6-7, 11-22, 30, Lochnagar, Scottish Highlands, 209, 210, 217, mountain soils, 24 46, 55, 57, 60-1, 62-3, 82-3, 99-100, 227, 256, 294 mountain-top detritus, 5, 163-92, 277 112, 160, 183, 243, 249, 275-92 loess, 6, 8, 16, 81, 99, 124, 126, 275, 276, 278, mudflows, 118, 129 Dimlington Stadial, 278-86 285 mudslides, 6, 118 Loch Lomond Stadial, 286-90 Lomond Hills, Fife, 222, 225, 231 Mull, Inner Hebrides, 16, 18, 61, 167, 214, 216, palaeoenvironmental reconstruction, see also London, 12, 79-80, 83 222, 268-9 palaeoclimatic reconstruction, 240, 245 London Clay, 79-80, 130 Mundesley, Norfolk, 53 palaeohydrology, 150-2, 155 Lowestoft Till, 11, 12, 13,54 muskeg, 141 Palaeolithic hand-axes, see hand axes Lowther Hills, Southern Scotland, 172, 177, 253 palaeosols, 6, 30, 52, 56-7, 60, 100, 101, 103, Lyme Regis, Dorset, 135 Nant Iago, Wales, 252 132,151,288 Lyngen Peninsula, Norway, 236 Narvik, Norway, 183 paraglacial deposits, 128

INDEX 329

paraglacial landforms, 225, 244 Portugal, 17 San Juan Mountains, Colorado, 296 paraglacial reworking, 252, 253, 296, 297 precipitation, sand dunes, 159, 276 'parallel roads' of Glen Roy, 270 Dimlington Stadial, 282 sand hummocks, 187, 191, 202-3 Paston, Norfolk, 53 Loch Lomond Stadial, 290-1, 298 sand wedges, 41-2, 43, 45, 46, 276, 277 Pastonian Interglacial, 53 precipitation gradients, 23, 239 relict, 51-2 patterned ground, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 88-94, 115, 161, Pre-Cromerian, 53 sand-wedge polygons, 42, 44, 52, 54 193-203, 247, 287, 293, 297 preferred orientation of clasts, see macrofabrics saprolite, 166, 171, 179, 181 large-scale, 88-94, 96-9, 193-6, 276 Prescelly Hills, Pembrokeshire, 178 sarsen stones, 126-7 nonsorted, 89-92, 96-7, 199-203 Prince Patrick Island, Canada, 65 Scafell, Lake District, 166, 209 small-scale, 194, 195, 196-9, 293, 296 proglacial river regime, 141 Scandinavia, 69, 182 sorted (active), 18, 92-^1, 174, 193, 195-9, protalus ramparts, 4, 7, 8, 190, 220, 225, Scandinavian mountains, 118, 174, 183 293, 236 236^10, 277, 291-2 scanning electron microscopy (SEM), 6 sorted (relict), 98-9, 193-6 protalus rock glaciers, see rock glaciers Scarba, Inner Hebrides, 269 Paviland Glaciation, 11, 12, 14 Pugeston, near Montrose, Scotland, 62 Scaraben, Caithness, 261 pediments, 137, 179 Pwllheli, Gwynedd, 104 Schmidt test hammer, 250 pediplain, 179 Scottish Highlands, 16, 17, 18, 23, 110-12, pedogenesis, 29-30, 57 Quaternary stratigraphy, 11-25 164-92, 209-10, 223^14, 261, 293 pedological evidence, 109-12 Quebec, 43 Scottish Readvance, 17 pedorelicts, 185, 186, 191 Scout Scar, Pennines, 200 Pegwell Bay, Kent, 102, 108, 156 radiocarbon dating, 6, 16, 18, 61, 73, 80, 128, Scow Brook, Derbyshire, 133 Pembrokeshire, 16, 178 131, 150, 160, 215-16, 218, 234, 275, scree, see talus Pennines, 16, 18, 22, 23, 132, 178, 179-81, 195, 289, 292, 295, 302 seasonal freezing and thawing, 5, 85-6, 109, 199, 200, 216, 217, 233^4-, 249, 256, 261 Radstock, near Bath, Avon, 138 114,115,193 perched boulders, 226 raised beach deposits, 62 seasonal frost mounds, see frost mounds perennially-frozen ground, see permafrost ramparted ground-ice depressions, see also segregation ice, 34, 60-2, 69, 115, 134, 197 periglacial trimline, 182-7, 191, 277 pingo scars, 7, 74 Sevenoaks, Kent, 131, 132, 288 permafrost, 5, 6, 14, 20, 22, 27, 28, 31-5, Ramsgate, Kent, 156 Severn Estuary, 50-2, 279 39-63, 85, 97, 98, 99-104, 114, 118, Rannoch Moor, Scottish Highlands, 18, 231 Severn Basin, 141 121, 135, 174, 175, 193, 203, 206, 220, Rayleigh free convection, 93, 94 Seward Peninsula, Alaska, 89-90 240,247,251 Reculver, Kent, 283 shear planes, 130-4 alpine, 32 Red Crag, 99 Shetland, 16, 198, 256, 257, 260, 294 cold, 114,115 Red Hills, Skye, 168 Shirdley Hill Sands, 156, 159 continuous, 32, 43, 56, 60, 277 Redcloak, near Stonehaven, Scotland, 62 shore platforms, 7 creep, 34, 119-20, 139 regolith, 5, 6, 7, 161-92, 207-12 Shropshire, 16, 98, 178, 180, 193, 251 degradation, 71, 108 relief stripes, 190, 199-200 Siberia, 28, 32, 42, 43, 65, 72, 73, 143, 246 discontinuous, 32, 62, 65, 68, 69, 73, 112, Resolute, Comwallis Island, NWT, Canada, 143 Signy Island, Antarctica, 117 276 retrogressive thaw flow slides, 73, 82 silt seeps, 118 distribution, 6, 31-3, 278-81, 28^6, 288-90, Rhinog Mountains, north Wales, 193, 195, 216, Skiddaw, Lake District, 196 291-2 217 skinflows, 118 environments, 31-2 Rhum, Inner Hebrides, 164, 167, 170, 187, 188, Skye, Inner Hebrides, 1, 8, 20, 166, 196, 214, stratigraphy, 7, 53-62 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 222, 224, 231, 221, 222, 223, 227, 231, 268, 269, 290, physiognomic forest line, 28 253,256, 266 293 pingos, 65-83 Richards Islands, NWT, Canada, 39 slab slides, 118 closed system, 65 rillwash, 254 slip surfaces, see also shear planes, 114, 130, 135 degradation, 67-8 rivers slope deposits, 45, 48, 121-36 open system, 65, 67, 74, 82-3 braided, 56, 58, 141-52 slope evolution, 120-1, 136-7 ramparts, 65, 67-8 deposits (periglacial), 6, 7, 44, 45, 56-7, slopewash, 120, 122, 124, 125, 206, 245-7, (relict), 6, 73-9 143-52, 250-1 249-50,251-4 rate of growth, 70-1 regime, 7, 141-2 slushflow, 254 scars, 6, 8, 65, 70, 73-4, 82-3, 276, 289 sediment transport, 143 Snowdonia, 6, 7, 15, 18, 23, 165, 174, 181, 183, plastic limit, see Atterberg Limits Roach, River, Essex, 55 186, 193, 194, 195, 198, 199, 206, 208, plasticity index, see Atterberg Limits Robroyston, near Glasgow, Scotland, 128, 288 210, 225, 233, 239, 242, 261, 287, 293 platy soil structure, 109-12 rock glacier creep, 213 snowmelt, see also nival meltwater, 135, 141, Pleistocene, 23, 11, 181 rock glaciers, 8, 161, 240-4 253 pleniglacial, 283, 285, 286 morainic, 240 snowmelt flood, see also nival flood, 250 Pliocene, 181 protalus, 240-3 snowpatch erosion, see nivation ploughing boulders, 7, 18, 127, 197, 216-18, rock weathering, see also frost weathering, 4-7, snowpatches, 245-50 249, 294, 296 147, 161-92 Soar River Valley, Leicestershire, 61 Plumpton Rocks, Yorkshire, 179 rockfall, 7, 219-26 soils, 29-30 podzols, 200-3, 211 rockfall talus slopes see talus slopes mountain, 176, 184, 185, 194, 200-2, 211, polar desert, 27, 28, 30, 120 rockhead deformation (overturning), 125 294 polar front, rockwall retreat rates, 225-6 saline, 287 atmospheric, 290 Rocky Mountains, North America, 32, 114, 115, soil creep, 115 oceanic, 14, 16, 286, 290, 291 116 soil micromorphology, 109-12 pollen analysis, 60-1, 75-7, 160, 259, 289 Ronas Hill, Shetland, 168, 256, 257, 260, 262, soil 'turnover', 91 assemblages, 15, 20, 61, 213 263, 266 soil wedges, 42-3, 276, 280 polygons, see ice-wedge polygons, tundra Ruby Range, Yukon, 115 solifluctate, see solifluction deposits polygons and sorted polygons Rutland, 137 solifluction, see also gelifluction, 5, 7, 9, pore ice, 34 114-36, 176, 177, 179, 200, 205-18, porewater, 85 Sachs Harbour, Banks Island, NWT, Canada, 28 245-50, 292, 296 convection cells, 93 Sachs River, Banks Island, NWT, Canada 146, solifluction deposits, see also gelifluctate, head, pressures, 94, 113, 129,218 155 121-9, 180, 185, 205-16, 246, 278 Portsdown, Hampshire, 125 Sagavanirktok River, Alaska, 142 solifluction lobes, 5, 18, 115-17, 120, 190, 191, Portsmouth, Hampshire, 125 Salisbury Crags, Edinburgh, 223 205, 206, 208-16, 287

330 INDEX

solifluction sheets, 18, 115-17, 124, 191, 205, talus cones, 219-20, 221, 224, 231, 295 Valley Farm Soil, 100 206, 208-16, 262, 264, 295 (coalescing), 219-20 vegetation, periglacial zone, 28-9 solifluction terraces, 5, 7, 115-17, 187, 191, talus sheets, 219-20, 221 vein ice, see wedge ice 205-8, 287 talus slopes, 219^4, 287 ventifacts, 155 solute transport, 143, 254-5, 296 Tarnaby, Sweden, 28 vesicles, 110 sorted patterned ground, see also patterned ground Tasmania, 174 Vestspitsbergen, 118 circles, 187, 190,193-9 Tatra Mountains, 225 Victoria Land, Antarctica, 42 nets, 92-4, 104, 193-9 Tattershall Thorp, 49 Vincocaya, Peru, 28 polygons, 193 Tees Valley, 288 Vixen Tor, Dartmoor, 178 stripes, 92-4, 187, 190, 193-9 Thames, volumetric expansion hypothesis, 163^ sorted solifluction sheets and lobes, 208, 210-14 lower course of, 100, 148 South Downs, 4, 152-3 terraces, 148-51 Wadhurst Clay, 132 South Glamorgan, 50, 51 Thames Estuary, 100, 283 Walton Common, Cambridgeshire, 74-5 South Humberside, 159-60 Thames Valley, 57, 102, 141, 148-51, 156 Ward Hill, Orkney, 169, 262 South Shetland Islands, 269 Thanet, see Isle of Thanet Warren House Gill, Durham, 157 South Wales, 50, 51, 110, 128, 206 Thatcham Terraces, 150 Wasdale, Lake District, 222, 223, 224 Southern Uplands of Scotland, 5, 18, 20, 23, thaw consolidation, 52, 87, 113, 205 wave action, 267-71 167, 170, 172, 177, 178, 183, 184, 206, thaw slumps, 118 Weald, 97, 137, 178 216, 253 thawing index, 281 Weald Clay, 130-2, 138 Southport, Lancashire, 159 Theal, Berkshire, 150-1 weathering, see rock weathering and frost speleothems, 269 thermal conductivity, 85 weathering Spey Valley, Grampians, 252, 290 thermal contraction, weathering limit, 182 Spitsbergen, 45, 49, 65, 67, 85, 93, 94, 118, 120, cracking, 39^-3, 49 weathering zones, 182 146, 225, 226, 234, 267, 269 cracks, 39-41 wedge ice, 34-5, 39^-2 Springburn, near Glasgow, Scotland, 128, 288 theory, 39, 42 wedge structures in bedrock, 49-51, 61 Sproughton, Suffolk, 151 thermal gradient, 85 Walton-on-the-Naze, Essex, 99 Sron an t-Saighdeir, Rhum, 164, 170, 187, 194 thermoerosion, Wee Bankie Moraine, 16 St Andrews, Fife, 198 cirques, 118 Welsh Borderland, 16, 124 StKilda, 13, 16, 211, 213, 237, 238, 239, 291 processes, 60, 73, 82 Wembury, Devon, 125 Staffordshire, 133 thermokarst, 65 West Runton, Norfolk, 54 Stamford, Lincolnshire, 131 thermokarst depressions, 6, 8, 80-2, 118, 276 Wester Ross, 23, 185, 186, 254, 255, 269, 270 Stanstead Abbots, Hertfordshire, 102 thermoluminescence (TL) dating, 6, 16, 150, Wester Ross Readvance, 17 Stanton Harcourt, Oxfordshire, 58, 103, 108 158, 275, 279, 283, 284 Western Hills of Rhum, 224 Start Point, Devon, 123 Thetford Heath, Norfolk, 96-7 Westland Green Terrace Gravel, 149 Stebbing, Essex, 112 Thomsen River, Banks Island, NWT, Canada, Westmill Gravels, 12 steppe tundra, 31 155,156 Westward Ho!, Devon, 103 Stiperstones, Shropshire, 98, 178, 180, 181, 193 thufur, 91 Wey Valley, Surrey, 75-6, 83 Stockport Formation, 59-60 till, 44, 50, 60, 121, 124 Wharram Percy, Yorkshire, 98 stone pavements, 176 Tinto Hill, southern Scotland, 195, 196, 197 Whicham Valley, Cumbria, 74, 79, 80, 83, 288 Stonehaven, Scotland, 62 Tipperty, NE Scotland, 110 Whisby Sand, 57 stony earth circles, 91 tors, 5, 8, 98, 121, 161, 163, 178-82, 277 Whitesands, Bay, Cornwall, 123 Stow-on-the-Wold, Gloucestershire, 138 Traeth Mawr, Brecon Beacons, Wales, 252 Wiltshire, 97, 126, 127 Strath Dionard, northern Scotland, 215 travertine, 56 wind, 23-4 Strath na Sealga, NW Scotland, 61 tree line, 24, 28-9 wind action, 6, 23-4, 155-60, 245, 255-67 stratified slope deposits, 251-5 Tregunna, Cornwall, 61, 280 wind crescents, 260, 295 stream capacity, 141, 155 Trent Valley, 56, 158, 159, 179, 292, 295 wind stripes, 260, 295 stream competence, 141, 155 Trotternish Escarpment, Skye, 178, 182, 184, windblown sand, see also coversands and aeolian streamflow, 254-5 186,246 deposits, 5, 6,158-60, 171, 257-60 stripes, see patterned ground Tuktoyaktuk, NWT, Canada, 28 Windermere Interstadial, 12, 15, 17-18, 21, 62, sturzstrom, see flowslides tundra, see also alpine tundra and arctic tundra, 73, 77, 102, 104, 106, 111, 128, 132, subarctic forest, 91 6,91 251,252,285,286,298 subarctic forest tundra, 28 tundra polygons, 39-63, 276, 286, 288 wind-patterned ground, 260-1 subarctic nival river regime, 141, 142 hexagonal, 40, 41 Winter Hill Gravels, 12 Sub-Atlantic period, 21-2 high-centred, 40, 41 Wirral Peninsula, Cheshire, 157 Sub-Boreal period, 21-2 low-centred, 40, 41 Wissey River, 60, 79 subsidence, 71 orthogonal, 40, 41, 45 Witham River, 56 Suffolk, 11,52,54, 82, 151,289 relict, 45, 53, 55 Wolston, near Coventry, 12 Summertown-Radley Terrace, 57, 150 turf-banked lobes, see solifluction lobes Wolstonian Glacial Stage, 11, 12, 14, 101, 157 Surgut, Siberia, 28 turf-banked terraces, 261-7, 295 Wolverhampton, 16, 53 Surrey, 75-6, 83, 285 Tywi Valley, Wales, 253 Woodhead, NE Scotland, 128 Sussex, 4, 6, 101, 125-6, 138, 158 Woolhope Hills, Herefordshire, 124 Sutherland, 186, 256, 257 Ullapool, northern Scotland, 185 Worcestershire, 61, 138, 278 Sutton-in-the-Forest, Yorkshire, 160 Umingmak Creek, Ellesmire Island, NWT, 'Wretton Interstadial', 15 Swainswick Valley, near Bath, Avon, 132 Canada, 141, 142 Wretton, Norfolk, 15, 58-60, 79, 101, 108 Swaledale, Yorkshire, 251, 289 Underbarrow Scar, Pennines, 200 Wye Valley, 124 Sweden, 28, 32, 69, 165, 296 Upton Warren Interstadial, 12, 14, 15, 281 Wylfa Head, Anglesey, 106, 110, 157 Switzerland, 250 Ural Mountains, 156 Syston, Leicestershire, 61 uranium series dating, 55 Yare, River, Norfolk, 101 Yorkshire, 16, 45, 50, 53, 61, 82, 97, 98, 137, Tabular Hills, Yorkshire, 178 ValeofClwyd, 16 156, 157, 158, 160, 178, 179, 180, 231, tafoni, 165 Vale of Edale, Derbyshire, 206 249,251 taiga, 28 Vale of St Albans, 149 Yorkshire Wolds, 97, 98 tanks, 31, 45, 49, 56, 60, 65 Vale of York, 16, 82, 156, 158, 160 Younger Dryas Stadial, 73, 286 talus, 4, 6, 8, 190, 191 valley bulging, 5, 120, 137-9