IAJFTH Volume 4 , No, 4 2018 ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ The Emperor Aly Omar Abdallah Shaza Gamal Ismail Radwa Ahmed Mohamed

Abstract The Roman Emperors from Nero to raised a long period of persecution against Christianity. After this long period of Persecution the peace was granted by the Emperor Constantine to Christianity as well as other religions.1 He declared the edict of toleration in 313 AD at Milan. The Emperor Constantine having embraced Christianity, became not only the Protector of the Christians, but endowed the Church with great Riches. Constantine did not impose his new faith as a state religion. Christianity was not the religion of the majority of his subjects, and he did not force it upon the pagans, indeed for some time he was retained the title „Ponitfex Maximus‟ of the pagan cults.2The age of Constantine marked a distinct period in the history of the . Constantine created his new capital as new imperial residence at Byzantium called Constantinople.3It would become the capital of the Empire for over one thousand years so the Eastern Empire was known as the Byzantine Empire. He filled Constantinople with churches dedicated to the Christian God.4 Keywords persecution; Milan; toleration; Pagan; Ponitfex Maximus; Constantinople Introduction The Emperor Constantine (Fig 1.1) was known as the most important emperor of Late Antiquity. His powerful personality not only laid to the

1Pamphilus, E., The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine: From 306 AD to 337 AD, (Lodnon, 2009), PP.4-5 2Grant, M., The Emperor Constantine, (USA, London), pp.7-10 3Southern ., P., The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine,2ndrev.ed, (New York, 2001), PP.228-229 4Mcgeough, K., The Romans, (USA, 2004), PP.78-80

1 The Emperor Constantine the Great ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ foundations of Saint Peter‟s Basilica in Rome and Jerusalem‟s Church of the Holy Sepulchre, but of the post-classical European civilization.5 His reign was eventful and highly dramatic. His victory at the Milvian Bridge was counted among the most decisive moments in the history.6

Fig 1.1, Head of Constantine the great. Bronze with traces of Gilding. Found at Nissa. After, Ostrogorsky, G., History of Byzantine state, (USA, 1969), P.1

Emperor Constantine was the first emperor who promoted the Christian religion, and the Church to a position equal to the traditional paganism. The Christian writers Lactantius and saw that Constantine was a divinely appointed benefactor of mankind. Julian the Apostate, on the other hand, accused him of greed and waste, and the pagan historian Zosimus held him responsible for the collapse of the Western Empire.7 Constantine ended the persecution in his territories as soon as he came to power, providing not only for toleration but also for restitution.8 There is no doubt that he was sympathetic to the Christians already before 312 AD, that

5Odahl, C., M., Constantine and the Christian empire, 2ndrev.ed, (London, 2010), P.269 6Drake, H., Constantine and the bishops: the politics of intolerance, (London, 2002), PP.262-263 7Bardill., J., Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age, (USA, 2012), PP.110-111 8Davidson, J., Birth of the Church: From Jesus to Constantine 30-312 AD,Vol I, (Britain, 2005), PP. 342-343

2 Abdallah, A Ismail, S h Mohamed, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ in 312 AD he committed to the Christian faith, and at that time he was committed and understood that faith.9 Throughout his rule, Constantine supported the Church financially. He built basilicas, and granted privileges to clergy. The church enjoyed more peace, the converted numbers were increased, and in the great cities large churches were built on the prominent sites. The Christians became provincial governors, and they were occupying high positions at the imperial courts. The state rejected the ancient cults. The Christian emperors began to allow pagan festivals to continue but prohibited their rituals.10 Historical back ground Constantine was in his thirty Fourth or thirty fifth years when proclaimed emperor. He decreed a formal end to the persecution of Christianity and restored its formal status and privileges. He was a good general and gave the empire rest from the invasions and civil wars and an efficient administration. His governmental reforms complemented those of Diocletian.11 Constantine was born in Naissus, Upper Moesia a garrison town in Dacia Redolent. He was the Roman Emperor from 306-337 AD. He was the son of the Emperor Flavius Valerius Constantius and Helena. He was also known as Constantine I, Saint Constantine, and known as Saint Constantine the great.12 The Emperor of the East was forced to respect Constantine‟s position. He saw himself forced to grant Constantine the rank of .

9Green, B., Christianity in Ancient Rome: The First Three Centuries, ( London, 2010), PP.208-210 10Pamphilus, E., blessed Emperor Constantine From 306AD to 337AD, (2009, London), PP.20-30 11Essex, E., Constantine the Great and the Peace of the Church, the irish monthly, Vol XLII, 1913, PP.477-480 Freeman, C., A new history of Early Christianity, (London, 2009), P229 12 Barnes, T, Constantine and Eusebius, (London, 1981), P.25

3 The Emperor Constantine the Great ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Constantine once wrote to Galerius requesting recognition as an . Galerius did not reject this petition since he did not wish to risk civil war. He compromised by granting Constantine the title and the rank of Caesar. When Constantine married Fausta, her father returned to the power in Rome, and he recognized Constantine as Caesar then as an Augustus. Constantine lived his entire life within the imperial court. He was not only known as the first Christian Emperor but as the emperor who shaped the future of the Roman world. Constantine received a formal education at Diocletian's court, where he learned Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy.13 Constantine went to in 303 AD, in the beginning of Diocletian's persecutions. In 305 AD Emperor Diocletian resigned as a result of his sickness.14 When Emperor Galerius died in 311 AD the main authority of the emperors had been removed, leaving them in struggle for dominance. In the east and Maximinus fought for supremacy and in the west Constantine began a war with . Maxentius led out his army and had crossed the Tiber River over a pontoon bridge. It was quickly constructed to replace the old Milvian Bridge, which had destroyed as a defensive measure concerning his strategy. The pontoon bridge consisted of two sections held together by chains which could be quickly cut a part to prevent the enemy. Constantine defeated the strong army of Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge 312 AD.15 Lactanius tells us that on the night before the battle a vision appeared to Constantine as he saw the „Chi-Ro‟, the ancient symbol of victory as he see Cross in the sky which was also the emblem of Christ, but it was not a cross

13Potter, D., Constantine, the emperor, (USA, 2013), PP.2-3 Hichelheim., & yeo, History of the Roman People, (USA, 1992), p.422 14Lieu, S., Montserrat, D., Constantine Byzantinus: the anonymous life of Constantine, In From Constantine to Julian: Pagan and Byzantine views, Lieu, S., Montserrat, D.,(eds.), (London, 1996), P.158 Pharr, C., Constantine and the Christians, The Classical Outlook, Vol XVI, 1939, PP.57-58 15Vasiliev, A., History of byzantine empire, (Canada, 1952), P.305

4 Abdallah, A Ismail, S h Mohamed, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ that he adopted as the symbol of his divine, it was a monogram consisting of an X with a vertical line drawn through it and ending in a loop to represent the first two Greek letters of Christ‟s name. This symbol was important to Constantine, it appears on his helmet on a coin issued in 315 AD, and it was used throughout his reign. It became a major symbol both for the church and the Christian Empire.16 Eusebius also asserts that Constantine told that before the battle he saw in the sky across and beneath it the Greek words „By this sign you will conquer‟ and by the Latin form: “in hoc Vince or in hoc signo Vinces”.17 Constantine's opponent the Emperor Maxentius together with thousands of his soldiers drowned, Constantine saw this victory related to his vision. With his victory over Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge, Constantine became the dominant figure in the Roman Empire and the two remaining emperors, Licinius and Maximinus II agreed to his demand to be the senior Augustus. Constantine ordered Maximinus II Daia to stop persecution toward the Christians in the Middle East and he obeyed. Then in 313 AD Licinius defeated Maximinus II Daia. In 313 AD Constantine instructed his proconsul in Africa to restore all the confiscated property of the churches. 18 Constantine and Licinius at first they tried to live peacefully beside each other. In 313 AD they met at Milan, where Licinius married Constantine's sister Constantia and restated that Constantine was the senior Augustus. Licinius would make his own laws in the east, without the need to the consult

16Hichelheim., & Yeo, History of the Roman people, (USA, 1992),P.20 17Pharr, C., Constantine and the Christians, The Classical Outlook,Vol XVI, 1939, PP.57-58 18Stephnson, P., Constantine, unconquered emperor, Christian victor, Christian Victor, (London, 2009), P.47

5 The Emperor Constantine the Great ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ of Constantine. Licinius would return the property to the Christian church which had been seized in the eastern provinces.19 The problems with Licinius arose when Constantine appointed his brother-in- law Bassianus who was married to Constantine‟s Stepsister Anastasia at the court of Licinius, as Caesar for Italy, Africa, Pannonia, and the Danubian provinces but later on Licinius managed to persuade Bassianus to revolt against Constantine. In 314-315 AD the rebellion was put down, but the involvement of Licinius was discovered. After a fight between them, the two sides made a treaty in 317 AD. Licinius surrendered all Danubian and Balkan provinces with the exception of Thrace left to Constantine. The final part of this agreement reached at Serdica.20 Their treaty at Seradica had proposed that the appointments should be made by mutual agreement. Licinius appointed himself and his two sons as consuls for the eastern provinces in 322 AD. With this declaration it was clear that the hostilities between the two sides would begin. Both sides began to prepare for struggle. In 323AD Constantine appointed his third son Constantius II as Caesar. One of the reasons of Constantine to invade Licinius dominion was to secure the aid of the eastern bishops.21 For short time the empire should enjoy peace, but the situation will be worth again when Constantine acted more in favour of Christianity and Licinius began to disagree. From 320 AD onwards Licinius began to suppress the Christian church in his eastern provinces and also rejected any Christian from the government posts.22

19Pohlsander, H., The Emperor Constantine, 2nd Rev. Ed, (London, 2004), PP.4-7 20Mcgiggert, A., C., The influence of Christianity upon the Roman Empire, HTR, Vol II, No.1, (1909), PP.35-36 Pohlsander, H., The Emperor Constantine, 2nd Rev. Ed, (London, 2004), PP.4-7 21Dam, R., Remmbering Constantine at the Milvian Bridge, (USA, 2011), P.233 22Lenski, N., The Reign of Constantine, In The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine, Lenski., N., (ed.), (USA, 2012), P.75

6 Abdallah, A Ismail, S h Mohamed, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Licinius declared war in 324 AD, but he was defeated and was imprisoned and later executed and this struggle was terminated and Constantine defeated Licinius in a war which he advertised as a religious crusade to rescue the Christians of the east from persecution. This victory made Constantine the sole ruler of the Roman Empire. Constantine believed the Christian God would guide him to conclusive victory. Although he was not baptized until he lay on his death bed.23 The symbol of Apollo remained on Constantine‟s coin (Fig 2.1) even after the victory over Licinius, perhaps because it could be interpreted either as the actual sun or as the sun of Righteousness with healing in his wings as it was mentioned in Malachi 4:2: “But for you who revere my name, the sun of righteousness will rise with healing in its wings, and you will go out and leap like claves released from the stall”. Also in Isaiah 30:26;35:5, “the sun of righteousness rises with healing in its wings invokes the picture of the wings of a bird stretched across the sky, offering healing to those below”. Constantine stood in a strange relationship with God, calling himself God‟s man, he believed that God the lord of the history had revealed himself in Christ especially through the resurrection. Constantine legislation gave to the church the privileges which enjoyed before by the pagan cults. Christian houses of worship were to be restored and the church was being a legally constituted empowered property. The liberation of slaves might take place in the church.24

23Bainton, R., The penguin, history of Christianity, Vol II, (USA, 1967), PP.16-17 24Storch, R., H., The "Eusebian Constantine", Church History, Vol XL, 1971, pp. 145-155

7 The Emperor Constantine the Great ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

Fig 2.1, This coin represented bust of Constantine facing right and Sol standing left, holding a Globus in his left hand and raising his right hand. On this coin. The expression on Constantine's face is serious. Sol's stomach muscles and privates are over simply engraved. After, Vagi, D. Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, (Sidney, 1999), P.90. In 312-313 AD, Constantine began a systematic policy of giving honours, privileges and donations to the Christian church and the Christian clergy. In 324-325 AD, as a new master of the east, he prohibited the cultic activities then had characterized the traditional religions of the Roman Empire, and he affirmed the status of Christianity as the official religion of the state. Constantine forbade the performance of the animal sacrifice, ordered that no new cultic statues of the traditional gods be dedicated, and forbade the magistrates and governors to begin official business with the traditional act of casing incense of some other similar offering on an altar standing in their court for this ceremony.25 Queen Helena or Reyna Elena was the mother of the Emperor Constantine the Great. Helena was with her son Constantine when he went to Nicomedia at the court of Diocletian for his political education and he learned at the first time the secrets of empire and developed into a strong and handsome man. Helena never remarried and lived for a time in obscurity, close to her only son who had a deep regard and affection for her. When Constantine became

25Barnes, T., Athanasius and the Christian church, In Constantine: history., Historiography, and legend, Lieu, N., C.,& Montesrrat, D., (eds.), (London, 1998), P.7

8 Abdallah, A Ismail, S h Mohamed, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ the successor of his father, Helena Joined Constantine‟s court. It has been suggested that from her childhood, that Helena felt great sympathy for Christianity.26 Helena appeared as respected Roman mother and she was more influential. She gave her son much advices and she persuaded Constantine to show sympathies to the Christians. Under her influence Constantine ended the persecution of Christianity which had suffered under the Emperor Diocletian and earlier emperors. Helena remained an active supporter of the church in her own right. She was wealthier and used her resources to support the poor and to build Christian churches.27 In 327 AD Constantine founded the city of Helenopolis in the honour of his mother Helena at the village of Drepanum, on the southern side of the gulf of Nicomedia and close to the famous hot spring of Yalova, which had been a part of territory of Byzantium for centuries. She had chosen the site herself since it harboured the remains of one of the most famous martyrs of the great persecution, Saint Lucian of Antioch. The foundation according to Sozomen was designed to perpetuate Helena‟s memory, and thought that Constantine followed in the footsteps of any number of other rules who had named or renamed cities after their wives and female kin like: the Apameas, Leodiceas, and stratonicaeas.28 In 337 AD Constantine issued an edict restoring all the bishops exiled under his father, the council of Antioch 339 AD regarded this restoration as

26Drijvers., J., W., Helena Augusta, (Netherlands, 1992), PP. 36-37 27Merriman, J., F., The Empress Helena and the Aqua Augustea, Archeologia Classica, Vol XXIX, 1977, pp. 436-446 28 Mitchell, S., The cities of Asia Minor in the age of Constantine, In Constantine: history, Historiography, and legend, Lieu, N., C.,& Montesrrat, D., (eds.), (London, 1998), P.52

9 The Emperor Constantine the Great ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ canonically invalid, because Athanasius had returned to Alexandria without the vote of the council of bishops.29 Constantine gave the bishops important privileges in the new Christian empire. They could act as judges in disputes between Christians by virtue, they could preside over the liberation of the slaves in the church, and they began to act as ambassadors in the matters of high political import. In 359 AD, the emperor ordered the bishops of the west and the east to meet at separate councils in Ariminum and Seleucia in order to ratify a creed which had been presented. 30 They received special attention, they employed to pronounce on religious issues, they obtained judicial powers as well. They found themselves among the emperor‟s principle advisers. He himself had appointed them, he treated them with respect. He left them a great deal of responsibility for church affairs. He realized that they would serve him as valuable government functionaries. There were 1800, of these bishops 1000 in Greek speaking and 800 in Latin speaking provinces. It was not only the bishops but the Christians clerics in general who received privilege from Constantine, who saw how valuable they could be to him.31 Even Constantine legalized and sponsored Christianity, he faced difficulties, in Africa a group of Christians called Donatists split off from the main church because many of the bishops had denied their faith during the great persecution, and the Donatists refused to follow the clergy. They would fight with the official church in Africa for decades.32

29 Barnes, T., D., Athanasius and Constantius: Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire, (USA, 1993), P.173 30 Elliott, T., G., The Language of Constantine's Propaganda, Transactions of the American Philological Association,VolCXX, 1990, pp. 349-353 31 Mitchell, S., The cities of Asia Minor in the age of Constantine, In Constantine: history, Historiography, and legend, Lieu, N., C.,& Montesrrat, D., (eds.), (London, 1998), p.160 32 Elliott, T., G., The Language of Constantine's Propaganda, Transactions of the American Philological Association, Vol CXX, 1990, pp. 349-353

10 Abdallah, A Ismail, S h Mohamed, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Constantine wore long, shoulder-length hair. He also covered himself with bracelets and other jewellery and put on elaborate jewelled robes with flowery designs. From 316-317 AD a jewelled, high-crested helmet indicates the byzantine crown appeared on his coins. Ten years later replaced by a pearl-ornamented diadem consisting in its final form of a double strand of pearls, this sign had meant that the deliberate elevation of the emperor far above other mortals. And even his sons began to wear diadems from 325 AD.33 Constantine understood that, despite the spread of Christianity, paganism was still the religion of the great majority of his subjects, including the member of the senate and the dominate class at Rome. Constantine himself, whatever his personal feelings, was probably inclined to be tolerant towards pagans, because he had seen the persecutions did not work, and because he wanted pagans as well as Christians to feel loyal to himself. Besides, he possessed many personal balances with individual pagans.34 Constantine had convinced himself that the Christian God, who gave him power, was the deity to believe in. Through his reign, he made a lot of things in favour of Christianity and bringing up his own children in the faith, so that the empire was given the prospect of a Christian succession and Christian dynasty. Although he was converted to Christianity, he had to keep the various religions in some sort of a state of balance, because he saw that the most upper classes and bureaucracy was still predominantly pagan. 35

33 Grant, M., The emperor Constantine, (London, 1993), P.81 34Mitchell, S., The cities of Asia Minor in the age of Constantine, In Constantine: history, Historiography, and legend, Lieu, N., C.,& Montesrrat, D., (eds.), (London, 1998), PP.150- 170 35 Leithart., P., J., Defending Constantine: The Twilight of an Empire and the Dawn of Christendom, (USA,2010), P. 112 Potter., D., Constantine the Emperor, (USA, 2013), P.198

11 The Emperor Constantine the Great ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Constantine decreed that the church lands should not be subject to tax. He also commanded the provincial officials to supply labour and materials for the constructions of the churches. He controlled the bishops himself. His dominance over them embodied in his statement „my will must considered binding‟. Constantine approved of the preaching of hermits such as Saint Antony (251-356 AD). The main reason why he had favoured Christianity was because he believed that it would encourage the unity in the empire.36 At Rome Constantine built baths, and his mother Helena‟s baths standing north east of the church of S.Croce in Gerusalemme. As well as her mausoleum near the via Casilina, which Constantine originally intended for himself.37 The council took place in Nicaea, a location well suited as it was easily accessible by both the Eastern and Western bishops and, importantly very close to Constantine‟s residence in his city of Constantinople. The most important discussion undertaken at the council of Nicaea was the Arian and Trinitarian debate. The belief of the Arians and the leader Arius was that God and Christ the son were two different entities. The first being divine and the other being not divine, and were not one and the same.38 In his brief opening address Constantine asserted his own devotion to God and preached the assembled bishops to work together to restore the unity of the church. He then turned the council over them, reserved for himself only the right to interfere from time to time to speed the discussion deliberation. The council Of Nicea affected not only the problems of 325 AD, but

36 Mitchell, S., The cities of Asia Minor in the age of Constantine, In Constantine: history, Historiography, and legend, Lieu, N., C.,& Montesrrat, D., (eds.), (London, 1998), p.161 37 Mitchell, S., The cities of Asia Minor in the age of Constantine, In Constantine: history, Historiography, and legend, Lieu, N., C.,& Montesrrat, D., (eds.), (London, 1998), p.187 38 Bullivant, S., The trinity, How not to be A Heretic, (USA, 2015), PP.12-15

12 Abdallah, A Ismail, S h Mohamed, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Christianity for all time, The focus of the Council of Nicaea was the nature of the Son of God and his relationship to God the Father.39 Emperor Constantine established Constantinople on the site of the Ancient Greek Byzantium (Fig 3.1), Constantinople was fortunate to possess the magnificent harbour of the golden Horn. It was also defensible both by land and by sea. It enjoyed accessibility by the land and by the sea to the vital industrial and cultural centers of Asia Minor and Syria. Ideally Constantinople was located for trade, it captured the commerce of the world passing east and west, north and south, furs from the north and spices from the orient, fine wines and luxuries of every kind that added elegance to the life. Constantine did spend an immense amount on secular, religious, and buildings at Constantinople. Constantine filled the city‟s libraries with Greek and Latin books transported from Rome. 40 Beside military, strategic, and commercial possibilities he may expect, Constantine had another reason for choosing that site as his second world capital, no place seemed more proper to become the center of the new anti- Rome Christian theology. Christian Constantinople became the first mother of the churches, the Holy wisdom (Hagia Sophia), and the church of the twelve Apostles. He made all else to save the religion. Constantine made the new capital which he named after himself an exact replica of Rome.41

39 Henderson., D., & Kirkpatrick., F., Constantine the Council of Nicaea, (USA, 2016), P.129-130 40Grant., M., From Rome to Byzantium: The Fifth Century AD, (New York, 1998), PP. 12- 13 41Bullock, V., G., Constantinople, Texas Review, Vol III, 1918, pp. 353-363

13 The Emperor Constantine the Great ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

Fig 1.1, On 11 May 330, Constantine established Constantinople, and moved the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to his new city. The new capital was Christian. Special commemorative coins were issued with types for both Rome and Constantinople to advertise the importance of the new capital. After, Mcgregor, J., Constantiniana Dafne: A Different Point of View, Journal for the Society of Ancient Numismatics, Vol XV, No. 3, 1984, P.46. In 337 AD, while Constantine preparing to lead an army against Persia in revenge for aggression against the Roman protectorate of Armenia, Constantine fell the felling of approach to death. So he summoned the Arian Bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia to administer to him the sacramental rite of baptism. This was probably because he waited to be baptized until the last minute of his life so that as many sins as possible would be wiped clean. While still arrayed in the white robes of a Christian neophyte, Constantine died. He was buried at the church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, and the mausoleum connected with the church connected with the twelve Apostles.42 The Constantine made a lot of effort to strength the Roman Empire. He was the first Roman Emperor to convert to Christianity. He played a great role in the announcement of the Edit of Milan in 313 AD with his co-Emperor Licinius,

42Hichelheim., F., M., & Yeo., C., A., AHistory of the Roman people, (USA, 1992),P. 475

14 Abdallah, A Ismail, S h Mohamed, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ in which he decreed the religious tolerance toward Christianity and fully legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire for the first time. 43 This meeting within months of his victory over Maxentius, for the occasion of the marriage of Licinius and Constantine step sister Constantina. For this meeting the Golden coin of Constantine and Apollo in facing profile was struck. Apollo‟s solar crown emphasizes his identity with the popular Sun God Sol Invictus and this solar connection with Constantine made propaganda during these years.44 Apollo was a solar deity, easily identified with the warrior God Sol Invictus, who starts showing up on coins from 308 AD as Constantine‟s special divine companion. The two emperors reached a general agreement regarding the complete freedom of religion and the recognition of the Christian church or rather of each separate local church as legal person.45 This edict stated that Christians should be allowed to follow the faith without persecution. It also announced that toleration was not limited to Christians but all religions, allowing anyone to worship whichever deity they chose. Constantine's edict of toleration was not the first, but Galerius had issued a similar edict in 311 AD, the Edict of Seradica in 311 AD while Galerius restoring the toleration to Christianity. Galerius' edict granted Christians the right to practice their religion but did not restore any property to them.46

43Hadas, M., A history of Rome from its origins to 529 AD as told by the Roman historians, (USA, 1976), P.185 Barnes, T., Constantine's Prohibition of Pagan Sacrifice, The American Journal of Philology, VolCV, 1984, pp. 69-72 44 Drake, H., A., Constantine and the bishops, the politics of intolerance, (USA, 2000), P. 193 Chuvin, P., Archronicle of the last pagans, (England, 1990), P.10 45 Drake, H., A., Constantine and the bishops, the politics of intolerance, (USA, 2000), PP. 182-183 46 Chuvin, P., Archronicle of the last pagans, (England, 1990), P.10

15 The Emperor Constantine the Great ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ After the abdication of Diocletian, the persecution of the Christians continued only in the Reign of Galerius and Maximinus Daia. While he was put under a control of a mysterious disease, Galerius became convinced of the futility of the Christian persecutions. As senior Augustus issued his famous edict of toleration which granted Christianity all over the empire the freedom of worship and the right to reopen their churches provided that they will pray for him and for the state and do nothing to disturb the public order.47 The edict of the Emperor Galerius was one of the most extraordinary events in the history of the empire in 311 AD and he issued the edict at Seradica (Sofia) to ending the persecution of the Christians. In every city of the empire, imperial decrees were published in the name of Galerius containing the following withdrawal of the edicts of persecution. But why had Galerius taken this step of cancelling the persecution of the Christians, we don‟t know the entire truth of this matter, but we can ignore the assertions of the Christians writers that, because he suffered on his death bed, he felt he must pacify the Christian God, who had inflicted his fatal illness upon him. Galerius saw it was better for the empire and for the people to practice some religion.48 In 313 AD Constantine and Licinius drew up a basic list of instructions, or words of guidance, which were sent out to their various provincial representatives to be published in this way. The publication of this list probably based on the version which was published by Licinius and was translated by Eusebius, and another transcribed by Lactanius.49

47Keresztes, P., Patristic and Historical Evidence for Constantine's Christianity, Latomus,VolXLII, 1983, pp. 84-94 48 Corcoran, S., Galerius, Maximinus and the titulature of the third , Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies,VolXLIX, 2006, pp. 231-240 Bainton, R., the penguin, history of Christianity, (USA, 1967), p.115 49Siker, J., S, Christianity in the second and third century, In The early Christian world, Elser, P., F.,(ed. ), Vol I-II, PP. 248-249

16 Abdallah, A Ismail, S h Mohamed, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ With the Edict of Milan in 313AD the three centuries of persecution came to an end, and all confiscated churches during the Great Persecution would be returned. Constantine also presided over the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD. These actions were considered the major factors in the spread of Christianity. The Edict of Milan made Christianity legal and removed all restrictions on the Christian worship. Licinius denied the Edict of Milan as he came into conflict with Constantine over control of the empire. In another war, Constantine defeated Licinius, which reaffirmed his belief that the Christian God was on his side, and allowed him to legalize Christianity throughout the empire.50 The Edict can be considered as the major turning point from simple tolerance of the Christians to the actual benevolence, highlighting Christianity‟s rising dominance in the Late Roman Empire.51 The Edict  Ἤδε κὲλ πάιαη ζθνπνῦληεο ηὴλ ἐιεπζεξίαλ ηῆο ζξῃζθείαο νὐθ ἀξλεηέαλ εἶλαη, ἀιι' ἑλὸο ἑθάζηνπ ηῇ δηαλνίᾳ θαὶ ηῇ βνπιήζεη ἐμνπζίαλ δνηένλ ηνῦ ηὰ ζεῖα πξάγκαηα ηεκειεῖλ θαηὰ ηὴλ αὐηνῦ πξναίξεζηλ ἕθαζηνλ, θεθειεύθεηκελ ηνῖο ηε Χξηζηηαλνῖο ηῆο αἱξέζεσο θαὶ ηῆο ζξῃζθείαο ηῆο ἑαπηῶλ ηὴλ πίζηηλ θπιάηηεηλ·52 since we saw that freedom of worship ought not to be denied, but that to each man‟s judgment and will the right should be given to care for sacred things according to each man‟s free choice, all of us, Christians and others, must retain his faith and religion.53

50 Burkhardt, J., The age of Constantine the great, (USA, 1983), PP.44_45 Siker, J., S, Christianity in the second and third century, In The early Christian world, Elser, P., F.,(ed. ), Vol I-II, P. 249 51Mitchell, S., The cities of Asia Minor in the age of Constantine, In Constantine: history, Historiography, and legend, Lieu, N., C.,& Montesrrat, D., (eds.), (London, 1998), PP.156- 158 الثالثة، 9118،ص433، 453 داود،،الطبعة مرقص القمص الكنسي،ترجمة القيصري،التاريخ يوسابيوس 52 53Berchman, R., M., Greco-Roman paganism: the political foundations of tolerance in the Greco-Roman period, In Religious Tolerance in World Religions , Jacob Neusner., J., & Chilton., B., (eds.), ( USA, 2008), P. 78

17 The Emperor Constantine the Great ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ  ἀιι‟ ἐπεηδὴ πνιιαὶ θαὶ δηάθνξνη αἱξέζεηο ἐλ ἐθείλῃ ηῇ ἀληηγξαθῇ, ἐλ ᾗ ηνῖο αὐηνῖο ζπλερσξήζε ἡ ηνηαύηε ἐμνπζία, ἐδόθνπλ πξνζηεζεῖζζαη ζαθῶο, ηπρὸλ ἴζσο ηηλὲο αὐηῶλ κεη‟ ὀιίγνλ ἀπὸ ηῆο ηνηαύηεο παξαθπιάμεσο ἀπεθξνύνλην. But since in those orders, under which freedom was granted to them, many different situations have been added to what appears, some may have refrained from observing them after that.  ὁπόηε εὐηπρῶο ἐγὼ Κσλζηαληῖλνο ὁ Αὔγνπζηνο θἀγὼ Ληθίλληνο ὁ Αὔγνπζηνο ἐλ ηῇ Μεδηνιάλῳ ἐιειύζεηκελ θαὶ πάληα ὅζα πξὸο ηὸ ιπζηηειὲο θαὶ ηὸ ρξήζηκνλ ηῷ θνηλῷ δηέθεξελ, ἐλ δεηήζεη ἔζρνκελ, ηαῦηα κεηαμὺ ηῶλ ινηπῶλ ἅηηλα ἐδόθεη ἐλ πνιινῖο ἅπαζηλ ἐπσθειῆ εἶλαη, κᾶιινλ δὲ ἐλ πξώηνηο δηαηάμαη ἐδνγκαηίζακελ, νἷο ἡ πξὸο ηὸ ζεῖνλ αἰδώο ηε θαὶ ηὸ ζέβαο ἐλείρεην, ηνῦη‟ ἔζηηλ, ὅπσο δῶκελ θαὶ ηνῖο Χξηζηηαλνῖο θαὶ πᾶζηλ ἐιεπζέξαλ αἵξεζηλ ηνῦ ἀθνινπζεῖλ ηῇ ζξῃζθείᾳ ᾗ δ‟ ἂλ βνπιεζῶζηλ, ὅπσο ὅ ηί πνηέ ἐζηηλ ζεηόηεηνο θαὶ νὐξαλίνπ πξάγκαηνο, ἡκῖλ θαὶ πᾶζη ηνῖο ὑπὸ ηὴλ ἡκεηέξαλ ἐμνπζίαλ δηάγνπζηλ εὐκελὲο εἶλαη δπλεζῇ. Thus when I, Constantine, and I, Licinius Augustus, had met at Mediolanum (Milan) and were discussing all those matters which relate to the advantage and security of the state, among the other things which we saw would benefit the majority of men we were convinced that first of all those conditions by which reverence for the divinity is secured should be put in order by us to the end that we might give to the Christians and to all men the right to follow freely whatever religion each had wished, so that thereby whatever of divinity there be in the heavenly seat may be favourable and propitious to us and to all those who placed under our authority.  ηνίλπλ ηαύηεληὴλ [ἡκεηέξαλ] βνύιεζηλὑγηεηλῷ θαὶ ὀξζνηάηῳινγηζκῷἐδνγκαηίζακελ, ὅπσοκεδελὶ παληειῶοἐμνπζία ἀξλεηέα ᾖ ηνῦἀθνινπζεῖλ θαὶ αἱξεῖζζαη ηὴληῶλΧξηζηηαλῶλ παξαθύιαμηλ ἢ ζξῃζθείαλ ἑθάζηῳηεἐμνπζία δνζείεηνῦδηδόλαη ἑαπηνῦηὴλδηάλνηαλ ἐλἐθείλῃηῇζξῃζθεία, ἣλ αὐηὸο ἑαπηῷἁξκόδεηλλνκίδεη, ὅπσοἡκῖλδπλεζῇηὸζεῖνλἐλ πᾶζηηὴλἔζηκνλ ζπνπδὴλ θαὶ θαινθἀγαζίαλ παξέρεηλ·54 Therefore, we decided with honest intention that no one should be deprived from the freedom to choose and follow the Christian religion, and to give

الثالثة، 9118،ص433، 452 داود،الطبعة مرقص القمص الكنسي،ترجمة القيصري،التاريخ يوسابيوس54

18 Abdallah, A Ismail, S h Mohamed, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ everyone the freedom to embrace the religion that he sees fit for himself, so that God will appears to us in everything and gives us his care.55  ἅηηλα νὕησο ἀξέζθεηλ ἡκῖλ ἀληηγξάςαη ἀθόινπζνλ ἦλ, ἵλ' ἀθαηξεζεηζῶλ παληειῶο ηῶλ αἱξέζεσλ, αἵηηλεο ηνῖο πξνηέξνηο ἡκῶλ γξάκκαζη ηνῖο πξὸο ηὴλ ζὴλ θαζνζίσζηλ ἀπνζηαιεῖζη πεξὶ ηῶλ Χξηζηηαλῶλ ἐλείρνλην θαὶ ἅηηλα πάλπ ζθαηὰ θαὶ ηῆο ἡκεηέξαο πξαόηεηνο ἀιιόηξηα εἶλαη ἐδόθεη, ηαῦηα ὑθαηξεζῇ θαὶ λῦλ ἐιεπζέξσο θαὶ ἁπιῶο ἕθαζηνο αὐηῶλ ηῶλ ηὴλ αὐηὴλ πξναίξεζηλ ἐζρεθόησλ ηνῦ θπιάηηεηλ ηὴλ ηῶλ Χξηζηηαλῶλ ζξῃζθείαλ ἄλεπ ηηλὸο ὀριήζεσο ηνῦην αὐηὸ παξαθπιάηηνη. It is suitable to write that it has finally left those cases included in our previous message about the Christians, which sent to you, and we are able to cancel everything that seems very harsh and inconsistent with our kindness, and who reject to follow the Christian religion, we will let him without disturbing.  ἅηηλαηῇζῇ ἐπηκειείᾳ πιεξέζηαηα δειῶζαη ἐδνγκαηίζακελ, ὅπσοεἰδείεοἡκᾶοἐιεπζέξαλ θαὶ ἀπνιειπκέλελἐμνπζίαλ ηνῦηεκειεῖληὴλ ἑαπηῶλζξῃζθείαλ ηνῖο αὐηνῖοΧξηζηηαλνῖο δεδσθέλαη, We intend to entrust this entirely to your care, in order to know that we have given these Christians full freedom to exercise the worship of their religion.  ὅπεξ ἐπεηδὴ ἀπνιειπκέλσο αὐηνῖο ὑθ' ἡκῶλ δεδσξῆζζαη ζεσξεῖ ἡ ζὴ θαζνζίσζηο θαὶ ἑηέξνηο δεδόζζαη ἐμνπζίαλ ηνῖο βνπινκέλνηο ηνῦ κεηέξρεζζαη ηὴλ παξαηήξεζηλ θαὶ ζξῃζθείαλ ἑαπηῶλ, ὅπεξ ἀθνινύζσο ηῇ ἡζπρίᾳ ηῶλ ἡκεηέξσλ θαηξῶλ γίλεζζαη θαλεξόλ ἐζηηλ, ὅπσο ἐμνπζίαλ ἕθαζηνο ἔρῃ ηνῦ αἱξεῖζζαη θαὶ ηεκειεῖλ ὁπνίαλ δ' ἂλ βνύιεηαη [ηὸ ζεῖνλ]. ηνῦην δὲ ὑθ' ἡκῶλ γέγνλελ, ὅπσο κεδεκηᾷ ηηκῇ κεδὲ ζξῃζθείᾳ ηηλὶ κεκεηῶζζαί ηη ὑθ' ἡκῶλ δνθνίε .56 As long as we have given them this right, by our choice, you will realize that the freedom is also granted to others who want to practice their worship. It is in keeping with the all-encompassing calm of our days that everyone has the

55 Berchman, R., M., Greco-Roman paganism: the political foundations of tolerance in the Greco-Roman period, In Religious Tolerance in World Religions , Jacob Neusner., J., & Chilton., B., (eds.), ( USA, 2008), P. 78 56 يوسابيوس القيصري، التاريخ الكنسي، ترجمة القمص مرقص داود،،الطبعة الثالثة، 8991،ص422، 452

19 The Emperor Constantine the Great ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ freedom to choose and worship any god they want, and we have done so in order not to think in any way that we are prejudiced against any class or religion.  θαὶ ηνῦην δὲ πξὸο ηνῖο ινηπνῖο εἰο ηὸ πξόζσπνλ ηῶλ Χξηζηηαλῶλ δνγκαηίδνκελ, ἵλα ηνὺο ηόπνπο αὐηῶλ, εἰο νὓο ηὸ πξόηεξνλ ζπλέξρεζζαη ἔζνο ἦλ αὐηνῖο, πεξὶ ὧλ θαὶ ηνῖο πξόηεξνλ δνζεῖζηλ πξὸο ηὴλ ζὴλ θαζνζίσζηλ γξάκκαζηλ ηύπνο ἕηεξνο ἦλ ὡξηζκέλνο ηῷ πξνηέξῳ ρξόλῳ, [ἵλ'] εἴ ηηλεο ἢ παξὰ ηνῦ ηακείνπ ηνῦ ἡκεηέξνπ ἢ παξά ηηλνο ἑηέξνπ θαίλνηλην ἠγνξαθόηεο, ηνύηνπο ηνῖο αὐηνῖο Χξηζηηαλνῖο ἄλεπ ἀξγπξίνπ θαὶ ἄλεπ ηηλὸο ἀπαηηήζεσο ηῆο ηηκῆο, ὑπεξηεζείζεο [δίρα] πάζεο ἀκειείαο θαὶ ἀκθηβνιίαο, ἀπνθαηαζηήζσζη, θαὶ εἴ ηηλεο θαηὰ δῶξνλ ηπγράλνπζηλ εἰιεθόηεο, ηνὺο αὐηνὺο ηόπνπο ὅπσο ἢ ηνῖο αὐηνῖο Χξηζηηαλνῖο ηὴλ ηαρίζηελ ἀπνθαηαζηήζσζηλ .57 Furthermore, on the one hand, we order the places of the Christians who used to meet in the past, which have already been issued an order contrary to this in our previous letter sent to you. If it appears that anyone bought it, either from our treasury or from any other person, without delay and without hesitation, without asking for instead price, and if anyone has accepted those places as a gift, they should be returned to these Christians as soon as possible.58  νὕησο ὡο ἢ νἱ ἠγνξαθόηεο ηνὺο αὐηνὺο ηόπνπο ἢ νἱ θαηὰ δσξεὰλ εἰιεθόηεο αἰηῶζί ηη παξὰ ηῆο ἡκεηέξαο θαινθἀγαζίαο πξνζέιζσζη ηῷ ἐπὶ ηόπσλ ἐπάξρῳ δηθάδνληη, ὅπσο θαὶ αὐηῶλ δηὰ ηῆο ἡκεηέξαο ρξεζηόηεηνο πξόλνηα γέλεηαη. ἅηηλα πάληα ηῷ ζώκαηη ηῷ ηῶλ Χξηζηηαλῶλ παξ‟ αὐηὰ δηὰ ηῆο ζῆο ζπνπδῆο ἄλεπ ηηλὸο παξνιθῆο παξαδίδνζζαη δεήζεη· Let it be known that if those who bought these places, or who accepted them as gifts, ask for something of our gifts, let them go to the district judge to give something by our mercy. All of this will be granted to your community immediately and without delay.

57 يوسابيوس القيصري، التاريخ الكنسي، ترجمة القمص مرقص داود،،الطبعة الثالثة، 8991،ص422، 452 58 Berchman, R., M., Greco-Roman paganism: the political foundations of tolerance in the Greco-Roman period, In Religious Tolerance in World Religions , Jacob Neusner., J., & Chilton., B., (eds.), ( USA, 2008), P. 79

20 Abdallah, A Ismail, S h Mohamed, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ  θαὶ ἐπεηδὴνἱ αὐηνὶΧξηζηηαλνὶ νὐκόλνλἐθείλνποεἰονὓοζπλέξρεζζαη ἔζνοεἶρνλ, ἀιιὰ θαὶ ἑηέξνποηόπνπο ἐζρεθέλαη γηλώζθνληαη δηαθέξνληαο νὐ πξὸοἕθαζηνλ αὐηῶλ, ἀιιὰ πξὸοηὸδίθαηνλ ηνῦ αὐηῶλζώκαηνο ηνῦη‟ἔζηηληῶλΧξηζηηαλῶλ, ηαῦηα πάληα ἐπὶ ηῷλόκῳὃλ πξνεηξήθακελ, δίρα παληειῶοηηλνοἀκθηζβεηήζεσο ηνῖο αὐηνῖοΧξηζηηαλνῖο, ηνῦη‟ ἔζηηληῷζώκαηη [αὐηῶλ] θαὶ ηῇζπλόδῳ [ἑθάζηῳ] αὐηῶλ ἀπνθαηαζηῆλαη θειεύζεηο, ηνῦ πξνεηξεκέλνπινγηζκνῦδειαδὴ θπιαρζέληνο, ὅπσο αὐηνὶνἵηηλεοηνὺο αὐηνὺοἄλεπηηκῆο, θαζὼο πξνεηξήθακελ, ἀπνθαζηζηῶζη, ηὸἀδήκηνληὸ ἑαπηῶλ παξὰηῆοἡκεηέξαο θαινθἀγαζίαο ἐιπίδνηελ. Since it is known that these Christians not only owned these places where they used to meet, but also other places that were not owned by individuals but by the community as a group, like the Christian community. As for the previous matter, that is it, those who respond to owned without a price, as we have provided, can claim compensation from our donations.  ἐλ νἷο πᾶζηληῷ πξνεηξεκέλῳζώκαηη ηῶλΧξηζηηαλῶλ ηὴλ ζπνπδὴλδπλαηώηαηα παξαζρεῖλὀθείιεηο, ὅπσοηὸἡκέηεξνλθέιεπζκα ηὴλ ηαρίζηελ παξαπιεξσζῇ, ὅπσο θαὶ ἐληνύηῳδηὰηῆοἡκεηέξαο ρξεζηόηεηνο πξόλνηα γέλεηαη ηῆοθνηλῆο θαὶ δεκνζίαο ἡζπρίαο.59 In all these matters, and for the favor of the Christian community, do your utmost to complete our orders quickly, and to have peace and peace in this too.60  ηνύηῳγὰξηῷινγηζκῷ, θαζὼο θαὶ πξνείξεηαη, ἡ ζεία ζπνπδὴ πεξὶἡκᾶο, ἧοἐλ πνιινῖοἤδε πξάγκαζηλ ἀπεπεηξάζεκελ, δηὰ παληὸοηνῦρξόλνπ βεβαίσοδηακείλαη. Because in this way, as has been said before, the mercy of God always persists with us, which we have experienced in many things.  ἵλαδὲ ηαύηεοηῆοἡκεηέξαο λνκνζεζίαο θαὶ ηῆο θαινθἀγαζίαο ὁ ὅξνο πξὸογλῶζηλ πάλησλἐλερζῆλαη δπλεζῇ, πξνηαρζέληα ηνῦζνῦ πξνζηάγκαηνο ηαῦηα ηὰὑθ' ἡκῶλγξαθέληα παληαρνῦ πξνζεῖλαη θαὶ

يوسابيوس القيصري، التاريخ الكنسي، ترجمة القمص مرقص داود،،الطبعة الثالثة، 8991،ص422، 59452 60 Berchman, R., M., Greco-Roman paganism: the political foundations of tolerance in the Greco-Roman period, In Religious Tolerance in World Religions , Jacob Neusner., J., & Chilton., B., (eds.), ( USA, 2008), P. 80

21 The Emperor Constantine the Great ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ εἰογλῶζηλ πάλησλἀγαγεῖλ ἀθόινπζόλἐζηηλ, ὅπσο ηαύηεοηῆοἡκεηέξαο θαινθἀγαζίαο ἡ λνκνζεζία κεδέλα ιαζεῖλδπλεζῇ.» In order to know everyone the details of our decree, which is fair and righteous, I hope that you will publish this writing everywhere and declare it to all, so that our decree, which is fair and righteous, will not remain unknown to anyone. Conclusion The age of Constantine is one of the most fertile periods of historical changes in the history of late antiquity. He elevated the Christian faith from the depths of the persecution to the growth of a new genus of government and a new sort of emperor. Constantine decreed a formal end to the persecution of Christianity and restored its formal status and privileges.61 Emperor Constantine I, who was known as “Constantine the Great”, was the eldest son of and Helena. Constantine was the first Christian Emperor of the Roman Empire. Emperor Constantine was assimilated Christianity into the Roman Empire because he realized that all the attempts to destroy Christianity had failed, and his only other recourse was to make it the state religion and control it.62 The Christian historians stated that Emperor Constantine was the first pious Christian emperor because they believed that this is the only explanation for his promotion of the religion to a position of privilege after the period of the Great Persecution.63 Drake pointed out that Constantine could have adopted the Christian God as his patron in order to secure the support of the Christian constituency over Maxentius through religious legitimization. Emperor Constantine became intolerant of paganism after his conversion.64 He also noted that the language therein corresponds to the divine confusion in the “edict of Milan”, was led him to assert that Constantine created religious policy in order to reconcile the pagan and Christian constituencies. Constantine either became intolerant of paganism after his conversion or that he remained as tolerant as he had been as a pagan.65 When the church was in a theological crisis over the Arian controversy, Constantine facilitated the diplomatic resolution of the dispute with lasting

61 Sarris, P., the eastern empire from Constantine to Heraclius, In The oxford history of Byzantium, Mango, C., (ed.), (London,2003), PP.16-20 62Barnes, T, Constantine and Eusebius, (London, 1981), P.25 63Hichelheim., & Yeo, History of the Roman people, (USA, 1992),P.201 64Drake., H., A., Constantine and the bishops, the politics of intolerance, (USA, 2000),p.239 65 Drake., H., A., Constantine and the bishops, the politics of intolerance,(USA,200) ,P.240

22 Abdallah, A Ismail, S h Mohamed, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ results for orthodox Christian creed. Constantine also transformed the Ancient Greek colony of Byzantium into a new imperial residence, Constantinople, which remained the capital for over one thousand years. He then conquered the hearts of the Eastern provinces and brought Christianity, which was in many ways still pagan, into Asia Minor. Emperor Constantine‟s fame was due to two matters, his religious toleration, and the establishment of Constantinople on the site of the Ancient Greek Byzantium, which became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire.66 The Council of Nicaea in 325 AD was called upon by Constantine. This was a very important step toward consolidating the place of Christianity and establishing orthodoxy within the church. Christianity went from being a persecuted religion in the first three centuries to the official religion in the fourth century.67 The council of Nicea was characterized by the fall of theological ideas, it did not accept Arius‟s teaching. The question revolved around how to define the faith in such a way that‟s of Arius views, and how to deal with the great majorities of the eastern bishops whose beliefs resembled those of Eusebius, the powerful Antiochene, and the western representative. It may accept Eusebius testimonies define the son as consubstantial with the father and that‟s introduced by the Emperor Constantine. This was not acceptable by Origenist bishops, and also rejected by Dionysius of Alexandria.68 Constantine‟s vision of the Chi-Ro gave him a unique role in the minds of his followers as someone who had been directly appointed by the divine will. It gave him the ability to claim a special status, they imagined that he understood the mind of God, and his actions were God‟s will.69 Constantine gave the bishops important privileges in the Christian empire. They employed to pronounce on religious issues. They obtained judicial powers as well. They found themselves among the emperor‟s principle advisers. He himself had appointed them, he treated them with respect. He left them a great deal of responsibility for the church affairs.70

66 Carroll, J., Constantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews, (New York, 2001), P.203 67Pohlsander, H., The Emperor Constantine, 2nd Rev. Ed, (London, 2004), PP.4-7 68Bullivant, S., The trinity, How not to be A Heretic, (USA, 2015), PP.12-13 69Barnes, T., Athanasius and the Christian church, In Constantine: history., Historiography, and legend, Lieu, N., C.,& Montesrrat, D., (eds.), (London, 1998), PP.7-9 70 Potter., D., Constantine the Emperor, (USA, 2013), P.198

23 IAJFTH Volume 4, No.4, 2018 ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ The Iconography of the Sacrifice of Isaac in Early Christian Art Shaza Gamal Ismail Louay Mahmoud Saied Rana Abd El-Nasser Radwan

Abstract The major themes in Christian art were about the Bible, Old Testament events, the life of Christ, the life of Mary and the lives and miracles of the saints,1The idea behind the use of iconography in the early church was due to the unique experience that the church faced. As many Christian converts had difficulty understanding Biblical teachings and their spiritual meanings.2From its beginning this art was educational. Its purpose was to teach Christians lessons to illiterate public, through specific and literal visual images.3So the representation of Old and New Testament themes in churches could be used as instruments of doctrinal and moral instruction for those who were unable to read. According to Paulinus, Bishop of Nola and Nilus of Ancyra, the painted illustration of religious themes could replace the written word. Moreover, they stressed the didactic value of these paintings.4 One of the themes from the Old Testament events is chosen to be discussed in this research because of its great importance in Christian Art. This scene depicts Sacrifice of Isaac in Early Christian Art. Key words: Halo; Iconography; Moriah; Orans; Sacrifice; Stucco; Religious art

1Badawy, A., Coptic Art and Archeology: the Art of the Christian Egyptians from the Late Antique to the Middle Ages, ( Cambridge, 1978), 22 2Angaelos, B., The Altar in the Midst of Egypt: A Brief Introduction to the Coptic Orthodox, (London, 2000), 40 3El-Alfy, A., Coptic Museum, (Cairo,1984), 2 4Freud, W.,The Rise of Christianity,(Philadelphia, 1985), 415

24 The Iconography of the Sacrifice of Isaac in Early Christian Art ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Introduction A Story with such options for instruction like that of the Sacrifice of Isaac was not to be neglected by the Church. It is a model which illustrates the rewards of faith, a proof that souls trusting in divine mercy should have renewed and continued life and a confirmation of that the way of safety lay in placing our souls in the hands of God.5 From the earliest times Abraham and Isaac were elevated as a model to the Christians, firstly, as an example of salvation, and secondly, as a typological prefiguration of the salvage by Jesus. The person of Isaac came to be considered very early as a prefiguration of Christ; Galatians III: 16 could, for example, already be interpreted in this manner Isaac's birth too was considered as a prefigure of the birth of Christ since it required God's intervention and had been preceded by God's great promise.6 Like Christ Isaac was a beloved only son offered as a sacrifice by his father. The place of sacrifice in both examples was upon a hill. The thorns of the bush in which the ram was caught represented the thorns of Christ. The ram in the bush was Christ on the Cross; Isaac was Christ in the Eucharist.7

The Story of the Sacrifice of Isaac The sacrifice of Isaac put Abraham in a very hard exam, a trial which he passed completely because of his total faith and obedience to God. God told Abraham, "Take your son, your only son, Isaac, whom you love, and go

5Smith, A., The Iconography of the Sacrifice of Isaac in Early Christian Art: American Journal of Archaeology, 1922, Vol. XXVI, No. 2, 59 6Van Woerden, L., The Iconography of the Sacrifice of Abraham: Vigiliae Christianae, 1961, Vol. XV, No. 4, 215 7 Smith, A., The Iconography of the Sacrifice of Isaac in Early Christian Art: American Journal of Archaeology, 1922,Vol. XXVI, No. 2, 59

25 Ismail, S Saied, L Radwan, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ to the region of Moriah. Sacrifice him there as a burnt offering on one of the mountains which I will show you." (Genesis 22:2, NIV). Abraham took Isaac, two servants and a donkey and started on the journey. When they arrived, Abraham ordered the servants to wait with the donkey while he and Isaac went up the mountain. He told the men, "We will worship and then we will come back to you." (Genesis 22:5, NIV).8

When they got to the place God had selected, Abraham's announced to Isaac that he must be slaughtered by his father. Isaac accepted God's will. He tied Isaac with ropes and placed him on altar. Just as Abraham raised the knife to slay his son but in the last minute the angel of the Lord called out to Abraham to stop and not harm the boy. Then Abraham looked up, he saw a ram tied by its horns. He sacrificed it. It was provided by God instead of Isaac.9God then promised Abraham that he and his offsprings shall inherit the earth.10

Iconography of the Sacrifice of Isaac in wall painting 1) Abraham and Isaac from the chapel of Exodus at El Bagawat:

8 Walsh, J., All the stories of the Bible,(New York, 2011), 15 9 Lancashire, A., Chaucer and the Sacrifice of Isaac: The Chaucer Review, 1975, Vol. 9, No. 4, 321 10Bekkum, W., The Sacrifice of Isaac: The Aqedah (Genesis 22) and its Interpretations, (Boston, 2002), 86

26 The Iconography of the Sacrifice of Isaac in Early Christian Art ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

Figure, Plate1: Abraham and Isaac from Chapel of Exodus, El Bagawat (Fakhry, A., The Necropolis of El-Bagawat in Kharga Oasis, (Cairo, 1950), 63

 scene no:1  Date: First half of fourth century  Provenance: Chapel of Exodus at El- Bagawat  Material: Stucco wall painting11  Description: In the middle of the east wall there is a scene of Abraham sacrificing Isaac. Abraham wears a white tunic, he stands behind an altar, put on it fire burning. He is holding a knife in his left hand.12At the other side of the altar stands Isaac. He put his arms on crossing position on his breast. His mother Sarah stands at the side of her son. She stands under a tree and raises her face

11Martin, M., Observations on the Paintings of the Exodus Chapel, Bagawat Necropolis, Kharga Oasis, Egypt: Australian Association for Byzantine Studies, (Melbourne, 2006) , 541 12Fakhry, A., The Necropolis of El-Bagawat in Kharga Oasis, (Cairo, 1950) ,63

27 Ismail, S Saied, L Radwan, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ and arms to the sky and prays for him in the orans position.13 There is a ram under the tree on the other side of the scene. The hand of God is drawn at the right of the name of Abraham above him. It is painted in red color.14 2) Sacrifice of Isaac from El Bagwat, Chapel of Peace:

 scene no: 2  Date: Sixth century  Provenance: Chapel of Peace at El- Bagawat  Material: Stucco wall painting15  Description:

Figure, plate2: Sacrifice of Isaac from Chapel of Peace, El-Bagawat (Leibovitch, J., Hellénismes et Hébraïsmes dans une Chapelle Chrétienne A El-Bagaout: BSAC, 1930, Vol. V, 63)

13Kessler, E., A Response to Marc Bregman: Journal of Textual Reasoning, 2003, Vol. 2, No. 1 14 Kessler, E., The Sacrifice of Isaac (the Akedah) in Christian and Jewish Tradition: Borders, Boundaries and the Bible, (London, 2002), 83 15 Kessler, E., An Introduction to Jewish-Christian Relations, (Cambridge, 2010), 95

28 The Iconography of the Sacrifice of Isaac in Early Christian Art ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

Abraham wears a white yellowish shroud which is wrapped around his body and its end is thrown over his left shoulder, the edge and folds are painted in red color. He has white hair. He put his left hand on his son head and with the right hand he holds a knife and put it on the head of Isaac. Isaac wears like his father. He opens his hand and holds in it a rectangular white piece of incense. He tries to put it in the fire on the altar.16 To the left of Abraham the hand of God17 is drawn. It throws knives, two of them are in the air while the third is held by Abraham who tries to slay his son who stands calmly. The blades of the knives take the bluish gray color but their handles take the reddish yellow color. The lower knife is in best condition. At the left of Abraham stands the ram which god send as sacrificing under a tree. The altar takes around shape and has horns at the corners. It has flames which come from it. They are yellowish white. Behind the altar stands Sarah. She wears a long yellow robe with two stripes running from the shoulders to the bottom. Her hair is blonde. She has a round halo behind her head. She holds a white piece of the same material in Isaac hand. She gives it to her husband. The names of the three figures are written above them.18

16Fakhry, A., The Necropolis of El-Bagawat in Kharga Oasis, (Cairo, 1950) , 73 17Kessler, E., A Response to Marc Bregman: Journal of Textual Reasoning, 2003,Vol. 2, No. 1 18 Kessler, E., Jews, Christians and Muslims in Encounter, ( London, 1988), 139

29 Ismail, S Saied, L Radwan, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ 3) Sacrifice of Isaac from Monastery of Saint Catherin at Mount Sinai:

Plate 3: Sacrifice of Isaac from Monastery of St. Catherin at Mount Sinai (Drewer, L., Insights and Interpretations: Studies in Celebration of the Eighty-fifth Anniversary of the Index of Christian Art, (New York,2002), 37)  Scene no: 3  Date: Seventh century  Provenance: Monastery of St. Catherin at Mount Sinai  Material: Marble plate19  Dimensions: H. at left 154 cm, at right 153 cm; W. at top 81 cm, at bottom 82.5 cm.  Description: Generally, the plate and specially the figure of Abraham are badly flaked, revealing the previous drawing under it in red brown.20Abraham is

19Drewer, L., Insights and Interpretations: Studies in Celebration of the Eighty-fifth Anniversary of the Index of Christian Art, (New York,2002), 37

30 The Iconography of the Sacrifice of Isaac in Early Christian Art ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ carved at the upper left and between the column of fire on the alter Isaac. Abraham is standing on a small, dark brown mound. He holds Isaac’s hair although he turns his head away. With his right hand he put a knife into the boy’s neck. He wears a long tunic and a mantle of light ochre brown. Behind Abraham, the word Isacc is inscribed along his left elbow. Isaac wears a red long tunic patterned with yellow circles.21Isaac kneels on an altar with his arms tied behind his back. The base of the alter is covered with a frieze of wood which is attached to a metal loop for hanging up a lamp. The uppermost part of the altar is covered with a red altar cloth bearing a design of a cross in a square.22 A bending cone-shaped tree is drawn on the left. It takes few extreme spots of olive foliage on which a yellow design is overlaid. The artist balanced it by a cone-shaped flame next to Isaac's head. The artist replaced the more frequently depicted hand of God with three yellowish rays which extruded from an arc of heaven, suggesting a Trinitarian symbol. There is black horizontal line that divides a lighter lower zone from a dark olive- colored one above. This line can only be defined as a wall. It is painted with light ochre with a shade of olive. The artist has highlighted the difference between the two zones by depicting three big six- pointed stars in the upper.23

20Romeny, R., Religious Origins of Nations: The Christian Communities of the Middle East, (Boston, 2010), 147 21 Van Loon, G., The Gate of Heaven: Wall Paintings with Old Testament Scenes in the Altar Room and the Hūrus of Coptic Churches, (Belgium, 1999), 155 22Weitzmznn, K., The Monastery of Saint Catherine at Mount Sinai: the icons, vol.1, (New Jersey, 1976), 50 23Weitzmann, K., The Jephthah Panel in the Bema of the Church of St. Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai: Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 1964, Vol. 18, 342

31 Ismail, S Saied, L Radwan, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ 4) Sacrifice of Isaac from Abu Maqar church, (Wadi An-Natrun):

 Scene no: 4 Plate 4: Sacrifice of Isaac from Abu Maqar Church, (Leory, J., Les Peinture des Couvents de l’Ouadi Natroun, (Cairo, 1982), 36)

 Date: Eleventh century  Provenance: Abu Maqar church, (Wadi An-Natrun)24  Material: stucco  Dimensions: h. 1.50 m / w. 2.05 m

 Description: The top of the mural painting is smashed because of the restoration of the dome. The upper parts of the heads and haloes of the servants and Abraham and the head of the angel are now missing. Part of the scene has been destroyed just above the top of the arch. This part was decorated with specifically the back of the donkey and the ram. The scene is divided into two parts. Abraham and Isaac occupy the spandrel at the right; the two servants and the donkey occupy the spandrel at the left. The line of the horizon is carved in the background from left to right in a slightly wavy black

24White, E., The Monasteries of the Wadi 'n Ntrun: Architecture and Archeology, Part III, (New York, 1933), 109

32 The Iconography of the Sacrifice of Isaac in Early Christian Art ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ line. The mountain takes beige color. It is just behind the arch. There are thin olive green branches growing on it. The rest of the landscape takes green color while the sky is light gray-blue. Right spandrel: Abraham and Isaac From the right Abraham moves towards the center of the arch. He is stepping by his right foot in the decorative border. In front of him, Isaac lies on an altar. Abraham's looks backwards to the top right hand corner from which a beam of light comes out of the sky, directed towards him. Abraham put a knife to Isaac's throat by his right hand, while with his left hand; he pulls the head of his son backwards by his long black hair. At the left, above Abraham's right hand and Isaak, an angel floats in the air.25 Abraham is depicted as an old man with long gray hair. It falls over his shoulders. He has a moustache and a full beard. Behind his head there is a beige halo with black and white decorated edge. He wears beige long tunic with long wide sleeves and round neck. Above the tunic he wears a dark red pallium which covers his right shoulder. The folding is painted in white color. He is not wearing any shoes. Isaac is half naked and barefooted. He is depicted with long black hair and his skin has a beige color. The only piece of clothing he wears is a light gray knee-length wrap-around skirt. It is tied at the waist by a belt. He is placed on an altar which takes a blue color.26The angel, to the right of Abraham, is depicted floating in the air with bent knees. He is floating just above the horizon. The angel has long black hair and a beige halo with black edge. He wears a long gray round necked tunic with

25Van Loon, G., The Gate of Heaven: Wall Paintings with Old Testament Scenes in the Altar Room and the Hūrus of Coptic Churches, (Belgium, 1999), 42 26White, E., The Monasteries of the Wadi 'n Ntrun: architecture and archeology, Part III, (New York, 1933), 109

33 Ismail, S Saied, L Radwan, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ long wide sleeves. He wears a beige pallium which covers only his left shoulder above the tunic. His feet are invisible because of the long tunic. He points towards Abraham with his right hand, while his left hand is folded across his breast. His wings are white. Behind the angels, traces of the ram are found.27 Left spandrel: the servants and donkey From the left, on a green background, two servants move to the center of the arch. They are stepping into the decorative border like Abraham. From the right, a donkey climbed down to the two men. The men are depicted in a three-quarter pose. They are depicted with an oval face and black curly hair falling over their shoulder. The features outlined in black color. They both held a walking stick by their left hands with a knob at its end. They have beige halo with a black and white decoration edge around their faces. The servant on the left points with his right hand to the top of the scene while the servants on the right points at what is going on the right spandrel. They wear aknee-length tunic with round neck and three-quarter sleeves. The tunic is gathered at the waist by a belt. Above the tunic they wear a vest in the upper part of their bodies. The servant on the left wears a dark red garment color with green belt and gray topcoat. The folding is painted in white. The servant on the right wears a white tunic with a beige belt and a dark red vest. They are both wearing black shoes with white pearls decoration and a white band around the ankle.The donkey at the right of the scene is dark gray. Its back is covered with a dark red blanket decorated with white lines affixed by a black strap.28

27Van Loon, G., The Gate of Heaven: Wall Paintings with Old Testament Scenes in the Altar Room and the Hūrus of Coptic Churches, (Belgium, 1999), 42 28Leory, J., Les Peinture des Couvents du Ouadi Natroun, (Cairo, 1982), 34

34 The Iconography of the Sacrifice of Isaac in Early Christian Art ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ  Inscriptions: The name ISAAK, is written to the left of the child. Evelyn White was able to distinguish three other inscriptions which have now disappeared. They were painted in small white lettering upon red band. At the top of the scene (from right to left): ABPAAM, the angel of the lord, and Abraham's servants.29 5) Sacrifice by Abraham from Dair Al-Baramus, (Wadi An- Natrun):

 Scene no: 5  Date: 11-12th century  Provenance: Central chapel , Dair Al-Baramus, (Wadi An-Natrun)  Material: stucco  Dimension: left side of the wall Space, h. 1.66 m/w. 1.46 m; 3.58 m

Plate 5: Sacrifice by Abraham from Dair Al-Baramus, (Wadi An-Natrun). Van Loon, G., The Gate of Heaven: Wall Paintings with Old Testament Scenes in the Altar Room and the Hūrus, of Coptic Churches (Belgium, 1999), 42

 Description: Small parts only in the mural painting have been left. Abraham is moving to the right. Isaac sits in front of him, facing his father. The background is yellow, sloping from the left to the right. Green plants and grass are visible.

29Van Loon, G., The Gate of Heaven: Wall Paintings with Old Testament Scenes in the Altar Room and the Hūrus of Coptic Churches, (Belgium, 1999), 42

35 Ismail, S Saied, L Radwan, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Little remains of Abraham. From the hips to the feet his clothing can be seen: a red pallium and an ankle-length light colored tunic. The folding is indicated in black. His shoes are also black and finely decorated with three circles of white dots. His son Isaac is depicted sitting in front of him. His legs, side by side, are the only visible parts of his body, enveloped in a red ankle-length garment. The folding is black and indicated his knees. He is wearing red shoes. At the far left, at the level of Abraham's upper leg, the four legs and belly of the ram are visible. The animal is pointing to the left.30 6) Abraham Sacrifice from the Monastery of Saint-Antony, Red Sea  scene no: 6  Date: 13th century31  Provenance: Central haykal, South wall from the Monastery of Saint-Antony, Red Sea  Material: stucco  dimension: H.1.35 m, w. 2.05 m

Plate 6: Abraham Sacrifice from the Monastery of Saint-Antony. (Schroeder, C., Child Sacrifice in Egyptian Monastic Culture: From Familial Renunciation to Jephthah's Lost Daughter, 2012, Journal of Early Christian Studies, Vol.XX, No.2, 275) * Description: From the left of the scene, Abraham is depicted in a three-quarter pose, moves towards the center of the arch with both feet standing in the

30Van Loon, G., The Gate of Heaven: Wall Paintings with Old Testament Scenes in the Altar Room and the Hūrus of Coptic Churches, (Belgium, 1999), 67-68 31Boolman, E., Monastic Vision: Wall Painting in the Monasteries of St. Antony at the Red Sea, (London, 2002), 60

36 The Iconography of the Sacrifice of Isaac in Early Christian Art ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ decorative border. He looks over his right shoulder, to the top left hand corner. His son is before him, kneeling before an altar32 with his hands tied behind his back, and he is also depicted in a three-quarter pose. Abraham pulls the head of his son who is depicted with long black hair with his left hand backwards, while with his right hand he brings the knife to Isaac's throat.33 In the top left hand corner a hand coming out of the sky indicates God's voice and shows him a ram tied to a small blossoming tree. The background of the scene is olive-green. The patriarch has a halo and is depicted as an old man with a grey pointed beard and moustache. His long smooth hair is also gray and falls over his shoulder. His skin has beige color and the features are painted in black. The halo is yellow, edged with a red line. He wears a light blue calf- length tunic with a round neck and long tight-fitting sleeves. The garment curls up at his left leg. The upper part of the right tunic-sleeves is decorated with a black band with Cufic inscriptions on it in white lettering. The folding is indicated in red. The upper garment consists of a red pallium which covers his left shoulder and is gathered at the waist by a light colored sash with a (looped reef) knot. He is not wearing any shoes; the knife in his right hand has gray blade and a red handle. Isaac is half naked and unshod; he has long black hair and the color of his skin is beige while the features are painted in black. The only piece of clothing he wears is a red wrap-around skirt reaching to his ankles and tied around the waist. Around his fore-arms and ankles he wears bangles. His right foot partially covers the decorative border.

32Pasi, S., I dipinti della chiesa di Al-Adran elmonastero di Deir-el-Baramus (Wadi-el- Natrun), ZOGRAF , 2010, Vol. XXXIV, 42 33Bolman, E., Monastic Vision: Wall Painting in the Monasteries of St. Antony at the Red Sea, (London, 2002), 66

37 Ismail, S Saied, L Radwan, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ A stone altar, built of large rectangular stones, with traces of what presumably used to be a bowl with fire can just be seen on the right. The ram, watching Abraham, is white with dark red horns and stands on yellow soil. A red cord is tied around its neck and around the tree trunk. The small thin tree with a conical shaped crown has a dark red trunk and branches with green leaves and dark red blossom.34Next to Abraham's head the text reads" He does not wish to kill Isaac"35 4. Iconography of the Sacrifice of Isaac in Stone 1) Relief with the sacrifice of Abraham  Scene no: 7  Date:fifth-sixth century  Provenance:Unknown provenance, Now at Coptic Museum, Inv no. 4354  Material: Limestone  dimension: H: 44 cm, W: 82cm.36 Plate 7: Relief with the sacrifice of Abraham. (Gabra, G., Eaton-Krauss, M., The Treasures of Coptic Art, (Cairo, 2010), 102)

 Description: This relief contains all the standard iconographic elements of this story. Abraham and Isaac stands centered below an arch in frontal position.

34Van Loon, G., The Gate of Heaven: Wall Paintings with Old Testament Scenes in the Altar Room and the Hūrus of Coptic Churches, (Belgium, 1999), 95 35Boolman, E., Monastic Vision: Wall Painting in the Monasteries of St. Antony at the Red Sea, (London, 2002), 66 36Van Loon, G., The gate of heaven: wall paintings with Old Testament scenes in the altar room and the h ūrus of Coptic churches, (Belgium, 1999), 134

38 The Iconography of the Sacrifice of Isaac in Early Christian Art ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ On the top of the arch, there is foliage decoration which fills the triangular space at either side above them. Two sequences of scroll patterns with stylized foliage get together towards a central cross. This cross is surrounded by a foliate circle. The symmetry of the composition, as well as the lifelike proportions of the figures and naturalism of the vegetable elements, suggest a date at the beginning of the fifth century.37 Abraham raises his right hand catching a knife, while he grasping Isaac's head from his hair by his left hand. Isaac is completely nude and his hands are tied behind his back and he slightly bends his knees. The ram is depicted to the left of Abraham's figure. It is ready to take Isaac's place on the altar in the right corner. God provided it as a substitute sacrifice. It stands in profile position. At the top left corner of the arch there is a hand holding Abraham arm to stop him from slaughtering his son, giving visual expression to God's intervention.38 2) Sacrifice of Abraham:  Scene no: 8  Date: sixth-seventh century  Provenance: Coptic Museum inv. No. 8411  from the refectory of the monastery of st. jeremias, saqqara.  Material: Limestone39  Diamantions: H. 100 cm, W. 230 cm.

37 Du Bourguet, P., Biblical Subject in Coptic Art: Abraham and Isaac, Coptic Encyclopedia, Vol.2, ( Macmillan, 1991),382 38Gabra, G., Eaton-Krauss, M., The Treasures of Coptic Art, (Cairo, 2010), 103 39Whitfield, P., et al, Coptic Art Revealed, (Cairo, 2011), 140

39 Ismail, S Saied, L Radwan, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

Plate 8: Sacrifice of Abraham from Coptic Museum, (Whitfield, P., et al, Coptic Art Revealed, (Cairo, 2011), 140

 Description: The upper part of the scenehas disappeared. But the figures can be obviously recognized. Abraham holds a sword in his right hand, while with his left handhe is grasping Isaac's head from his hair.40He wears a tunica (short tunic) which takes the light gray color with red belt, however this feature unusual in the east. Next to him his son stands on the first step of group of stairs leading to an altar which had shaft-like support of which the upper part has disappeared.41 Isaac wears a short skirt that revealed his knees.Isaac is represented with frontal position. On the left side of Abraham a ram is shown under a tree. Abraham’s foot was drawn in opposite directions,

40Du Bourguet, P., Biblical Subject in Coptic Art: Abraham and Isaac, Coptic Encyclopedia, Vol.2, ( Macmillan, 1991),382 41 Gabra, G., The Treasures of Coptic Art: in the Coptic Museum and Churches of Old Cairo, (Cairo, 2006), 72

40 The Iconography of the Sacrifice of Isaac in Early Christian Art ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ as if the figure stood in frontal position. But after that the painter turned Abraham’s foot towards the right as if he is going towards Isaac. An unknown figure occupies the left edge of the scene, left of the tree.42His identity cannot be known because of the absent of the upper part. He is drawn on a slightly larger scale than Abraham in frontal position with his foot was drawn in opposite positions. He wears a cloak over his tunic. He might be a saint. This is because of the cloth which he wears. There are a colorful interlace and foliage pattern represented below the scene.43 5. Iconography of the Sacrifice of Isaac in wood 1) Plaque of Isaac Sacrifice:

Plate 9: Plaque of Isaac Sacrifice )https://www.doaks.org/resources/blisstylercorrespondence/art/bz/BZ.1941.7.jpg/view(

42Woerden, I., Iconography of the Sacrifice of Abraham: Vigiliae Christianae, 1961,Vol. 15, No. 4, 228 43Gabra, G., The Treasures of Coptic Art: in the Coptic Museum and Churches of Old Cairo, (Cairo, 2006), 72

41 Ismail, S Saied, L Radwan, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ  Scene no: 9  Date: 13th century, Fatimid period  Provenance: now at Byzantine Collection, Dumbarton Oaks Museum  Material: Gold leaf and gesso on wood  Dimensions: 19.9 cm x 13.7 cm44  Description:

Abraham is represented in profile, with his legs apart. He is clothed in a long robe with pleats; his haloed head is turned backwards and upwards towards that of a winged angel, who appears in the upper left corner. He turns his back to a tree whose foliage shelters a ram set in profile above the patriarch and his son. The latter is stretched on an altar, and his father is preparing to cut his throat.The reproduction of Abraham's clothing and the Flexibility of the foliage are fairly characteristic of the Coptic woodwork of this period. Variety and fidelity clearly mark this panel which does credit to the originality of Coptic art down to its final period.45

6. Iconography of the Sacrifice of Isaac in Textile 1) Gallons representing the sacrifice of Isaac Tapestry:

44Van Loon, G., The Gate of Heaven: Wall Paintings with Old Testament Scenes in the Altar Room and the Hūrus of Coptic Churches, (Belgium, 1999), 359 45Du Bourguet, P., Biblical Subject in Coptic Art: Abraham and Isaac, Coptic Encyclopedia, Vol.2, ( Macmillan, 1991), 383

42 The Iconography of the Sacrifice of Isaac in Early Christian Art ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

Plate 10: Gallons representing the sacrifice of Isaac Plate 11:Gallons representing the sacrifice of Isaac Tapestry, from Lyon, MuseeHistorique des Tissus Tapestry from Cooper Union Museum, (D'Hennezel, H., (Wisniowski, M. (2013, 5 11). Early Textile Art Musée Historique des Tissus: Catalogué des Principales Cloth: The Education Division of Art Quill & Co. Pièces Exposées,. Lyon,1929) Retrieved 2 8, 2018, from(http://artquill.blogspot.com.eg/2013/05/early-  Scene no: 11 textile-art-artcloth-marie.html)  Date: fourth - fifth century  Scene no: 10  Provenance: Cooper Union Museum, New York,  Date: ninth century  inv. No. 1902-1-142  Provenance:Tissus,Historical Museum,  Material: Linen and wool inv. No. 24.400.55/866.I38  Material: Linen and wool  Dimensions: 12 X 26 cm

 Description

The sacrifice of Isaac appears on three identical textiles which are probably parts of the same group (Musee Historique des Tissus; Walters Art Gallery; New York Cooper Union Museum).46Abraham holds a sword in one hand and grasps Isaac from his hair with the other hand. Isaac is represented as nude boy. He kneels on a circular altar which is decorated with blue and

46Rutschowscaya, M., Coptic Fabrics, (Paris, 1990), 124

43 Ismail, S Saied, L Radwan, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ yellow tiles. Under Abraham's feet is the ram which will replace the child on the altar. The animal is caught by his horns in a bush: the foliage is in front of Abraham's face while the trunk, hidden by the patriarch's body, twists along to the ram's horns. The hand of God appears out of the clouds. It takes blue color. It stops Abraham as he prepares to kill his son. If Abraham symbolizes the obedience to God, Isaac can be compared to Christ carrying his cross.47 2) Fragment of a Coptic fabric  Scene no: 12  Date: seventh-eighth century  Place: Fustat, now in Archaeological Museum in Kraków, ID No.:/AS

 Material: wool, flax

Plate 12: fragment of Coptic fabric. (Jastrzebowska, E., Mythological and Biblical Heroes of Christians in Egypt : Études et Travaux, 2013, Vol. XXVI, 340)

47Rutschowscaya, M., L'art Copte en Egypte, (Paris, 2000), 222

44 The Iconography of the Sacrifice of Isaac in Early Christian Art ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ  Description: The fragment of a Coptic fabric was bought in Cairo by soldiers of the Polish Independent Carpathian Rifle Brigade during the Second World War and then granted to the Archaeological Museum. It is a fragment of a linen fabric with two vertically straps of different widths.

The lower depiction of the scene of Abraham’s sacrifice, while the upper one shows Joseph – one of the twelve sons of the Patriarch Jacob – at the well. On the narrower strap there are two clipei, into which the heads of bearded men (assumedly prophets) are inscribed. The straps were the clavi decoration of a tunic sleeve. The wider strap is flanked with a border of a stylized yellow ornament set against a black background, common in Coptic art. Both scenes are presented against a deep red background. The fabric described here represents the story with Abraham, an angel, and a lamb. The son of Abraham, Isaac, was purposely removed from the scene. Above the lamb, on the right side of the angel, tongues of fire from the sacrificial altar are shown.48

Conclusion In Christian art, the scene often functions as one of the Old Testament prefiguration of Christ's sacrifice.49This scene is often located at the altar, where the priest would perform the ritual reenactment of Christ’s sacrifice

48Jastrzebowska, E., Mythological and Biblical Heroes of Christians in Egypt :Études et Travaux, 2013,Vol. XXVI, 340-341 49Drewer, L., Insights and Interpretations: Studies in Celebration of the Eighty-fifth Anniversary of the Index of Christian Art, (New Jersey, 2002), 39

45 Ismail, S Saied, L Radwan, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ through the administration of the Eucharist.50The story of the patriarch Abraham, who was willing to sacrifice his son, Isaac, in obedience to God's command, occupied an important place in Coptic iconography. In Christian art the hand of God is depicted reaching out of a cloud or the sky where it is an important symbol of God intervention. Isaac is depicted in either of two poses on the alter or kneeling near Abraham. 51

Probably the oldest representation is in a wall painting discovered at El-Bagwat, chapel of Exodus which dates back to the first half of fourth century. Then it is represented again in Chapel of Peace,which dates back to the sixth century. The theme also was depicted in stone. Abraham and Isaac stand out in relief in a niche under a broken pediment originally from Dayr Apa Jeremiah at Saqqara and now in the Coptic Museum, Cairo, inv. no. 4354. Probably it dates back to the middle of the fifth century because of the special aspect of the pediment, the symmetry of the composition, as well as the life like proportions of the figures and the naturalism of the vegetable elements. There is another example also from Saqqara and dates back to the sixth century and now preserved in Coptic Museum, inv. No. 8411.

The theme is represented also in textile. It appears on fragment of a Coptic fabric was bought in Cairo by soldiers of the Polish Independent Carpathian Rifle Brigade during the Second World War and then granted to the Archaeological Museum in Kraków, ID No.: MAK/AS/ 2244 from seventh century. Also it is depicted in three woven sleeve bands. They show

50Schroede, C., Child Sacrifice in Egyptian Monastic Culture: From Familial Renunciation to Jephthah's Lost Daughter: Journal of Early Christian Studies, 2012, Volume XX, Number 2, 276 51Ḥak lîlî, R., Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Land of Israel, (Leiden, 1988), 291

46 The Iconography of the Sacrifice of Isaac in Early Christian Art ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ the complete scene. Two of them dates back to the ninth century, (one belongs to the Historic Museum of Textiles in Lyons and is in excellent condition, inv. No. 24.400.55/866.I38, the other, in the Cooper-Hewitt Museum, New York), while the third dates back to the fifth century (now preserved in Cooper Union Museum, New York, inv. No. 1902-1-142).

In painting, Abraham and Isaac appear again in Abu Maqar church from Wadi el-Natrun and Dair Al-Baramus from the eleventh century. Also it is represented in the haykal (sanctuary) of the ancient church of Dayr Anba Antuniyus near the Red Sea from thirteenth century in the traditional symbolism relating to the Eucharist. The general attitude of Abraham is the same as in the preceding examples, but his head is haloed, and he is clothed in along decorated tunic with sleeves, tightfrom the waist by a belt or not. With his right hand he holds the hair of the kneeling Isaac,whose head is turned backward. With his left hand he prepares to slaughter his son with a long blade. The style was, no doubt influenced byByzantium, which still maintained some links with the Fatimid's,who ruled Egypt in the tenth to twelfth century.52

52Du Bourguet, P., Biblical Subject in Coptic Art: Abraham and Isaac, Coptic Encyclopedia, Vol.2, ( Macmillan, 1991), 383

47 Ismail, S Saied, L Radwan, R ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ In a wooden panel from the Fatimid period the scene appears in relief. The reproduction of Abraham's clothing and the undulationsof the foliage are fairly characteristic of the Coptic woodwork of the period.

Figure 2: Lost fresco of S. Paolo fuori le mura, Rome. Drawing in Vat. Cod. Barb. 4406 Van Woerden, L., The Iconography of the Sacrifice of Abraham: Vigiliae Christianae, 1961, Vol. XV, No. 4, 225

48 IAJFTH Volume 4, No.4, 2018 ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ The Impact of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour on Employees Job Satisfaction in Hotels

Abu Elnasr E. Sobaih Nancy J. Kamel Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management, Helwan University

Abstract

Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) is a unique aspect of individual activity at work, first mentioned in the early 1980s. It represents individual behaviour that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and in the aggregate promotes the efficient and effective functioning of the organization. The aim of this study is to investigate the impact of organizational citizenship behaviour on employee's job satisfaction. To achieve this aim, pre-tested self-administered questionnaire was adapted with a sample of hotel employees in five star hotels. The major findings of this study indicated that once OCB increased, the level of job satisfaction (JS) increased. Therefore, high levels of OCB should lead to a more efficient organization and help bring new resources into the organization, which will enhance employee performance and satisfaction. The study has some implications for hospitality managers. Keyword organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB), job satisfaction, OCB dimensions, job outcomes. Introduction

Despite of the progress made in identifying antecedents to task performance within the job context, questions still remaining with respect to what causes some individuals to take actions that go above and beyond their formal job requirements (Mayfield and Taber, 2010). Extra-role performance refers to

49 The Impact of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour on Employees Job Satisfaction in Hotels ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ job behaviours beyond formal roles of employees that are voluntary and usually have no formal reward; however, they have a considerable impact on organizational effectiveness (Bateman and Organ, 1983). One of the most common conceptualizations conducted about extra-role performance is organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) . Empirical evidence shows that OCB is related to outcomes such as increased profits in restaurants (Koys, 2001), and organizational effectiveness in hotels (Walz and Niehoff, 1996). Research on OCB has shown (e.g. Organ and Ryan, 1995) a relationship between OCB and job satisfaction (JS). Moreover, JS in organizations has been receiving increasing attention because it reduces employee turnover, absenteeism, lateness, and health setbacks due to stress and increase employee loyalty and commitment (Alam et al., 2012). This research among the first attempts to study the impact of OCB on JS. Researches of human resources management (e.g. Brown et al., 2011, Greenberg, 2011) often study the opposite effects which are the influence of JS on OCB. Literature Review

1. Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB)

The concept of OCB was first proposed by Bateman and Organ (1983). Smith et al. (1983) defined it as behaviours that are not beneficial to organizational performance and were decided by the members of the organization. For these behaviours, there were no formal contracts or standards, and no formal rewarding system. Moreover, Kwantes et al. (2008) defined OCB as behaviours which enhance organizational effectiveness but are not rewarded explicitly by the organization and the employee participates voluntarily in them. The above definitions reflect that OCB has to be first of

50 Sobeih.A.E.N Kamel. N ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ all voluntary, that is not a pre-determined task and not a part of formal tasks of the individual. OCB of the employees in the hotel industry were selected as a study variable, because in the hospitality industry, offering a high level of quality services and increasing operational efficiency involves extra-role behaviours such as OCB is a very important behaviour (Getty and Getty 2003). Organ (1997) identified five dimensions of OCB which to date have been widely accepted and acknowledged in other research. The five dimensions are as follows:

1. Altruism: consists of voluntarily actions that help others with an organizationally relevant task such as helping behaviour. 2. Conscientiousness: It is a discretionary behaviour that goes well beyond the minimum role requirement level of the organization, such as obeying rules and regulations. 3. Sportsmanship: refers to avoid complaining unnecessarily about the difficulties faced in the workplace and maintaining positive attitude. 4. Courtesy: the interest of preventing creations of problems for co-workers and treating them with respect. 5. Civic virtue: behaviour on the part of an individual that indicates that employee dutifully participates in and is concerned about the life of the company.

2. Job Satisfaction (JS)

Different authors have different approaches towards defining JS. Arnett et al. (2002) argued that JS is the attitude and feelings people have about their work. Positive and favourable attitudes towards the job indicate JS. Negative and unfavourable attitudes towards the job indicate job dissatisfaction.

51 The Impact of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour on Employees Job Satisfaction in Hotels ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ JS can be considered as one of the main factors when it comes to efficiency and effectiveness of business organizations especially in hospitality industry. Employees should be treated and considered primarily as human beings that have their own wants, needs and personal desires. Logically, a satisfied employee is a happy employee and a happy employee is a successful employee (Aziri, 2011). 3. Relationship between OCB and JS

JS represents the employees’ answer modality on their work itself and work environment and is caused when one’s need is satisfied at the workplace. Feather and Rauter (2004) affirmed that employee's attitude who work voluntarily and intend to remain in the organization determines their job satisfaction. Moreover, the employees who go beyond their job duties, making efforts in achieving the organizational objectives are satisfied in their work and take pride in their affiliation. JS measures how happy employees are with their job and working environment. In this direction a couple of findings (Khalid and Ali, 2005; Chughtai and Zafar, 2006) found that dimensions of OCB altruism and conscientiousness may improve satisfaction of employees working in the organization. When experienced employees exhibit altruism in their behaviour to help the less experienced employees about efficient ways of performing the job, it will enhance the performance of less experienced employees whereas employees with conscientious behaviour require less supervision and allow the manager to delegate more responsibility to them (Meyer et al., 1993; Podsakoff and Mackenzie, 1997). Due to altruism and courtesy, positive interpersonal relationship will be developed among employees and they will remain satisfied in the organization.

52 Sobeih.A.E.N Kamel. N ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ According to Organ and Ryan (1995), JS has a strong relationship with OCB. Moreover, Arif and Chohan (2012) found that there is a significant degree of correlation with the JS and within the dimensions of OCB. The increase in OCB will significantly increase the JS of the employees and vice versa. Therefore, in this study, it can be hypothesized that: H1: OCB positively affect JS. Research Methodology

Sample and Data Collection [ A self-administered questionnaire with hotel employees was designed as the research instrument for collecting primary data. It was designed and distributed to a sample of employees in ten five star hotels. The Seven point Likert-type scaling method was developed within the questionnaire. The questionnaire used includes three sections. The first section dealt with the respondents' demographic profile; while the second section focused on some questions related to OCB. The last section dealt with some questions related to JS. A total of 200 forms were distributed, among them, 150 completed forms were valid which represents 75% response rate (see Table 1). Table 1: Number of questionnaire forms distributed to each hotel No. of forms Valid Forms Hotel Name Distributed Freq. % InterContinental Citystars Cairo 20 17 85 Holiday Inn - Citystars 20 15 75 Fairmont Cairo, Nile City 20 14 70 Fairmont Heliopolis. 20 13 65 Kempinski Nile Hotel Cairo 20 16 80 Cairo Marriott Hotel 20 15 75 JW Marriott Hotel Cairo. 20 17 85 Concorde El Salam Hotel Cairo 20 16 80 Four Seasons Hotel Cairo at Nile Plaza 20 14 70 Four Seasons Hotel Cairo at the First 20 13 65 Residence Total 200 150 75

53 The Impact of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour on Employees Job Satisfaction in Hotels ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

Results and Discussions

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software, version 20.0 was used to analyze the collected data. Frequencies were used to analyze the profile of respondents. Descriptive statistics; i.e. mean and standard deviation (SD) were used to analyze the scales. Pearson correlation and multiple regression analysis were used to test the research hypothesis.

1. Demographic data analysis

This question was designed to highlight the profile of the respondents in the investigated samples (see Table 2).

Table 2: Analysis of demographic profile Demographic data Freq. % Department Front office 17 11.3 Housekeeping 53 35.3 Kitchen 35 23.3 Restaurant 45 30 Male 128 85.3 Gender Female 22 14.7 Married with no kids 12 8 Married with Kids 100 66.7 Marital status Divorced with Kids - - Single 38 25.3 Under 25 years 22 14.7 From 25to 40 years 103 68.7 Age From 41 to 60 25 16.7 Over 60 years - - Did not complete High School 9 6 High school degree/equivalent 24 16 Educational level Associate's/2-year degree 26 17.3 Bachelor's degree 91 60.7 Other - - Less than a year 13 8.7 Length of employment with From 1 to less than 5 years 46 30.7 current employer From 5 to less than 10 years 45 30 10 years or more 46 30.7

54 Sobeih.A.E.N Kamel. N ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Table 2 shows that 35.3% of the respondents were working in housekeeping department. On the other hand, 30% of them worked in restaurant department; while, 23.3% of the respondents were in kitchen department. Only, 11.3% of them were in front office department.

Table 2 illustrates that 85.3% of the respondents were males compared to only 14.7% females. This result supports the findings of Sobaih (2015) that a limited proportion of women were noticeable in the Egyptian hotels.

Moreover, Table 2 shows that 66.7% of the respondents were married with kids. Meanwhile, 25.3% of them were single. Only, 8% of the respondents were married with no kids. This finding agrees with Hodges (2010) who stated that the reason for this is because married employees will typically have greater financial and family responsibilities, which increases their need to remain with the organization. Concerning age, Table 2 states that 68.7% of the respondents were between 25 to 40 years; followed by the respondents between 41 to 60 with a percentage of 16.7%. On the other hand, 14.7% only of the respondents were 25years or under, which reflects the dominance of young people in the hospitality industry. It is interesting that 60.7% of the respondents held a bachelor degree. Meanwhile, 17.3% of them were associates/2 year's degree. On the other hand, 16% of the respondents had high school degree/equivalent. Only 6% of them did not complete high school (see Table 2). This finding means that most of the employees in the hotels are well educated. Although most of the respondents were relatively young people, they had good experience in hotels, as 30.7% of them employed for more than 10 years. Moreover, 30.7% of them worked in their current hotel from 1 to less than 5 years. On the other hand, 30% of the respondents employed from5 to less than 10 years. Only 8.7% of them employed for less than 1 year.

55 The Impact of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour on Employees Job Satisfaction in Hotels ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

2. Employees OCB with their current job

This question was designed to indicate employee level of citizenship behaviour with his/her current job (see Table 3).

Table 3: Organizational citizenship behaviour Mean and standard deviation Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Attributes Mean SD [A] Sportsmanship:

I do not focus on what is wrong with my situation rather than the 3.87 1.98 positive side of it. I do my job without constant requests from my boss. 6.29 .80 I can graciously accept and appreciate constructive criticism 6.38 .96 I do not tend to magnify problems (I make problems bigger than 4.97 2.0 they are). I do not consume a lot of time complaining about trivial matters. 5.82 1.64 [B] Conscientiousness: My attendance at work will be above the norm. 4.58 2.16 I will not take extra breaks. 3.88 2.30 I will obey hotel rules and regulations even when no one is 5.83 1.36 watching. I will be one of the most conscientious employees. 6.32 .82 I will believe in giving an honest day’s work for an honest day’s 6.54 .77 pay. [C] Civic virtue: I will attend meetings that are not mandatory, but are considered 5.77 1.08 important. I will keep abreast of changes in the hotel. 6.08 .97 I will read and keeps up with hotel announcements, memos, and so 6.26 .93 on. I attend functions that are required but help the hotel image. 5.94 1.08 [D] Altruism: I will help orient new people even though it is not required. 6.33 .90 I will help others who have been absent. 5.60 1.28 I will always be ready to lend a helping hand to those around me. 6.35 .83 I will help others who have heavy workloads. 6.22 .90 I should sacrifice my personal interest for the sake of the group 5.39 1.51 I should show the team contribution to success rather than my 5.98 .81 individual contribution continued

56 Sobeih.A.E.N Kamel. N ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

Table (3) cont. [E] Courtesy: I will take steps to try to prevent problems with other workers. 6.16 .93 I will be mindful of how my behaviour affects other people’s jobs. 6.24 .72 I will not abuse the rights of others. 6.52 .71 I will try to avoid creating problems for co-workers. 6.44 .73 I will consider the impact of my actions on co-workers. 6.36 .61 Average mean and standard deviation for OCB attributes 5.84 1.24

Table 3shows that if the employee gets a good salary he/she will give an extra work which reflects that an increasing in the motivation and fairness will increase the OCB behaviour of the employees. Compensation can be described as the amount of reward that a worker expects from the job. Employees should be satisfied with competitive salary packages and they should be satisfied with it when comparing their pay packets with those of the outsiders who are working in the same industry (Alam et al., 2012). This can be seen in the statement (I will believe in giving an honest day’s work for an honest day’s pay). It was the highest on a total scale with a mean score of (6.54, SD 0.77), while the statement (I do not focus on what is wrong with my situation rather than the positive side of it) was the lowest rating (3.87, SD 1.89) and this finding agreed with Konovsky and Organ (1996) who stated that the person who have OCB behaviour avoids complaining unnecessarily about the difficulties faced in the workplace, being positive and tolerant towards problems experienced in the workplace. However, the means of the other factors were above (3.87). The average mean score of the overall OCB is (5.84, SD 1.24).The findings show that most of the items have an average mean score which states that, the respondents were inclined to practice OCB in their current hotels.

57 The Impact of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour on Employees Job Satisfaction in Hotels ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

3. Employees job satisfaction to their current job and organization

JS in organizations has been receiving an increased attention because it reduces employee turnover, absenteeism, and increase employee loyalty and commitment (Chimanikire et al., 2007). Accordingly; this question was designed to identify the employee's job satisfaction regarding their current job and current organization (see Table 4). Table4: Respondents’ Job of satisfaction Mean and standard deviation

Satisfaction Attributes Mean SD

I receive positive recognition for my professional work when it is of high 5.93 1.04 quality. I receive guidance and suggestions for improvement when my professional 6.07 .73 work is not efficient enough. I am satisfied with the progress I have made in achieving my professional 6.18 .88 goals. My current position caters for my professional expectations 6.16 1.09 I consider my current job to be a stepping Stone in my professional career 4.93 2.02 but it is not my ideal job. I work under a great deal of stress. 3.99 2.24 If I had a different job, my welfare and/or health would probably improve. 3.71 2.09 The way things are done in my hotel annoys/irritates me. 3.30 2.17 I have a great deal of stability in my current job. 5.44 1.38 My salary positively reflects how much I am valued in my work. 5.49 1.46 My salary corresponds to the level of responsibility and demands of my job. 5.69 .91 The hotel recognizes my work through benefits such as incentives, pension 6.16 .89 plans, and insurance. Average mean and standard deviation for JS attributes 5.25 1.40 Table 4 Shows that the mean score for the statement (I am satisfied with the progress I have made in achieving my professional goals) was the highest on a total scale with a mean score of (6.18, SD 0.88) which means that practices that contribute to employee development have been linked to employee satisfaction to his/her hotel. This finding agrees with Aplin and Gerster (1978) that the purpose of career development is to match employee's career

58 Sobeih.A.E.N Kamel. N ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ aspirations with opportunities and challenges available within the organization. On the other hand, Hirschfield (2000) indicated that working conditions will influence JS, as employees are concerned with a comfortable physical work environment. In turn this will render a more positive level of JS. So, the statement (The way things are done in my hotel annoys/irritates me) was the lowest rating (3.30, SD 2.17). However, the means of the other factors were above (3.30). The average mean score of the overall JS is (5.25, SD 1.40). 4. The relationship between the OCB and JS

The relationship between the OCB and job satisfaction was investigated using Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (see Table 5).

Table 5 : Pearson Product-moment correlations between OCB and JS

Job satisfaction Organizational Pearson Correlation .486** Citizenship Sig. (2-tailed) .000 Behaviour N 150 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). There was a medium positive correlation between OCB and JS,(r .49, n = 150, p < .001). This finding agrees with Organ and Ryan (1995) who stated that JS has a noticeable relationship with OCB. Also, it should be mentioned that Batman and Organ (1983) in a previous study that there is a positive and significant relationship between JS and OCB.

5. The relationship between five dimensions of OCB and JS

The relationship between five dimensions of OCB and JS with his/her current job was examined (see Table 6).

59 The Impact of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour on Employees Job Satisfaction in Hotels ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Table 6: Pearson Product-moment correlations between the five dimensions of organizational citizenship behaviour organizational commitment and job satisfaction. Sport. Cons. Civic Altruism Courtesy Job Pearson .417** .502** .089 .281** .172* satisfaction Correlation Sig. (2- .000 .000 .278 .001 .035 tailed) * Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed) **Correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed)

As shown in Table 6, there was a medium positive correlation between sportsmanship and JS, (r .42, n = 150, p < .001).This finding agrees with Arif and Chohan (2012) who stated that the increase in JS will enhance the OCB of the employees and vice versa. There was a positive correlation between conscientiousness and JS, (r .50, n = 150, p < .001). That finding agrees with Schneider (1999), who studied the relationship between conscientiousness and JS in various occupations, found marked relationships between them. On the other hand, table (7) shows that, the relationship between civic virtue and JS was not significant. These finding agrees with a study by Fatimah (2011) who showed that there was a significant positive relationship between OCB and JS. Four dimensions of OCB were correlated to JS except civic virtue. Moreover, there was a small positive correlation between altruism and JS, (r .28, n = 150, p < .001). This result agrees with Schnake et al. (1995) who found that JS exhibited an incremental effect further than the effects of leader behaviours' and supposed equity on only two of the five OCB dimensions, namely conscientiousness and altruism. Furthermore, there was a small positive correlation between courtesy and JS, (r .17, n = 150, p < .001). This agrees with Gill (2008) who claimed that

60 Sobeih.A.E.N Kamel. N ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ employees with higher degree of altruism and courtesy will have higher levels of JS in the industry. In this study, Cronbach’s coefficient alpha was used to measure the internal consistency of the scale. A minimum level of the Cronbach’s coefficient alpha is 0.7. The higher value of the Cronbach’s coefficient alpha indicates greater value. In that sense, all the values of the Cronbach’s coefficient alpha in this study were above the minimum level. 6. Testing Research Hypothesis The results demonstrated positive and significant paths from OCB to JS (β = 0.294, p ≥ 0. 01).Hence this H1is supported. These results agreed with Aziri (2011) who concluded that JS has a positive and meaningful relationship with social behaviours. He carried out his study using descriptive-correlation method and concluded that there is a direct and meaningful relationship between OCB with JS (see Table 7). Table 7: Regression analysis and hypotheses testing OCB Dependent Variable Hypothesis Beta S. Error Sig. JS 0.294 0.043 0.000** Supported Note: ** ≥ 0.01

7. Conclusions and Recommendations

This research investigated the impact of the organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) on employee job satisfaction in hotels. In order to achieve this aim, a self-administered questionnaire was distributed to a sample of employees in some Greater Cairo five star hotels. The results signify that as the OCB increased the level of JS increased. So, high levels of OCB should lead to a more efficient organization and help bring new resources into the organization, which will enhance employee performance and satisfaction.

61 The Impact of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour on Employees Job Satisfaction in Hotels ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ The following recommendations could be suggested in order to increase employee's job satisfaction and enhance the awareness of hotels managers when choosing their employees. The recommendations are as follows:- . Hotels managers should pay attention when choosing their employees specially who have OCB attributes in their personality because this will affect their JS. . Hotel managers should carefully consider specially those employees who have sportsmanship and conscientiousness dimensions of OCB, since they are the most two dimensions that affect JS. . Hotel managers and supervisors should study the antecedents of OCB and try to achieve them in order to increase the OCB behaviour in their employees and consequently would increase their satisfaction.

8. Opportunities for Further Research

There are good opportunities for future research with regard to lack of research in relation to the OCB in the hospitality industry. Some of these are: . This study focused on five dimensions of OCB it would be useful if future researches could be focuses on other dimensions and its effect on employee behaviour. . The study focused only on data obtained from five star hotels, further researches could be focuses on other sector of hospitality industry. . This study investigates the effect of OCB on employees JS. Future studies could be study other employees behaviours that OCB has effect on them (e.g. employee retention, employee training, leadership behaviours).

62 Sobeih.A.E.N Kamel. N ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ References

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64 Sobeih.A.E.N Kamel. N ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Finnie, W. and Randall, R. (2002). Loyalty as a Philosophy and Strategy an Interview with Frederick. The Leadership Quarterly, 30 (2), 25-31. Getty, J. M., and Getty, R. L. (2003). Lodging quality index (LQI): Assessing customers' perception of quality delivery. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 15, pp. 94-104. Gill, A. (2008). The Role of Trust in Employee-Manager Efficient Data Centers, Middle-East Journal of Relationship International Journal of Contemporary Scientific Research, 15(2): 200-207. Greenberg J. (2011). Behaviour in Organizations. Tenth Edition. Pearson Education Limited, Essex, England.112-115. Hodges, J.M. (2010). Who Gets the Daddy Bonus? Organizational Hegemonic Masculinity and the Impact of Fatherhood on Earnings. Journal of Gender and Society, 15(2), 717-745. Khalid, S. and Ali, H. (2005). The Effects of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour on Withdrawal Behaviour: A Malaysian Study. International Journal of Management and Entrepreneurship, 1(1), 30-40. Konovsky, M., and Organ, D. (1996). Dispositional and Contextual Determinant of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 17(3), 253-266. Koys D. (2001). The Effects of Employee Satisfaction, Organizational Citizenship Behaviour, and Turnover on Organizational Effectiveness: A Unit-Level, Longitudinal Study. Pers Psychol, 54 (1), 101–115. Kwantes, C., Karam, C., Kuo, B. and Towson, S.(2008). Culture’s Influences on the Perception of OCB as in-Role or Extra Role. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 32 (3), 229-943.

65 The Impact of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour on Employees Job Satisfaction in Hotels ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ MacKenzie, S., Podsakoff, P. and Ahearne, M. (1998). Some Possible Antecedents and Consequences of In-Role and Extra-Role Salesperson Performance. Journal of Marketing, 62 (3), 87–98. Malik, E., Nawab, S., Naeem, B. and Danish, R. (2010).Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment of University Teachers in Public Sector of Pakistan. International Journal of Business and Management, 5 (6), 17-26. Mayfield, C. and Taber, T. (2010). A Prosocial Self-Concept Approach to Understanding Organizational Citizenship Behaviour. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 25 (7), 741-763. Meyer, J. and Allen, N. (1997). Commitment in the Workplace: Theory, Research, and Application. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 41-60. Meyer, J., Allen, N. and Smith, C. (1993). Commitment to Organizations and Occupations: Extension and Test of a Three-Component Conceptualization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78 (4), 538–551. Mohammad, J., Habib, F. and Alias, M. (2011). Job Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: An Empirical Study at Higher Learning Institutions. Asian Academy of Management Journal, 6 (2), 149- 165. Mowday, R. (1998). Reflection on the Study and Relevance of Organizational Commitment. Human Resource Management, 8 (4), 387-401. Naveed, S., Dr. Bakhtiar Khan., Khattak, Muh and Saqib Khan. (2015). Understanding the Relationship between Organization Commitment in Pakistan SME's Manufacturing Sector with Employees Citizenship Attitude Information and Knowledge Management www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-5758 (Paper) ISSN 2224-896X (Online),5(2).

66 Sobeih.A.E.N Kamel. N ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Netemeyer, R., Boles, T., Mckee, D. and McMurrian, R. (1997). An Investigation into the Antecedents of Organizational Citizenship Behaviours in a Personal Selling context. Journal of Marketing, 63 (3), 85 – 98. Newman, A., Thanacoody, R. and ve Hui, W. (2011). The Impact of Employee Perceptions of Training on Organizational Commitment and Turnover Intentions: A Study of Multinationals in the Chinese Service Sector. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(8), 1765-1787. Organ, D. and Ryan, K. (1995). A Meta-Analytic Review of Attitudinal and Dispositional Predictors of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour. Personnel Psychology, 48 (1), 775-802. Organ, D. W. (1988).Organizational citizenship behaviour: The good solider syndrome, Lexington Books, Lexington, MA. Organ, D. W. (1997). Organizational citizenship behaviour: It's construct clean-up time. Human Performance, 10 (2), pp. 85-97. Organ, D. W., and Lingl, A. (1995). Personality, satisfaction and organizational citizenship behaviour. Journal of Social Psychology, 135(1), 339-350. Paillé, P. (2010). Citizenship in the Workplace: Examining Work Attitudes as Predictors among French Employee. International Journal of Business and Management, 5 (4), 53–64. Podsakoff, M. F. and MacKenzie, S. B. (1997). Impact of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour on Organizational Performance: A Review and Suggestions for Future Research. Human Performance, 10 (2), 133-151.

67 The Impact of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour on Employees Job Satisfaction in Hotels ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Podsakoff, M., MacKenzie, S., Moorman, R. and Richard, F. (1990). Transformational Leader Behaviours and Their Effects on Followers’ Trust in Leader, Satisfaction, and Organizational Citizenship Behaviours. Leadership Quarterly, 1(2), 107-142. Podsakoff, P. M., Ahearne, M., and Mackenzie, S. B. (1997). Organizational citizenship behaviour and the quantity and quality of work group performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82 (2), pp. 262–270. Podsakoff, P. M., and Mackenzie, S. B. (1994). Organizational citizenship behaviours and sales unit effectiveness. Journal of Marketing Research, 31(3), pp. 351-363. Podsakoff, P., MacKenzie, S., Paine, J. and Bachrach, D. (2000). Organizational Citizenship Behaviours: A Critical Review of the Theoretical and Empirical Literature and Suggestions for Future Research. Journal of Management, 26 (1), 513–563. Schnake, M., Cochran, D. and Dumler, M. (1995). Encouraging Organizational Citizenship: The Effects of Job Satisfaction, Perceived Equity and Leadership. Journal of Managerial Issues, 7(2): 209-221. Schneider, M.H. (1999). The Relationship of Personality and Job Settings to Job Satisfaction. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Science and Engineering, 1 (59), 6103. Smith, CA., Organ, DW. and Near, JP. (1983). Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: Its Nature and Antecedents. Journal of Applied. Psychological, 68 (4), 653-663.

68 Sobeih.A.E.N Kamel. N ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Thanswor, G. (2005). Organizational Citizenship Behaviour and Commitment in Nepal. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 14 (4), 335-351. Walz, S.M. and Niehoff, B.P. (1996). Organizational Citizenship Behaviours and their Effects on Organizational Effectiveness in Limited - Menu Restaurants. Academy of Management Best Paper Proceedings, 3 (2), 307-311. Yee, R., Yeung, A. and Edwin, T. (2010). An Empirical Study of Employee Loyalty, Service Quality and Firm Performance in the Service Industry. International Journal of Production Economics, 124 (1), 109-120. Zaytoun, M., Heiba A. and Abdelhakim, M. (2010). Implications of the Global Financial and Economic Crisis on the Tourism Sector in Egypt. International Labour Organisation. Retrieved April 15, 2013, fromhttp://www.unglobalpulse.org/resources/ilo-implications-global- financial-and-economic-crisis-tourismsector- Egypt.

69 IAJFTH Volume 4, No.4, 2018 ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ La vie quotidienne des musiciens en Égypte à l’époque Gréco-Romaine

Mariam Khaled Soliman

Abstract

Cet article montera l’intérêt musical des Lagides et les Romains. En plus, l’importance des musiciens et les compositeurs musicaux dans la cour Impériale. Elle présentera un des types des musiciens profane s’appelait « Simphôniai ». Quel était leur rôle, leur salaire, leur genre des fêtes et leur vie quotidienne selon les papyrus en Égypte à l’époque Gréco-Romaine. Mots-clés Les contrats des musiciens, papyrus Grecs, Ptolémée II, Ptolémée XII, Glaukè de Chios, Néron, Hadrien, Simphôniai. Introduction À leur arrivée en Égypte, les Grecs n’avaient aucun problème. Des points communs au niveau de l’art et de la religion les avaient mené à collaborer avec les Égyptiens et en harmonie1. Plus tard, sous l’Empire Romain, l'Égypte a eu une importance capitale dans les différents domaines de la vie par rapport aux autres colonies romaines de l’époque. La musique a eu une grande réputation surtout au niveau de ses musiciens spécialement les citharèdes alexandrins à Rome. En Alexandrie, la musique a connu beaucoup de prospérité jusqu’à l'époque Romaine, lorsqu’elle a commencé à se détériorer2. En effet, la musique populaire est considérée comme étant la réflexion de sa société 3. Parmi les textes littéraires qui reflètent bien le statut des musiciens à l’époque Impériale, nous pouvons citer :

1 HICKMANN, H., « Les dieux et les déesses de la musique », dans : Cahiers d’Histoire Egyptienne, VI, Fasc.1, 1954, Le Caire, p. 31. 2 VENDRIES, Ch., « Harpistes, Luthistes et Citarôdes dans l’Égypte romaine remarques sur certaines singularité musicales », dans : Revue Belge de philologie et d’histoire, I : Antiquité, 80, 2002, p. 171, 180. 3 VENDRIES, Ch., « Considérations sur le statut du musicien dans la Rome antique. Critères de distinction social et hiérarchie », dans : Le statut du musicien dans la Méditerranée ancienne, Égypte, Mésopotamie, Grèce, Rome, Actes de la table ronde internationale tenue à Lyon Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée (Université Lumière Lyon 2) les 4 et 5 juillet 2008, Lyon, p. 214.

70 La vie quotidienne des musiciens en Égypte à l’époque Gréco-Romaine ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ 1- Les papyrus des contrats des musiciens qui reflètent bien la vie quotidienne des musiciens. 2- Les papyrus musicaux, référence qui donne une image réelle de ce qui se passait en réalité d’une manière plus spécifique.4 3- Le discours de Dion Chrysostome aux Alexandrins, présenté au grand théâtre d'Alexandrie sous le règne de l’empereur Vespasien (69-79 après J.-C.). Un passage parmi les écritures – des historiens et les auteurs classiques – qui décrit les mœurs des Égyptiens « Les Égyptiens, tu ne l'ignores pas, sont des gens triviales, évapores, frénétiques, hâbleurs, insolents et, qui plus est, versatiles, frondeurs, montrant jusque dans leurs chants populaires leur goût pour les bouleversements politiques, férus de vers, d’épigrammes, d’astrologie, de divination et de médecine5 ». I. L’intérêt musical des Lagides et les Romains Dion Chrysostome6 décrivait que les fêtes à Alexandrie avaient un goût très différent où les hommes, les femmes et les enfants prenaient plaisir par le chant et la danse. Il a ajouté que les Alexandrins connaissaient bien le genre des contes lyriques et toutes les chansons populaires. Même le peuple avait la compétence de découvrir les possibilités du chanteur s’il était efficace ou non. Les Alexandrins considéraient les meilleurs chanteurs chez eux comme des dieux. Ils les ont appelés les sauveurs. Dion a décrit comment était la réaction de la foule durant les concerts musicaux en Alexandrie, ils imitaient le chanteur et les chants choraux7. Strabon a laissé un texte portant sur la musique à l'époque de l’empereur Auguste (63 avant J.-C – 14 après J.-C) qui était trouvé en Haute Égypte à Abydos. Il cite que pour les rites religieux, il existait partout des chants, de la musique, des sons émis des instruments sauf dans le sanctuaire d'Osiris, où il

4 VENDRIES, Ch., « Harpistes, Luthistes et Citarôdes dans l’Égypte romaine remarques sur certaines singularité musicales », dans : Revue Belge de philologie et d’histoire, I : Antiquité, 80, 2002, p. 171-172. 5 SATURNIUS, VII, 4, (trad. Chastagnol, A., Histoire Auguste, coll. Robert Laffont), Paris, 1994, p. 1121. 6 Il avait plusieurs appellations, Dion Chrysostomos, Dio Prusaeus, Dio Cocceianus. Il était un rhétoricien et philosophe grec qui a gagné sa célébrité à Rome et dans tout l'Empire par ses écrits et discours. Le nom chrysostom signifie « la bouche dorée », cf., Merriam- Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature, U.S.A, 1995, p. 329. 7 BARRY, W., « Aristocrats, Orators, and the Mob: Dio Chrysostom and the world of the Alexandrians », dans: Historia, 42, 1993, p. 92-93.

71 Soliman.M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ était interdit aux musiciens et aux chanteurs de pratiquer la musique et plus précisément de la harpe, du hautbois et de la lyre et même de chanter pendant les rites religieux8. Diodore de Sicile a déclaré « partout ce qui a trait aux plaisirs de l'existence, Alexandrie l'emporte sur les autres villes ». Ainsi, Plutarque a décrit la rencontre de Cléopâtre et Antoine en Cilicie9, « étaient manœuvrées au son de l’aulos, accompagné par des syrinx et des cithares10 ». En plus, les paroles d'Athénée11 confirment à quelle point les Alexandrins ont jouie d’une bonne réputation dans le bassin méditerranéen. Il dit que n'importe qui parmi les Alexandrins pouvait facilement trouver les erreurs qui pourraient être faits par un citharède ou les aulos même s’il était un illettré12. Strabon a laissé un texte portant sur la musique à l'époque de l’empereur Auguste (63 avant J.-C – 14 après J.-C) qui était trouvé en Haute Égypte à Abydos. Il cite que pour les rites religieux, il existait partout des chants, de la musique, des sons émis des instruments sauf dans le sanctuaire d'Osiris, où il était interdit aux musiciens et aux chanteurs de pratiquer la musique et plus précisément de la harpe, du hautbois et de la lyre et même de chanter pendant les rites religieux13. Hérodote a décrit les rites du voyage des barques lors de la fête de Bubastis en précisant qu’il existait des joueuses de crotales et des musiciens jouant de l’aulos14. En Alexandrie au IIe siècle, l’écrivain Claude

8 MANNICHE, L., Music and Musicians in Ancient Egypt, London, 1991, p. 118; CHARVET, P., Strabon: Le voyage d’Égypte, Paris, 1998, p. 165. 9 Cicilie était un ancien territoire historique au pays d’Anatolie, elle était sous la domination Romaine en l’an 102, elle est située exactement dans l’angle Nord-Est de la Méditerranée, actuellement en Turquie, cf. MUTAFIAN, C., « 90 ans après le génocide des arméniens », dans : Conseil de coordination des organisations Arméniennes de France, 2005, p.3 ; cf., http://www.edelo.net/turquie/ressources/anatolie-antique.pdf, p. 3, 6,15, Lundi 17/7/2017, 11 :42 AM. 10 PLUTARQUE, Antoine, 26,1. 11 Son nom est Athénée de Naucratis, parce qu’il est né à Naucratis en Égypte mais il était d’origine grecque. Il a vécu au IIe et IIIe siècle de notre ère. Il est l’auteur du livre « Les Deipnosophistes » qui signifie « Les banquets des sages » s’agit des citations d’auteurs antiques, ce livre est actuellement perdu, cf., BRISSON, L., Lectures de Platon, Paris, 2000, p. 27. 12 VENDRIES, Ch., « Harpistes, Luthistes et Citarôdes dans l’Égypte Romaine Remarques sur certaines singularité musicales », dans : Revue Belge de philologie et d’histoire, I : Antiquité, 2002, p. 183-184. 13 MANNICHE, L., Music and Musicians in Ancient Egypt, London, 1991, p. 118; CHARVET, P., Strabon: Le voyage d’Égypte, Paris, 1998, p. 165. 14 PERPILLOU-THOMAS, F., « Artistes et athlètes dans les papyrus grecs d’Égypte », dans : ZPE, 108, 1995, p. 226.

72 La vie quotidienne des musiciens en Égypte à l’époque Gréco-Romaine ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Ptolémée15 a fait un sommaire des conclusions des études musicologiques de ses prédécesseurs16. La musique a bien connu la prospérité à l'époque grecque, dès le règne d’Alexandre à partir des fêtes surprenantes17, les banquets, les défilés, les concours musicaux et les études elle-même de la musique ou par les nouvelles inventions comme l'invention de l'orgue hydraulique du savant Alexandrin Ctésibios au IIIe siècle de notre ère, qui a continué son succès jusqu'à l'époque romaine18. L'Égypte est cité dans la littérature grecque comme un pays qui adore la gaieté et la beauté identifié par les fêtes plus précisément à Canope19. Les Ptolémées ont beaucoup encouragé la musique en Égypte, comme par exemple Ptolémée II (Philadelphe) au IIIe siècle avant. J-C. Comme par exemple un décret des artistes de Dionysos découvert à Ptolémaïs20 citant qu'il faut avoir "un cithariste et citharède aux côtés des danseurs, acteurs et du trompettiste". Pour montrer à quel point la musique était importante sous le règne des Lagides, c'était l'existence de la fameuse citharède et joueuse de la lyre appelait Glaukè de Chios, qui était parmi les musiciennes de la cour de Ptolémée II (308-246av.J-C.)21. Elle continuerait sa profession dans la cour Impériale22. Plusieurs auteurs classiques ont mentionné son nom tel que Pline qui a décrit sa beauté et que même les animaux comme l’oie, le chien et le

15 Claude Ptolémée était un astronome, géographique et astrologue qui a vécu en Alexandrie sous le règne de Ptolémée VII. cf., MATTER, M., Histoire de l’école d’Alexandrie comparée aux principales écoles contemporaines, II, Paris, 1844, p. 227. 16 HICKMANN, H., « Abrégé de l’histoire de la musique en Égypte », dans : Revue de Musicologie, 32, 93/94, Paris, 1950, p. 16 17 CECCARELI, P., « Autour de Dionysos : remarques sur la dénomination des artistes dionysiaques », dans : Le statut de l’acteur dans l’antiquité Grecque et Romaine, Tours : Presses Universitaires François-Rabelais, 2004, pp. 109-142, p. 124. 18 VENDRIES, Ch., « Harpistes, Luthistes et Citarôdes dans l’Égypte romaine remarques sur certaines singularité musicales », dans : Revue Belge de philologie et d’histoire, I : Antiquité, 2002, p. 181. 19 BERNARD, A., Alexandrie la grande, Paris, 1966, p. 301. 20 C’était une ville parmi trois villes grecques (Naucratis et Alexandrie) en Égypte, elle est située en Haute Égypte sur la rive gauche du Nil, Ptolémaïs est fondé par Ptolémée II (Philadelphe), ce site est actuellement El Menschiyeh, cf., Encyclopédie du Dix-neuvième siècle, Répertoire universel des sciences, des lettres et des arts, avec la bibliographie des hommes célèbres, 20, Paris, 1846, p. 649. 21 BÉLIS, A., Les musiciens dans l’antiquité, Paris, 1999, p. 40. 22 VENDRIES, Ch., « Harpistes, Luthistes et Citarôdes dans l’Égypte romaine remarques sur certaines singularité musicales », dans : Revue Belge de philologie et d’histoire, I : Antiquité, 2002, p. 180-182.

73 Soliman.M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ bélier l’ont aimé23. Le poète Théocrite a parlait de la tonalité de sa voix24. Plutarque a témoigné que sa voix était un modèle de musicalité25. En plus, la statue en calcaire d'une joueuse de lyre découvert sur l'île de Chypre remontant à l’époque hellénistique, 300-250 avant. J.-C., par ses traits de visage les chercheurs devinent qu'elle est la reine Bérénice I l'épouse de Ptolémée II. Pour continuer les succès des Ptolémées dans la musique, Ptolémée XII était passionné de la musique au point qu'il obtint le titre d'un aulète au cours des concours musicaux auxquels il avait participé26 et il organisait des concours musicaux dans le palais royal27.

Fig. 1 La reine Bérénice I l'épouse de Ptolémée II jouant de la lyre http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_de tails.aspx?objectId=464430&partId=1&searchText=sculpture+C352&page=2, Mardi 18/7/2017, 11:57 AM. L’Égypte a connu dès l’antiquité un genre de musique appelé la musique des fêtes des vendanges. Sous la domination grecque puis romaine ce genre a continué d’être présenté et reconnu à partir des contrats des musiciens. Mais

23 PLINY, Natural History, 10. 51. 24 C'était un poète durant le règne de Ptolémée II, cf., MCKECHNIE, P., GUILLAUNE, Ph., Ptolemy II. Philadelphus and his World, Leiden, 2008, p. 363. 25 PLUTARQUE, Sur les oracles de la Pythie, 6, 396 F- 397 A. 26 VENDRIES, Ch., « Harpistes, Luthistes et Citarôdes dans l’Égypte romaine remarques sur certaines singularité musicales », dans : Revue Belge de philologie et d’histoire, I : Antiquité, 2002, p. 182. 27 VENDRIES, Ch., « Considérations sur le statut du musicien dans la Rome antique. Critères de distinction social et hiérarchie », dans : Le statut du musicien dans la Méditerranée ancienne, Égypte, Mésopotamie, Grèce, Rome, Actes de la table ronde internationale tenue à Lyon Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée (université lumière Lyon 2) les 4 et 5 juillet 2008, Lyon, p. 219.

74 La vie quotidienne des musiciens en Égypte à l’époque Gréco-Romaine ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ la différence était que les chants qui étaient chantés durant ces fêtes étaient remplacés par le son des aulos, donc le chant avec les instruments de percussion était remplacé par la musique instrumentale28. Il existait plusieurs fêtes à cette époque-là ou il y avait quelques représentations de théâtres, acteurs, humoristes, danseuses et de la musique comme les joueurs d’aulos29. En ce qui concerne de la musique à l'époque romaine, les auditeurs de citharède Alexandrins avaient eu une grande réputation à Rome au point que ses opinions étaient des jugements finals et c'est dû à leur connaissance approfondie de la musique. L'empereur Impérial Néron (54-68 après J.-C.) était obsédé par la musique, l’art, la poésie, la littérature, la peinture, la sculpture et toutes sortes d’art. Il n’aimait seulement la musique mais il l’a parfaitement pratiqué car il était un citharède et compositeur. La vie de Néron a connu, selon les chercheurs, trois périodes, la première comptait depuis son enfance et représentait les années de son éducation musicale jusqu’à l’an 54. Ensuite, les dix ans d’après jusqu’à l’an 6430, il participait à quelques spectacles comme un citharède. Finalement, les quatre dernières années de son règne, la musique était pour lui un grand souci31. Il a eu comme un vœu de mourir à Alexandrie comme un fameux citharède parce qu’il avait toujours une crainte pour les jugements des Alexandrins, car à cette époque les Alexandrins ont beaucoup moqué des citharèdes comme il était représenté sur les figurines des terres cuites d'époque romaine, dont l’une est conservée au musée égyptien du Caire sous le numéro 26763. Elle représente un citharède qui était figuré comme un personnage gros, son visage gonflé et sans mouvement. Il est fort probable qu’elle peut présenter symboliquement l'empereur Néron citharède comme une caricature connu par les traits de son visage sur les monnaies romains.

28 HICKMANN, H., « Rythme, mètre et mesure de la musique instrumentale et vocale des anciens égyptiens », dans : Acta Musicologica, 32, 1, 1960, p. 21-22. 29 PERPILLOU-THOMAS, F., Fêtes d’Égypte ptolémaïque et romaine d’après la documentation papyrologique grecque, Lovanii, 1993, p. 223. 30 L’an 64 au mois du mai était un point de transformation dans la vie musicale de l’empereur Néron grâce au récital du théâtre de Naples à Grèce antique, car il souhaitait de chanter et de jouer de la cithare devant le peuple Grec et Alexandrin. 31 BÉLIS, A., « Néron musicien », dans : Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 133e année, 3, 1989. pp. 747- 768.

75 Soliman.M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

Fig. 2 L’empereur Néron citharède comme une caricature Vendries, Ch., « Harpistes, Luthistes et Citarôdes dans l’Égypte Romaine Remarques sur certaines singularité musicales », dans : Revue Belge de philologie et d’histoire, I : Antiquité, 2002, p.183, fig.4. La musique égyptienne qu'a transporté les Romains à leur pays reflète bien la vie quotidienne égyptienne et transporte avec elle le goût typiquement égyptien qu'il était si dissemblable32. La musique hellénistique a atteint son apogée au Vème siècle avant J.-C., que les Romains ont l’imité en modifiant la musique grecque par leur propre goût musical33, comme les chercheurs disent que « la musique romaine est fille de la musique grecque ». En général, les Romains ont utilisé la musique pendant les fêtes religieuses et dans l’usage militaires, et le nombre des musiciens et poètes augmentait à Rome, quand les Romains emparaient de la Grèce antique et les autres provinces orientales34. Depuis le IIème siècle après J.-C., précisément à l'époque de l'empereur Hadrien et Antonin entre 117 et 138 après J.-C. une grande base d'informations sur la musique antique romaine avait été livrée grâce aux plusieurs monuments découvertes soit peintures ou instruments ou même manuscrits. Les deux instruments les plus connus à l'époque romaine c’étaient la cithare et le luth. L'empereur Hadrien (117-138 après J.-C.), depuis son enfance a reçu une forte éducation musicale surtout la musique grecque – il avait un amour de toutes les sciences qui avaient une relation avec la Grèce – il était bien cultivé, ayant reçu une éducation de base dans

32 VENDRIES, Ch., « Harpistes, Luthistes et Citarôdes dans l’Égypte romaine remarques sur certaines singularité musicales », dans : Revue Belge de philologie et d’histoire, I : Antiquité, 2002, p. 182-183, 73. 33 BÉLIS, A., Les musiciens dans l’antiquité, Paris, 1999, p. 10. 34 ROSSIER, E., « La musique dans l'empire romain », dans : Chrono zones, 10, 2004, pp. 38- 43.

76 La vie quotidienne des musiciens en Égypte à l’époque Gréco-Romaine ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ tous les matières suivant (Math, littérature grecque, philosophie grecque et même l'art). Il était le patron de la musique et de toute sorte d'art mais en secret car c'était inconsistant de sa position tel il est l'empereur de Rome35. Il y avait une autre couche sociale des musiciens qui étaient plus proches des empereurs c'étaient les compositeurs Grecs, leur tâche était de composer des louanges compléts –les paroles avec sa musique– dédiés aux empereurs ou les membres de la famille impériale dans n'importe quelle occasion. Leur salaire était inclut dans le budget de l'état. Le meilleur compositeur était Poplios Ailios Pompѐianos Paiȏn, il était d'origine d'Asie Mineure mais il est devenu célèbre en Égypte puis il a continué son travail à Rome sous l'époque d'Hadrien. Mésomѐde de Crète, était l'ami fidèle d'Hadrien et honoré par lui36, puis recruté par l’empereur Antonin le Pieux (138-161 après J.-C.), même l'empereur Caracalla (211-217 après J.-C.) lui avait fait construire un cénotaphe à son nom. Il a eu une grande réputation et célébrité comme étant un poète, compositeur, citharède, chanteur et instrumentiste37. Il ne reste de ses œuvres que 14 poèmes dont le plus connu était dédié à Antinoüs le favori de l'empereur Hadrien sur commande personnelle, dont elle a demeuraient dans les rites officiels de culte d'Antinoüs. Quatre de ces œuvres (deux préludes et deux grands hymnes) avaient été découverts presque compléts, six manuscrits avec les textes et leur musique, dont les textes été écrivaient en noir et les signes musicaux en rouge, dont la plus ancienne remonte au XIIIe siècle et la plus récente remonte au XVIe siècle38. Perpillou-Thomas indique qu'à l'époque romaine, les musiciens les plus connus c'étaient les joueurs d'aulos, suivit des luthistes puis les citharèdes, bien que les joueurs d'aulos fussent à l'origine du Fayoum39. L’élite des instruments durant l'époque romaine c'était la citharède, elle est en tête de tous les instruments et la plus gagnante financièrement par ce qu'elle était la

35 BÉLIS, A., « La musique au siècle des Antonins », dans : Bulletin de l’ARELACLER, Journée académique des Langues anciennes, Clermont-Ferrand, 2001, pp. 23-33. 36 ROSSIER, E., « La musique dans l'Empire Romain », dans : Chrono zones, 10, 2004, p.41. 37 BÉLIS, A., « Un lyrikos de l'époque des Antonins : Mésomède de Crète », dans : La poésie grecque antique. Actes du 13ème colloque de la Villa Kérylos à Beaulieu-sur-Mer les 18 & 19 octobre 2002, Paris Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, 2003. pp. 223-235. (Cahiers de la Villa Kérylos, 14). 38 BÉLIS, A., « La musique au siècle des Antonins », dans : Bulletin de l’ARELACLER, Journée académique des Langues anciennes, Clermont-Ferrand, 2001, pp. 23-33. 39 PERPILLOU-THOMAS, F., « Artistes et athlètes dans les papyrus grecs d’Égypte », dans : ZPE, 108, 1995, p. 233.

77 Soliman.M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ plus complexe d’utiliser en tant que chanteur en même temps de la jouer40. Ὰ Rome antique, la cithare était un instrument spécial pour les hommes, il n’y avait aucune information sur une femme citharède41. Les Romains étaient des professionnelles, ils ont su comment utiliser les instruments musicaux avec perfection. La cithare grecque est un grand témoigne du professionnalisme des romains car la cithare grecque était jouée à partir un plectre et avec une seule main. Par rapport à la cithare romaine, elle était plus facile à celle des grecs dont les musiciens romains pouvaient la joué avec ses deux mains et placé aussi sur ses épaules, c'est la flexibilité. Alexandrie était la ville la plus connue par les musiciens les plus doué, la preuve était les récits d'Athénée sur le talent de son ami le musicien Alexandros -originaire d'Alexandrie- que tous les romains l'adore. Donc nous concluons que l'Empire Romain avait comme une habitude d'apporter les musiciens doués des pays qu'elles étaient sous sa domination comme par exemple Alexandrie, Syrie et Asie Mineure à Rome. Quand même, les Romains n'avaient pas la même passion et le goût des Grecs, et s’il y existait un peu des musiciens romains avec un talent de la musique en la travaillant comme une profession, ils prenaient un nom grec, ceci est dû au pouvoir des Grecs dans toutes les domaines musicales42. L’Égypte à l'époque romaine, avait deux types de la musique, un qui a des influences grecques et romaines avec leurs propres instruments et traditions, l’autre était purement égyptiens qui étaient conjointement avec celle de la musique gréco-romaine. Ces deux combinassions avaient né un nouveau sens de la musique typiquement Alexandrine qui occupe une haute position dans l'Empire Grec et Romain43.

40 BÉLIS, A., « La musique au siècle des Antonins », dans : Bulletin de l’ARELACLER, Journée académique des Langues anciennes, Clermont-Ferrand, 2001, pp. 23-33. 41 VENDRIES, Ch., « Abstinence sexuelle et infibulation des chanteurs dans la Rome Impériale », dans : Penser et représenter le corps dans l’antiquité, Rennes, 2006, p. 258, 90, 9. 42 BÉLIS, A., « La musique au siècle des Antonins », dans : Bulletin de l’ARELACLER, Journée académique des Langues anciennes, Clermont-Ferrand, 2001, pp. 23-33. 43 VENDRIES, Ch., « Harpistes, Luthistes et Citarôdes dans l’Égypte romaine remarques sur certaines singularité musicales », dans : Revue Belge de philologie et d’histoire, I : Antiquité, 2002, p. 191.

78 La vie quotidienne des musiciens en Égypte à l’époque Gréco-Romaine ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ II. Les musiciens « Symphôniai » Selon les papyrus, les musiciens étaient classés en deux genres, le premier était les musiciens des Symphôniai, l’autre était les Synodos. Les musiciens des Symphôniai étaient des groupes d’artistes laïques formés essentiellement par un danseur, des artistes pouvaient être des musiciens ou chanteurs, tous étaient sous la direction d’un chef appelé « proestôs ». Il n’était pas un prêtre, c’était lui qui avait la responsabilité de recruter les autres artistes avec eux, et gardait leurs contrats pour préserver les droits des musiciens. Ce genre était fort signalé sur les papyrus surtout les contrats des musiciens, dont ils occupaient une place sociale moins que les Synodos et ils possédaient des instrumentistes plus que les chanteurs44. Leur vie musicale était établissait dans des régions précises loin des territoires administrative du pays comme Oxyrhynchos, Arsinoé et Antinoopolis c’est pour cela qu’ils étaient nommés « les artistes régionales ». Selon les contrats, ils travaillaient pour une durée maximum une semaine ou dix jours, durant les vendages pour oublier la peine du travail, les banquets individuels, les fêtes de dîner, les fêtes rustiques ou les croisières dont ces derniers genre étaient très répandu en Égypte. Hérodote a indiqué qu’en Égypte plus de sept cent mille hommes fait de la croisière sur le Nil au son de la musique en dirigeant vers Bubastis pour atteindre des fêtes en l’honneur d’Artémis45. Un autre récit décrie par Strabon mais en Alexandrie à Canope pour les festivités du printemps en dansant au son de la musique46. Le salaire était par jour entre 30 et 4 drachmes en argent ou parfois le paiement était en nature comme le pain, le blé, le vin, l’huile et les dattes. Le moyen de transport de la bande musical était l’âne dont le nombre des ânes peuvent atteindre jusqu’aux dix ânes, dont le propriétaire fournit toute la protection du chemin, des instruments et les ornements des musiciens contre les voleurs47. III. Les contrats des musiciens d’après les papyrus Les papyrus grecs étaient considérés comme étant une grande source d’informations de la vie des musiciens. Une partie des papyrus représente les contrats d’engagement des musiciens dont le plus ancien remontait du IIIe siècle avant. J-C et la plus récente datait du IVe siècle après J.-C., mais la plupart des contrats des musiciens été transcrit au IIe et IIIe siècle. L’importance des papyrus grecs vient de compléter l’analyse des

44 BÉLIS, A., Les musiciens dans l’antiquité, Paris, 1999, p. 64. 45 HÉRODOTE, Histoires, II, 60, citée dans la traduction de Legrand, Paris, 1932. 46 BERNARD, A., Alexandrie la grande, Paris, 1966, p. 304. 47 BÉLIS, A., Les musiciens dans l’antiquité, Paris, 1999, p. 63-69.

79 Soliman.M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ informations sur le statut des musiciens dans le social, parce que les inscriptions – honorifique ou funèbre –avec les sources littéraires figurent seulement les fameux musiciens, mais les papyrus représentent bien tous les types des musiciens. Les contrats des musiciens étaient parfois faciles à lire et parfois difficiles de comprendre comme étant le problème de tous les papyrus, mais en tout cas elles donnent une vue complète de la vie quotidienne des musiciens de l’époque. Les contrats étaient écrits en forme de mutuel, entre le propriétaire d’une fête et la troupe musicale mais jamais été écrit par un musicien soliste. Ces contrats étaient transcrits au temps de futur, des longs passages et plus détaillés pour empêcher d’être escroqué par les deux partis. Les détails des contrats des musiciens été rédigé par ordre pour les deux partis ; premièrement l’indentification, leurs origines géographique, et leurs fonctions ; deuxièmement nom de la fête, nombre des membres de l’orchestre, la date, la durée et le lieu ; troisièmement la signature des deux partis avec plusieurs copies d’elles. En analysant ces contrats, il été trouvé que les troupes musicales avaient pris place seulement dans la capitale de chaque nome du pays dont les gens venaient de tous les villages de chaque région, peut être en raison de prestige. Chaque troupe un maître, c’était lui qui dirigeait la troupe et qui signait les contrats, il était le plus âgé que les autres musiciens de sa troupe. Les troupes musicales ont pris leurs salaires en monnaies spécialement la monnaie sonnante et trébuchante, qu’elle était drachmes en argent. Les musiciens ont pris les monnaies par jours avec leurs transport aller-retour, en retournant ils prenaient leurs pourboires en monnaies aussi, plus le pain, l’huile et le vin. Au IIe siècle de notre ère, le moyen salaire des troupes musicales était 40 drachmes par jour, mais une fois une troupe musicale a pris 200 drachmes par jour dans un concert qui a duré sept jours. Une chose remarquable dans les troupes musicales à l’époque Gréco-Romaine, qu’ils n’avaient pas des éléments essentiels de la troupe musicale chez les anciens Égyptiens comme le chanteur, les instruments à cordes et les instruments à percussions sauf seulement les crotales en exception avec les danseuses, tous ces éléments étaient remplacés par les aulètes avec les danseuses48. Parmi les fameux contrats des musiciens, il existait un contrat d’apprentissage d’un aulète découvert à Abousir-El-Melek, l’antique Busiris, originellement venant

48 BÉLIS, A., « Contrats et engagement de musiciens et d’artistes transmis par des papyrus Grecs », dans : Le statut du musicien dans la méditerranée ancienne, Egypte, Mésopotamie, Grèce, Rome, Actes de la table ronde internationale tenue à Lyon Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée (université Lumière Lyon2), les 4 et 5 Juillet 2008, Lyon, Édités par Sybille Émerit, IFAO, p. 149-153.

80 La vie quotidienne des musiciens en Égypte à l’époque Gréco-Romaine ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ d’Alexandrie- découvert dans le cartonnage d’une momie en 1902 par les fouilles des Allemands, datait de l’an 17e du règne d’Auguste en mois de Pharmouti. Ce contrat est écrit par Gaius Julius Philios à Gaius Julius Eros, pour enseigner le jeu d’aulos à son esclave nommé Narcisse pour une année complète et qu’il aurait comme un salaire de cent drachmes d’argent en deux phases la première c’était au moment de signature ce contrat et la deuxième était après six mois. Le patron de Narcisse a indiqué dans le contrat que son esclave aurait de vacances durant cette année 17 jours seulement pour les fêtes, même-il garantit la nourriture et les vêtements de Narcisse49. D’après les papyrus Grecs en Égypte remontant de l’époque Ptolémaïque à proximités 240 avant J.-C., représentent les lettres de correspondance d’un personnage nommé d’Hérakléôtes à l’un de ses tuteurs c’était le riche Zénon. Hérakléôtes n’a pas fini ses études musicales à cause de la mort de son professeur le citharode Déméas. Ce dernier lui offrit son cithare mais elle n’était pas trouvée au moment de sa mort. Hérakléôtes a décidé de rédiger quatre lettres pour le riche Zénon afin de lui chercher sa cithare ou un autre instrument de même prix pour qu’il puisse participer au concours musicaux des Ptolémaia50. Il existe un papyrus d’Égypte remontant à l’époque Romaine conservé à l’université de Cornel (New York), s’agit de la statue économique de troupes musicales et la première danseuse professionnelle avec des castagnettes Isidora d’Arsinoé. Le contrat de ce papyrus été écrit par Artemisia du village de Philadelphia à Isidora pour l’a recruté avec deux autres danseuses de castagnettes lors une cérémonie dans sa maison pour une durée de six jours, le jour coutait 36 drachmes avec de l’orgue et du pain. Artemisia entretenait que tous les bijoux des danseuses vont être en sécurité et deux ânes pour leur transportaient aller et retour. Ce qui est bizarre qu’il existait deux ânes seulement tandis qu’il y a trois danseuses, c’est peut-être pour indiquer l’importance et la différence entre Isidora la danseuse professionnelle et les autres danseuses. Les bijoux des danseuses étaient sous forme d’un bandeau au niveau de sa tête, un collier, des boucles d’oreilles et une ceinture étroite. La chose intéressante ici ce que les danseuses à castagnettes (crotales) étaient intégrées en Égypte durant l’époque Gréco-Romaine, parce que tous les époques précédents utilisaient les applaudisseuses comme pour rythmer la musique mais pas les danseuses, tandis que les anciens Grecs les utilisaient avec des

49 BÉLIS, A., Delattre, D., « A propos d’un contrat d’apprentissage d’aulète », dans : Papiri Documentari Greci, 1993, p. 107, 115-116, 124. 50 BÉLIS, A., Les musiciens dans l’antiquité, Paris, 1999, p. 21-22.

81 Soliman.M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ castagnettes. Ces crotales rassemblaient aux modernes castagnettes d’aujourd’hui, ou des battants qui fait des bruits comme les jeux des enfants, ou des planchettes en forme deux paires des chevilles des pieds, tous étaient fabriqués en bois51.

Fig. 3 Des planchettes en forme deux paires des chevilles des pieds Willems, H., Clarysse, W., sous la rédaction de, traduit en néerlandais par René Preys, Les empereurs du Nil, (Exposition, Tongres, Musée Gallo-romain), 2000, Tongres, 25-9-1999 au 6-2-2000 ; Valenciennes, p. 316, fig. 259. IV. L’image des musiciens aux yeux du peuple Une des papyrus démotique52 qui parle des musiciens à l'époque Romaine et précisément à l'époque de l’empereur Auguste, a donné des informations sur un harpiste nommé "Haroudja =Hor Ut'a"53. C’est un nom très commun à l'époque Grecque qui veut dire "Horus est en bonne santé". C’était le seul harpiste et joueur de cymbale à son époque qui porte un nom Égyptien. Cette papyrus est un poème satirique dont l’auteur reste inconnu, elle reflète comment la situation des musiciens dans la société et sa relation avec la politique intérieure. En effet, les relations politiques entre les Égyptiens du Haute Égypte et les Romains n'étaient pas assez bonnes à cause de l'avidité et l'injustice permanente des Romains sur les Égyptiens54. L'écrivain de ce poème voulait bien appuyer que ce harpiste était un infidèle à son pays, il a écrit qu'une révolution éclata en Haute Égypte, et ce harpiste était accusé d'avoir pris le part des adversaires après l'échec de cette révolution. En plus,

51 CASPER, J., KRAEMER, Jr., « A Greek element in Egyptian dancing », dans: American Journal of Archaeology, 35, 2, 1931, pp. 125-138. 52 Cette papyrus est connue sous le nom de P. Vienne n.3877 « Le harpiste dévoyé », elle est en très mauvais état de conservation seul cinq colonnes sont conservés, et qui date de l’époque Romaine (Ier ou IIe siècle de notre ère), cf., Collombert, Ph., Le Harpiste dévoyé, dans : Afrique et Orient, 29, 2003, p.29-40. 53 RANKE, H., Die ägyptischen Personnennamen, I, Glückstadt, 1935, p. 246, 23. 54 BOUDIER, E., Vers Égyptiens. Métriques démotique. Étude prosodique et phonétique du poème Satyrique, du poème de Moschion et des papyrus a transcriptions grecques de Leyde & de Londres, Paris, 1897, p. 3-12.

82 La vie quotidienne des musiciens en Égypte à l’époque Gréco-Romaine ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ il avait des mauvaises manières comme il but beaucoup au point qu'il ne peut pas porter sa harpe comme le poète l'a décrivait55. Aux yeux du peuple, le statut social des aulètes était la plus basse dans la hiérarchie des musiciens dont les gens avaient comme proverbe pour décrire la vie triste d’un tel personne en disant « tu mènes une vie d’aulète », c’est dû de la mauvaise réputation des aulètes par ce qu’ils ne jouaient assez bien de la musique56, surtout les aulètes des funérailles57. Il existait un autre proverbe chez les Technites dionysiaques qui disait « qu’on devient aulète lorsqu’on n’a pas réussi à être citharède58 ». Les romains glorifiaient la musique mais ils négligeaient les musiciens spécialement les musiciens des rues et les musiciennes prostituent sauf les musiciens de culte et de l’armée qui s’échappaient de cette méprise. Encore, Plutarque n’avait pas comme amis des musiciens ou artistes, ils étaient tous des médecins ou des philosophes59. D’autre part, les musiciens talentueux étaient très respectés par le peuple, et quand un spectacle était fait pour un musicien fameux de la première classe toute la ville se dirigeaient en s’amusant de ce spectacle, Dion Chrysostome a parlé d’un spectacle d’un célèbre citharède exprimant avec divertissement qu’il fut « sauvé par le citharède ». Même les gens voulaient d’approcher de ces musiciens en les invitants dans leurs maisons pour se rendre unique parmi son entourage60. Donc, les citharèdes et l’aulète soliste considéraient les premiers parmi la hiérarchie des musiciens. Quant aux musiciens des instruments à percussions, ils étaient généralement des femmes, et considérées parmi la hiérarchie comme des accessoires sonores. En déterminant , l’image du musicien aux

55 VENDRIES, Ch., « Harpistes, Luthistes et Citarôdes dans l’Égypte romaine remarques sur certaines singularité musicales », dans : Revue Belge de philologie et d’histoire, I : Antiquité, 2002, p. 176. 56 BÉLIS, A., Les musiciens dans l’antiquité, Paris, 1999, p. 72-75. 57 VENDRIES, Ch., « Considérations sur le statut du musicien dans la Rome antique. Critères de distinction social et hiérarchie », dans : Le statut du musicien dans la Méditerranée ancienne, Égypte, Mésopotamie, Grèce, Rome, Actes de la table ronde internationale tenue à Lyon Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée (université lumière Lyon 2) les 4 et 5 juillet 2008, Lyon, p. 224. 58 BÉLIS, A., « Néron musicien », dans : Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 133e année, 3, 1989. pp. 747- 768. 59 VENDRIES, Ch., « Considérations sur le statut du musicien dans la Rome antique. Critères de distinction social et hiérarchie », dans : Le statut du musicien dans la Méditerranée ancienne, Égypte, Mésopotamie, Grèce, Rome, Actes de la table ronde internationale tenue à Lyon Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée (Université Lumière Lyon 2) les 4 et 5 juillet 2008, Lyon, p. 215-216. 60 BÉLIS, A., Les musiciens dans l’antiquité, Paris, 1999, p. 92-93.

83 Soliman.M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ yeux du peuple revient à la fonction du musicien dans le pays, comme par exemple le musicien du théâtre il est un soliste ou un assistant, s’il était un musicien d’un temple, ou lié au palais de l’état ou une association. Son puissance revient aussi à son originaire et son salaire61.

Bibliographie I. Auteurs modernes -BARRY, W., « Aristocrats, Orators, and the Mob: Dio Chrysostom and the world of the Alexandrians », dans: Historia, 42, 1993. -BÉLIS, A., « La musique au siècle des Antonins », dans : Bulletin de l’ARELACLER, Journée académique des Langues anciennes, Clermont- Ferrand, 2001, pp. 23-33. -BÉLIS, A., « Contrats et engagement de musiciens et d’artistes transmis par des papyrus Grecs », dans : Le statut du musicien dans la méditerranée ancienne, Egypte, Mésopotamie, Grèce, Rome, Actes de la table ronde internationale tenue à Lyon Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée (université Lumière Lyon2), les 4 et 5 Juillet 2008, Lyon, Édités par Sybille Émerit, IFAO. -BÉLIS, A., « Néron musicien », dans : Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 133e année, 3, 1989. pp. 747- 768. -BÉLIS, A., Delattre, D., « A propos d’un contrat d’apprentissage d’aulète », dans : Papiri Documentari Greci, 1993. -BÉLIS, A., Les musiciens dans l’antiquité, Paris, 1999. -BÉLIS, A., « Un lyrikos de l'époque des Antonins : Mésomède de Crète », dans : La poésie grecque antique. Actes du 13ème colloque de la Villa Kérylos à Beaulieu-sur-Mer les 18 & 19 octobre 2002, Paris Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, 2003. pp. 223-235. (Cahiers de la Villa Kérylos, 14). -BERNARD, A., Alexandrie la grande, Paris, 1966. -BOUDIER, E., Vers Égyptiens. Métriques démotique. Étude prosodique et phonétique du poème Satyrique, du poème de Moschion et des papyrus a transcriptions grecques de Leyde & de Londres, Paris, 1897. -BRISSON, L., Lectures de Platon, Paris, 2000.

61 VENDRIES, Ch., « Considérations sur le statut du musicien dans la Rome antique. Critères de distinction social et hiérarchie », Dans : Le statut du musicien dans la Méditerranée ancienne, Égypte, Mésopotamie, Grèce, Rome, Actes de la table ronde internationale tenue à Lyon Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée (Université Lumière Lyon 2) les 4 et 5 juillet 2008, Lyon, p. 223-224, 235.

84 La vie quotidienne des musiciens en Égypte à l’époque Gréco-Romaine ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ -CASPER, J., KRAEMER, Jr., « A Greek element in Egyptian dancing », dans: American Journal of Archaeology, 35, 2, 1931. -CECCARELI, P., « Autour de Dionysos : remarques sur la dénomination des artistes dionysiaques », dans : Le statut de l’acteur dans l’antiquité Grecque et Romaine, Tours : Presses Universitaires François-Rabelais, 2004, pp. 109- 142. -CHARVET, P., Strabon : Le voyage d’Égypte, Paris, 1998. -Collombert, Ph., Le harpiste dévoyé, dans : Afrique et Orient, 29, 2003. -Encyclopédie du Dix-neuvième siècle, Répertoire universel des sciences, des lettres et des arts, avec la bibliographie des hommes célèbres, 20, Paris, 1846. -HICKMANN, H., « Abrégé de l’histoire de la musique en Égypte », dans : Revue de Musicologie, 32, 93/94, Paris, 1950. -HICKMANN, H., « Les dieux et les déesses de la musique », dans : Cahiers d’Histoire Egyptienne, VI, Fasc.1, Le Caire, 1954. -HICKMANN, H., « Rythme, mètre et mesure de la musique instrumentale et vocale des anciens égyptiens », dans : Acta Musicologica, 32, 1, 1960. -MANNICHE, L., Music and Musicians in Ancient Egypt, London, 1991. -MATTER, M., Histoire de l’école d’Alexandrie comparée aux principales écoles contemporaines, II, Paris, 1844. -MCKECHNIE, P., GUILLAUNE, Ph., Ptolemy II. Philadelphus and his World, Leiden, 2008. -Merriam- Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature, U.S.A, 1995. -MUTAFIAN, C., « 90 ans après le génocide des arméniens », dans : Conseil de coordination des organisations Arméniennes de France, 2005. -PERPILLOU-THOMAS, F., « Artistes et athlètes dans les papyrus grecs d’Égypte », dans : ZPE, 108, 1995. -PERPILLOU-THOMAS, F., Fêtes d’Égypte ptolémaïque et romaine d’après la documentation papyrologique grecque, Lovanii, 1993. -RANKE, H., Die ägyptischen Personnennamen I, Glückstadt, 1935. -ROSSIER, E., « La musique dans l'empire romain », dans : Chrono zones, 10, 2004, pp. 38-43. -VENDRIES, Ch., « Abstinence sexuelle et infibulation des chanteurs dans la Rome Impériale », dans : Penser et représenter le corps dans l’antiquité, Rennes, 2006. - VENDRIES, Ch., « Considérations sur le statut du musicien dans la Rome antique. Critères de distinction social et hiérarchie », dans : Le statut du

85 Soliman.M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ musicien dans la Méditerranée ancienne, Égypte, Mésopotamie, Grèce, Rome, Actes de la table ronde internationale tenue à Lyon Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée (Université Lumière Lyon 2) les 4 et 5 juillet 2008, Lyon. -VENDRIES, Ch., « Considérations sur le statut du musicien dans la Rome antique. Critères de distinction social et hiérarchie », dans : Le statut du musicien dans la Méditerranée ancienne, Égypte, Mésopotamie, Grèce, Rome, Actes de la table ronde internationale tenue à Lyon Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée (université lumière Lyon 2) les 4 et 5 juillet 2008, Lyon. -VENDRIES, Ch., « Harpistes, Luthistes et Citarôdes dans l’Égypte romaine remarques sur certaines singularité musicales », dans : Revue Belge de philologie et d’histoire, I : Antiquité, 80, 2002. -Willems, H., Clarysse, W., sous la rédaction de, traduit en néerlandais par René Preys, Les empereurs du Nil, (Exposition, Tongres, Musée Gallo- romain), 2000, Tongres, 25-9-1999 au 6-2-2000 ; Valenciennes. II. Auteurs anciens -HÉRODOTE, Histoires, II, 60, citée dans la traduction de Legrand, Paris, 1932. -PLINY, Natural History. 10. 51 -PLUTARQUE, Antoine, 26,1. -PLUTARQUE, Sur les oracles de la Pythie, 6, 396 F- 397 A. -SATURNIUS, VII, 4, (trad. Chastagnol, A., Histoire Auguste, coll. Robert Laffont), Paris, 1994. III. Sites internet http://www.edelo.net/turquie/ressources/anatolie-antique.pdf, p. 3, 6, 15, Lundi 17/7/2017, 11:42 AM. http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_obj ect_details.aspx?objectId=464430&partId=1&searchText=sculpture+C3 52&page=2, Mardi 18/7/2017, 11:57 AM.

86 IAJFTH Volume 4, No.4, 2018 ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Online Auction in the Travel and Tourism Industry

Soha Abd-elwahab Dalia Solima Mennatallah Mohamed

Abstract This research investigates the role of auction websites in the travel and tourism industry. Online auction websites have been offering discounts to travelers by providing a bidding mechanism on travel and tourism services through their websites. This research examines the auction websites work, their advantages and disadvantages in the tourism and travel industry, and showing Priceline.com as a leader travel and tourism auction website. Findings reveal that travel auction websites are now a shopping habit, a form of dynamic pricing strategy which providing tourist services at discounted prices. This research recommends building relationship with suppliers is important to handle and solve tourists' issues. Auction websites can solve this issue by applying a brand building strategy. Keywords E-auctions, online auctions, online marketing, discount, tourism auction, auction websites. Introduction Boateng et al. (2004:5) mentioned online auction as "an internet-based activity, which is used to negotiate prices for purchasing or sale of direct materials, capital or services". Online auctions websites refer to "websites offering items for sale, allowing potential buyers to bid on how much they are willing to pay, the item goes to the highest bidder" (Butler, 2011:187). So, an online auction is an online mechanism, allows sellers to compete and offer their products and services on the dynamic price basis to attract bidders to compete to win their favorite products and services.

87 Online Auction in the Travel and Tourism Industry ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ The first mail auction or mail-bidding was in the 1870s in the United States. It is called distance auctions. It helped to solve the geographical limitation and participate in auctions without traveling because bidders sent their bids by mail (Ariely and Simonson, 2003). After that, other forms of the long distance auctions were offered due to the first technology appearance. E-newsgroups and e-mail lists are the first forms of online or e-auctions and were developed at the end of 1993 and in early 1994. Then, along with the technology popularity and the change of online customers' behavior, auction websites were opened (Yen and Chang, 2015). The online auction makes bidders searching and comparing among auctions and services to make their decisions (Encell and Dunn, 2006). Simply, sellers determine the bidding rules such as the length of the auction (1 day, a week, or longer), the minimum bid price and the type of auction. After that, the potential bidders read these roles and submit their bids for the services. The website informs bidders if their bids have been accepted or not. At the end of the auction, the winner is determined according to the type of auction, for example, if the auction is English, the bidder with the highest price win, and if it is a reverse, the bidder with the lowest price win (Miller, 2014). Auctions depend on two schemes; a forward auction scheme and a reverse auction scheme. A forward auction scheme is a traditional form of auction, the supplier offers the products and buyers submit their bids. But in a reverse auction, there are more suppliers compete to win the auction. The buyer publishes the information about the desired product, how much he is willing to pay and all details of the product. The supplier then receives these details, and if the supplier accepted these details, the website will inform the buyer. Then, the buyer evaluates the offer and makes a purchase. (Tsamakos et al., 2002).

88 Abd-elwahab, S Solima, D Mohamed, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ The auction can be public or private. In public or open auctions; the bidders' identities are open and known to others, anyone is welcome to view or participate in the auction. All bidders know others bid amounts. In Private or sealed auctions; the bidders' identities are private, no one knows it. Bid amounts are not public as no bidder knows the bid amount of any other participant (Laudon and Traver, 2010). Research problem Although an online auction is an important marketing tool and many tourists and travelers use it to buy travel and tourism services with a competitive price, many travel and tourism suppliers still ignore its role in attracting tourists, and others find using an online auction is difficult because they do not know the effective rules to run an auction. Research Objectives The study aims to:  Studying the origin, definition and the process of online travel and tourism auction.  Showing the history of online auctions in travel and tourism industry. - Describing the advantages and disadvantages of travel and tourism auction websites. - Analyzing the role of Priceline.Com as a leader of Travel and Tourism Auction Websites. The History of Online Auctions in Travel and Tourism Industry In the airline industry, Cathay Pacific launched the auction for flights from the USA to Hong Kong in 1996 and it helps to sell 100 seats (Kemerer, 2012) as shown in the table (3-1).

89 Online Auction in the Travel and Tourism Industry ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Table (3-1) Cathay pacific online seat auction, July 1996, New York – Hong Kong Round trip Seats Highest Successful Bid Lowest Successful Bid First class 18 4700 $ 2400 $ Business class 56 2700 $ 1500 $ Economy class 313 1100 $ 550 $ Source: ( Kemerer , 2012:21) South African Airways launched its first online auction to sell seats in April 1997 for local flights (Lubbe, 2000). Then, in 2013, Etihad Airways, Malaysia Airlines, KLM, Lufthansa, Air Berlin offer auctions via their official websites to sell tickets, upgrade from economy class to business or first class and to solve overbooking issues by bidding. In destination, the USA to promote Florida launched in 2005 Florida Vacation Auction because Florida has popular hot spots, hidden treasures, and those special places and experiences that make happy vacation memories to maximize profits (floridavacationauction.com, 2017). In 2015, in the hospitality industry, InterContinental Hotels Group (IHG) offer auction to book rooms via Rewards Club Auctions. Tourists use their points to bid for events, concerts, unique experiences, exclusive vacation and getaway packages, both in tourists' hometown and their favorite destinations (IHG, 2017). Marriott offers Marriott Rewards Moments which tourists redeem or bid for events, packages, and sports (Marriott rewards, 2017). Also, Hilton Honor offers auction of tour packages (Hilton Honors, 2017).

In 2017, Dubai uses auctions to sell its tourism services and programs. The number of days offered in the programs ranges from one night to 14 nights as

90 Abd-elwahab, S Solima, D Mohamed, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ a length of stay in Dubai. For example, on skyauction.com, Dubai uses English auction to sell 2018 Luxury Grand Excelsior Bur Dubai or Grand Excelsior Hotel Al Barsha in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. The Bidder submits their bid Per Night and Choose their Length of Stay at a Hotel of their Choice. Their Minimum Bid is hidden because it is a private auction. Their check-in and check-out dates allowed in anytime within 1/1/2018 thru 12/30/2018 (skyauction.com, 2017A). Also, Thailand uses auctions to sell its tourism services and programs. The number of days offered in the programs ranges from night to 14 nights as a length of stay in Thailand, for example, on skyauction.com, they use English auction to sell 2018 Luxury Landmark Bangkok Hotel in Bangkok, Thailand. The Bidders submit their bid Per Night and choose their Length of Stay. Their Minimum Bid is hidden because it is a private auction. Check-in and Check-out Dates Allowed in anytime within 1/1/2018 thru 12/30/2018 (skyauction.com, 2017B) . Dubai and Thailand use auctions to avoid dropping its rates and enter a price war with its competitors to attract tourists, so they chose the auction as an innovative marketing tool for three reasons. First, it helps them avoid the price reduction. Second, they can control the limit and the number of services they need to sell via auction. Third, auction helps them to restructure their prices. It helped to attract American tourists to Dubai and Thailand. Advantages and Disadvantages of Travel and Tourism auction websites Travel and Tourism auction websites have some advantages and disadvantages for both tourist service providers and online travelers and tourists, as follows: A. Advantages for tourist service providers: 1- Easy to reach, attract and target online travelers and tourists.

91 Online Auction in the Travel and Tourism Industry ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ 2- Method to build brand awareness because it goes viral and leads to a better understanding to build a direct relationship with current and potential online travelers. 3- Help to analyze and evaluate online travelers and tourists behaviors, purchase decisions because it is an important method to get their immediate feedback and responses. Also, help to set the suitable price especially for price sensitive consumers. 4- It reduces promotion and transaction costs. 5- Method to collect accurate customer data to create a customer database, some online tourists and travelers request to receive e-mail alerts (Ré et al. 2001; Dang, 2013; Gao, 2014; Zhai and Zhang, 2014). B. Advantages for online travelers and tourists: 1- It reduces their time to search, sort, and organize offers and deals. 2- They get massive discounts, know more places or destinations and service providers (Buffini and Company, 2011; Shopper technology institute, 2012; Tsakonas,2012). C. Disadvantages for tourist service providers: 1. They may face bidders' collusion "bidders agree offline to limit their bids". 2. Sellers face fraud from some buyers such as fake money orders or transfers (FTC, 2006). 3. Many suppliers don't accept it. 4. Service providers prefer fixed price because they are impatience in selling and do not prefer to take a risk in auction. D. Disadvantages for online travelers and tourists are: 1. Lack of trust and credibility. 2. Some have a difficult to deal with technology.

92 Abd-elwahab, S Solima, D Mohamed, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ 3. It's still a new concept for some online tourists. 4. Auctions may be taken more time to know the winner bidders. Sometimes the difficulties in booking and long duration of auction are problems may face tourists. For example, a tourist participates in auction for 10 days then he may lose the auction. In an auction, tourists will naturally want to avoid the winner’s curse problem as they fear of paying too much for a service to win the auction without knowing the valuations of other bidders (Tsamakos et al, 2002). 5. They cannot find auctions for what they want to buy (Pride and Ferrell, 2014). If tourists need to book a specific destination or tourism services, they will not found auctions for it. Not all destinations or service provider offer auctions (Apple, 2012; Kim et al., 2014). The tourism and travel suppliers must determine the type of the product (rare, unique, commodity or perishable) and the product life cycle (early, mature or late service) to start selling on an auction website (Laudon and Traver, 2004). Tourism services are not commodities. It differs from traditional products in many ways. First, it is an intangible and perishable product and cannot be shipped or stored. Second, the price of tourism service is volatile and follows seasonal patterns as the price changes according to supply and demand. Third, tourism products and services are complex, heterogeneous and depend on tourist experience (Eybl, 2006). In addition to the price, there are more factors affecting the tourist's decision are the quality of service, the suppliers' brand name, service standards, the location, convenience, and the overall experience delivered to the tourists or travelers (Burney, 2011).

93 Online Auction in the Travel and Tourism Industry ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ The tourism services are seasonal. It makes the matching between the supply and demand is difficult as it has issues especially, during the high season such as overstocking, non-vacancies, empty seats or rooms, and etc. travel and tourism auction websites, in the case of the high season, it helps suppliers to sell or resell their last minute services because there are some tourists may cancel their bookings in the deadline. In the case of the demand and supply are equal, it could be an information push mechanism to match supply and demand more effectively than other channels. Finally, travel and tourism auction websites in low season are a better distribution channel to sell the services (Grandhi et al., 2016(. Priceline.Com as a leader of Travel and Tourism Auction Websites The pioneer of a reverse online travel auction business is Priceline.com. Priceline.com was founded in 1997, in the USA. It is known as a Priceline.com or name your own price. Priceline.com is one of The Priceline Group. It is the world leader group in online travel & related services (Frank, 2001). Priceline group is booking.com, priceline.com, Kayak.com, agoda.com, rentalcars.com, and opentable.com. Priceline.com offers travel products such as airlines tickets, hotel rooms, cruise trips, car rentals, tour packages, and etc.

It is a top websites in discount rates and auction business. The website offers discount prices as Express Deals, Tonight-Only Deals, and Name Your Own Price or opaque travel services (bidding service):  Opaque Services do not disclose certain elements of the services to the tourist before making a reservation, such as the identity of the travel services provider.

94 Abd-elwahab, S Solima, D Mohamed, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ  The Name Your Own Price service is a bidding service. The website has the discounted prices' database of travel suppliers which have been participating in the auction and prices are not available to the public. The website selects the travel supplier and the price which will accept from the tourist.  Express Deals are non-refundable deals, allow tourists to select the hotel, rental car and airline ticket reservations with the price but certain information are disclosed prior to making the reservation. The website records the difference between the tourist's reservation price and the travel service provider's price. With these services, travelers can book deals up to 60% discount (Stellin, 2006). Priceline.com has two pricing models which are the traditional price disclosed model and the opaque pricing model. Under the traditional price disclosed model, the website earns a commission on every transaction made. While the opaque pricing model, tourists bid for services at discounted prices and the website earns the difference between the prices an tourists is willing to pay and the price charged by the travel service provider. In addition, the website makes money from advertisements placed. The revenue and profit of priceline.com Name Your Own Price and opaque travel services are a gross basis of the commission or net margin which earned. Priceline.com is the pioneer and leader of the travel services' opaque business, Name Your Own Price, and Express Deals that offer discounts on hotels, car rentals, and airline reservation services. Since the website's launch, its customers have saved over $10 billion (Priceline, 2016). At the end of September 2017, the accommodation room night reservations increased by 18.6% and 22.2%, Rental car reservations increased by 5.5% and 10.7% due to add new properties to priceline.com accommodation

95 Online Auction in the Travel and Tourism Industry ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ reservation services, advertise brands to tourists and provide a continuously improving experience for different devices such as desktop and mobile platforms, as well as the ongoing shift from offline to online for travel bookings. But Airline ticket reservations decreased by 11.8% and 7.6% At the end of September 2017, due to a Name Your Own Price for flights will no longer be offered since September 1, 2016. Priceline offered Express Deals for flights, it provides savings up to 50 % off published rates and reveals the exact itinerary and airline carrier immediately after purchase. Priceline.com purchased airline tickets at retail prices from airlines and then sold them to online tourists and travelers using the Name Your Own Price service. But, U.S. airlines are the main reason to decrease flights' selling using "name your own price service" because they refused to sell their empty seats in an opaque service "name your own price" due to increasing market share competition among low-cost air carriers as well as other online travel agencies, the competitive prices are lowering commissions and fees charged for Priceline because Priceline earns a fixed percentage of airfares, and airfares on average have been decreased recently. Priceline has many competitors such as E-bay, Amazon.com, Expedia.com, Orbitez.com, and other travel agencies. Priceline competes with online Travel providers which attract tourists to buy from their websites not from Priceline.com as they provide low prices, loyalty points or special discounts to their members. In the USA, priceline.com is an opaque website leader, while Expedia.com makes the opaque system for accommodation and it is known as Hotwire.com and Expedia Unpublished Rates. This has an impact on the market share and growth rate of Name Your Own Price since 2011.

96 Abd-elwahab, S Solima, D Mohamed, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ As well, the high season impacts on the opaque travel business because it led to few tourists may use it. In 2015, Expedia acquired Travelocity, Orbitz, and HomeAway to enhance its ability to compete with priceline.com, especially in the United States (Pricelinegroup, 2017). Conclusion Along with the technology popularity and the change of online tourists and travelers' behavior, the online auctions are appeared. An online auction is an online mechanism which allows sellers to offer their travel services on the dynamic price basis to attract bidders (online tourists or travelers) to compete and win their favorite travel services. Auctions depend on a forward scheme and a reverse scheme. Each type of online auction has its rules. Online auctions help to analyze and evaluate online travelers and tourists behaviors, purchase decisions because it is an important method to get their immediate feedback and responses. Also, help to set the suitable price especially for price sensitive consumers. But Auctions may be taken more time to know the winner bidders, tourists will naturally want to avoid the winner’s curse problem as they fear of paying too much for a service to win the auction without knowing the valuations of other bidders and many suppliers don't accept it.

Priceline.com, in the end of September 2017, The accommodation room night reservations increased by 18.6% and 22.2%, Rental car reservations increased by 5.5% and 10.7% due to add new properties, advertise brands to tourists and provide a continuously improving experience for different devices such as desktop and mobile platforms. But Airline ticket reservations decreased by 11.8% and 7.6%, in the end of September 2017, due to a Name Your Own Price for flights will no longer

97 Online Auction in the Travel and Tourism Industry ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ are offered since September 1, 2016. Priceline offered Express Deals for flights; it provides savings up to 50 % off published rates and reveals the exact itinerary and airline carrier immediately after purchase. U.S. airlines are the main reason to decrease flights' selling using "name your own price service" because they refused to sell their empty seats in an opaque service "name your own price" due to increasing market share competition among low-cost air carriers as well as other online travel agencies, the competitive prices are lowering commissions and fees charged for Priceline because Priceline earns a fixed percentage of airfares, and airfares on average have been decreased recently. Recommendations 1. The suppliers must use a short duration of auctions "maximum 3 days" and follow bids from bidding history to avoid the winner’s curse and bidders' collusion "bidders agree offline to limit their bids" which helps them to get a low price or bid the price high enough to drive out other bidders. 2. Building relationship with suppliers is important to handle and solve tourists' issues. Auction websites can solve this issue by applying a brand building strategy. 3. The suppliers should consider dividing large bundles or items into smaller bundles or items auctioned at different times or rounds because bidders expect they will get a deep or volume discount and this cause they submit low bids Also, View bidding or deal history to know the interest, value, and time. 4. The service provider with one or two travel and tourism services and be a monopolist has to use the online auction mechanism.

98 Abd-elwahab, S Solima, D Mohamed, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ References - Apple‏ I (2012) Plan A Vacation: The Insider’s Guide To Family Summer Vacation Ideas, Great Summer Vacations, Fun Vacations, Summer Vacation A Guide To Helping You Plan Summer Vacation Items And Summer Vacation Activity Book. USA: Tru Divine Publications. - Ariely D and Simonson I (2003) Buying, Bidding, Playing, or Competing? Value Assessment and Decision Dynamics in Online Auctions. Journal of Consumer Psychology 13(1&2):113–123. - Boateng P, Muddiman S and Janssen F (2004) Online Auctions A Buy IT e-Procurement Guideline. UK: The Buy IT Best Practice Network. - Buffini and Company (2011) Using Social Media to Score Bargains. USA: Social Media Today,LLC. - Burney J (2011) An Analysis Of Online Distribution Models For Selling Hotel’s Excess Inventories. India: Travelsurf Pvt Ltd. - Butler‏ T (2011) The Complete Guide to Your Personal Finances Online: Step-by-Step Instructions to Take Control of Your Financial Future Using the Internet. USA: Atlantic Publishing Group , Inc. - Dang L (2013) E-Commerce Strategies of Group Buying Websites, Case study: Groupon Inc. Degree Programme in International Business. Finland: Lahti University of Applied Sciences. - Encell S and Dunn S (2006) The Everything Online Auctions Book: All You Need to Buy and Sell with success – on eBay and beyond. USA: Adams Media. - Eybl A (2006) Determinants of Price of Tourism Products and Services in Online Auctions. Austria: ECCA – eTourism Competence Center Austria. - Federal Trade Commission (FTC) (2006) Internet Auctions: A Guide for buyers and sellers. USA: Protecting America's Consumers. - floridavacationauction.com (2017) How it works. Available https://www.floridavacationauction.com/index.cfm/event-howItWorks accessed 30/11/2017 - Frank,S. (2001) Networth: Successful Investing in the Companies,That Will Prevail through Internet Booms and Busts, USA: Simon and Schuster. - Gao L (2014) Customers’ online group buying decision-making in emerging market: A Quantitative Study of Chinese online group buying. Sweden: Linnaeus University. - Grandhi S, Chugh R and Wibowo S (2016) An Empirical Study of Customers’ Purchase Intentions from Australian Group Buying Sites. Journal of Internet and e-Business Studies :1-12.

99 Online Auction in the Travel and Tourism Industry ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ - Hilton Honors (2017) Auction: Hilton Honors. Available https://auction.hiltonhonors.com/. Accessed 30/11/2017. - IHG (2017) IHG® Rewards Club Auctions. Available https://auctions.ihg.com/. Accessed 30/11/2017. - Kemerer C (2012) Information Technology and Industrial Competitiveness: How IT Shapes Competition. USA:Springer. - Kim M, Chung N, Lee C and Preis M (2014) Online Group-Buying of Tourism Products: Effects of Value and Trust on Site Attachment, Altruism, and Loyalty. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing 32(8):935-952. - Laudon K and Traver C (2010) E-Commerce: Business, Technology, And Society: Auctions, Portals, and Communities. Pennsylvania State University: Pearson Education. - Lubbe B (2000) Tourism Distribution: Managing the Travel Intermediary. South Africa: Juta & Co Ltd. - Marriott rewards (2017) Marriott Rewards Moments. Available https://www.moments.marriottrewards.com/. Accessed 30/11/2017. - Miller M (2014) My eBay for Seniors. USA:Pearson Education,Inc. - Priceline,(2016) Priceline.com offers more ways to save and more deals than anyone else in travel, available on (http://www.pricelinegroup.com/priceline/), Accessed (22/11/2016 at 08:08 P.M) - Pricelinegroup, (2017) PRICELINE GROUP INC: Annual Report, available on (http://ir.pricelinegroup.com/annuals.cfm), Accessed (22/11/2017 at 08:08 P.M). - Pride W and Ferrell O (2014) Marketing 2016. Canada: Cengage learning. - Ré R, Braga R and Masiero P (2001) A Pattern Language for Online Auctions Management. Brazil : Universidade de São Paulo. - Shopper Technology Institute (2012) Digital Couponing - Learning from a National Survey of CPG brands. Fourth Annual Conference October. Cleveland: Parteners in Loyalty Marketing INC. - Skyauction.com (2017A) 2018 Luxury Grand Excelsior Bur Dubai or Grand Excelsior Hotel Al Barsha in Dubai, United Arab Emirates UAE! Bid Per Night and Choose Your Length of Stay at a Hotel of Your Choice!. Available http://www.skyauction.com/action/offer/2880046 accessed 31/11/2017. - Skyauction.com (2017B) 2018 Luxury Landmark Bangkok Hotel in Bangkok, THAILAND! Bid Per Night and Choose Your Length of Stay!.

100 Abd-elwahab, S Solima, D Mohamed, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Available http://www.skyauction.com/anyoffer/156246 accessed 31/11/2017 - Stellin‏,S. (2006) How to Travel Practically Anywhere: The Ultimate Travel Guide, USA: Houghton Mifflin Company. - Tsakonas G (2012) Consumer Behavior And Group Buying Sites (GBS). Master Thesis. Greece: University of Macedonia. - Tsamakos A, Giaglis G and Kourouthanassis P (2002) 'Auctioning Tourism Products over Mobile Devices'. Athens: Conference on Mobile Business. - Yen C and Chang C (2015) Unity Is Strength: Understanding Users’ Group Buying Behavior In Taiwan From A Collectivism Perspective. Journal of Electronic Commerce Research 16(2):109-122. - Zhai C and Zhang Y (2014) An Empirical Study On Online Group Buying Adoption Behavior In China. Pakistan Journal of Statistics 30(5): 987-1009.

101 IAJFTH Volume 4, No.4, 2018 ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Factors Affecting Tourists' Purchase Decision of the Egyptian Tourist Services from Group Buying, Daily Deal, and Flash Sale Websites

Soha Abd-elwahab Dalia Solima Mennatallah Mohamed

Abstract Daily deals, Flash sale and Group buying websites provide tourists with deep discount and competitive prices all the time. They are considered an important distribution channel for travel services, and they choose suppliers and negotiate prices with travel suppliers in order to reach the best and a

competitive price. Hence, this paper studies deals offered by the top three American discount websites and presents an analysis based on the data collected using a random sampling method from these websites to investigate the role of different variables such as discount rate, deal price, trust and time to purchase deals. The research findings revealed that tourists’ intention to purchase travel services deals is influenced by license, security and privacy to avoid fraud from the website. The paper recommends using the incremental discount as a viral message to promote sales, and the suppliers should use these websites in the marketing mix to increase tourists’ intention to purchase and visit Egypt. Keywords Daily deals, Flash sale, Group buying, Tourism marketing, Online marketing. Introduction Flash sale, daily deal, and group buying are not new types of commerce. Flash sale has emerged as a method to sell all the unsold and off-season products or services. The providers offer their products and services with very deep discounts in a different market for a limited period (Mathen and Abhishek, 2014).Group buying business backs to eastern collectivistic

102 Factors Affecting Tourists' Purchase Decision of the Egyptian Tourist Services from Group Buying, Daily Deal, and Flash Sale Websites ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ cultures (Stulec et al., 2011).The first group buying websites have emerged at the end of the 1990s (Yoldas, 2011). Those websites were launched in the United States and named "mercata.com" and "letsbuyit.com", but those websites failed (Yin and Liu, 2012) because they could not cope with the competition and were terminated in 2001 (Tsakonas, 2012). Afterwards, online group buying daily deals website was launched again in 2007 -2008 by the American website Groupon.com (Rudawska et al., 2012). This has apparently occurred due to the 2007 global recession which has consequently resulted in the decreased purchasing power of online tourists and travelers who grouped together and used their bargaining power to decrease the prices of goods and services and receive daily quantity discounts on them (Kim et al., 2013). Moreover, the increased use of technology and a change in online traveler and tourist behavior (Katz,2016) are factors to use daily deals and group buying websites. Group buying websites started as online daily deal websites, and the daily deal is a feature of group buying websites (O’Grady et al., 2014). Research problem Although Daily deals, Flash sale, and Group buying websites are important online distribution channels attracting online tourists to buy, the Egyptian travel and tourism suppliers ignore the natures of these websites and do not know the factors affecting Tourists' Decision Making to buy the Egyptian travel services from Group Buying, Daily Deal, and Flash Sale Websites which lead to losing its role to marketing the Egyptian tourism and travel services and maximizing profits.

103 Abd-elwahab, S Solima, D Mohamed, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Research Objectives The study aims to:  Studying the origin and definition of flash sale, group buying and daily deals websites.  Understanding the Online Travel and Tourism Group Buying, Daily Deal, and Flash Sale Websites Process.  Analyzing the Factors Affecting Tourists' Decision Making to buy from Group Buying, Daily Deal, and Flash Sale Websites. The definition of Daily Deal, Flash Sale and Group buying websites Daily deal websites are known as deal of the day websites, social shopping, social buying, discount vouchers, social coupons, social commerce, fixed- price group buying (Boon, 2014:8), flash sales, private sales, countdown Sales and last-minute websites (Chen, 2014). Flash sale, private sale, countdown Sales and last-minute websites are defined as "a website that offer products for sale at a reduced cost during a limited time period, typically in 24 to 48 hours" (Chen, 2014:12). daily deal (DD) websites are defined as "websites offer every day to their subscribers, at a very discounted price (usually 50% to 90% off), a deal for a product or a service lasting a limited time (usually one or two days)" (Mortara and Ardizzone, 2012 :6).Group buying has different terms such as group shopping, customer/buyer coalition, collective bargaining, collective buying, Group-shopping, power-shopping, collective shopping, co-buying, bulk buying, social buying, team buying (Nsysu,2009). Khoshnampour and Nosrati (2011:96) defined group buying website as "a website offers products and services at significantly reduced prices on the condition that a minimum number of buyers would make the purchase". The Process of Online Travel and Tourism Group Buying, Daily Deal, and Flash Sale Websites Online travel and tourism group buying, daily deal and flash sale websites search for travel and tourism service providers to negotiate the following items:

104 Factors Affecting Tourists' Purchase Decision of the Egyptian Tourist Services from Group Buying, Daily Deal, and Flash Sale Websites ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ 1- The discounts' amount. 2- The minimum and the maximum number of the tourists which will get those offers. 3- The expiry date and the duration of the deal or coupon. 4- The discounts' rules. To offer a good deal for online travelers and tourists, it must be characterized as follows: 1- All details must be mentioned such as deal terms and conditions, deal description, the supplier's details, and contacts. 2- Adding financial and emotional value to online tourists. It should be different and relevant to online tourists to meet their needs and desires (Coyle et al. 2011; Visit Scotland, 2013). After that these websites publish those discounts, then online tourists and travelers sign up to get discounts according to figure (1) (Entrepreneur magazine and Mintzer, 2013).

Source: (Grandhi et al. 2016:.3) Figure (1) Online Group Buying, Daily Deal, and Flash Sale Websites Process

105 Abd-elwahab, S Solima, D Mohamed, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Factors Affecting Tourists' Decision Making to buy from Group Buying, Daily Deal, And Flash Sale Websites

This business has many challenges, risks, and factors, as follow: A- The Value and price Tourists have a perception of discounts value less than the advertised. Usually, tourists of group buying, daily deal, and flash sale websites found the purchasing process is boring and not motivated to buy without discounts (Visit Scotland, 2013). Tourists are searching for quality and valuable travel and tourist services. Many tourists believe that the value is to achieve gain or to avoid a loss. For example, “Get 20$ off to visit Egypt” emphasizes achieving again, while “Save 20$ to visit Egypt” emphasizes avoiding a loss (Vieira et al., 2012). So, the essential problem facing the Egyptian suppliers is to know more information about the tourists' values to make more profits. Usually, in the Egyptian tourism industry, the prices are given to distributors are inversely related to the number of nights or tickets they book. The website that makes more booking receives lower prices. However, the supplier practice has very flawed logic because prices must stimulate future bookings, not to serve as a bonus for past sales. Supplier's pricing decisions determine the distribution channels' booking they receive. When a supplier provides low prices to particular websites, it usually receives more bookings from these same distribution channels because they become more price competitive and attract more customers compared to other intermediaries. Therefore, the suppliers should be very careful when deciding which channels to stimulate by determining lower prices for them (Mango et al., 2014). The Egyptian tourist destination uses group buying, daily deals, and flash sale websites only as an electronic platform for sale and ignores the nature of

106 Factors Affecting Tourists' Purchase Decision of the Egyptian Tourist Services from Group Buying, Daily Deal, and Flash Sale Websites ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ these discount websites to put prices lower than other websites. In 2012, the American travel agent called Beyond Boundaries Travel which offer tours for more destination such as Andorra, Austria, Canada, England, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland (Eire), Italy, Netherlands, Russia, Scotland, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and Turkey. This company used groupon.com to sell the Nile River Cruise in Luxor through the daily deals feature. The number of buyers for this program was over 60 in three days which was the duration of the deal and they were from North America. The program was Eight-day, seven-night cruise on the Nile in a standard cabin, including all meals. The price was 399 USD per person for a Travel with a Friend package (two Groupon users are required to active this deal), or pay an additional 300 USD to travel solo. The travel agent can pair solo travelers with roommates to avoid the single-traveler fee. 798 USD for a package for two the price is for two people (Groupon.com, 2017B). B- The Fraud There are many forms of fraud such as the fake description of services, fake rules, financial and security fraud. Tourists face fraud from sellers as they think they purchase services with low quality or pay money for nothing. Also, sellers face fraud from some buyers such as fake money orders or transfers (FTC, 2006). Tourists avoid the fraud process by using authentication service, grading services, feedback forum, insurance policy and user identity verification. C- Tourists' Culture, Income, Age and Education Tourists' culture and income are the main reasons for tourist to make a decision. Tourists with higher income traditionally middle class are more likely to get discounts. Also, the age and gender are other factors; the

107 Abd-elwahab, S Solima, D Mohamed, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ housewife or female is more likely to get discounts. Younger tourists are more likely to get it. Also, the education has been found to be a positive factor in discounts usage (Kauffman and Wang, 2001). D- Tourist's loyalty and the Brand Image Tourists respond to a discount regardless of their loyalty to a destination. It threatened the brand image (Yang et al., 2015). Many suppliers think discounts reduce the travel and tourism services to the level of a commodity and could result in significant brand erosion (Alford, 2000(.But tourists with a high degree of tourism services' involvement are more likely to find economizing tactics, such as deals, especially when they face an economic recession. So, to make more profit and protect the brand image, offering a discount for a specific service that could be highly effective and profitable (BlueHornet, 2014(. E- The Website A successful website has an attractive design, ease of navigation, ease of Sign-up and redeems, clear deal's description, clear photos, and rules of deals.Also, it offers privacy and security, tab for Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ), contact us, and no technical software errors to customers (Coyle et al. 2011). F- Other Factors Also, the number of selling deal, the time of the promotion, the length of discount, the minimum and maximum number of people who buy discounts, the expiry date of the deal and the rules, geographic coverage, social media affect tourists' decision-making (Raghubi, 2004). Methodology The descriptive approach was used in this study.Groupon.com, priceline.com, and mypoints.com were identified as a sampling approach for the study. They

108 Factors Affecting Tourists' Purchase Decision of the Egyptian Tourist Services from Group Buying, Daily Deal, and Flash Sale Websites ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ are global websites offering discounts in several countries. The Total population is 73300000. According to Nain et al. (2006: 9) the following formula was used to calculate a sample size. Z2Pq Z2P(1-P) n0= or n= e2 d2

Z = the level of confidence, we will use 95% as a level of confidence, which is conventional, Z value is 1.96. P= the expected prevalence or proportion of the sample. q = 1-p. e or d = the margin of error 0.5. 1.962x0.5x0.5 3.8416x0.5x0.5 0.9604 n0= = = =384 0.052 0.0025 0.0025 The questionnaire was designed on Google documents, distributed online, and collected from May 2017 through August 2017. The questionnaire was distributed among 1500 individuals; the number of respondents reached 600, the number of incorrect forms was21 and the number of correct forms was 579. A 5-point Likert scale ranging from 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree) was used to record participants’ responses to measure the behavior and preferences of the sample.

Data Analysis The questionnaire is divided into three sections are the analysis of demographic data and questions analysis.

109 Abd-elwahab, S Solima, D Mohamed, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Analysis of demographic data Table (1)Respondents' demographic data Frequency Percent Gender Male 231 39.9% Female 338 58.4% Age Less than 16 8 1.4% from 16 to 30 249 43.0% from 30 to 60 276 47.7% more than 60 34 5.9% Education Undergraduate 63 10.9% Graduate 130 22.5% Post Graduate 374 64.6% Marital Status Single 248 42.8% Married 321 55.4% Nationality American 182 31.4% Canadian 82 14.2% British 53 9.2% Other 254 44.10% Income Less than 35000$ 43 7.4% From 35000$ to 282 48.7% 100000$ From 100000$ to 238 41.1% 150000$ From 1500000 $ 0 0 Total 579 100.0%

Table (1) shows that 39.9% were males and 58.4% females. It indicates that online tourism discounts are slightly more popular with the females than males. Also, it indicates that the age group of 30 to 60 years is the highest respondents by 47.7%, then 43% of respondents are in the age group of 16 to 30 years. The postgraduates are the most popular users of online discounts with 64.6%, and then they are followed by the university graduate. 55.4 % are married and 42.8% are single. It indicates that online tourism discounts are slightly more popular with the married than singles.Online tourism discounts are most popular with the tourist's income from 35000$ to 100000$ (middle class), and the tourist's income from 100000$ to 150000$ (upper middle class) this agrees with Kauffman and Wang (2001). Many

110 Factors Affecting Tourists' Purchase Decision of the Egyptian Tourist Services from Group Buying, Daily Deal, and Flash Sale Websites ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ nationalities were represented in the sample. But Americans are the most users of these websites because it is American websites. Also, it indicates that some discount websites target regional and international market (Tourism e- kit, 2011A). Questions analysis It includes the analysis of questions of the questionnaire as follows: A- The impact of discounts on the purchase decision and loyalty of the tourist

Table (2)Discounts impact on the purchase decision and loyalty of the tourist

Statement

rongly

St Agree Agree Neither Disagree Strongly Disagree Mean Std. Deviation Difference coefficient Discounts encourage me to visit 24.88 71 196 239 59 4 3.48 0.866 Egypt. %

Discounts have caused me to buy 24.40 travel services that I normally 79 194 233 59 0 3.52 0.86 % would not buy.

I am more likely to be loyal to 24.27 61 152 292 62 0 3.37 0.818 suppliers that offer discounts. %

Total 3.45 0.809 23% The table (2) is evident that, the respondents have been neutral to be loyal to suppliers who offer discounts. Discounts help to make brand switching and increase sales for short time and may increase their loyalty (Yang et al., 2015).Then, the respondents tend to be agreeing with discountsplay a role to buy travel services that they normally would not buy it. It indicates that the discounts may contribute to increasing tourism sales because the tourist has the opportunity to try and purchase new and more travel services. It may help

111 Abd-elwahab, S Solima, D Mohamed, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ to convert tourists from discount tourists to tourists who pay a full price (Mullins, 2014). Finally, the respondents tend to be agreeing with using discounts to visit Egypt which means that they find discounts as an attractive method. Although Egypt is a cheap tourist destination they prefer to get a bargain/discount/deal because they prefer achieving gain, or avoiding a loss and search online for free and discount tourism (Almendros et al. 2015).It could help to increase the tourists' movements to Egypt. According to that the general trend of the respondents is; they agree with discounts have an impact on their loyalty, their decision to purchase, and visiting Egypt. These elements should be taken into consideration when developing the pricing policy of the Egyptian tourism destination to attract more tourists. B- The Factors affecting tourists' decision to buy from online travel and tourism websites Table (3)The Factors affecting tourists' decision to buy from online travel and

tourism websites

Statement rence

Std.

Mean

Agree Agree

Neither

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Deviation

coefficient Diffe The website has a suitable discount's start and closing date 61 146 290 62 0 3.37 0.821 24.36% to get a deal The website has quality discounted travel and tourism 163 250 115 37 0 3.95 0.868 21.97% services The website has valuable 165 254 101 47 0 3.95 0.894 22.63% discounts The website has suitable 65 163 250 69 0 3.32 0.96 28.91% discount travel dates The website has easy payment 96 213 196 64 0 3.6 0.897 24.91% methods The website has good customer 10 12 48 295 202 1.82 0.809 44.45% support The website has ease of navigations and no technical 10 12 56 283 196 1.85 0.823 44.48% errors

112 Factors Affecting Tourists' Purchase Decision of the Egyptian Tourist Services from Group Buying, Daily Deal, and Flash Sale Websites ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ The website has discounts that 173 254 101 39 0 3.99 0.872 21.85% expire quickly The website has privacy and 179 252 98 36 0 4.02 0.864 21.49% security terms The website has a wide range of travel services available at 65 169 250 65 18 3.35 0.937 27.97% discount travel websites The website has The real number of deal buyers or auction's 61 167 250 65 22 3.32 0.948 28.55% participations

The website has a real description and photos for discount travel and 91 184 231 61 0 3.54 0.887 25.05% tourism services.

The website has a license 295 270 0 0 0 4.52 0.5 11.06% Total 3.43 0.442 12.88% The table (3) indicates that the most important factors affecting the decision of the respondents to buy from travel and tourism discount websites are the license, security, and privacy to avoid fraud from the website (FTC, 2006). Then, the respondents look for elements of the discount such as discount's starting and closing date, the quality of the services, the discount expiry date, the price and the value when the deal is obtained. Also, the purchase decision is affected by the date and period of obtaining the discount. It may affect their decision to buy quickly, and they have not enough time to get or buy the discounts.Also, the travel dates of the deal may affect the length of stay, time and dates of travel (Ahlberg, 2012). Then, they search for the website that offer easy payment methods and have the credibility in showing all details such as conditions, images, number of buyers of the deal in addition to offering the diversity of tourism services which meets their needsand desires to pay for it.Also, therespondents said that the websites have bad customer service, difficult navigation and many technical errors, which makes them angry about not getting good service. As, the websites need to employ a large number of customer service

113 Abd-elwahab, S Solima, D Mohamed, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ representatives, which increases their costs (Ardizzone and Mortara, 2014).So, these factors are important when choosing the website to offer the special deal of the Egyptian tourism destination to grantee the success of marketing, selling process and maximize profits. C- Tourism and travel services that the tourists search on discount website Table (4)Tourism and travel services that the tourists search on discounts

website

Statement

Std.

Mean

Agree Agree

Neither

Strongly Strongly

Disagree Disagree

Deviation

coefficient Difference Difference

I'm searching on Flights 194 252 95 33 0 4.06 0.855 21.05% Discounts

I'm searching on 193 259 89 31 0 4.07 0.84 20.63% accommodation discounts

I'm searching on cursing 63 196 243 65 0 3.45 0.837 24.26% discounts

I'm searching on destination 77 179 254 61 0 3.48 0.857 24.62% discounts

I'm searching on travel 63 183 260 67 0 3.42 0.836 24.44% packages discounts

I'm searching on dinning 60 187 261 63 0 3.43 0.823 23.99% discounts

I'm searching on car rental 65 184 258 63 0 3.44 0.835 24.27% discounts

Total 3.61 0.656 18.17%

The table (4) shows that first, the respondents agree to get discounts on all travel and tourism services as the travelers and tourists prefer to use discount travel and tourism websites to select among many accommodations, airlines, and packages (Lowenstein‏, 2015). As the discount websites offer discounts

114 Factors Affecting Tourists' Purchase Decision of the Egyptian Tourist Services from Group Buying, Daily Deal, and Flash Sale Websites ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ on travel and tourism services for online tourists such as leisure activities, accommodation, restaurant, transportation, entertainment, festivals and events and etc. So recently, travel and tourism services are highly valued by customers of discount websites (Kim et al., 2013; Grandhi et al., 2016). Conclusion Simply Flash sale websites offer discounts for a limited time. Commonly daily deals, group buying, and flash sales are terms used interchangeably, but flash sale websites are often called daily deal website when it provides daily (per day) discounted offers or deals on a variety of products and services. The daily deal website becomes a group buying website when it requires a minimum number of customers to make the discount active. It often offers discounts of more than 50%. These websites help to analyze and evaluate online travelers’ and tourists’ behaviors, purchase decisions because it is an important method to get their immediate feedback and responses. Also, help to set the suitable price especially for price sensitive consumers. These websites are a method to build brand awareness because the deals go viral and lead to a better understanding to build a direct relationship with current and potential online travelers. These websites could damage brand name if the quality of service is not good. Along with their popularity, it could put some service providers in a high competition, because it is a competitive market. Some tourists have lack of trust and credibility towards group buying, daily deals, flash sale websites. These websites reduce tourists' time to search, sort, and organize deals. Also, tourists get massive discounts and know more places or destinations and service providers.

115 Abd-elwahab, S Solima, D Mohamed, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Recommendations 1. Using the incremental discount as a viral message to promote sales, and discount websites should be taken into consideration in the marketing mix to increase tourists’ intention to purchase and visit Egypt. 2. Using creativity in deal designs to attract deal hunters such as photo gallery and frequent seller benefit. 3. Combining discount types to maximize profits for example use group buying daily deals 4. The message of price information would be helpful to tourists in getting the latest information and making quick decisions. 5. Suppliers should design purchasing rules in line with tourists' purchasing habits. 6. Using the website that verifies a user identity and authenticates the products or travel services to determine whether a travel service is genuine to avoid the fraud and to build the reputation. 7. Using the website that supports goal-directed search because online tourists currently favor goal-directed search over browsing. 8. Using the website that works to increase the frequency of browsing offers by avoiding complexity, technical errors, and offering diversity services. References - Ahlberg, J. (2012) Multi-unit common value auctions: Theory and experiments. Sweden: Örebro University. - Alford, P. (2000) E-business models in the travel industry. Travel and Tourism Analyst 3:67-87. - Almendros, E., García, S. and Pilar, J. (2015) What type of online sales promotion do airline users prefer? Analysis of the moderating role of users’ online experience level. Tourism & Management Studies 11(1):52-61. - Ardizzone, A. and Mortara, A. (2014) Consumers’ Motivations and Daily Deal Promotions.The Qualitative Report 19: 1-15. - BlueHornet (2014)Don’t Discount Coupons, Developing And Optimizing An Effective Coupon Program. USA: Digital River, Inc. - Boon, E. (2014) Deal of the day: An Assessment of a New Form of Sales Promotion.Doctoral Thesis. Sweden: KT H Royal Institute of Technology. - Chen, H. (2014) Consumer Behavior of Hotel Deal Bookings through Online Travel Intermediaries. Doctoral Thesis. USA: Texas Tech University. - Coyle, J., Novack, R., Gibson, B.‏and Bardi, E.‏ (2011) Transportation: A Supply Chain Perspective‏. Canada: Cengage learning. - Entrepreneur Magazine and Mintzer, R. ( 2013) Start Your Own Online Coupon or Daily Deal Business, your step by step guide to success, ‏ Entrepreneur Press. USA:Entrepreneur Press.

116 Factors Affecting Tourists' Purchase Decision of the Egyptian Tourist Services from Group Buying, Daily Deal, and Flash Sale Websites ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ - Federal Trade Commission (FTC) (2006) Internet Auctions: A Guide for buyers and sellers. USA: Protecting America's Consumers. - Grandhi, S., Chugh, R. and Wibowo, S. (2016) An Empirical Study of Customers’ Purchase Intentions from Australian Group Buying Sites. Journal of Internet and e-Business Studies :1-12. - Groupon.com (2017B) Nile River Cruise in Egypt. Available https://www.groupon.com/deals/ga-beyond-boundaries-travel. accessed 31/11/2017. - Katz, J. (2016) Entrepreneurial Small Business: Business, Business: Group Buying. 4th Ed. USA:Cram101 Textbook Reviews - Kauffman, R. and Wang, B. (2001)Bid Together, Buy Together: On The Efficacy Of Group-Buying Business Models In Internet-Based Selling. In Lowry P, Cherrington J and Watson, R (eds) Handbook of Electronic Commerce in Business and Society. Boca Raton: CRC Press. - Khoshnampour, M. and Nosrati, M. (2011) An overview of E-commerce. World Applied Programming 1(2): 94-99. - Kim, M., Lee, C., Chung, N. and Kim, W. (2013) Factors Affecting Online Tourism Group Buying and the Moderating Role of Loyalty.Journal of Travel Research 53(3):380– 394. - Lowenstein‏, E. (2015) St. Thomas Virgin Island: The Complete Guide to St. Thomas All Inclusive Resorts, ST. Thomas Weddings and More. USA: Roger Torres. - Mango, F., Cassia, F. and Ugolini, M. (2014) Local vs. Global social-couponing sites: a study of merchants' satisfaction. Journal of Management (95):65-74. - Mathen, N. and Abhishek (2014) Online Promotions: Exploring the Emerging Opportunity in Indian Market. India: Indian Institute Of Management. - Mortara, A. and Ardizzone, A.(2012) "Daily Deal Promotions: An Explorative Research on Consumers’ Motivations in Italy" Athens: ATINER'S Conference Paper Series. Greece : the Athens Institute for Education and Research. - Mullins, J. (2014) E-Study Guide for: Marketing Management: A Strategic Decision- Making Approach . 7th Ed. USA:Cram101 Textbook Reviews‏ . - Nain, L., Winn, T., Rusli, B.N. (2006) Practical Issues in Calculating the Sample Size for Prevalence Studies. Archives of Orofacial Sciences 1: 9-14. - Nsysu (2009) A Series of Research on Group-Buying Behavior - Derived from Positive Participation Externality Effects. Taiwan: Negogo. - O’Grady, W., Rouse, P. and Cao, N. (2014) Motivations, Limitations andRevenue Management Implications of Daily Deal Offerings. J Tourism Hospit 3(2): 1-9. - Raghubi, P. (2004) Coupons in context: discounting prices or decreasing profits?, Journal of Retailing 80 : 1–12. - Rudawska, E., Petljak, K. and Štulec, I. (2012) Development of group buying in Poland.Conference: 1st International M-Sphere Conference For Multidisciplinarity in Business and Science, At University of Dubrovnik, Volume: 2. - Stulec, I., Petljak, K. and Vouk, R. (2011) The Role Of Internet In Empowering Consumers:The Case Of Group Buying. Croata:University of Zagreb. - Tourism e-kit (2011a) Tutorial 40 Daily Deals and the Groupon Phenomena. Australia: Australian Tourism Data warehouse. - Tsakonas, G. (2012) Consumer Behavior And Group Buying Sites (GBS). Master Thesis. Greece: University of Macedonia.

117 Abd-elwahab, S Solima, D Mohamed, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

- Vieira, V., Kato, H. E. and Espartel, L. (2012) Influence Of Discount Price Announcements On Consumer’s Behavior. São Paulo 52(6):657-671. - Visit Scotland, (2013) Consumer Research - the ‘offer culture’. Scotland : Visit Scotland organization. - Yang, W., Zhang, L. and Mattila, A. (2015) Luxe for Less: How Do Consumers React to Luxury Hotel Price Promotions? The Moderating Role of Consumers’ Need for Status. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly 57(1):82-92. - Yin, L. and Liu, L. (2012)A systematic analysis of group-buying website as a system and a tool.African Journal of Business Management7(16):1396-1404. - Yoldas, S. (2011) A Research About Buying Behaviours Of Online Customers Comparison Of Turkey With UK. Master Thesis. U.K: University of Roehampton.

118 IAJFTH Volume 4, No.4, 2018 ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ A Study of the Icons with New Testament Scenes on the Central Iconostasis of the Church of Abu-Sayfan in Old Cairo

Shaza Gamal Mary Missak Merna Mouris Girgis

Abstract The term „iconostasis‟ is Greek in origin, and means literally „picture-stand‟ or „the bearer of icons‟,1 the Arabic word for it is „hijab‟ which means "curtains".2It refers to the screen or partition separating the sanctuary restricted to the clergy, from the nave or naos, where the main body of worshippers is assembled, in the Eastern Orthodox churches3.It is covered with several tiers of icons, and it has a central entrance (the royal doors) and two side entrances (the deacons‟ doors).4The central doors of an iconostasis “the royal doors” are sacred and are kept closed. Only during the Divine Liturgy does the priest open them to gain access to the sanctuary.5 This article will focus on a subject matter that was frequently represented in Coptic art which are icons with New Testament scenes. The article will address an example from the central iconostasis of the church of saint Mercurius better known as Abu-Sayfan one of the most outstanding church in Old Cairo. The iconostasis is decorated with crosses patterns, it represents icons of Christ, Virgin Mary, saints, angels, Apostles and biblical scenes. The icons with New testament scenes on the middle iconostasis of saint Mercurius sanctuary are about 52 cms.long and 39 cms.wide., they represent

1Davis J. G., A Dictionary of Liturgy and Worship, (London, 1972), p. 196. 2 Grossmann, Peter, Iconostasis, in: The Coptic Encyclopedia, vol.1, Atiya, Aziz S.ed., (Cairo, 1991), P.211. 3Skalova, Zuzana, Gabra, Gawdat, Icons of The Nile Valley, (Cairo, 2003), p.106. 4Traddigo, Alfredo, Icons and Saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church, (Los Angeles, 2006), p. 10. 5Ibid, p. 14

119 A Study of the Icons with New Testament Scenes on the Central Iconostasis of the Church of Abu-Sayfan in Old Cairo ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ rare scenes compared to the churches in Old Cairo. They are made of wooden panel painted in tempera. Keywords Christ-Virgin Mary-Iconostasis-church-icon-Saint Mercurius-The Annunciation-The Nativity. Introduction The term „icon‟ is Greek in origin, and means literally „image‟, „likness‟ or „portrait‟6. It would seem that the Coptic icons derive in general from pagan mummy-Fayum portraits, they represent the head of deceased and his shoulders, it is painted on a thin wooden broad that is placed in the mummy with bandages. Coptic icons are made of panels of wood painted mostly in tempera, they also used encaustic (hot wax) Coptic icons represent portraits such as images of Christ, the Holy Virgin Mary, and the Apostles, they depict the events of saints and their lives,7 the icons were influenced by the Bible.8 Saint Mercurius He was born in Macedonia, originally his name is Philopater. He became an officer in the Roman army during the days of the Roman Emperor pagan . When the Berbers rose up against Rome, he fights them Saint Mercurius received an additional sword from an angel, saying "When you overcome your enemies, remember the Lord your God". That‟s why, he is called in Arabic (Abu-Sayfan) which means "The one with two swords". When he refused to offer incense to the idols, the Emperor reprimanded him. The saint cast his gridle and his military attire down before the Emperor and

6Langen, Linda, Icon-painting in Egypt, in: Coptic Art and Cultural, Hondelink, H. ed., (Cairo, 1990), p.55. 7Gabra, Gawdat, History Dictionary of the Coptic Church, (Cairo, 2008), p.154. 8Skalova, Zuzana, Gabra, Gawdat, Icons of The Nile Valley, (Cairo, 2003), p.106.

120 Gamal, S Missak, M Girgis, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ said to him "I do not worship anyone except my Lord". The Emperor became angry and ordered him to be beaten with whips and stalks. The emperor sent the saint to Caesarea(Cappadocia), and was martyred here in 250 A.M.9 Saint Mercurius is popular equestrian saint and depicted in Coptic wall paintings and on icons, there are many Coptic churches dedicated to saint Mercurius.10 The church of Saint Mercurius (Abu-Sayfan) The church of Saint Mercurius, founded probably in the sixth century,11 and lies to the north of the Fortress of Babylon .12 The church was partially destroyed at some indeterminate time and the building was used to store sugarcane.13 It was restored several times, from the tenth century up to the seventeenth, by several patriarchs and laymen, 14 Patriarch Abraham (975- 978AD) rebuilt the church in the late tenth century.15 The Church of Saint Mercurius was pillaged and set afire in 1168. The chapel of Saint George was saved from the fire, and rebuilt in the late eleventh or early twelfth century. This chapel is situated on the first floor at the east end of the southern gallery. The church was restored again in (1174-1175AD) by the deacon Abu al-Fadail. Some Patriarchs resided there in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Then Patriarch John VIII moved the Patriarchal residence to Harat Zuwayla. A number of sixteenth and eighteenth-century Patriarchs were

9Anon., Coptic Synaxarium, (Oxford, 2006), p.170. 10Eaton-Krauss, Marianne, Gabra, Gawdat, The Illustrated Guide to the Coptic Museum and Churches of Old Cairo, (Cairo, 2007), p.266. 11Hanna, Shenouda, Who are the Copts, (Cairo, 1967), p. 130. 12 Eaton-Krauss, Marianne, Gabra, Gawdat, The Illustrated Guide to the Coptic Museum and Churches of Old Cairo, (Cairo, 2007), p. 266. 13Butler, Alfred J., The Churches and Monasteries of Egypt and some Neighbouring Countries, (Oxford, 1895), p. 116. 14 Hanna, Shenouda, The Coptic Church of El-Muallaka and others at Old Cairo, (Cairo, 1939), p.35 15Butler, Alfred J., op. cit., p. 116; Éditeur, Ernest Leroux, L' Art Copte, (Paris, 1902), p.202.

121 A Study of the Icons with New Testament Scenes on the Central Iconostasis of the Church of Abu-Sayfan in Old Cairo ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ consecrated in the church, and many were buried there.16 The church was used to house Frankish prisoners who were working on construction of the citadel of Roda Island (1239-1244AD). The Church of Saint Mercurius served as the church of the nun's convent in the monastery of Saint Mercurius until 1962. It includes almost one hundred icons.17 In the north aisle of the church there is a stairway leading down to a small crypt dedicated to Saint Barsuma the Naked,18 with an altar.19 In the outer courtyard of the church, there is a church of saint James known as (Ya’qub al-Muqatta).20 The middle iconostasis of saint Mercurius sanctuary

Fig.1: The middle iconostasis of Saint Mercurius sanctuary (photo by researcher)

16 Eaton-Krauss, Marianne, Gabra, Gawdat, The Illustrated Guide to the Coptic Museum and Churches of Old Cairo, (Cairo, 2007), p. 266-267. 17Van Loon, Gertrud J.M, The Church of St.Mercurius(Abu Sayfayn), in: The History and Religious Heritage of Old Cairo Its Fortress, Churches, Synagogue, and Mosque, Carolyn Ludwig and Morris Jackson eds., (Cairo, 2013),p.184. 18Saint Barsuma was born in Cairo, his father called El-Wageeh Moufdel, was the scribe of Shagaret Eldor. When his parents departed, his uncle possession of all that had left. Saint Barsoma did not quarrel with him but forsook the world and lived the life of the hermits, and lived outside the city for five years old. Then he lived in the crypt inside the church of saint Mercurius for twenty years in prayer and fasting. Then, he went to the monastery of El- Shahran, where he lived in the roof of the church, and was buried in this monastery, Anon., Coptic Synaxarium, (Oxford, 2006), p.830. 19Meinardus, Otto F.A., Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity, (Cairo, 2002), p.188. 20 Simika, Marcus, A Brief Guide to The Coptic Museum and to the Principal Ancient Coptic Churches of Cairo, (Cairo, 1938), p.80.

122 Gamal, S Missak, M Girgis, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ The iconostasis is about 640 cms.wide and 305 cms.long (fig1), there are two rectangular windows on both sides flanking the door. Its door is flanked by two columns adorned with thirteenth century depictions of Christ and the Holy Virgin. The right column represents the standing Virgin Mary carrying Christ with her hands. Her head is surrounded with the halo and is dressed in a red cloak with star patterning. Christ, his head is surrounded with the halo and holding Bible with his hand. He is dressed in a red cloak. The left column depicts Christ, his head is surrounded with the halo and making the blessing sign with his right hand. He is dressed in a red cloak. The iconostasis is made of ebony inlaid with carved ivory it is surmounted by two rows of icons. The upper row represents icons of Christ, Virgin Mary, apostles, and angels. The lower row is decorated with icons showing biblical scenes. They were painted in 1752 by Yuhanna the Armenian and Ibrahim al- Nasikh, these probably replaced earlier icons.21 Yuhanna the Armenian, was a famous artist in the eighteenth century, he painted many icons in the churches of Old Cairo.22 Ibrahim al-Nasikh painted number of icons in the eighteenth century, he worked with Yuhanna the Armenian during the period (1742-1755 A.D.).23

21Eaton-Krauss, Marianne, Gabra, Gawda, The Illustrated Guide to the Coptic Museum and Churches of Old Cairo, (Cairo, 2007), p. 268. 22 Guirguis, Magdi, An Armenian Artist in Ottoman Egypt; Yuhana al-Armani and His Coptic Icons, (Cairo, 2008), p.7. 23 Ibid, p.74.

123 A Study of the Icons with New Testament Scenes on the Central Iconostasis of the Church of Abu-Sayfan in Old Cairo ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ The Annunciation24

Fig. 2: Icon of the Annunciation above the middle iconostasis of Saint Mercurius sanctuary (photo by Ashraf Fares)25

"In the sixth month of Elizabeth’s pregnancy, God sent the angel Gabriel to Nazareth, a town in Galilee, to a virgin pledged to be married to a man named Joseph, a descendant of David. The virgin’s name was Mary. The angel went to her and said, “Greetings, you who are highly favored! The Lord is with you…and you are to call him Jesus"(Luke1:26-31). The Virgin Mary is dressed in a blue tunic and a red cloak, her head is surrounded with a halo. She raises her hands reffering to her shock, when she knew about her pergancy. The archangel is wearing a yellow tunic and blue cloak, his head is surrounded with a halo. He extendes his right arm in greeting while the left one carries the staff, he is represented with two angels. The background is decorated with scene of a building, a tree, and a dove (fig 2).

24 Butler, Alfred, The Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt, vol. 1, (Oxford, 1884), p.91. 25I am grateful to Ashraf Fares for his participation in Conservation of Coptic Icon Project.

124 Gamal, S Missak, M Girgis, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ The Nativity26

Fig. 3: Icon of the Nativity above the middle iconostasis of Saint Mercurius sanctuary (photo by Ashraf Fares) "After Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judea…when it rose and have come to worship him" (Matthew 2:1-2). The upper register of the icon represents two winged angels, the Virgin Mary is reclining in a bed, raising her hand in order to refer to Christ who is represented in the crib next to his mother. She is wearing a blue tunic and a red cloak, her head is surrounded with a halo. Saint Joseph is depicted next to the bed, wearing a yellow tunic. There is a representation of the Magi presenting gifts, at the lower right corner, there is a depiction of two animals. In the lower part of the icon, there are two midwives washing the child, one of them is holding the child while the other one pours water from a jug (fig 3).

26 Butler, Alfred, The Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt, vol. 1, (Oxford, 1884), p.91.

125 A Study of the Icons with New Testament Scenes on the Central Iconostasis of the Church of Abu-Sayfan in Old Cairo ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Christ presented in the temple27

Fig. 4: Icon of Christ presented in the sactuary above the middle iconostasis of Saint Mercurius sanctuary (photo by Ashraf Fares) "When the days of her purification according to the law of Moses were accomplished, they brought him to Jerusalem, to present him to the Lord ... And to offer a sacrifice according to that which is said in the law of the Lord, A pair of turtledoves, or two young pigeons" (Luke 2: 22- 24). The Virgin Mary is standing infront of Simeon, her head is surrounded with a halo, wearing a red tunic and a blue cloak. She raises her hand towards Christ. Simon is carrying Christ with his hands, bowing his head towards Christ. He is represented with a white hair and beard as he is an old man, wearing a yellow tunic. Salome is standig behind Simon and raising her hand towards Christ, with a red tunic and a blue cloak. Her head is surrounded with a halo, her name is written in Arabic beside the halo. Saint Joseph is standing behind the Virgin Mary, wearing a blue tunic and a yellow cloak, his head is surrounded with a sacred halo. He is carring two doves (fig 4). The dove was

27Simika, Marcus, A Brief Guide to The Coptic Museum and to the Principal Ancient Coptic Churches of Cairo, (Cairo, 1938), p.78.

126 Gamal, S Missak, M Girgis, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ declared to be pure and for this reason was used as an offering for purification after the birth of a child. Often Joseph is carrying two white doves in a basket in scenes of the presentation of Christ in the Temple.28 The escape to Egypt29

Fig. 5: Icon of the Escape to Egypt above the middle iconostasis of Saint Mercurius sanctuary (photo by Ashraf Fares) " When they had gone, an angel of the Lord appeared to Joseph in a dream. “Get up,” he said, “take the child and his mother and escape to Egypt… And so was fulfilled what the Lord had said through the prophet: “Out of Egypt I called my son"(Matthew 2:13-15) The upper register of the icon, represents two angels outstretching their wings. Christ is wearing a red tunic, his head is surrounded with a halo. He is holding the hand of the Virgin Mary and Saint Joseph. The Virgin Mary is wearing a blue tunic and a red cloak, her head is surrounded with a halo. She is holding the hand of Christ with her left hand. Saint Joseph is wearing a yellow tunic and a brown cloak, his head is

28Ferguson, George, Signs and Symbols in Christian Art, (Oxford, 1961), p.15. 29 Simika, Marcus, A Brief Guide to The Coptic Museum and to the Principal Ancient Coptic Churches of Cairo, (Cairo, 1938), p.78.

127 A Study of the Icons with New Testament Scenes on the Central Iconostasis of the Church of Abu-Sayfan in Old Cairo ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ surrounded with a halo he is carrying the staff with his left hand (fig 5), holding the hand of Christ with his right hand. At the lower right corner, there is a representation of an ass. Ass, is represented in Renaissance paintings, in pictures of the Nativity, the Flight into Egypt, and the Entry of Christ into Jerusalem. Their presence at the birth of Christ refers to the prophecy of Isaiah " The ox knoweth its owner, and the ass his masters crib but Israel does not know, my people do not understand" (Isaiah1:3). 30 Christ raises Lazarus From the Dead31

Fig. 6: Icon of Christ raises Lazarus From the Dead above the middle iconostasis of Saint Mercurius sanctuary (photo by Ashraf Fares) "When he had said this, Jesus called in a loud voice, “Lazarus, come out!” The dead man came out, his hands and feet wrapped with strips of linen, and a cloth around his face" (John 11:43-44). Christ is wearing a red pallium, his head is surrounded with halo. He is raising his right hand toward

30Ferguson, George, Signs and Symbols in Christian Art, (Oxford, 1961), p.2. 31Simika, Marcus, A Brief Guide to The Coptic Museum and to the Principal Ancient Coptic Churches of Cairo, (Cairo, 1938), p.78.

128 Gamal, S Missak, M Girgis, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Lazarus. At the right corner there are two men are wearing a blue robe and taking off the grave clothes. The Sisters of Lazarus, Martha and Mary, are kneeling to Christ sign of veneration (fig 6). Marriage feast at Cana32

Fig. 7: Icon of Christ changes water into wine above the middle iconostasis of Saint Mercurius sanctuary (photo by Ashraf Fares) "Jesus said to the servants, “Fill the jars with water”; so, they filled them to the brim. Then he told them, “Now draw some out and take it to the master of the banquet... what Jesus did here in Cana of Galilee was the first of the signs through which he revealed his glory; and his disciples believed in him" (John 2:7-11). Christ is sitting on a chair, wearing a red pallium, his head is surrounded with a halo. There are three men fill the six jars with water (fig 7).

32Butler, Alfred, The Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt, vol. 1, (Oxford, 1884), p.92.

129 A Study of the Icons with New Testament Scenes on the Central Iconostasis of the Church of Abu-Sayfan in Old Cairo ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ The Baptism33

Fig. 8: Icon of the Baptism above the middle iconostasis of Saint Mercurius sanctuary (photo by Ashraf Fares) "At that time Jesus came from Nazareth in Galilee and was baptized by John in the Jordan. Just as Jesus was coming up out of the water, he saw heaven being torn open and the Spirit descending on him like a dove. And a voice came from heaven: You are my Son, whom I love; with you I am well pleased"(Mark1:9-11). John the Baptist is putting his right hand on the head of Christ. There is a representation of a dove in the upper part of the icon. The dove symbolizes the Holy Spirit, as it appeared when Christ was baptized in the River Jordan (fig 8).34

33 Ibid, p.92. 34 Hanna, Shenouda, The Coptic Church of El-Muallaka and others at Old Cairo, (Cairo, 1939), p.25.

130 Gamal, S Missak, M Girgis, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

The Transfiguration35

Fig. 9: Icon of the Transfiguration above the middle iconostasis of Saint Mercurius sanctuary (photo by Ashraf Fares) "After six days Jesus took Peter, James and John with him and led them up a high mountain, where they were all alone. There he was transfigured before them. His clothes became dazzling white, whiter than anyone in the world could bleach them. And there appeared before them Elijah and Moses, who were talking with Jesus" (Mark 9:2-4). Christ is depicted in the mandorla, his head is surrounded with a halo. He is wearing a brown pallium, his name is written in Coptic on each sides of the halo. Elijah and Moses are standing on each side of the mandorla, wearing a red tunic. At the lower part of the icon, there are three Disciples. Saint Peter is standing on the left side, his head is surrounded with a halo. He is wearing a red tunic and a blue cloak, his name is written in Arabic beside the halo. Saint James is represented in the middle, his head is surrounded with a halo. his name is written in Arabic text beside

35Simika, Marcus, A Brief Guide to The Coptic Museum and to the Principal Ancient Coptic Churches of Cairo, (Cairo, 1938), p.78.

131 A Study of the Icons with New Testament Scenes on the Central Iconostasis of the Church of Abu-Sayfan in Old Cairo ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ the halo. Saint John is standing in the right side, his head is surrounded with a halo. He is dressed in a red tunic, his name is written beside the halo (fig 9). Christ appears to his disciples36

Fig. 10: Icon of Christ appears to his disciples above the middle iconostasis of Saint Mercurius sanctuary (photo by Ashraf Fares)

"A week later his disciples were in the house again, and Thomas was with them ... blessed are those who have not seen and yet have believed"(John 20:26-29). Christ is wearing a brown tunic, his head is surrounded with a halo. Thomas is putting his finger in the right side of Christ, the ten Disciples are standing on the left side with Thomas. The background is decorated with scenes of houses (fig 10).

36Butler, Alfred, The Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt, vol. 1, (Oxford, 1884), p.93.

132 Gamal, S Missak, M Girgis, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

The apparition of Jesus to Mary magdalene37

Fig. 11: Icon of Christ and a sinful woman above the middle iconostasis of Saint Mercurius sanctuary (photo by Ashraf Fares) "Mary stood outside the tomb crying… Who is it you are looking for?” Thinking he was the gardener, she said, “Sir, if you have carried him away, tell me where you have put him, and I will get him.” Jesus said to her, “Mary.” She turned toward him and cried out in Aramaic, “Rabboni!” (which means “Teacher”) "(Johnn20:11-16). Christ is wearing a red tunic and a brown pallium; his head is surrounded with a halo. He directs his hands toward Mary. She is kneeling to Christ and raising her hands toward him. On the right side there is a man wearing a blue tunic and a yellow cloak. His head is surrounded with a halo. The background is decorated with the trees (fig 11).

37Simika, Marcus, A Brief Guide to The Coptic Museum and to the Principal Ancient Coptic Churches of Cairo, (Cairo, 1938), p.78.

133 A Study of the Icons with New Testament Scenes on the Central Iconostasis of the Church of Abu-Sayfan in Old Cairo ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ The Resurrection38

Fig. 12: Icon of the Resurrection above the middle iconostasis of Saint Mercurius sanctuary (photo by Ashraf Fares) "After the Sabbath, at dawn on the first day of the week, Mary Magdalene and the other Mary went to look at the tomb. There was a violent earthquake, for an angel of the Lord came down from heaven and, going to the tomb, rolled back the stone and sat on it. His appearance was like lightning, and his clothes were white as snow. The guards were so afraid of him that they shook and became like dead men. The angel said to the women, “Do not be afraid, for I know that you are looking for Jesus, who was crucified. He is not here; he has risen, just as he said" (Matthew 28:1-6). Christ is wearing a brown pallium, his head is surrounded with a halo. He is standing on the tomb carrying a cross with a red banner in his left sign of the victory over death,39 raising his right hand. On each side of the lower part of the icon, there are

38 Butler, Alfred, The Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt, vol. 1, (Oxford, 1884), p.93. 39 Freguson, George, Signs and Symbols in the Christian Art, (Oxford, 1961), p.170.

134 Gamal, S Missak, M Girgis, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ two angels sitting with two wings. The background represents the trees (fig 12). The Crucifixion40

Fig. 13: Icon of the Crucifixion above the middle iconostasis of Saint Mercurius sanctuary (photo by Ashraf Fares)

"So, the soldiers took charge of Jesus. Carrying his own cross… with him two others one on each side and Jesus in the middle" (John 19:17-18). " Near the cross of Jesus stood his mother…From that time on, this disciple took her into his home" (John19:25-27). Christ is crucified on the cross, on each side of his head, his name is written in Coptic. The Virgin Mary is standing on the left side, wearing a blue tunic and a red cloak. Saint John is standing on the right side, wearing a blue tunic and a red cloak, putting his righthand on his chest sign of sadness (fig 13).

40 Butler, Alfred, The Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt, vol. 1, (Oxford, 1884), p.93.

135 A Study of the Icons with New Testament Scenes on the Central Iconostasis of the Church of Abu-Sayfan in Old Cairo ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Last Supper41

Fig. 14: Icon of the Last Supper above the middle iconostasis of Saint Mercurius sanctuary (photo by Ashraf Fares)

"When the hour came, Jesus and his apostles reclined at the table. And he said to them…“This is my body given for you; do this in remembrance of me in the same way, after the supper he took the cup, saying, “This cup is the new covenant in my blood, which is poured out for you"(Luke22:14- 20).Christ is represented with a halo surrounding his head and the apostles are seated round a table which occupies the table, on the table there are five loaves. Christ is holding a chalice with his right hand (fig 14).

41Simika, Marcus, A Brief Guide to The Coptic Museum and to the Principal Ancient Coptic Churches of Cairo, (Cairo, 1938), p.78.

136 Gamal, S Missak, M Girgis, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

The Entry into Jerusalem42

Fig. 15: Icon of The Entry into Jerusalem above the middle iconostasis of Saint Mercurius sanctuary (photo by Ashraf Fares) "The next day the great crowd that had come for the festival heard that Jesus was on his way to Jerusalem. They took palm branches and went out to meet him, shouting, "Hosanna" “Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord” “Blessed is the king of Israel!” Jesus found a young donkey and sat on it, as it is written: “Do not be afraid, Daughter Zion; see, your king is coming, seated on a donkey’s colt"(John12:12-15). Christ is riding a donkey, wearing a red tunic and a blue pallium. His head is surrounded with a halo, his name is written in Coptic on each sides of the halo. The people are greeting him and holding the branches of trees on either side, there are three persons putting their clothes on the ground sign of the greeting. At the upper right corner, Zacchaeus is climbing the tree to see Christ, his name is written in Arabic above the tree (fig 15).

42 Butler, Alfred, The Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt, vol. 1, (Oxford, 1884), p.93.

137 A Study of the Icons with New Testament Scenes on the Central Iconostasis of the Church of Abu-Sayfan in Old Cairo ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ The Ascension43

Fig. 16: Icon of the Ascension above the middle iconostasis of Saint Mercurius sanctuary (photo by Ashraf Fares) "After the Lord Jesus had spoken to them, he was taken up into heaven and he sat at the right hand of God. … his word by the signs that accompanied it" (Mark16:19-20). In the upper register of the icon, Christ is represented in the mandorla, his head is surrounded with a halo. He is dressed in a blue tunic and a red pallium, making the sign of benediction. The mandorla is supported with the hands of the two flying angels. The lower register of the icon represents Virgin Mary and the disciples gazing upwards (fig 16). Christ heals a paralyzed man44

43 Ibid, p.93. 44Simika, Marcus, A Brief Guide to The Coptic Museum and to the Principal Ancient Coptic Churches of Cairo, (Cairo, 1938), p.78.

138 Gamal, S Missak, M Girgis, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

Fig. 17: Icon of Christ heals a paralyzed man above the middle iconostasis of Saint Mercurius sanctuary (photo by Ashraf Fares)

"One who was there had been an invalid for thirty-eight years. When Jesus saw him lying there and learned that he had been in this condition for a long time…At once the man was cured; he picked up his mat and walked" (John5:5-9). Christ is dressed in a red pallium, his head is surrounded with a halo. His name is written in Arabic beside the halo. A paralyzed man is holding his bead after his healing, wearing a red tunic. The background is decorated with the trees (fig 17). Christ talks with a samaria woman45

Fig. 18: Icon of Christ talks with a samaria woman above the middle iconostasis of Saint Mercurius sanctuary (photo by Ashraf Fares) "Now he had to go through Samaria. So, he came to a town in Samaria called Sychar, near the plot of ground Jacob had given to his son Joseph. Jacob’s well was there, and Jesus, tired as he was from the journey, sat down by the well. It was about noon… Then, leaving her water jar, the woman went back to the town and said to the people, “Come, see a man who told me everything

45 Butler, Alfred, The Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt, vol. 1, (Oxford, 1884), p.93.

139 A Study of the Icons with New Testament Scenes on the Central Iconostasis of the Church of Abu-Sayfan in Old Cairo ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ I ever did. Could this be the Messiah?” They came out of the town and made their way toward him" (John4:5-30). Christ is sitting beside a well, wearing a blue tunic and a red pallium, his head is surrounded with a halo. A samaria woman is pulling the robe of the jar from the well. The background is decorated with the trees (fig 18). Christ heals a blind man46

Fig. 19: Icon of Christ heals a blind man above the middle iconostasis of Saint Mercurius sanctuary (photo by Ashraf Fares) "As he went along, he saw a man blind from birth. His disciples asked him… “wash in the Pool of Siloam” (this word means “Sent”). So, the man went and washed, and came home seeing" (John9:1-7). Christ is wearing a red pallium, his head is surrounded with a halo. He is putting his right hand on the left eye of the man. A blind man is dressed in a blue tunic and holding a staff. The background is decorated with the trees (fig 19).

46 Simika, Marcus, A Brief Guide to The Coptic Museum and to the Principal Ancient Coptic Churches of Cairo, (Cairo, 1938), p.78.

140 Gamal, S Missak, M Girgis, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Jesus heals an Official’s Son

Fig. 20: Icon of Christ heals a blind man above the middle iconostasis of Saint Mercurius sanctuary (photo by Ashraf Fares) "After the two days he left for Galilee. (Now Jesus himself had pointed out that a prophet has no honor in his own country.) When he arrived in Galilee, the Galileans welcomed him. They had seen all that he had done in Jerusalem at the Passover Festival, for they also had been there. Once more he visited Cana in Galilee, where he had turned the water into wine. And there was a certain royal official whose son lay sick at Capernaum. When this man heard that Jesus had arrived in Galilee from Judea, he went to him and begged him to come and heal his son, who was close to death… Jesus had said to him, “Your son will live.” So he and his whole household believed"(John4:43-54). Christ is wearing a red tunic and a blue pallium, his head is surrounded with a halo. He directed his right hand toward official. The official man is bowing to Christ sign of veneration, wearin a yellow tunic. He is represented with a crown and directed his right hand toward Christ. Beside Christ, there are two men (fig 20).

141 A Study of the Icons with New Testament Scenes on the Central Iconostasis of the Church of Abu-Sayfan in Old Cairo ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Christ raises the widow of Nain's son from the dead47

Fig.21: Icon of Christ heals a blind man above the middle iconostasis of Saint Mercurius sanctuary (photo by Ashraf Fares) "Soon afterward, Jesus went to a town called Nain, and his disciples and a large crowd went along with him. As he approached the town gate, a dead person was being carried out the only son of his mother, and she was a widow. And a large crowd from the town was with her. When the Lord saw her, his heart went out to her and he said, “Don’t cry.” Then he went up and touched the bier they were carrying him on, and the bearers stood still. He said, “Young man, I say to you, get up” The dead man sat up and began to talk, and Jesus gave him back to his mother" (Luke7:11-15). Christ is wearing a red tunic and a blue pallium, his head is surrounded with a halo. there are two men carrying the deceased, the mother of the deceased is kneeling to Christ asking him to raise his son (fig 21). Conclusion It is remarkable that the iconostasis is surmounted by two rows of icons, the majority of icons background are decorated with trees and buildings. The icons above the iconostasis represent the common scenes such

47 Butler, Alfred, The Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt, vol. 1, (Oxford, 1884), p.94.

142 Gamal, S Missak, M Girgis, M ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ as, the Nativity, the Annunciation, the Baptism, the Last Supper, and The Crucifixion. Some of the icons represent rare scenes compared to the churches in Old Cairo such as, the Transfiguration, marriage feast at Cana, and Christ raises Lazarus From the Dead. Coptic liturgy influenced the icons scenes as there are icons represent the readings of the Holy Lent such as, Christ heals a blind man, Christ talks with a samaria woman, Christ heals a paralyzed man, the Crucifixion of Christ, Christ raises Lazarus From the Dead. The icons depicted the scenes of the Lord major feast such as, the Resurrection, the Ascension, the Entry into Jerusalem, the Nativity, the Baptism, Last Supper and the Annunciation. The scenes of the Lord minor feast represent, the Escape to Egypt, Christ presented in the temple, and the Marriage feast at Cana.

143 IAJFTH Volume 4 , No, 4 2018 ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Visualizing Egypt: Egypt in the Eyes of the British Travellers during the Nineteenth Century

Doaa Adel Kandil Rasha Soliman Fatma Mohamed Amin

Abstract This article tracks the image of Egypt in the eyes of British travellers during the nineteenth century through their virtual representations. Almost all Europeans saw Egypt similarly, however, the British travellers were the most travellers who were highly influenced with Orientalism in their images. These images included paintings, photographs and postcards. Besides, the British travellers whether painters, photographers or mere tourists were the most prolific travellers in this regard as they produced a lot of works about Egypt during the 19th century. The article also focuses on the debate which aroused about the stagnant image of Egypt that hardly changed in the eyes of the European travellers in the course of the nineteenth century. It argues that the European travallers in general and British ones in particular had deliberately insisted on distorting the image of Egypt by showing it as a never changing place so as to provide an excuse for extending their supremacy over it. As such, the works of those travelers must be interpreted in the light of Orientalism. Key words: British, painters, photographers, postcards, orientalism. Introduction Depending on Archival sources mainly the National Archive as well as contemporary sources preserved in the American University in Cairo Rare books library and the Special collections digital library; this article aims to

144 Visualizing Egypt: Egypt in the Eyes of the British Travellers during the Nineteenth Century ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ thoroughly examine the British visual representations of Egypt during the nineteenth century. The advent of the Napoleon‟s expedition to Egypt in the closing years of eighteenth century as well as the publication of Description de l‟Egypte in 1802 had sparked a wide interest in Egypt throughout Europe. No wonder, a flow of European adventurers, explorers and artists from several nationalities specially British and French flocked to Egypt . Furthermore, a group of them come to Egypt upon an invitation from Muhammad Ali, the viceroy of Egypt at that time. He welcomed them in the hope that they might help in developing the country. Such a policy continued during the reign of his followers. Some of those travellers ventured into the desert and sailed along the Nile in search for valuable artifacts and antiquities. As a matter of fact, the reasons behind the travellers‟ interest in Egypt had remarkably varied which go beyond the scope of this article. A telling point in this regard is their call for founding of societies for several human activities to sponsor these trips. Some societies were dedicated to exploring the monuments like Egypt Exploration Society. Other societies were meant for exploring Africa, Egypt and the Nile which together formed the Geographical society1. Through centuries Europeans viewed Egypt from a religious perspective according to what was mentioned in the Bible; since Egypt was part of the Bible‟s Holy Land2 with respect to the sites concerning the Hebrews3. It comes as a little surprise that the archetypal image of Egypt for the Europeans before the nineteenth century was being a part of the exotic Orient similar to what was commonly read in the stories of the Arabian Nights

1 ῑlham Ḏhnῑ, Rῡa’ῑa al-Rahalah al-Uῡrῡbῑn Li-Misr bῑn al-Naz’ah al-Insanῑah ῡ al- Ist’amarῑah, (Cairo: Dar el-Sherῡq, 2005), 29,30. 2 The Holy Land was considered Assyria, Babylonia, Palestine, Arabia and Egypt. 3 H. Hilprecht, Explorations in Bible Lands during the Nineteenth Century, (London: A.J.Holman and Company, 1903), 627.

145

Kandil, D Soliman, R Amin, F ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ known as the “One Thousand and One Nights”. Egypt was represented as a medieval country full of contradictions; great temples, mosques‟ façades overlooking crowded streets filled with dancers and donkeys exactly like what they represented in their exhibitions4. This view of Egypt lasted during the first part of the nineteenth century and was apparent in both the visual and literary works of European travellers. Although Egypt witnessed a marked progress in different fields during this century, its previous underdeveloped image continued in the eyes of the Europeans. Such view was most likely intertwined with the European colonial agenda at that time. The French Traveller Laurent Laporte5 for example described Egypt as part of the East in the second half of the nineteenth century just like the land of the Arabian Nights6. This was the common and wide-held image of Egypt. However, few European voices tried to change this view. Among those few was Elbert Farman the British Consul General of Egypt during the reigns of Khedive Ismail and Khedive Tawfik. In his account of Egypt, he documented Khedive Ismail‟s efforts to introduce modernization into Egypt. Actually, Farman praised Ismail and described him as: “the ruler who attempts to graft towards prejudices and conservatism”7.

4 Andrew Humphreys, On the Nile: In the Golden Age of Travel, (Cairo, New York: The American University in Cairo Press, 2016), 97.; Dina Bakhoum (lecture), The photograph as an archival document: the reciprocal relationship between restoration interventions and historic photographs, Reading historical documents from Egypt, Medieval till modern times lecture, The French Institute of Oriental Archaeology (IFAO) and the Faculty of Arts-Kafr el Sheikh University, November 11th, 2017. 5 A French Traveller visited Egypt and wrote letters to his friend Etienne to describe Egypt during the reign of Khedive Ismail. 6 Laurent Laporte, Sailing on the Nile, (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1872), 5. 7 E. Farman, Egypt and Its Betrayal: An Account of the Country during the Periods of Ismail and Tawfik Pashas and of How England Acquired a New Empire, (New York: the Grafton Press, 1908), 280.

146 Visualizing Egypt: Egypt in the Eyes of the British Travellers during the Nineteenth Century ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ During the period between the sixteenth to the eighteenth century Egypt was part of the Ottoman Empire. It suffered backwardness at the time Europe was moving forward after the outbreak of the industrial revolution. The rise of Muhammad Ali to power at the beginning of the nineteenth century marked a watershed in Egypt. He tried hard to modernize the country through agricultural and industrial transformations. Other reforms were carried out by his successors depending on Egyptian pioneers like (Refa‟a al-Tahtawi, Ali Mubarak and Al-Falaki). That's how Egypt conditions flourished for a while8. Paintings European travellers who wondered in the Orient9 depicted what caught their attention there through painting. Before the invention of photography, some travellers were themselves painters whilst, others were accompanied with an artist to document their visit. Those travellers belonged to different nationalities. However, it was both the British and French artists who had the upper hand in this field. Many famous artists showed with the use of their brushes the image of Egypt as an Oriental Icon that impressed them with its distinctive atmosphere while at same time shocked them with its backwardness. One must take into account that England and France were two archrival powers contending for occupying Egypt. In fact, France was the first colonial power to consider Egypt into its expansionist project therefore it sent Bonaparte‟s expedition to Egypt in 1798. This expedition was not only a military expedition but also a scientific and artistic expedition since Bonaparte was accompanied with a number of artists and scientists of all fields. Their final outcomes were compiled in the famous work of

8 Egypt Reawakens the 19th and 20th Centuries, 26:33 Youtube Video, posted by Library of Alexandria “Bibliotheca Alexandrina” Chanel, on Aug 7, 2014, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wgpjMblu98E&index=2&list=LLewyjFNB2m_0QJEgul TLY4g. 9 The Orient in present day includes Turkey, Greece, Middle East, Far East and North Africa.

147

Kandil, D Soliman, R Amin, F ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Description de l'Egypte with its numerous volume highlighting Egypt‟s condition in the closing years of the 18th century and the opening years of the 19th century. Many years later, a group of British scientists and artists took interest in Egypt likewise and produced a similar monumental work called “Picturesque Palestine, Sinai and Egypt”. It was published in four volumes by the British publication of the Palestine Exploration Fund Society in 188210. It was meant to promote religious tourism among Europeans and Americans as well as serve biblical studies. However, the timing of its publication had its underlying implication. Being coincided with the British occupation of Egypt, one can safely say it was part of their colonial agenda. Such big publication was followed by another individual work about the Egyptian society entitled “Social life in Egypt” by Stanly Poole in 188311. Apparently, the interest of the British travellers‟ in the Holy Lands was closely associated with their country‟s expansionist projects. The Palestine Exploration Fund Society was mainly established in 1865 to fund religious travelling, study the Holy Book, explain the Turah in its original context and most of all study the places which were mentioned in the Bible. However, their latent objective was to control these Holy Lands which were Palestine, Jordan and Egypt12. At the other end of spectrum, a large number of artists from different nationalities travelled to Egypt by the beginning of the nineteenth century to introduce its image to their countries. Many famous artists were obsessed

10 Stanley Poole, Charles Wilson (edt.), Picturesque Palestine, Sinai and Egypt, Vol.I, (London: J.S. Virtue and Co., 1882), Introduction. 11 Stanley Poole, Social Life in Egypt; a Description of the Country and Its People, (London: J.S. Virtue and Co., 1883). stanlῑ pῡl, Al-Ḥaῑᾱh al-Igtima’aῑah fῑ Miṣr: Waṣf lil balad ῡ Ahlaha, translated by Mᾱgid Abῡ-Bakr, (Cairo: Maktabat al-Adᾱb, 2014), 11-13. 12 The Palestine Exploration Fund, Accessed June 22, 2018, https://www.pef.org.uk/.

148 Visualizing Egypt: Egypt in the Eyes of the British Travellers during the Nineteenth Century ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ with Egypt. One must take into account that the rise of Egyptomania which swept Europe after the French expedition must have spurred many travellers to come to Egypt and explore it. One of the famous British painters of the century was the panoramic painter David Roberts who visited Egypt in the years 1838-9. After his return from Egypt in 1846-8, he published his drawings in three volumes entitled: “Egypt and Nubia". His friend turned them into lithographic13 plates for publication. He was the first professional British artist to travel to the Middle East with an explicit aim of publishing a portfolio of images upon his return to England. Roberts‟ works remain the best preserved works that represented Modern Egypt before the rise of photography. He depicted different scenes of both historical and biblical sites. Significantly, he drew a large number of paintings within a relatively short period14. Several other painters continued to use Lucida Camera15 until “daguerreotype” which was an early photographic process was introduced16. Generally speaking, European artists saw Egypt as a great kaleidoscope of people, colors and movements17. They focused lens on panoramic landscapes as well as human panorama. For instance, they used to depict the river Nile with its banks and to depict the villagers with their different faiths and manners18. Roberts was no exception. He was attracted to the houses that possessed exceptional views of the river. He was also taken by the frequent hustle and bustle as well as the non-stop movement along the river banks. He

13 Lithographic photos were old hand drawn sketches engraved on lead plates used for printing. 14 William H.Peck, David Roberts, Master Draftsman, Accessed October 28, 2017, http://www.williamhpeck.org/david_roberts_master_draftsman#. 15 The optical instrument facilitates accurate sketching, as it allows the observer to see the reflected image of an object situated in front of the prism apparently lying on the paper, so the painter can trace the image with a pencil. 16 Caroline Williams, Photographs of Egypt and the Holy Land: Francis Firth, (Cairo: American University Cairo, 1999), 3. 17 Caroline Williams, Photographs of Egypt and the Holy Land: Francis Frith, 10. 18 Raṧᾱd Ruṧdῑ, Siḥr Miṣr fῑ Kitabᾱt al-Raḥalah al-Anglῑz fῑ al-Qarn al-Tas‟a „Aṧr, (Cairo: al- Markaz al-Qaumῑ li al-Targamah, 2009), 41.

149

Kandil, D Soliman, R Amin, F ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ paid special attention to passengers waiting for boats or arriving and departing all day long. Therefore, he depicted the scenes of such passengers whether sitting, smoking, singing or even praying19.

Plate.1 People on the bank of the Nile near the pyramids of Giza David Roberts and Louis Haghe from the F.G. (Francis Graham) Moon edition (1846-1849) Old Book Art Image Gallery, Accessed June 22, 2018, http://www.gallery.oldbookart.com/main.php?g2_itemId=3370&g2_page=7. One of Roberts‟ popular works was that of the “Rhoda island”20 located opposite to Old Cairo. It showed the island as if an oasis where travellers across the Nile can find shelter at last after a long travel. Roberts had seemingly chosen the Rhoda island in order to remind the viewer with the biblical place where Moses' mother placed him among the bushes of the Nile banks. While in other versions, it is where "Thermithis" the daughter (in the Bible/ Old Testament version) of the Pharaoh found Moses21. The location of these biblical traditions sparked a great interest among audience to visit these

19 Mayes Stanley, Great Belzoni: The Circus Strongman Who Discovered Egypt's Ancient Treasure, (London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd, 2014), 90. 20 The island was named Rhoda because of the gardens planted by Ibrahim pasha. It is an Arabic word, which means an orchard or a garden. 21 The Story of Moses, Bible History, Accessed June 22, 2018, https://www.bible- history.com/old-testament/moses.html. , Moses, British Liberary, , Accessed June 22, 2018, http://www.bl.uk/learning/cult/inside/goldhaggadahstories/mosesstory/moses.html.

150 Visualizing Egypt: Egypt in the Eyes of the British Travellers during the Nineteenth Century ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ sacred lands22. It seems safe to say that Roberts‟ paintings reflected the Victorian interest in Egypt sacred places.

Plate.2 View of the Nile in Rodah Island David Roberts and Louis Haghe from the F.G. (Francis Graham) Moon edition (1846-1849) Old Book Art Image Gallery, Accessed November 10, 2017, http://www.gallery.oldbookart.com/main.php?g2_itemId=3370&g2_page=10.

On the other hand, he portrayed Egypt after the introduction of Islam to it as a lost paradise that turned into wild desert and sunk into barbarism because of the “Mohamedanism”23 curse 24. This was best manifested in the mosques that appeared at the background of some of his works. It was meant to convey an implicit message to audience. It ridiculed Islamic culture and held responsible for the deplorable condition of Egypt then. Regrettably, Roberts works had reflected the stereotyped and rather prejudiced European view of Islam which the British exported to the rest of the world. Since Egypt was of great importance to the British, they tried to show Egypt as suffering backwardness because of the Islamic culture. That‟s

22 David Roberts, George Croly, William Brockedon, Day& son, The Holy Land, Syria, Idumea, Egypt and Nubia, vol.6, (London, 1855), 233. 23 The Muslims and Islam were called Mohammedanism referring to the prophet Mohamed not Islam as a sort of contempt that the people did not relate to the religion but to a person. , Stᾱnlῑ pῡl, Al-Ḥaῑᾱh al-Igtmᾱ’aῑah fῑ Miṣr: Uaṣf l-albalad ῡ Ahlaha, translated by Mᾱgid Abῡ-bakr, (Cairo: Maktabat al-Adᾱb, 2014), 32. 24 David Roberts & William Brockedon, Egypt and Nubia, vol.II (Cairo: New York: American University in Cairo press, 1999), 20, 21.

151

Kandil, D Soliman, R Amin, F ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ how they can provide a pretext for their colonial schemes and pretend to be saviors rather than invaders25.

Plate.3 People Set in Tents on Sands in front of the Entrance of the Citadel David Roberts and Louis Haghe from the F.G. (Francis Graham) Moon edition (1846-1849) Old Book Art Image Gallery, Accessed June 22, 2018, http://www.gallery.oldbookart.com/main.php?g2_itemId=3370&g2_page=9.

Photographs By the mid-nineteenth century photography‟s importance had gradually increased. European travellers were establishing their image of Egypt through world exhibitions such as the Piccadilly exhibition that took place in London in 1812, the Birmingham exhibition in 1846 and others. Photos of Egypt displayed in these exhibitions focused only on medieval Cairo with its crowded streets, crowded shops full of different merchandises, people wearing Oriental costumes as well as donkeys that constituted the main transportation means then and turned to be a unique mark of the East26.

25 Said Edward, Orientalism, ed.2, (New York: Vintage books, 1994), 50, 53, 64, 65. 26 Timothy Mitchell, Colonising Egypt, (Cambridge: Cambridge University press, 1988), 1- 30.,

152 Visualizing Egypt: Egypt in the Eyes of the British Travellers during the Nineteenth Century ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

Plate.4 The donkey the main mean of transportation in Egypt in 19th century V&A Museum, Accessed June 23, 2018, http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O1278666/the- funerary-mosque-of-mamluk-photograph-frith-francis/.

As a matter of fact Europeans especially the French and the British were curious to explore the Orient. Some travellers were panoramic painters and then turned to be photographers. The important advantage given by photography was the drive towards realism thus showing the exact life27 of the Egyptian society. Furthermore, photography became an indispensible means of documenting antiquities thus allowing their restoration and conservation to evade their destruction28. Francis Frith who was a pioneer photographer, visited Egypt in years 1856- 60. He was one of the earliest British photographers who systematically recorded the scenes of ancient Egyptian monuments. Frith, benefited from David Roberts artworks and followed his path since he was the first professional British artist to visit Egypt29. To his credit, Frith, was the first and greatest commercial photographer in England. He started traveling to the

27 Timothy Mitchell, Colonising Egypt, 1-30., TῑmῡṯῑMῑtṧl, TargamahBṧῑr al- Sba‟aῑῡAḥmadḤasan, Ist’amᾱrMiṣr, (Cairo: Madar li al-Abḥaṯῡ al-Naṧr, 2016),43-46, 73. 28 „Abd al-Raḥman „Abd al-Taῡᾱb, KrᾱsᾱtLagnatḤifz al-Aṯᾱr al-‘Arabῑah: Al-Krᾱsah al- Ṯamnahῡ al-‘Aṧrῡn, (Cairo: Culture Ministry, 2007), 5 preface. 29 Caroline Williams, Photographs of Egypt and the Holy Land, 3-5.

153

Kandil, D Soliman, R Amin, F ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ most interesting lands on the globe, Egypt, Syria and Palestine in 1856 after establishing a relationship with “Negretti and Zambra”30. Besides, he was the best publisher of stereo view and stereo cards31. Frith believed that photographs could capture the essence of a space unlike any other medium. For him photographs, could achieve far beyond anything that is in the capacity of the most accomplished artist to transfer in his canvas. In his photographs, he combined contemporary British interest in Egypt together with the increasing Victorian fascination of it as part of the Holy land. He put emphasis on biblical Egypt. His biblical background came from his Bible readings, the literary works of Wilkinson, Brugsch, and the biblical research of Edward Robinson. Frith‟s books were full of photographs while the text was written by Mrs. Sophia Lane Pool and Stuart Pool. Frith‟s photographs were both informative and artistic. He believed that "The aim of photography is not the production of a large number of good photographs but one which satisfies all the requirements of judgement and taste"32. He used the art of photography to convince his Victorian audience with the authenticity of biblical sites, implicitly, and the historical validity of biblical

narrative. In other words, Frith was much more like an ideological Crusader. He participated in the larger project of claiming the East as part of an imperial project33. No wonder, the photographs of Frith concealed all signs of development that took place in Egypt like the advent of trains and steamboats, pavement of

30 A London company which originally produced scientific and optical instruments. 31 Pair of photographs beside each other on a card board, give 3-dimensional view through the stereoscope., Frances Frith and the Near East: Stereoscopy, accessed on June 19, 2018, https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/stereoscopy/0/steps/16693. 32 Caroline Williams, Photographs of Egypt and the Holy Land: Francis Frith, 3-10. 33 Zeynep Ce lik, The Art Bulletin 88, no. 1 (2006): 191-94. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25067236.

154 Visualizing Egypt: Egypt in the Eyes of the British Travellers during the Nineteenth Century ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ roads, construction of canals, bridges, telegraph lines and modern buildings. His approach in photography portrayed a preindustrial half-civilized society (only focused on one side of the society and ignored the other one). Although Frith eye witnessed the efforts made to modernize Egypt during the reign of Mohamed Ali and his followers, he maintained the same primitive image of Egypt closely associated with the Arabian Nights34 like other photographers.

Plate.4 Banks of the Nile Monovisions: Black& White Photography Magazine, accessed December 1, 2017, http://monovisions.com/francis-frith-biography-19th-century-architecture-photographer/.

Postcards Like photographs, postcards depicted several aspects of Egyptian life; the nature, the folklore, the river Nile, deserts, massive monuments, tourists, leading projects and most of all modern Egyptians. The new era of tourism of the nineteenth century created a huge market for souvenir pictures and encouraged companies to design cards of Egypt. By the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century photos of Egypt were produced on a large scale and spread around the world as souvenirs thus spreading the above- mentioned image of the primitive Oriental Egypt. Frith& Co was the largest photographic mass-

34 Douglas Nickel, Francis Frith in Egypt and Palestine: A Victorian Photographer Abroad, (London, 2004), 154.

155

Kandil, D Soliman, R Amin, F ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ production company in Europe obsessed with Egypt. Photographers from the company were sent to the Near East in general and Egypt in particular to take photographs that were later sold in the stationary store as catalogues. It is worth mentioning that Frith's early views and photographs were different from the Frith& Co photographers later. Frith& Co offered images that were more romantic35. One of the famous artists whose drawings became postcards was the British painter Lance Thackeray. He made a living in England through drawing humorous postcards. Rophael Tuck & son‟s company of London hired him. Thackeray published two books about Egypt; one in 1908 named "The light side of Egypt" with thirty-six painted plates and the second one in 1910 and named "The people of Egypt". This artist focused on drawing travellers in the area of Giza ascending the pyramid, riding donkeys and camels or even inside temples or tombs36. To one‟s surprise, he paid special attention to donkeys which he ironically called in his book the “silly ass”. Although he found riding donkeys a silly thing, he stressed that it was difficult to move without it in the Egyptian streets. He believed that the donkey was the most useful animal in Egypt, but the worst treated one as it was given very little food to eat and was beaten to speed up37. Such remarks were meant to show Egyptians as cruel and heartless since they badly treated donkeys. More importantly, he wanted to show how primitive the transportation means were at that time and how the Egyptian society was lagging behind.

35 Deborah Bull & Donald Lormier, Up the Nile: A Photographic Excursion: Egypt 1839- 1898, (New York, 1979), 14. 36Egypt in the Golden Age of Travel, accessed November 10, 2017, http://grandhotelsegypt.com/?p=646. 37 Lance Thackeray, The Light Side of Egypt, 27.

156 Visualizing Egypt: Egypt in the Eyes of the British Travellers during the Nineteenth Century ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ At the bottom of one of Thackeray's postcards, he sarcastically called the braying of the donkeys‟: “music of the east”. Such comment reflected his arrogant outlook that debased the Orient and regarded extremely inferior.

Plate.5 The Egyptian Donkey on Thackeray‟s postcard Egypt in the Golden Age of Travel, http://grandhotelsegypt.com/?p=690.

However, some later travellers showed part of Egypt‟s development that took place at the mid-nineteenth century, such as the digging of the Suez Canal. This project long-established the importance of the European world trade and was first celebrated in an Egyptian exhibition in Paris in the year 1867. The Suez Canal‟s inauguration ceremony took place during the reign of Khedive Ismail38. The postcard below shows the new cities that were founded after the digging of the canal, which were Port Said and Ismailia. The card shows the famous company P&O steamers as the main and most famous company operating in Egypt during the nineteenth century. It seems that with the flourishing of the international trade passing by Egypt through the Suez Canal and with the British increasing control of it, the British artists were now focusing on this side specifically to serve the British financial interests.

38TῑmῡṯῑMῑtṧl, TargamahBṧῑr al-Sba‟aῑῡAḥmadḤasan, Ist’amᾱrMiṣr, 64.

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Kandil, D Soliman, R Amin, F ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

Plate.6 P&O Steamer entering Port Said from the Suez Canal The American University in Cairo: Egyptian Post Cards Collection, accessed December 1st, 2017, http://digitalcollections.aucegypt.edu/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15795coll21/id/716/r ec/2.

To sum up, the British travellers introduced Egypt to their country and the whole world in a distorted way twisted out of shape. In this regard they turned blind eyes to Egypt‟s growing development and focused only on its old oriental side. This was probably part of the British imperial project. In other words, they were trying through their works to pave for the British occupation of Egypt and justify it. Then they tried to find excuses to prolong it after it became a fact on the ground in 1882. As such, the main cause that stood behind this approach was imperialism disguised under a religious cover. Conclusion Through examining the paintings of David Roberts, the photographs of Francis Frith and the postcards of the late nineteenth century, one can safely say that British travellers insisted on producing and circulating the same old undeveloped image of Egypt. Francis Frith retained the same undeveloped image of Egypt produced by David Roberts in spite of the time lag between

158 Visualizing Egypt: Egypt in the Eyes of the British Travellers during the Nineteenth Century ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ them. Noteworthy, it was during the times of Frith that Egypt began to remarkably progress. Nevertheless, he continued to depict sailboats near the Nile instead of steamers as well as unpaved roads and donkeys everywhere. In other words, the image of Egypt during the nineteenth century was a prejudiced continuation of the previous image of earlier centuries. Egypt continued to be portrayed as the exotic, biblical and Oriental land. This misleading image was probably made on purpose so as to carry out the British colonial schemes there. However, by the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth there was a very slight change in re-imaging Egypt. This appeared clearly in some postcards that portrayed the massive projects of the century like the Suez and Mahmodiya Canals. Bibliography Contemporary Sources  Farman E., Egypt and Its Betrayal: An Account of the Country during the Periods of Ismail and Tawfik Pashas and of How England Acquired a New Empire, (New York: the Grafton Press, 1908).  Hilprecht H., Explorations in Bible Lands during the Nineteenth Century, (London: A.J.Holman and Company, 1903).  Laporte Laurent, Sailing on the Nile, (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1872).  Poole Stanley, Charles Wilson (edt.), Picturesque Palestine, Sinai and Egypt, Vol.I, (London: J.S. Virtue and Co., 1882).  Poole Stanley, Social Life in Egypt; a Description of the Country and Its People, (London: J.S. Virtue and Co., 1883).  Thackeray Lance, The Light Side of Egypt, (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1908). Secondary Sources  „Abd al-Taῡᾱb „Abd al-Raḥman, KrᾱsᾱtLagnatḤifz al-Aṯᾱr al- ‘Arabῑah: Al-Krᾱsah al-Ṯamnahῡ al-‘Aṧrῡn, (Cairo: Culture Ministry, 2007).  Bull Deborah & Donald Lormier, Up the Nile: A Photographic Excursion: Egypt 1839-1898, (New York, 1979).

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Kandil, D Soliman, R Amin, F ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ  Bibliotecavallicelliana, Da Oriente e Da Occidente :genti e luoghinelleantichefotografiedellaBibliotecaVallicelliana, (Roma : Retablo, 2000).  Humphreys Andrew, On the Nile: In the Golden Age of Travel, (Cairo, New York: The American University in Cairo Press, 2016).  ῑlham Ḏhnῑ, Rῡa’ῑa al-Rahalah al-Uῡrῡbῑn Li-Misr bῑn al-Naz’ah al- Insanῑah ῡ al-Ist’amarῑah, (Cairo: Dar el-Sherῡq, 2005).  LunnRichard, Francis Frith's Egypt and The Holy Land: The Pioneering Photographic Expeditions to the Middle East, (London, 2005).  Mitchell Timothy, Colonising Egypt, (Cambridge: Cambridge University press, 1988).  Masterpieces of Orientalist Art, Masterpieces of Orientalist Art: The ShafikGabr Collection, (Paris: ACR Edition International: 2008, 2012).  MῑtṧlTῑmῡṯῑ, TargamahBṧῑr al-Sba‟aῑῡAḥmadḤasan, Ist’amᾱrMiṣr, (Cairo: Madar li al-Abḥaṯῡ al-Naṧr, 2016).  Nickel Douglas, Francis Frith in Egypt and Palestine: A Victorian Photographer Abroad, (London, 2004).  Roberts David & William Brockedon, Egypt and Nubia, vol.II (Cairo: New York: American University in Cairo press, 1999).  RuṧdῑRaṧᾱd, SiḥrMiṣrfῑKitabᾱt al-Raḥalah al-Anglῑzfῑ al-Qarn al- Tas‟a „Aṧr, (Cairo: al-Markaz al-Qaumῑ li al-Targamah, 2009).  pῡl stanlῑ, Al-Ḥaῑᾱh al-Igtima’aῑah fῑ Miṣr: Waṣf lil balad ῡ Ahlaha, translated by Mᾱgid Abῡ-Bakr, (Cairo: Maktabat al-Adᾱb, 2014).  Said Edward, Orientalism, ed.2, (New York: Vintage books, 1994).  Stanley Mayes, Great Belzoni: The Circus Strongman Who Discovered Egypt's Ancient Treasure, (London: I.B.Tauris& Co. Ltd,2014).  Williams Caroline, Photographs of Egypt and the Holy Land: Francis Firth, (Cairo: American University Cairo, 1999). Articles Ce lik Zeynep, The Art Bulletin 88, no. 1 (2006): 19194.http://www.jstor.org/stable/25067236. Websites  Egypt Reawakens the 19th and 20th Centuries, 26:33 Youtube Video, postedbyLibraryofAlexandria“Bibliotheca Alexandrina”Chanel,onAug7,2014, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wgpjMblu98E&index=2&list=L LewyjFNB2m_0QJEgulTLY4g.

160 Visualizing Egypt: Egypt in the Eyes of the British Travellers during the Nineteenth Century ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ  Egypt in the Golden Age of Travel, Accessed November 10, 2017, http://grandhotelsegypt.com/?p=646.  Frances Frith and the Near East: Stereoscopy, accessed on June 19, 2018, https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/stereoscopy/0/steps/16693.  Monovisions: Black& White Photography Magazine, Accessed December 1, 2017, http://monovisions.com/francis-frith-biography- 19th-century-architecture-photographer/.  Moses: British Liberary, Accessed June 22, 2018, http://www.bl.uk/learning/cult/inside/goldhaggadahstories/mosesstory /moses.html.  Old Book Art Image Gallery, Accessed November 10, 2017, http://www.gallery.oldbookart.com/main.php?g2_itemId=3370&g2_pa ge=10.  The Story of Moses: Bible History, Accessed June 22, 2018, https://www.bible-history.com/old-testament/moses.html.  The American University in Cairo: Egyptian Post Cards Collection, AccessedDecember1,2017, http://digitalcollections.aucegypt.edu/cdm/compoundobject/collection /p15795coll21/id/716/rec/2.  The Palestine Exploration Fund, Accessed June 22, 2018, https://www.pef.org.uk/.  V&A Museum, Accessed June 23, 2018, http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O1278666/the-funerary-mosque-of- mamluk-photograph-frith-francis/.  William H.Peck, David Roberts, Master Draftsman, Accessed October28,2017, http://www.williamhpeck.org/david_roberts_master_draftsman#. Lectures attended:  Dina Bakhoum,The photograph as an archival document: the reciprocal relationship between restoration interventions and historic photographs, Reading historical documents from Egypt, Medieval till modern times lecture, The French Institute of Oriental Archaeology (IFAO) and the faculty of Arts-Kafrelsheikh University, November 11th, 2017.

161 IAJFTH Volume 4 , No, 4 2018 ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Evaluating Egypt Air’s Image as a Star Alliance Member Soha Abd El Wahab Thowayeb Hassan Nour A.Belal

Abstract Improving Egypt air’s image is a not an accessible process. Yet, it should be said if its image was well planned and designed. As a start to keep Egypt air’s present image positively distributed, it must be well studied, diagnosed and analyzed to make a greater perception in the customer minds. A descriptive analytical research has been carried out to discover the image of Egypt Air that has changed many times through the years. Any incident or accident affects the image of the company. Egypt Air is exerting much effort to improve and maintain good and stable image. Main findings can be concluded that Egypt Air’s image passed through many stages; sometimes strong and sometimes weak and other times neutral. Efforts done by Egypt Air are clearly viewed and are in all fields; public relations department, airport developments, catering quality and Fleet improvements. Consequently, the company as Egypt’s flag carrier should upgrade its website and search for financial benefits in the form of sponsorships for its mega events. Keywords Frequent Flyer program (FFP), Self Service Technology (SST), Automated People Mover, Complaint Resolution Official (CRO), PRM Passenger with reduced mobility (PRM) Definition of Image Image is a set of principles, concepts and impressions that a person grasps of an object (Kotler, 1991). .Also, the term image generally refers to a compilation of beliefs and impressions, based on info processing from a

162 Evaluating Egypt Air’s Image as a Star Alliance Member ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ variety of sources overtime. Corporate image is also defined as the mental picture of a company held by an audience (Mei-ling et al., 2005). Another definition of Image tends to refer to a visual representation, whereas in behavioral geography . Gautam (2011) stated that Image may be defined as the perception of an organization held in consumer mind. In addition, image is the interaction between demand and supply (Hammoud, 1991). Some other authors say that image is maps of the world done by the mind of the consumer .Also, image is defined as the combination of all objective knowledge, impressions, pre- justice, imaginations and emotional thoughts of an object or place. One important definition of image is done by Echtner and Richie (2003), is that image is not only individual traits or qualities but also the total impressions an entity makes on the minds. Tourism image is regarded as the overall impression that a person holds about the resort or tourist destination. As such, it is understood that, destination image results from an evaluation process. This evaluation derives from ideas, feelings and/or consumption experience that a consumer gets from his or her memory which change into mental images. As such, the impression of quality that is communicated by the service provider to its clients may affect destination image. In turn, image not only affects trust but also affects loyalty of others (Quoquabet al., 2013). Demand and Supply Relationship With respect to demand theory, images are created with the interaction of needs, motivations and preferences, knowledge and personal experiences. All of this influences and affects the decision making process of the destination.

163 Abd El Wahab , S Hassan ,Th Belal , N ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ The information and experiences of this chosen destination held by the consumer is the touristic image as perceived and promoted by the supply side (Hammoud,1991) Demand side: Customer Companies should know how to deliver themselves to their customer. Tourist company’s focuses mainly on customer satisfaction to make this customer comes again and repeat purchase. Customer needs very simple requirements which are prices and customer’s ranking, services delivery as expected and told by this company. Time, quality and cost is the fundamental things customer search about. Time is fixed and not changeable to meet the traveler schedule. Quality is a basic issue for the foreigner coming to find luxurious and a good degree of quality offered. Quality between airlines is the only tool to distinguish themselves from their rivals. For this reason companies not only use convenient routes , but also, airlines try to make good offers.(Tsaur et al.,2002) Cost is an essential element in customer’s mind referring to his social standard and what he wants to pay. Although price is one main important aspect , but it is not all measured this way all the time , some people choose quality over price , others will go for punctuality and exact scheduling for flights.(Gilbert and Wong , 2003) Tourist companies should put in consideration these factors to attract customers and also to keep them. Customer satisfaction is a top important element to grantee customer next visit which is more important than his first visit. (Khirat, 2016) Moreover, launching new products or improving the service they have to attract new customers. Attracting new customer is the aim of many companies to increase revenues. In airline industry, companies have to know what exactly the passenger wants to offer it without any single item missing. Every expectation for the client is like a point the company wins or loses. This

164 Evaluating Egypt Air’s Image as a Star Alliance Member ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ detailed information given to the company is needed strongly in marketing plans for the airline.

Supply side: Workers Aviation industry depends mainly on human resources. The last thirty years have witnessed a great change in the human resource management. Human Resources Management is to know how to deal with employees working inside the airline company. Famous airline companies now knew how important is to invest in staff working for them (Boxell and Purcell, 2011). To improve the services, it comes from three main aspects people, systems and organizations procedures. It is noticed that, human resource comes the first aspect in improving service offered. Improving services depends greatly on employees working in the company and transforming the strategies to actual action plan. When taking care of workers of the agency, it will achieve the long term goals of this company.(Bowen,2011). Airline companies should put in consideration the welfare of the Workers. Management should focus on giving the work force the motivation to exert more effort in their work. Employees play such a significant role in developing the airline. Successful airline companies make many programs developing their human resources. Training courses, social insurance, medical insurance, suitable vacations, correct scheduling, sufficient salaries. Workers dealing direct with customers should take courses how to deal with passengers and what to say and what not to say. Personnel dealing direct contact with passengers traveling such as ticketing agents, station personnel, and cabin crew are the most important personnel in all company. When motivating workers, you will collect revenues back more and more. The human resources management (HRM) is fundamental for the success of any business. HRM affects directly

165 Abd El Wahab , S Hassan ,Th Belal , N ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ performance and revenues for the institute. HRM covers the policies and practices used to manage work and how to manage people. Managers should supervise their employees through quality circles and team meetings. Management activities include motivating, appraising, training, developing and retaining individual employees for the company. This management build work force and organize groups. It builds a work system that connects individuals in such ways such as permanent teams, project groups or even virtual teams which can communicate through the intranet of the company. Human resource management has two main aspects; the first aspect is human capital (which is the relationship of the human factor doing their best for the organization) and the other aspect is the social aspect (which is the relationship of individuals and groups that create a value for the organization). On a managerial level, the company should deal with workers differently according to the change of the employment level. In large organizations, there are different employment regimes like managing managers or managing non- managers but senior employee or juniors or yet temporary / contract employees. Knowing the occupation group is great for big companies not only, to know how deal right with staff but also, to know the employees’ rights and interests. Dealing with workers right makes the company prosperous and employees doing their best to achieve company’s goals. Branding and Destination Image

Place Branding and Destination Image The brand in tourism is not like the brand for a product , the brand in tourism is harder because travelers always depends on what he sees or hears from a close friend or a relative . This depends on how close and trustable the person or the touristic company is. Brand in tourism focuses mainly on word of

166 Evaluating Egypt Air’s Image as a Star Alliance Member ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ mouth. The most trustable info given to the traveler is the person went to this resort before views or tried to travel on this airline company. Now it’s common to look at the reviews of people went to this same residence. Actually it is common in advertising for any hotel or anything related to tourism to give you complementary nights or points in airline companies making you try by yourself not only depending on information. Insuring clients hundred percent to be sure and buy the program or the airline ticket or the hotel room Tourism suppliers often use marketing concepts to encourage tourists to come to the touristic destination. The marketer main tool to create a product differentiation is brand. The Brand can be name, term, sign, symbol or design. Branding appeals to Marketers because it associates the product with value. For consumers' brands grantee the value and quality, Quality service and customer satisfaction are regarded as prerequisites for any business to gain success and for building a base of repeat customers. Repeating tourists is very important for the tourism destinations to gain more revenues and to act as positive mouth advertising with friends, colleges, relatives and other potential travelers to the destination. For a tourism supplier the frequent consumer is more effective than the new buyer. It can be more expensive but ensure elite experience. Marketing brands marks the tourism product with significance Brands have social and emotional values to users. Speeding up the customer's information process is relevant to branding. Although, it is easy to brand a product but it is harder to brand a service or a place (continent, country, region, city, attraction).There is a strong connection between branding the touristic destination and between branding the country of this destination. In branding the country, there are strong factors; Political, cultural, business, sport activities (Bhagwat, 2012). The branding of the place is a component of the tourism marketing and it is also

167 Abd El Wahab , S Hassan ,Th Belal , N ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ called the destination marketing and it promotes a place not only for visitation and tourism, but also for home investments, creation of jobs etc.. Destination image depends mainly on branding. If tourism marketers focus on supply factors from the marketing mix components (Product, Price Promotion, place), it is actually the demand factor, perception which is more important because for the tourists, the perception is reality. So Tourism suppliers keep returning to Destination tourism Image. Destination image does influence tourist behavior in choosing the destination to travel. Tourists always go to tourism places with positive image. The first touristic image a tourist has for the destination is based on perception and is closely related to motivations, attitudes and consumption behavior .Place Branding Is so powerful for the destination Image( Larsen and George,2004). The Relationship between Branding and Image Keller (2001) argued that Building a strong Brand is top priority for any organization to provide numerous awards. Building a powerful brand includes four steps 1- Establishing the proper brand identity, establishing the depth of brand awareness 2- Creating the brand meaning 3- Eliciting positive brand responses 4- Forging brand relationship with loyal customers All these steps involve accomplishing certain objectives with customers, either existing or potential. The first step is identifying the brand with association of the brand view in the customers mind. The second step is to know the meaning of this brand by strategically linked as tangible or intangible of brand association. The third step is to elicit the proper customer responses to this brand identity and meaning. The fourth and final step is

168 Evaluating Egypt Air’s Image as a Star Alliance Member ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ change the customers responses to create intense loyal between the customer and the brand Egypt Air’s Image Egypt Air's image has passed through many stages since it has started. First: the image was very good as the first Egyptian airline company (the national carrier of Egypt) and the second in the Middle East. Afterwards a struggle came contributing to the name of this company whether to have an Egyptian or foreign name due to the foreign capital. Finally, Talaat Harb chose a name linking it to Egypt (Egypt Air). In 1933 regular flights between Cairo and Alexandria started .Year after, there was a study to extend the flights outside Egypt (international) and the first flight linked Egypt and Palestine. Egypt Air was the first worldwide company to land in Medina. The first competitor came to Egypt Air was an airline company called Saida. To Date, 1948 there was no flight attendants, the need for them came for providing passengers with services on board. Later, In 1980 there was a 5 year plan carried out through self-financing, Many sectors of the company gained a lot of profits and the organizational chart of the company improved .Started working as a major airline company, Egypt Air started its operation to connect with 72 international cities and capitals .Moreover, crossing 5 continents .Nowadays, the fleet of Egypt Air contains 36 of the modern international aircrafts from Boeing and Airbus companies. This resulted in many benefits for the company when Safety and Quality came first .For its distinguished performance it has been rated the first from both International civil aviation organization (ICAO) and the Federation of American Aviation (FAA) for 2 years in 1999.In December 2004, For the first time Egypt Air received the IOSA certificate in presenting advanced operational safety from

169 Abd El Wahab , S Hassan ,Th Belal , N ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ the IATA. Egypt Air was awarded the EASA 145 certificate for maintenance and technical works, Also EASA 147 for Egypt Air training center. Extending its routes, Egypt Air founded a supplementary company called Egypt Air Express in 2007, to help in the domestic and short regional lines. Moreover, the introduction of the electronic ticket was a turnover in the airline industry. Joining Star Alliance was in July the next year and helped in changing the company’s marketing plan to start a new phase. In 2010, the company signed an agreement of buying 12 Boeing 737/800 and this was regarded as the largest deal in the history of Egypt Air. The company’s network enlarged covering most of the European capitals, America, Africa and more than 81 destinations all over the world and 11 domestic spot in Egypt operating more than 1500 flights per week. Nowadays, while it started with a four passenger capacity aircraft, now Egypt Air with its new improved fleet with the airbus 330/300 and the airbus 330/200 and the Boeing 777/300 and the Boeing 777/200 can accommodate more than 300 client .A contract was signed by Egypt Air to buy the advanced Boeing 737/800 and it will be delivered by December 2016 (Fawzy, 2016). While airlines usually offer homogenous products, they are exerting their utmost to differentiate themselves from each other and be unique in the services provided. Egypt Air fleet nowadays is a great fleet, containing the great B777-300 and B777-200. The fleet also includes A330- 300 and the other version of the same family A330-200 to improve the medium-long haul market selling. In addition to increasing B737-800 to 20 air crafts dating back to 2012.Egypt air fleet wide body increased from 16 air craft in 2010 to 23 in 2015. Narrow bodied changed from 33 to 37 air craft in 2015 (Ashour, 2012).

170 Evaluating Egypt Air’s Image as a Star Alliance Member ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ einnirA lnnilriA Mockler (2001) illustrated the main elements that are most important for any airline to enter international alliance. Any airline joining any alliance should comply with its requirements in many fields; these requirements can be summarized as follows: a- Safety and security b- High standards of customer services c- Technical infra-structure All members of alliance should co-operate in many issues like code share, schedule co-ordination, Network coordinate, virtual merger and full merger (Mabrouk,2012). Oraby (2012) stated that World Alliances are Sky team, Star alliance, and One World. One World alliance members are: American airlines, British airways, Cathay Pacific, Finn air, Iberia, Japan airlines, LAN, Mexican, Qantas, Royal Jordanian, s7 Airlines. Sky team members are: Aeroflot, Air France, KLM, Alitalia, China Southern, Delta, Aero Mexico ,Czech Airlines , Kenya Airways, Korean Air, Vietnam Airlines .Star alliance was the first alliance in the world, organization was first initiated in Frankfurt , Germany comprising 27 member airline , 4561 aircraft , 410,274 employees working , 193 countries serve. On 16th of October 2007, Egypt air accepted an offer to join the incredible alliance Star Alliance. On 2008, Egypt Air officially joined the star alliance global group to become its 21 member. Joining this giant group, Egypt Air gained more and more fame but this is not enough to depend on so it has to work on itself and improve its quality service and safety measurements to keep this success going but this was not happening, it depended on this alliance and ignored the other fields, so it has to begin working on it to become one of the top airline companies

171 Abd El Wahab , S Hassan ,Th Belal , N ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Egypt air contributed to the out bound tourism market greatly. A report by the research and markets (2008) stated that the compound annual rate of growth became 5.36% in the income studied between 2008 and 2012. This led to greater demand of outbound and domestic tourism. Egypt was placed the fifth in terms of total tourism expenditures in the middle east region after united Arab emirates, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Lebanon . In terms of the number of trips coming, Egypt was stated as the third category in 2007.After Saudi Arabia and Syria. In 2004, Egypt air was the Egyptians carrier choice as carried out by the study done in 2004 by the Egypt national institute of transport. (Abbas,2004). In a period of time Egypt air has complete monopoly over the market mostly the domestic lines and most international lines. The aim of Egypt air is to serve many lines to focus on explicitly on domestic and regional markets to turn Cairo to a major international transfer point. Egypt air put also as a part of its new strategy that it wishes to expand both inbound and out bound tourist traffic. The tourism sector was affected by the Egyptian growth domestic product (GDP) range from 5% to 7 % from 2007 and 2009 (world travel council,2009). Average GDP between 2007 and 2009 was estimated 7 % the difference between international tourism receipts and expenditure was us 30.3 million in 3 years. This indicates that average number of nights and the spending per day of international tourists in Egypt is greater than the spending of Egyptian. Recently, Egypt air served more lines than before. In the past Egypt Air was focused on regional and domestic lines only, but now it grows more international lines along with regional and domestic lines. These giant transformations were done after two major points. The first point was joining the star alliance in 2008. The second issue was improving and renovating Cairo international airport. Introducing the airport train connecting all the parts of the airport together to make it easier for the

172 Evaluating Egypt Air’s Image as a Star Alliance Member ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ passenger to go anywhere in the airport. Both efforts was a reason behind increase in international tourists arriving Egypt. International tourist increases to take advantage of frequent flyer program (FFP) of star alliance. In 2007,Egypt Air’s over all share of international trips was down to 13.3% .With this figure , Egypt Air is considered stronger in Africa and middle east than Europe , Asia and Americas .In 2009, Egypt air share increased to 27.4% from 16.3. The average number of passengers coming from London, Paris and Frankfurt before the strategic change in 2008 was about 54,000 this increased later to 72,000 (O’Connell and Smith, 2010). Incidents affecting the Image of Egypt Air There are many variables affected the image of Egypt air through the years. These variables are political variables, technology variables, safety and security variables and other variables related to the company itself. I-Political Variables Airlines have a lot to do to achieve a competitive advantage. In Competition with African countries, the only way to win this competition is pricing. Financial aspects are the main target to African company seeking success but the political aspects is much affecting more. Egypt has unique tourism attractiveness among which is attractive natural and cultural resources. Although Egypt’s ranking in the tourism market was hesitated after the unbalanced situations of the revolution and the events of instability coming after it. Egypt’s competitive position was affected hardly by the political unrest. After revolution in 2011, the international arrivals coming to Egypt was affected badly. Egypt faced a very critical time in its economy after losing many tourists due to experiencing safety , political and security un rest.(khairat and Samir,2015) Evaluating the image of Egypt air,(MS) requires to evaluate the numbers of travelers after every incident happened.

173 Abd El Wahab , S Hassan ,Th Belal , N ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ There are many important events happened that can be measured. First top important issue was the major revolution of the 25th of January. This revolution affecting tourism sector in Egypt badly and many tourism companies closed and let the employers go. A shine sparkle came with the 30 June 2013 the next revolution of the resignation of President Mohamed Morsy which was an extreme happy event to the Egyptian people, having good impact on the tourism in Egypt. After that comes a serious of sad events. In 31 October, 2015 the bad huge event of the Russian plane crashed after leaving Sharm el sheikh airport by 23 minutes. The impact of this event was negative and led to the closure of the Russian line in Egypt air. The next sad event is in 29th March, 2016 was the hijacking of the MS flight MS 181, from Alexandria to Cairo landing in larnaca instead of Cairo. MS 804 was the saddest event happened in a while .the plane took off from Paris to Cairo in 19th May, 2016 and crashed after entering the Egyptian air space by miles. Political variables are very solid variable that affects image and its recovery is very hard and needs the government efforts. Political instability in the period of 2011 affected the international tourism traffic very high. Many generating countries saw Egypt as un safe country for its residents coming to Egypt and others closed the international airline lines between the two countries until Egypt become safe another time. Airline accidents are fetal and have a huge effect over the public. For the public any airline accident nowadays becomes a catastrophe. So for the recent accidents, it was politically dealt with professionally and from each time the government gained more experience to know how to deal and putting in consideration the image of the country and the tourism image of course. Cheng et al. (2013) stated that dealing with public is not easy and what exactly to say is crucial to maintain image stability. Culture differs in how addressing the public and

174 Evaluating Egypt Air’s Image as a Star Alliance Member ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ what are the right words should be said. Different people need different way of addressing. Technological variables In today’s world self-service technology (SST) is one of the basic new needs for new customers. As more airlines introduced this services, it became top important for airports to have these types of new technology based services. There are many self-services which are self-check in screens. Self- services options value is giant to companies from two perspectives; First is to cut labor costs and to save the money of wages, Second: is to give the customer the power and the full responsibility to choose the seat or to check in alone by himself without the help of any body. (SST) replaced the place of face to face traditional way of communication between customer and employee. This type of interaction replaces the human factor which said to be has more problems. Self-service technology has two types, the first one is Internet (SST) and the second one is non-internet (SST). Egypt Air’s efforts to improve its image Airport renovations and its contribution to Egypt Air's image In the past few years Egypt Air made a long term plan to improve many issues contributing to its image among rivals. Egypt air shared in many projects to improve image. First of all was airport renovations, it was one top important thing for improving services offered. The first step done was the airport train to connect all terminals together. Airport train connects between the new parking mall and terminals (1, 2 and 3).The ministry of civil aviation is doing a great job for the improvement of Cairo international airport. The plan is to make Cairo international airport a passenger and cargo hub. Located in a very special place in the middle of Africa, Middle East and

175 Abd El Wahab , S Hassan ,Th Belal , N ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Europe, Cairo international airport is supposed to be the gate way to Africa and the Middle East and a regional hub. The Ministry of Civil Aviation along with the Egyptian Holding Company for Airports and air navigation and Cairo Airport Company making a long term plan to upgrade the services and facilities of the Egyptian airport. This plan was done in 2002.Setting new standards to compete internationally. Fleet Innovation Egypt air is improving and renovating its fleet. Increasing the number of plans Egypt air has and getting new planes is a turning point in Egypt air’s history. Egypt air got nine planes which are Boeing 737-800NGs which is same type of some of the old fleet but with renovations. Moreover, many deals are done by the chairman of Egypt air holding company for the plan of refining the fleet. On 14th of November, 2017 Egypt air along with Bombardier commercial signed deal of twenty four planes from the type Cs300s. This bargain includes twelve confirmed plane with the approval of taking another twelve plane if Egypt air wants more lately. This deal costs 1.1 billon dollars. It will come starting in year 2018 till 2020. And if Egypt air will get the other twelve planes, it will start to come in 2020 till 2026. It will take part in Egypt air Airlines Company and Egypt air express company Improving Egypt Air’s website Airline companies started using e- commerce with customers at the spreading of frequent flyer program in the mid 1980's (Chen, 2007). Business directors started using e- commerce to reduce costs paid. Customers satisfaction enhance marketing effiency . Introducing the e- ticket was huge transition period from the paper ticket and doing everything on the internet even printing the boarding card in home before arriving to the airport. Website design and quality influnces greatly the purchasing process. A great and

176 Evaluating Egypt Air’s Image as a Star Alliance Member ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ accessible website should attract many customers. Buyers have the will to buy an airline ticket search directly about the chosen airline website. Moreover Byambaa and Chang(2012) clarify that the most important attributes to successful and useful websites are 1- Accurate information about products or services provided , 2- Pricing and ordering and every fees the customer has to pay, 3- Extra benefits such as discounts, special fairs of airline, points collected Quality of the design of airline website is a top vital issue that positively influences consumer trust in airline website .customer evaluates the usefulness and the ease of the website to continue the process of purchasing or go another company with easy website. Findings indicate that a strong, powerful website will affect trust to customers. Correct information given, design quality will leave strong positive effect on customers dealing with this website in the next time and can easily make another purchase through this website later. If the website is not accessible and soft dealing with, this can lead the person doing a process on it to refuse to deal with it next time he buys and can change the company itself to go to an easy clarified website to communicate and do the online transactions there. Trust for any website comes from accurate up to date information; design is an essential point also for any airline website to attract customers to join and to deal with it. A well designed website in term of providing photos, graphics, different languages, search bar all these together gives trust to traveler. Of course company's reputation influences the website success. Another main factor for any perfect website is security protection and privacy protection. Client will deal with this site when he feels it is safe environment to put detailed information and make online payments. From this previous point comes the next point which is one main target to any airline company, positive word of mouth. As a

177 Abd El Wahab , S Hassan ,Th Belal , N ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ conclusion, for any airline website to be a strong powerful and attractive, it is perquisite to have quality design, safety and security protection, information quality assured and positive word of mouth of course will be the result for all of this. Improving the Quality of Food Low quality food served on flights is an airline big problem. Rubbery chicken pieces, powdered mashed potatoes and pocket- sized stinky vegetables plate must be never given again on the giant African airline Egypt air. As a way of saving this huge company's reputation , Egypt Air is currently preparing for an enormous come back and currently developments in many fields , and food quality in particular (Journal of Air Transport Management , 2005). A unique way of the airline catering evolution is "special meals" which many of the developed airlines follow. It’s all about serving each passenger the desired dietary supply. For example, low salt, low sugar, gluten free, fiber full meal, vegetarian, seafood, low calorie/ low fat meal (LCML- LFML) for obese passengers or passengers on healthy way of eating or has medical problems. Also the meal should have varied types of food to match the age of the passenger. A type of special meal is a child meal and infant meal is also supplied by the age of the passenger traveling if ordered before flight. Each passenger ends up satisfied by the quality of food served (El Nady ,2018). Airport Hotel A new five star hotel is constructed as well in front of terminal three. This hotel helps both leisure and of course business travels. This becomes important for Terminal 3 with an opening date set for December 1, 2012. The hotel will be linked to the terminal by a 230m long skyway that is also equipped with moving walkway. The hotel and associated facilities will cost

178 Evaluating Egypt Air’s Image as a Star Alliance Member ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ $91 million. For passengers with less than one day can go to this airport to be very near from the airport to go back again the next day and not to lose time in traffic. Instead of waiting in the airport, the Meridian five star hotel equipped with 350 rooms to accommodate the largest number of clients. It becomes encouraging for the passengers to enter Cairo getting more foreign currency. Later, there will be linked air -conditioned pass way from the terminal direct to the Meridian Hotel to be easier for the traveler to only walk and reach the Hotel. Making Cairo international airport a whole city to make the passenger doesn’t need anything more. Business meetings are one vital issue done in this hotel by business men not to lose time wasted. Opportunities for Conferences held there is one important thing as well for business men. This hotel is one step in the Cairo international airport plan renovations to become international African hub. (International Cairo Airport Company, 2011) Automated People Mover (APM). Airport Sky Train The APM, which will be integrated into the airport infrastructure, resembles a cable car system. The track length is 1.8 km and connects terminal one, air mall, the multi – storey car park and terminal two and three. The main station is located between Terminals 2 and 3 and become an integral part of the bridge connecting the two terminals. The APM, which will be integrated into the airport infrastructure, resembles a cable car system. The APM is operated in 2011. Airport sky train facilitates the movement of the passengers inside the airport. The airport is huge so the traveler can’t walk from terminal to terminal or to go the airport mall or the garage because this requires too much walking. APM is one huge turn in the plan which the minister of civil aviation put to improve the airport. (International Cairo Airport Company, 2011)

179 Abd El Wahab , S Hassan ,Th Belal , N ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Public relations improvement and its impact on the carrier’s Image For this part Egypt Air exerts efforts to improve the whole traveler’s experience and enhance it. Egypt Air should do care about passenger with reduced mobility (PRM), mother traveling kids. For disabled passengers, Egypt air makes much effort to make their traveling trip easier. PRMs need a lot of things to be offered to them from the first step of their flight which is entering the airport until leaving it. The public relations department does much work to improve this department and improve the weak points it has. PRM can be defined as a passenger who is physically or mentally disabled temporary or for life time that is disability can limits his normal activities permanent or for short period of time. Dealing with this traveler should be very professional and staff and crew handling this passenger should know what exactly every word and action doing. That passenger is extremely sensitive and notices everything almost. Security steps are very complicated nowadays due to increasing the events of terrorism done. These procedures cannot be changed over any circumstances so it is very hard on passengers with disabilities. Choosing the seat for the disabled should be studied well not like any normal passenger traveling. The station has criteria which he goes upon it to choose this seat. Different planes can definitely differs the seat of the PRM for the difference in the number of seats and where and how many the exits are and also where his place from the lavatory equipped for handicapped. Disabled traveling alone if seated wrong it will be a catastrophe. Any staff dealing with this sensitive disabled should never ask him why or what’s happened or even show sympathy very clear in front of other passenger. For this reason, every department has employee working with the PRM give him intensive training every year to know how to deal and the best words should be said. Some sympathy words is chosen by the

180 Evaluating Egypt Air’s Image as a Star Alliance Member ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ crew is not suitable and it is a very good and sympathy word and of course he doesn’t mean anything wrong but came to be very UN professional word and makes the handicapped not feeling well. Nowadays disabled is considered a valued customer for any air carrier’s image. Handicapped have a very great effect on the public. Carriers need growing popularity among rivals that this air carrier dealing with each passenger what he exactly wants, giving a very special service to each and every one. Egypt air’s carriers are equipped with wheel chairs on board and handicapped lavatory (Department of Transportation, 2010).

Conclusions Airline companies’ perquisite is a studied plan and a strong powerful image. Positive image is needed to make customers have the passion to buy. The image of Egypt air changed over the time more than once. At the beginning, Egypt air has neutral or no image, then the next image was very strong and positive through the first period joining star alliance. Later, the image became negative when bad incidents, accidents and experiences arose. Image is very sensitive to any variables. Any accident or incident even affects the image of any airline company. Efforts are strongly felt from the Egypt air side to improve this perception among others. Egypt air’s image depends on many factors like fleet, catering, website, public relations and compensations. One important element added to the others before is taking care of the human factor from the very beginning when recruiting right persons to the right places, then adequate training and fair appraisals. Another big problem is funds due to big shortage in money to upgrade much equipment. Last but not least, there is a big trend all over the departments to improve and take Egypt Air’s current image to the next positive step.

181 Abd El Wahab , S Hassan ,Th Belal , N ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Recommendation As for Egypt Air, the company should take in consideration all the positive and negative opinions. The positive point of view can be utilized and studied to benefit from. The negative electronic word of mouth should be avoided and overcome to get along successfully. Egypt Air should have a well-studied announced plan to help the company move forward with all its different departments for extra efficient fulfillment of objectives. Egypt Air can financially benefit from searching for a suitable sponsorship to get needed funds since this is one the big problem faced by the company particularly in organizing the mega events. In addition, strong planned marketing strategy and sound campaigns are needed. Furthermore, powerful presence through all social media channels should be utilized as it is the fastest means of communication nowadays. Consequently, it is advisably that Egypt Air’s website should be upgraded to meet the international standards and be able to survive in the market among its different competitors.

References

Ashour,A.(2012).A new business model for legacy carriers in the new millennium. MSc. thesis Faculty of Tourism and Hotel Management , Helwan University p.p.85- 144 Byambaa,B. and Chang , K.(2012). The influence factors of online purchase on customers satisfaction in Mongolian airlines. National dong hwa university , Taiwan.p.p. 80-85 Bhagwat,J. (2012). Dimensions of brand image: An exploratory study p.p. 1-15 Benoit, W.(1995). Accounts, excuses and apologies Albany, NY : State university of New York Press. Benoit, W. (1997). Image Repair Discourse and Crisis Communication Public Relations Review. p.p. 177-186

182 Evaluating Egypt Air’s Image as a Star Alliance Member ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Cheng,S.,Padgett,D. and Parkekh,V.(2013). Crisis Response across borders: A competitive study of two companies image repair discourse. International Journal of business and social science vol 4 . p.p. 124-134 Chen,C. (2007). Passenger use intentions for electronic tickets on international flights.Journal of air transport management 13(2) p.p. 110-115 Department of Transportation, 2010. Echner ,M. and Richie,J. (2003). The meaning and the measurement of destination image. The journal of tourism studies vol. 14 . p.p.37-44 El Nady, H.(2018).Studying the Role of Nutrition in Aviation Industry. MAM , Faculty of tourism and hotel management , Helwan university. Gautam,V. (2011).Investing The moderating role of corporate image in the relationship between perceived justice and recovery satisfaction evidence from Indian aviation industry. International Review of management and marketing (Eco journal ) p.p. 74-85. Gilbert,D. and Wong,R.(2003).Passenger expectations and airline services : A Hong Kong based Study. Tourism management Journal p.p.519-532. Hammoud,G.(1991).Planning Egyptian Tourism Promotion in the tourism generating markets applied in the English market. M.Sc. Thesis, Faculty of tourism , Helwan university p.p. 206-220 Hammoud, G. (2014). Tourism Past Present Future (in Arabic ).Dar El Tawun p.p. 280-295 International Cairo Airport Company, 2011. Keller ,K. (2001). Building Customer based Brand Equity : A blue Print for creating strong brand. Marketing institute. p.p. 3- 10 Khairat,G. and Samir, B.(2015) Applying the BCG matrix to analyze Egypt’s tourism competitiveness position. Larsen ,G. and George , V. (2004 ) The social construction of Destination image new film Example Mohamed, G. (2006). Service quality of travel agents. The view point of tourists in Egypt . An international multi-disciplinary journal of tourism vol 2. p.p. 63-71 Mockler,R.(2001).Making decisions on enterprise wide strategic alignment in multinational alliances .Saint john’s university , new York. United States of America p.p.90-99 Tsaur,S. And Chang, T. Yen,C. (2002). The evaluation of airline service quality by fuzzy MCDM p.p.107-115

183 IAJFTH Volume 4, No.4, 2018 ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Medical Amulets in Ancient Egypt Maged Negm Mona Raafat Hanaa Mokhtar

Abstract An amulet, talisman, or a charm, is a small object that a person wears, carries, or offers to a deity because he /she believes that it will magically offer him protection.1 It supports the person with protection according to its material, shape, color, or with the talisman written on it. For the ancient Egyptians, amulets were an essential adornment worn by Egyptians regardless of their social level. It was not restricted only on the living; it was also buried with the dead.2 Amulets were made off different materials such as precious and semi-precious stones, glazed composition, and most of these materials had a certain symbolism. Moreover, locks of hair were incorporated into amulets. 3 In ancient Egypt, amulets were used in the form of bracelets, rings and necklaces. They were inserted within the mummy bandages to keep the deceased safe in the hereafter. There are different ways in which Egyptian amulets have functioned. Amulets took the shape of different deities and symbols which conferred power they represent. Keywords Amulet, talisman, knots, seven, medicine, protection, healing. Introduction Daily-life amulets were found mainly in the burials of women and children than in the burials of adult men. This could be explained by the fact

1 D. C. PATCH, «Egyptian Amulets», October 2004, https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tlba /hd_tlba.htm available on 10-12-2017. 2W. Dawson, Magician and Leech: A Study in the Beginnings of Medicine with Special Reference to Ancient Egypt, London, 1929, p. 15. 3 C. ANDREWS, «Amulets», in OE I, p. 75-76; Id., Amulets of Ancient Egypt, London, 1994, p. 6.

184 Medical Amulets in Ancient Egypt ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ that women and children were in much need for protection against disease rather than adult men. Another belief which was common in ancient Egypt, that the dead were jealous of new life, women died during giving birth in particular. Accordingly, they were in need for protection more than anyone. Moreover, women usually face risks in childbirth and according to that they were in need for intensive care at this time.4 Medical Amulets As for amulets having considerable relevance to medicine5, they are classified by Petrie as follows: a. Homopoeic Amulets take the shape of living creatures or their parts. It includes amulets in the shape of human body and that of animals. The wearer aimed to assimilate the creature characteristic powers, speed and sharp eyesight; for instance, eyes, ears and heart shaped amulets. As for animals, lions, cows, monkeys, and hedgehogs are favored the most. b. Phylactic (protective) It included those of Bes, Taweret and the Wedjat eye of Horus. The wedjat is an amulet that has survived in the greatest numbers until today. This amulet might have the healing power of the 'sound eye' of Horus, and the protective power of the fearsome goddess who was the Eye of Ra.6

4 G. PINCH, Magic in Ancient Egypt, London, 1994, p. 106. 5 J. F. NUNN, Ancient Egyptian Medicine, London, 1996, p.110; Petrie divided the 275 types of amulets known to him into five categories, homopoeic, dynatic, ktematic, phylactic, and theophoric. For further reading, see: W. M. F. PETRIE, Amulets: Illustrated by the Egyptian Collection in University College London, London, 1914. 6 C. ANDREWS, «A most Uncommon Amulet», in C. PRICE, R. FORSHAW, A. CHAMBERLAIN, and P. T. NICHOLSON; with R. MORKOT and J. TYLDESLEY (eds.), Mummies, Magic and Medicine in Ancient Egypt, Multidisciplinary Essays for Rosalie David, Manchecter, 2016, p. 95; PINCH, Op. Cit., p. 109.

185 Negm, M Raafat, M Mokhtar, H ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ c. Theophoric (more correctly theomorphic): Amulets are in the shape of deities or their animal manifestations. It puts its wearer under the protection of that deity. The most concerned with medicine are those of , Horus, Imhotep and Serqet. The girdle/knot of Isis, also known as tyt7, amulet was worn to staunch the flow of blood at miscarriage. Amulets, which were made of natural materials, were described in magico- medical texts. They were made out of herbs or parts of animals such as hairs from a cat. These ingredients were wrapped in linen. Due to their material, these amulets rarely survived from ancient times. 8 Apotropaic amulets 9 They are a form of ‘textual amulets’ which was used as a kind of treatment. The earliest evidence of using ‘textual amulets’ in ancient Egypt dates to the beginning of New Kingdom, or slightly earlier.10These amulets seek protection from several entities as follows: the dead, demons and a disease of three days.11 The two linen amulets concerned with this study are made out of fine linen. In the preparation of magical charms, selecting material of great quality or great rarity is very important. Many magical charms prefer the use of linen for the preparation of charms. Linen in magic is equal to the bandage for the

7It has been suggested that the tyt knot’s shape has been interpreted as a girdle tie or a kind of sanitary towel used to block the monthly flow of blood. G. PINCH, Op. Cit., p. 116. 8Ibid., p. 108. 9It is a type of magic intended to turn away harm or evil influences, as in deflecting misfortune or averting the evil eye. 10 J. DIELEMAN, «The Materiality of Textual Amulets in Ancient Egypt», in D. BOSCHUNG, JAN. N. BEMMER (eds.), The Materiality of Magic, A paper presented at the 65th Conference of the American Research Center in Egypt, Portland, 2014, p. 23. 11The same three entities mentioned in the Oracular Amuletic Decrees. They were divine decrees worn as amulets that promise protection, are written on strips of papyrus. They made their first appear by the Third Intermediate Period. For further reading, see: T. G. WILFONG, «The Oracular Amuletic Decrees: A question of length», in JEA 99, London, 2013, p. 295- 300.

186 Medical Amulets in Ancient Egypt ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ wounded and wrappings for the dead. As for healing, the linen bandage became a prophylactic measure, to be applied before complaints.12 The two linen amulets are concerned with this study are fitted with seven. The Number has a great importance in magic and protective charms in ancient and modern Egypt. Knotted amulets were common in ancient Egypt. Moreover, the word sA «amulet» was written with a sign for a knotted cord. There are several types of knots. The two amulets (fig. 1-2) which are the main concern of this study carry what is known as linear knots. These kinds of knots were used for protection against illness, either prophylactics or curatives, in ancient Egypt. It is worthy of note that there are a number of applications of knots mentioned in the New Kingdom magical and medical papyri. The number of knots was usually mentioned by the end of the spell. It seems that there is a link between the repetition of the spoken word and the number of knots.13 The cord of the amulet usually made of linen thread or leather was essential and served sometimes as an amulet in itself. The survived examples have a series of knots, probably tied by a magician to bind evil forces. 14 I. An amulet from Deir el-Madina Amulets at Deir el-Madina are very important because it sheds light on items used in daily life by the inhabitants of this settlement and its purposes. The

12 M. J. RAVEN, «Charms for Protection during the Epagomenal Days», in J. VAN DIJK (ed.), Essays on Ancient Egypt in Honour of Herman Te Velde, Leiden, 1997, p. 279. 13 W. WENDRICH, «Entangled, Connected or Protected? The Power of Knots and Knotting in Ancient Egypt», in K. SZPAKOWSKA (ed.), Through a Glass Darkly: Magic, Dreams and Prophecy in Ancient Egypt, Wales, 2006, p. 250-251. 14 G. PINCH, Op. Cit., p. 108.

187 Negm, M Raafat, M Mokhtar, H ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ artisans of Deir el-madina were skillful enough. Thus, they were capable of fashioning amuletic images for magical purposes.15 There is a textual amulet (P. DEM 36) that is found at Deir el-Madina provides valuable information about the design, handling, and meaning of textual amulets.16 This amulet consists of a linen necklace which is twisted and fitted with seven knots. Moreover, there is a small sheet of papyrus that was tightly folded into a packet, then tied and attached to the necklace by a short string. (fig. 1 ) This amulet is unique because it includes a text on a papyrus sheet with the directions for use. It also identifies its own manufacture and intended use. The text here is intended for the protection of Any-nxt from the fever of three days. The text was accompanied by drawings of two divine barks, two wedjat eyes, and two Khepri beetles. The papyrus was folded and placed in a cord with seven knots in order to be worn as an amulet. It was written in cursive script.17

15 R. K. RITNER, «Magic: Magic in Daily Life», in OE II, p. 330. 16There are several amulets of this type were excavated by Bruyère. They show the systematic production of this item for medical care at Deir el-Madina. As for this amulet, it was discovered on December 14, 1950, by the French archaeologist Bruyère next to the Great pit of the village of Deir el-Madina. B. BRUYERE, «Rapport sur les fouilles de Deir El Me dineh (1948 a 1951) », in FIFAO 26, 1953, p. 71-73. 17 S. SAUNERON, «Le Rhume d’Anynakhte (Pap. Deir El-Medineh 36) », in Kemi 20, 1970, p. 7-8; A. AUSTIN, Contending with Illnessin ancient Egypt: A Textual and Osteological Study of health Care at Deir el-Medina, A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Archaeology, Los Angelos, 2014, p. 76 -77.

188 Medical Amulets in Ancient Egypt ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

Fig. 1: Amulet of Anynakhte with a spell tied to a string with 7 knots from Deir el-Madina After: J. DIELEMAN, «The Materiality of Textual Amulets in Ancient Egypt», in D. BOSCHUNG, JAN. N. BEMMER (eds.), The Materiality of Magic, A paper presented at the 65th Conference of the American Research Center in Egypt, Portland, 2014, fig. 1. II. An Amulet from Tell el-Amarna A similar knotted circular amulet found at the site of Tell el-Amarna in 1982 by Kemp. It dates back to the 18th dynasty, New Kingdom. It is suggested that this bracelet may have functioned as an amuletic bracelet. As for the knots, they probably were not just decorative knots, but they carried a very specific significance. It was made out of fine flax yarn. As for knotting, it has a wide range of functions in the sphere of Egyptian religion, magic, mythology and medicine. Knotting is considered in the context of the spoken and written word (spells) ritual activity and ritual performers. Knotting and binding18 was used either to protect or for performing threat.19

18Knotted cords were linked to Anubis, god of mummification, who was concerned with wrapping and tying knots. As for ropes, they were very important in ancient Egypt. They were used in hunting symbolically against enemies ropes were used to caught harmful spirits, accordingly, magicians could be used these objects to frighten off trouble-makers. G. PINCH, Op. Cit., p. 84. 19 W. WENDRICH, Op. Cit., p. 243-244, 248.

189 Negm, M Raafat, M Mokhtar, H ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

Fig. 2: Line drawing of the amuletic knotted bracelet found at the workmen’s village at Tell el-Amarna. After: W. WENDRICH, «Entangled, Connected or Protected? The Power of Knots and Knotting in Ancient Egypt», in K. SZPAKOWSKA (ed.), Through a Glass Darkly: Magic, Dreams and Prophecy in Ancient Egypt, Wales, 2006, p. 243, fig. 1. III. The seven magical knots «Significance of number seven» The seven knots are the most common used in magical medications, they were worn as amulets. This practice was not limited to Egypt. It extended to the Assyrian and Mesopotamian regions. There are several uses of linen knots in magic. Knots were used to bind a person, situation, or a creature. They were also used for preventing something from happening until the desired time knots were also intended for binding harmful spirits for disposal or for a magician’s use.20 The number of knots varies between four, seven, and fourteen; number seven is the main concern in this study because it is still in use in the magical sphere in modern Egypt until today. IV. Examples on using the seven knots in healing

20 E. HARRIS, Ancient Egyptian Magic, Newburyport, 2015, p. 59; M. ROCHHOLZ, «Schöpfung, Feindvernichtung, Regeneration: Untersuchung zum Symbolgehalt der machtgeladenen Zahl 7 im alten Ägypten», in ÄAT 56, Wiesbaden, 2002, p. 210-211.

190 Medical Amulets in Ancient Egypt ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ - There is a spell from the late second millennium BC mentioning certain deities such as Isis, Nephtys and Hedjhotep21 (HD-Htp), spinning and weaving an amulet of health. Then, goddess Neith ties knots in it.22 - There are several spells refer to knotting in the Magical Papyrus Leiden I 348, usually in relation with medical practices in myths. For instance, in spell 8, Seth heals Horus from his headache by tying a string with seven knots around his left foot.23 In the same manner Isis treated Horus; a child is given the same treatment by applying seven knots tied in seven strings to his neck. Another example shows curing headache by applying a string with seven knots at the neck.24 - In Papyrus Chester Beatty I/II, using knots is mentioned together with an anti-venom spell. It mentions that there is an incantation recited over a soaked plant material, and then tied by the magician into seven knots. Then, they were applied to the mouth of the wound. The knots are described here as barrier which would prevent hostile forces from passing. Sometimes knots were used to prevent something happening until the right time, such as the birth of a child. 25 The number seven may refer to the seven cervical vertebrae. According to Papyrus Leiden 343 and 345, the seven knots has been related to the number

21 He was god of weaving and amulets, his cult center existed to the East of Fayum region, at El-Lahun. For further reading on this deity, see: M. ZECCHI, «The God Hedjhotep», in: Chronique D’Égypte LXXVI (2001), vol. 76, Issue 151-152, Brussel, p. 1-19. 22 G. PINCH, Magic in Ancient Egypt, p. 108. 23 J. F. BORGHOUTS, The Magical Texts of Papyrus Leiden I 348 , Leiden, 1971, p. 18, pl.4; W. WENDRICH, Op. Cit., p. 250. 24 J. F. BORGHOUTS, Op. Cit., p. 19, pl. 4. 25 G. PINCH, Magic in Ancient Egypt, p. 83-84.

191 Negm, M Raafat, M Mokhtar, H ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ of the seven openings of the head. It also has been suggested that it refers to the seven children of Ra who were connected with seven knots.26 Conclusions Amulets were used for supporting its owner with ultimate protection. They were used by the living, and buried with the dead. It functioned as a protective charm against the obstacles the deceased would face in the afterlife. Daily life amulets were found in tombs of children and women, those who are in much need for protection. As for medical amulets, they are divided into: Homopoeic, Phylactic, Theophoric. They were aimed to protect its wearer by putting him under the protection of a certain deity. There is a fourth type of medical amulets called apotropaic amulets; it was a kind of textual amulet used as a treatment. These amulets were commonly made out of linen and fitted with knots (usually seven knots). These knots were commonly used in in magical treatments. They were intended to bind a person, situation, or creatures. They were also used to bind harmful spirits. As for number seven, it may refer to the seven openings of the head, or the seven cervical vertebrae, or perhaps it has relation with the seven children of Ra who were connected with seven knots. References Books

ANDREWS (C.), «A most Uncommon Amulet», in (eds.) PRICE (C.), FORSHAW

(R.), A. CHAMBERLAIN (R.), AND P. T. NICHOLSON (R.); with MORKOT (R.)

and TYLDESLEY (J.), Mummies, Magic and Medicine in Ancient Egypt, Multidisciplinary Essays for Rosalie David, Manchecter, 2016, p. 95-101.

ANDREWS (C.), «Amulets», in OE I, p. 75-76.

26 M. J. RAVEN, Op. Cit., p. 281; M. ROCHHOLZ, Op. Cit., p. 215.

192 Medical Amulets in Ancient Egypt ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ ANDREWS (C.), Amulets of Ancient Egypt, London, 1994.

AUSTIN (A.), Contending with Illness in ancient Egypt: A Textual and Osteological Study of health Care at Deir el-Medina, A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Archaeology, Los Angelos, 2014.

BORGHOUTS (J. F.), The Magical Texts of Papyrus Leiden I 348, Leiden, 1971.

BRUYERE (B.), «Rapport sur les fouilles de Deir El Me dineh (1948 a 1951) », in FIFAO 26, 1953.

DAWSON (W.), Magician and Leech: A Study in the Beginnings of Medicine with Special Reference to Ancient Egypt, London, 1929.

DIELEMAN (J.), «The Materiality of Textual Amulets in Ancient Egypt», in:

BOSCHUNG (D.), BEMMER (JAN. N.) (eds.), The Materiality of Magic, A paper presented at the 65th Conference of the American Research Center in Egypt, Portland, 2014, p. 23-58.

HARRIS (E.), Ancient Egyptian Magic, Newburyport, 2015.

NUNN (J. F.), Ancient Egyptian Medicine, London, 1996.

PETRIE (W. M. F.), Amulets: Illustrated by the Egyptian Collection in University College London, London, 1914.

PINCH (G.), Magic in Ancient Egypt, London, 1994.

RAVEN (M. J.), «Charms for protection during the epagomenal days », in

MURNANE (W.J.) (ed.), Essays on Ancient Egypt in honour of Herman te Velde Groningen, Leiden, 1997, p. 275-292.

RITNER (R. K.), «Magic: Magic in Daily Life», in OE II, p. 329-333.

ROCHHOLZ (M.), «Schöpfung, Feindvernichtung, Regeneration: Untersuchung zum Symbolgehalt der machtgeladenen Zahl 7 im alten Ägypten», in ÄAT 56, Wiesbaden, 2002.

193 Negm, M Raafat, M Mokhtar, H ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ SAUNERON (S.), «Le Rhume d’Anynakhte (Pap. Deir El-Medineh 36) », in Kemi 20, 1970, p. 7-18.

WENDRICH (W.), «Entangled, Connected or Protected? The Power of Knots

and Knotting in Ancient Egypt», in SZPAKOWSKA (K.) (ed.), Through a Glass Darkly: Magic, Dreams and Prophecy in Ancient Egypt, Wales, 2006, p. 243-269.

WILFONG (T. G.), «The Oracular Amuletic Decrees: A question of length», in JEA 99, London, 2013, p. 295-300.

ZECCHI (M.), «The God Hedjhotep», in: Chronique D’Égypte LXXVI (2001), vol. 76, Issue 151-152, Brussel, p. 1-19.

Websites https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tlba/hd_tlba.htm available on 10-12- 2017.

194 IAJFTH Volume 4, No.4, 2018 ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ Women Physicians in Ancient Egypt Maged Negm, Mona Raafat, Hanaa Mokhtar

Abstract It is often assumed that women in the ancient world held little power or influence. However, women in ancient Egypt could become highly influential physicians, political advisors, scribes, or even rulers. Keywords women, medicine, physician, seer, healer, wise women, midwife. Introduction During the Old Kingdom, the medical profession became highly organized, with physicians holding a variety of ranks, specialties, and titles. From the New Kingdom onwards, Egyptian healers were to be found as advisors or chief physicians at many of the most important foreign courts.1 Despite the existence of specialized physicians in different fields in ancient Egypt, there are few women involved in practicing medicine. Peseshet As for women, Peseshet (fig. 1) was a swnw2 who lived during the Old Kingdom. She is recognized as the oldest female physician in history. She

1 C. REEVES, Egyptian Medicine, Princes Risborough, 1992, p. 21, 30. 2The ancient Egyptian word for physician is usually read as swnw; Saein in Coptic; referring to the one who is responsible for protecting صائن and in Arabic is known as Saein the human body from diseases.2The word was usually written with the two signs of the arrow and a pot with the seated man as determinative. The full writing which is rarely used is ;the full form which is usually seen is ; the writing of swn.t referring to lady physician is .J. NUNN, Ancient Egyptian Medicine, London, 1997, p. 115; J. ČERNY, Coptic Etymological Dictionary, Cambridge, 1976, p. 154; W. E. CRUM, A Coptic Dictionary, Oxford, 1939, p. 342; O. FAULKNER, A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian, Oxford, 1972, p. 217; for further reading on the word swnw, see: P. GHALIOUNGUI, The Physicians of Pharaonic Egypt, Cairo, 1983, p. 1-5.

195 Women Physicians in Ancient Egypt ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ enjoyed a high professional status. This is attested from the stela3 which was found in the tomb of Akhet-hotep4, in Giza, recording her titles5. She is probably the mother of Akhethotep, a high official who lived during the 4th dynasty.6 She was a Priestess of the King’s Mother, Overseer of Priestesses of her ka, and Acquaintance of the King. Moreover, she was «Lady Overseer of Lady Physicians» imi-ra swnwt7, imyt-ra swnw8, imy(t)-r swnt9 .This implies that other women were probably practicing medicine with her. According to Ghalioungui, the title of Peseshet indicates that she was Lady Overseer of Lady Physicians (swnwt) rather than men (swnw). This is because it is difficult for a woman to be a commander over a group of men in ancient Egypt. Moreover, the title imy.t rA does not exist for a woman in ancient Egypt.10 The researcher agrees with Ghalioungui because this is not acceptable in ancient Egypt like the case of Queen Hatshepsut, and modern Egypt as well. The titles of Peseshet indicate the existence of other female physicians helping her. However, there is no evidence for the existence of midwives of

2 J. ČERNY, Op. Cit., p. 154; W. E. CRUM, Op. Cit., p. 342. 3 S. HASSAN, Excavations at Giza I, 1929-1930, p. 83, fig. 143. 4The Mastaba of Akhhetep is situated in the eastern cemetery at Giza. It dates back to the end of Khufu’s reign. L. FLENTYE, The Mastabas of Ankh-Haf (G7510) and Akhethetep and Meretites (G7650) in the Eastern Cemetry at Giza: A Reassessement, in: Z. HAWASS, J. RICHARDS (eds), The Archaeology and Art of Ancient Egypt. Essays in Honor of David B. O’ Conner, Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Égypte, Cahier Nº36, vol. 1, Cairo, 2007, p. 294-295. 5 For further reading on her title, see: P. GHALIOUNGUI, «Les plus anciennes femmes- médicins de l’Histoire [avec 1 planche]», in BIFAO 75, 1975, p. 160-163. 6 P. GHALIOUNGUI, The Physicians of Pharaonic Egypt, p. 65. 7 J. NUNN, Op. Cit., p. 124. 8 F. JONCKHEERE, Les médicins de l’époque Pharaonique, Bruxelles, 1958, p. 41. 9 Lady Director of Lady Physicians, GHALIONGUI, The Physicians of Pharaonic Egypt, Cairo, 1983. 10 GHALIOUNGUI, Les plus anciennes femmes-médicins de l’Histoire, p. 163.

196 Negm, M Raafat, M Mokhtar, H ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ practitioners involved in obstetrics in ancient Egypt. Moreover, it is not clear enough that the medical practice of Peseshet was restricted on women.11Women physicians were considered as state employee. Thus, they were paid for their services through the state.12

Fig. 1: Pesshet mr swn-nw-t «Overseer Woman Doctor»

After: S. HASSAN, Excavations at Giza I, 1929-1930, p. 83, fig. 143. Other Female Physicians Merit-Ptah who lived in 2700 BC is believed to be the first named female physician in history. She is mentioned in the tomb of her son with the title «Chief Physician» and this is the only data available on her so far.13However,

11 W. B. HARRER, Z. EL-DAWAKHLY, «Peseshet-The First Female Physician?», in The American College of Obstetrecians and Gynecologists, vol. 74, No. 6, San Bernandino, 1989, p. 960. 12 J. F. HICKSON, «Medicine in Ancient Egypt and its Relevance Today*», in: The New England Journal of Medicine, Chippenham, 21 (110), Sep., 1971, p. 512. 13 I. SERAGELDIN, «Women in Science: Time to Recognize Obvious», in Bibliotheca Alexandria Cataloging-in-Publication Data, Alexandria, 2006, p. 14; p.22; J. J. MARK, «Female Physicians in Ancient Egypt» in: https://www.ancient.eu/article/49/female- physicians-in-ancient-egypt/, available on: 19-12-2017.

197 Women Physicians in Ancient Egypt ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ the researcher believes that there might be confusion between Merit-Ptah and Peseshet. There is another female who is known as a physician in ancient Egypt is Tawe (tA-wA) and she was mentioned in an early Ptolemaic papyrus, around 300 B. C.14 Wise women rxt Mentions of the prophetic «wise women» rxt, are found in private records coming mainly from Deir el-Madina.15 She was a healer or a divine intermediate between the realms of the living, the gods, and the dead. She used to help individuals because they were not able to know the explanation for some incidents like the matters of curses and possession.16The wise woman was able to know how a certain incident took place by getting influenced by various bA. w17. Moreover, she was able to predicate future events.18 In O. DEM 1690, a man is urged to consult with the wise woman about the bA.w affecting the eyes of his wife. This reflects the role played by wise women in medical practice. Her spiritual knowledge allows her to know the reason behind that illness. Then, she prescribes treatment which would heal that patient. In this case, the wise woman became a «seer» and «healer» at the

14 P. GHALIONGUI, The Physicians of Pharaonic Egypt, Cairo, 1983, p. 92; P. PRIORESCHI, A History of Medicine. Primitive and Ancient Medicine, vol. 1, 2nd ed., Omaha, 1996, p. 334. 15In O Letellier, O. DEM 1690, O. DEM 1688, O. CGC 25674, O. Gardiner 149. See: J. TOIVARI-VIITAL, Women at Deir El-Medina: A Study of the Status and Roles of the Females Inhabitants in the Workmen’s Community during the Ramesside Period, Leiden, 2001, p. 229-230. 16 R. K. RITNER, «Magic: Magic in Daily Life», in OE II, p. 330. 17Ba is an enigmatic concept. It designates as much as visible manifestation of a hidden power as the hidden power behind its visible manifestations. For further reading, see: JAN. ASSMANN, The Search for God in Ancient Egypt, Ithaca, 2001, p. 239-240. 18 J. TOIVARI-VIITAL, : A Study of the Status and Roles of the Females Inhabitants in the Workmen’s Community During the Ramesside Period, Leiden, 2001, p. 228.

198 Negm, M Raafat, M Mokhtar, H ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ same time.19In an Ostracon, probably from Deir el-Medina, the rx.t is consulted about the cause of the death of two children.20 Broghouts21 believes that there is another source which proves that the rx.t was a diviner and a healer in the Egyptian society. It is a tale of goddess Isis dating back to the Late period, inscribed on the Matternich Stela.22 While this stela dates back to the late period, the discussion of it is justified here because of the information which could help in understanding the role of the rxt. It tells about Isis who found Horus unconscious. Then, she called out for help from the peasants living nearby, but no one could help. It seems that one woman «full of experience»23 realized what happened. She recommended Isis to seek the reasons why this happened. Accordingly, Isis was forced to make her own diagnosis. Finally, Thoth came and treated Horus for her. It could be concluded that the wise woman here helped in diagnosing the individual rather than treating him.24Accordingly, Broghouts believes that the Wise Woman was credited with healing or causing diseases. He believes that she was concerned with the art of prophecy. Even though her treatment of patients is not comparable to that of a swnw , she could still be called a healer. She helped to preserve maat likewise priests

19 D. KARL, «Funktion und Bedeutung Einer Weisen Frau im Alten Ägypten», in SAK 28, 2000, p. 159. 20 B. LETELLIER, «La destinee de deux enfants, un ostracon ramesside inedit», in: Livre du Centenaire de l'IFAO (1880-1890), Cairo, 1980, pp. 127-33. 21 J. F. BROGHOUTS, «Divine Intervention in Ancient Egypt and its Manifestation (bAw) », in: (eds.) R.J. DEMARÉE and JAC.J. JANSSEN, Gleanings from Deir El-Medîna, Leiden, 1982, p. 26. 22It is the largest, finest and most complete cippi stela both in texts and illustrations. It dates back to the reign of Nectanebo II, Late Period. It is one of the talismans by which the Egyptians hoped to guard against attacks by destructive animals, reptiles in particular. N. E. SCOTT, «The Matternich Stela», in: MMA 9, no. 8, 1951, p. 201-202. 23rx.t or wise woman. 24 J. F. BROGHOUTS, Op. Cit., p. 26.

199 Women Physicians in Ancient Egypt ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ who were concerned with preserving maat through temple rituals. Healing, in the case of rx.t meant regained harmony with the gods.25 As for the payment for wise woman, she didn’t appear in ration distributions at Deir el-Madina. It is not clear how or how much they were paid for their services. It is also clear that they were not paid through rations from the state. It seems that the connection between the wise woman and medicine was informal. This could be concluded from the personal letter mentioning the wise woman.26 Midwives Women played an important role as medical auxiliaries, serving as midwives and wet nurses. However, there is one example of a midwife (iAt -rini) who lived during the 3rd century A. D. 27 According to the book of Exodus (1:15-21), the king of Egypt, tells the Hebrew midwives, named Shifra and Puah, to kill any male child they deliver. This story is also in mentioned in the holly Quraan. Accordingly, there were midwives responsible for assisting with childbirth.28 There are other scenes depicting Isis and Nephthys as midwifes to Nut while she was giving birth to the sun. It seems that the profession did not exist but it did not enjoy the attention in ancient Egypt like other professions.

25 D. KARL, Op. Cit., p. 159-160. 26 A. AUSTIN, Contending with Illnessin ancient Egypt: A Textual and Osteological Study of health Care at Deir el-Medina, A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Archaeology, Los Angelos, 2014, p. 101-102. 27 J. W. ESTES, The Medical Skills of Ancient Egypt, Watson, 1989, p. 21; J. NUNN, Op. Cit.,p. 124; R. K. RITNER, «Medicine», in OE II, p. 353; P. PRIORESCHI, Op. Cit., 1996, p. 334. 28 NUNN, Op. Cit., p. 132.

200 Negm, M Raafat, M Mokhtar, H ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ

Conclusions There were few women involved in practicing medicine. This is probably due to the fact that reading and writing were restricted on men. Thus, illiterate individuals including women would not be able to read the prescriptions. Despite the existence of female swnw, it is not sure if there were disciplines mainly dedicated to the health of women or not. Despite that women healer rarely documented in ancient Egypt, the rx.t was a diviner and a healer in the society. It is not known how the woman diviner reached her conclusions. They are still exists in modern Egypt and in other cultures, but for predicating events in future. The Matternich stela refers to the existence of «a wise woman in her town». Accordingly, it could be assumed that each community could have had a wise woman. Despite the existence of specialized physicians in different fields, there is no evidence on physicians who were responsible for the medical health of women. It could be suggested that the «wet nurse» would have been involved in pregnancy and childbirth issues.

References Books

ASSMANN (JAN.), The Search for God in Ancient Egypt, London, 2001.

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201 Women Physicians in Ancient Egypt ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ BROGHOUTS (J. F.), «Divine Intervention in Ancient Egypt and its

Manifestation (bAw) », in: eds., DEMARÉE (R.J.) and JANSSEN (JAC. J.), Gleanings from Deir El-Medîna, Leiden, 1982. p. 1-70.

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KARL (D.), «Funktion und Bedeutung Einer Weisen Frau im Alten Ägypten», in SAK 28, 2000, p. 131-160

202 Negm, M Raafat, M Mokhtar, H ـــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــــ LETELLIER (B.), «La destinee de deux enfants, un ostracon ramesside inedit», in: Livre du Centenaire de l'IFAO (1880-1890), Cairo, 1980, p. 127-33.

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SCOTT (N. E.), «The Matternich Stela», in: MMA 9, no. 8, 1951, p. 201- 202.

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