Biodeterioration of ConCrete Biodeterioration of ConCrete Thomas Dyer University of Dundee Division of Civil Engineering Dundee, Scotland, UK p, A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK Cover Acknowledgement · Top-Left photo of the Hawaiian monkmonk seal:seal: ReproducedReproduced byby kindkind courtesycourtesy ofof M.M. SullivanSullivan · Top-right photo of the Galapagos furfur seal:seal: ReproducedReproduced byby kindkind courtesycourtesy ofof J.J.J.J. AlavaAlava · Bottom-left photo of the Juan FernandezFernandez furfur seal:seal: ReproducedReproduced byby kindkind courtesycourtesy ofof L.P.L.P. OsmanOsman · Bottom-right photo of the Mediterranean monkmonk seal:seal: ReproducedReproduced byby kindkind courtesycourtesy ofof A.A.A.A. 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Title:Title: Tropical Biodeterioration pinnipeds of: bio concrete-ecology, / Thomasthreats, and Dyer, conservationconservation University /of/ editor,editor, Dundee JuanDivision Joseì ofAlava, Civil Faculty Engineering, of Science, Dundee, InstituteInstitute Scotland, forfor thethe UK. OceansOceans andand Fisheries,Description: The BocaUniversity Raton, of FL British : CRC Columbia, Press, [2016] Vancouver, | "A science Canada.Canada. publishers book." Description:| Includes bibliographical Boca Raton, FL references : CRC Press, and 2017. index. | “A science publishers book.” | Includes bibliographical references andand index.index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016054170| ISBN 97814987413929781498741392 (hardback(hardback :: alk.alk. paper)paper) || ISBNIdentifiers: 9781498741408 LCCN 2017005278| (e-book : alk. ISBN paper) 9781498709224 (hardback : alk. paper) | Subjects:ISBN 9781498709231 LCSH: Seals (Animals) (e-book)--Tropics. | Pinnipedia. Classification:Subjects: LCSH: LCC Concrete--Biodegradation. QL737.P6 T76 2017 | DDC 599.79--dc23--dc23 LCClassification: record available LCC at TA440 https://lccn.loc.gov/2016054170 .D94 2016 | DDC 620.1/3623--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017005278 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com To Judith, Angus and Oscar Preface Awareness of the importance of ensuring durability of concrete has been a growing concern for engineers. There is a fairly good understanding of the mechanisms which cause its deterioration and the ways of limiting such damage through the use of appropriate materials and approaches to design. Many of the deterioration mechanisms which affect concrete are the result of interaction with the non-living environment—chlorides in seawater, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, cyclic freezing and thawing. However, living organisms can also cause damage—through both chemical and physical processes—which, under the right conditions, can be severe. This book examines all forms of concrete biodeterioration together for the first time. It examines, from a fundamental starting point, biodeterioration mechanisms, as well as the conditions which allow living organisms (bacteria, fungi, plants and a range of marine organisms) to colonise concrete. It also includes a detailed examination of chemical compounds produced by living organisms with respect to their interaction with the mineral constituents of cement and concrete, and the implications this has for the integrity of structures. Approaches to avoiding biodeterioration of concrete are also covered, including selection of materials, mix proportioning, design, and the use of protective systems. Contents Dedication v Preface vii 1. Introduction 1 2. The Chemistry of Concrete Biodeterioration 7 3. Bacterial Biodeterioration 77 4. Fungal Biodeterioration 153 5. Plants and Biodeterioration 212 6. Damage to Concrete from Animal Activity 265 Index 279 Chapter 1 Introduction Biodeterioration of Concrete Around 1899 the outfall sewer serving Los Angeles—which had been built only four years previously—started showing signs of severe deterioration [1]. The concrete lining of the sewers and the lime mortar used in the brickwork was undergoing significant expansion, before crumbling away. The bricks themselves appeared unaffected, save for those which spalled away as a result of the considerable pressure exerted by the expansion. This might have been attributed to aggressive substances dissolved in the sewage itself, were it not for the inconvenient fact that the corrosion was occurring above the waterline. Early in the 20th century, the construction of brick-lined sewers was superseded by the use of concrete pipes. However, the problem of corrosion persisted. Corrosion above the waterline suggested that a gas was causing the corrosion and the most likely candidate was hydrogen sulphide (H2S), a malodorous and potentially lethal gas produced by sulphate-reducing bacteria in sewage. This theory appeared to be supported by the fact that rates of deterioration were significantly reduced by measures taken to prevent the release of H2S. In the Los Angeles case, modification of the sewers to keep them fully flooded—effectively turning them into a septic tank—solved the problem. Moreover, in 1929, reduced rates of deterioration were observed in concrete sewers in Orange County and El Centro County, California, after chlorination of the sewage was initiated [2]. However, H2S—whilst being extremely hazardous—is actually not corrosive to hardened cement. The most likely explanation for the damage was that the gas was being converted into sulphuric acid. Chemical reactions capable of causing this conversion were proposed, but were not (and, in fact, could not) be demonstrated experimentally. The unsatisfactory nature of the proposed mechanism of acid formation led Guy Parker (a bacteriologist who was part of a team facing a similar problem in concrete sewers in 2 Biodeterioration of Concrete Melbourne, Australia) to consider the possibility that microorganisms were playing a role not only in the formation of H2S, but in its conversion to sulphuric acid. Through a series of experiments, he was able to isolate a species of bacteria which was responsible, which he provisionally named Thiobacillus concretivorus [3]. In fact, the species was an already known species, Thiobacillus thiooxidans, but this did not depreciate Parker’s astonishing discovery, clearly expressed in the original name: here was an organism that ate concrete. The above narrative is almost certainly not the first case of biodeterioration of concrete, but it is one the most well-documented early examples. Biodeterioration has been defined as ‘any undesirable change in the properties of a material caused by the vital activities of organisms’ [4]. It also highlights one of the important features often associated with biodeterioration—a mechanism which involves multiple organisms each playing individual and necessary roles. Biodeterioration and Durability One of the greatest challenges to engineers designing concrete