CULTURAL RESOURCE OVERVIEW

Chelan, Okanogan, & Douglas Counties

R. Lee Lyinan

Occasional Paper No. 6 1978

0 WASHINGTON ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY • ..

0 5- 10 20 30 40mi 0 5- 10 20- 30 40- 50 60 km .. Frontpiece: Chelan, Okanogan, and Douglas Counties •

A Cultural Resource Overview of Chelan, Okanogan, and Douglas Counties, North-Central Washington

by

; R. Lee Lyman '

Washington Archaeological Society Occasional Paper No. 6 1978 • iii

ABSTRACT

A cultural resource overview of Chelan, Okanogan, and Douglas Counties,

Washington, is presented. Data on the natural setting are examined as back­

ground. A review of ethnohistorical, ethnographic and archaeological data

reveals a time depth of 8 to 10,000 years for cultural remains and indicates

site types and potential site locations in the area as well as emphasizing

present deficiencies in the data base. Examination of the archaeological data

in light of cultural developmental models proposed for the Plateau culture

area provides a working outline of areal prehistory. Use of this report in

initial land use planning stages should benefit land holding agencies, the

professional archaeological connnunity, and the public in general by providing

the framework for a viable cultural resource management program in Chelan,

Okanogan, and Douglas Counties.

j

• iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ., Frontispiece •.••..•.••••.••••••....••••..•••••••... • • • • · • i

Title Page a • a e a • • • • a • 1 • a •• a • a a a a ••••• a e a a • • • a I a a • a • • • a I a • ii

Abstract a a • e a a •••• a e a a e • a • I a •• a a • a e a e a a a • a a a a •• a • a a a a a a a a iii

Table of Contents e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e I e e e e e e I e e I e e e e e I I I I e e e e I iv v List of Illustrations I e I I e I I a I I I I I I I a I I I I I I I I I a I I I I I I I I I I

List of Tables • • a I e e a a a • • e e e a e • • a e a • • • a • a a e a a a a a a I I a a a a • a vi

Preface and Acknowledgments e 8 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I a I vii

I 1 Natural Setting ...... a a Geology ...... I a a ...... 1 Climate ...... " ...... 2 Vegetation/Flora ...... 3 Fauna .•....•..••...••.••...•.• . ... I a a • 4 Paleoenvironments •...... 4 A General Sketch of Paleoenvironments 8 Cultural Setting •....••••...... 9 Ethnography ...... 9 Ethnohistory ...... 21 • Archaeology •••• ... I I ...... 26 Summary of COD Archaeology •• ...... 47 Prehistory of COD •...... ••. I I I I 47 Summary and Conclustions ••.••..••.•....•.•.•....•.••••.•. 53 Appendix •..••..•••.••...•.••.....•.•...•••.•. · · • . · · · · 55 Bibliography ....•.•...•••.••..•••.....•.•..•...•.•...... • 57 v

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page 1. Ethnographic Distribution of Indigenous Groups 11 2. Schematic Depiction of Ethnographic Settlement Patterns 16 3, The Ethnographic Seasonal Cycle 17 4. Ethnographic Sites 19 5, Archaeological Districts 27 6. COD Archaeological Sites Mentioned in the Text 28 7. Little's Landing (45CH64) Projectile Point Sequence· 31 8. 45D0171 Projectile Point Sequence 49 • Of vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page 1. Plants Used by Indigenous Peoples of Chelan, Okanogan, and Douglas Counties 5 2. Animals Used by Indigenous Peoples of Chelan, Okanogan, and Douglas Counties 6 3. Population Figures for Various Indigenous Groups Occupying Northeastern Washington 13 4. Material Culture Items of Indigenous Peoples 22 5. Trade Goods Brought into Northeastern Washington ... 25 6. A Preliminary Culture Typology for the Rock Island Dam Reservoir District 33 7. The Okanogan Cultural Sequence 39 vii

PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This report was prepared under the guidelines set forth in Bureau of Land

Management Instruction Memorandum No. 76- , "Guidelines for Class I Cultural

Resource Inventory Studies-Draft" (6230(370)). As such, the report provides a narrative overview of cultural data recorded in Chelan, Okanogan, and Douglas

Counties in the State of Washington. Selected data on Ferry, Stevens, and Pend

Oreille Counties are included for sake of continuity and because archaeological field work undertaken at the time this report was written included examination of areas in these latter counties.

The report was prepared at the request of the Bureau of Land Management

(hereafter BLM), Spokane District Office. The report represents 28 man-days of literature research, writing, and discussions with the following professional archaeologists: Frank C. Leonhardy, Harvey S. Rice (WARC), Roderick Sprague

(U of I), and Ruth Ann Knudson (U of I). Bruce R. Womack (WSU) was a great help during the early stages of preparing this report.

Numerous tables and illustrations are included in order to present as much useable data as possible in as small a space as possible. The report was written for the BLM's use in long range la~d use planning. Therefore, much data is included which was not derived from BLM lands. This was deemed necessary in order to provide the BLM with a concise, synthetic statement on

Chelan, Okanogan, and Douglas Counties' (hereafter COD) culture resources and prehistory.

This report will aid land holding agencies and archaeologists working in the COD area in evaluation of and management decisions regarding cultural resources, both those presently recorded and those to be recorded in the future.

Because cultural resources are finite, use of this report and data generated in viii

the future should be during the initial planning stages of land use projects.

This will result in a viable, long term cultural resource management program which will benefit not only the agencies but the professional arcaheological colIDilunity and the public as well.

w 1

NATURAL SETTING

Geology

COD encompass a wide variety of geological phenomena:. Douglas County

lies in the Waterville Plateau (Freeman, Forrester, and Lupher 1945:62). It is

characterized by horizontal Miocene lava flows (basalt) overlying granite. The

most distinctive geologic/topographic features are Grand Coulee and Moses Coulee,

both of which were carved by floods of glacial melt water (cf. Bretz 1923).

Detailed documentation of formation of Moses Coulee is available (Hanson 1970).

Chelan and western Okanogan Counties consist mainly of the Cascade

Mountains, which uplifted in late Miocene and Pliocene times (Fryxell 1973:3).

Bedrock consists of gneisses, sedimentary, and volcanic strata with occasional

granitic intrusives (McKee 1972:86). Distinctive geologic/topographic features

include Lake Chelan and the Methow, Entiat, and Wenatchee River drainages

(cf. Waitt 1972).

Using the ridge crest between the Methow and Okanogan Rivers as a western

boundary, eastern Okanogan County can be considered as a part of the Okanogan

Highlands (McKee 1972:272). Bedrock consists of Jurassic gneiss and schist

(McKee 1972:74). Major geologic/topographic features include the Okanogan

River drainage, and the Columbia River canyon and its associated "Great Terrace"

(Flint 1935).

Fryxell (1973) has presented ~n excellent overview of a large area around

the Okanogan Rivermouth, what might be considered the center of the COD area.

He notes that geologically the COD area is roughly similar to his study area

(Fryxell 1973:7) .and his discussion will therefore be reviewed in some detail ,.. here.

Glaciation in Pleistocene times is responsible for much of the geologic/ 2

top_ographic setti.ng of COD. Erosional features attributable to glaciation include erratics at nearly all elevation•, abrasion of the bas alt plateau, plucking and southward transport of baaalt ''haystack" rocks, and various channels, notches, and slots carved by aubglacial and ice marginal streams

('ryxell 1973:10-12). Depositional unita attributable to glaciation "consists of three main groups of sediment: till, outwash, and lacustrine sediments"

(Fryxell 1973:12). The "Great Terrace" and the other, smaller terraces found in river canyons seem to be outwash deposits left by waning glaciers which have subsequently been eroded from the valleys by ~he rivers (Fryxell 1973:14).

Post-glacial sediments consist mainly of "alluvium laid down along the develop­

ing floodplains ••• or of eolian sediments spread thinly across almost all ••• of

the landscape". Alluvial fan and talus slope development also occurred

(Fryxell 1973:15)..

The only other geologic strata worthy of note for our purposes are volcanic

ashes. Two ashes in particular, Mt. Mazama ash (dated to 6700 B.P.) and Glacier ~

Peak ash (dated to ca. 12-13,000 B.P.) have been extensively used in archae­

ological studies in the Pacific Northwest as time-stratigraphic horizon markers.

Numerous other volcanic ashes, many attributable to various eruptions of

Mt. Rainier and Mt. St. Helens, are to be expected in the COD area (McKee 1972:

206).

Climate

The COD area has been extensively studied in terms of climate in a paper

by Donaldson and Ruscha (1975). The following discussion is derived exclusively

from their work.

Precipitation varies with locality, ranging from 10 inches in most of

Douglas County, between 10 and 30 inches in most ~f Okanogan County, to 10 to

120 inches in Chelan County. Most precipitation occurs during the winter 3

months, summers being generally sunny, warm, and dry.

Temperatures range between 50° F .and 90° F in river valleys during st.DDDler

months. Along the Cascade slopes temperatures decrease about 3° F with each

1000 feet increase in elevation. Winter temperatures in COD average between

15° and 35° F.

Prevailing winds vary with season and locality. The Okanogan River valley

is the main entry point in Eastern Washington for arctic air during winter

months. Winds reach velocities of 30 to.40 mph here.

The growing season ranges from 100 days in the higher exposed areas to

200 days in the Chelan area. The average growing season for COD is 150 days.

Vegetation/Flora

Daubenmire (1970) and Franklin and Dyrness (1973) have studied COD vegeta­

tion in detail. The following discussion is derived from their work.

The Columbia and Okanogan River valleys fall within the Artemisia

tridentata - Agropyron (At-A) habitat type. Most of this zone is bordered by

a narrow band of the Artemisia tripartita - Festuca (At-F) habitat type. The

At-F habitat type extends up the Methow River approximately half way to Canada.

The southern half of Douglas County is characterized as At-A while the northern

half is characterized as At-F (Daubenmire 1970).

West of the Okanogan and Columbia River valleys and up the Cascade slopes

the first forest zone is the Abies grandis and Pseudotsuga menziesii zone

(Grand fir and Douglas fir, respectively). The next zone upslope is the

Subalpine forest zone and includes Abies amabilis, A. lasiocarpa, and Tsuga ' mertensiana (silver fir, Subalpine fir, and Mountain hemlock, respectively). East of the Okanogan River and north of the Columbia, the first zone is a

Pinus ponderosa zone, and then the Abies grandis and Pseudotsuga menziesii zone

is found (Franklin and Dyrness 1973). 4

Table 1 lists many of the plants used by indigenous peoples of COD. These data were derived from ethnographic references listed in the Bibliography.

Fauna

Dalquest (1948) has discussed the mammals found in Washington, and Larrison

and Sonnenberg (1968) have discussed Washington birds. Henderson (1929) has

discussed the non-marine molluscs of Washington. Stebbins (1966) discusses

Washington reptiles and amphibians. Fulton (1968, 1970) discusses the anadro­

mous fish found in Washington.

Table 2 lists most of the fauna which were of economic importance to the

indigenous folk of COD~ These data were derived from the sources mentioned

above and ethnographic references listed in the Bibliography.

Paleoenvironments

Paleoenvironmental history of the northern intermontane west is presently

poorly known and understood, but two points stand out. First, several models

developed elsewhere have been misused and generally applied to the study area.

Secondly, data are beginning to accumulate which show the incorrectness of the

first point and which should eventually permit fairly accurate reconstructions

of paleoenvironments in the study area.

Models employed in the past include Bryan's (1925, 1928) model of alluvial

cycles (see also Antevs 1955, Haynes 1967). While used in the Plateau (cf.

Marshall 1971) in reconstructions of paleoenvironments, it seems the model is

far too simplistic (cf. Leopold 1976) to be generally applicable.

Hansen's (1944, 1947) work with pollen is often referred to in conjunction

with paleoenvironmental reconstructions. Hansen lacked secure chronological

controls, and his occasionally wide sampling intervals and use of sut1Dilary dia­

grams rather than presentation of details make his data difficult to use.

Only two other pollen studies pertinent to the study area have been published 5

TABLE 1

Plants Used by Indigenous Peoples of Chelan, Okanogan, and Douglas Counties

Common Name Taxonomic Name

Camas Camassia quamash C. breviflora C. teapeae C. leichtlinnuii C. esculenta Bitterroot Lewisia rediviva Wild onion Calochortus macrocarpus Chokecherry Prunus virginiana Huckleberry Vaccinium membranaceum Service berry Amelanchier f lorida Willow berry Cornus pubescens Currants Ribes sp. Strawberries Fragaria calif ornica Oregon grape Berberis aquifolium Raspberries Rubus sp. Thimble berry Rubus parvif lorus Tiger lily bulb Lilium columbianum Sunflower seeds Helianthus annuus Red foam berries Shepherdia canadensis " Thorn berries Crataegus rivalaris Mushrooms Morchella esculenta Boletus edulis Hazel nuts Pine moss Alec toria j ubata Pine cambium Pinus ponderosa White fir cambium Abies grandis Subalpine fir cambium Abies lasiocarpa 6

TABLE 2

Animals Used by Indigenous Peoples of Chelan, Okanogan, and Douglas Counties

Common Name Taxonomic Naine

Fish ---COho/Silver Salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch King/Chinook Salmon 0. tschawytscha Dog/Chum Salmon -O. keta Pink/Humpback Salmon 0. --gorbuscha Trout (including Steelhead) Salvelinus (Salmo gairdneri) Suckers Catostomidae Eels

Molluscs River Mussels Margaritifera sp. Goneida angulata

Reptiles Western Painted Turtle Chrysemys picta

Birds Sharptailed grouse Pediocetes phasianellus Blue grouse Dendragapus obscurus Ruf fed grouse Bonasa umbellus Mallard duck Anas platyrhynchos other ducks Canada goose Branta canadensis other geese Robin Turdus migratorius Eagles (feathers)

Mammals Marten Martes americana Weasel Mustela f renata River otter Lutra canadensis Badger Taxidea taxus Bobcat ~ ruf us Lynx L. canadensis Cougar Felis concolar Coyote Canis latrans Wolf Canls lupus Red fox Vulpes fulva Black bear Ursus americanus Grizzly bear Ursus horribilis Marmot Marmota sp. Ground squirrel Citellus sp. Beaver Castor canadensis 7

TABLE 2 (Cont.)

Animals Used by Indigenous Peoples of Chelan, Okanogan, and Douglas Counties

Connnon Name Taxonomic Name

Mammals (Cont.) Porcupine Erethizon dorsatum Muskrat Ondatra zibethicus Hare Lepus sp. Rabbit Sylvilagus sp.

Mule deer Odocoileus hemio.nus Whitetail deer 0. virginianus Pronghorn antelope Antilocapr.a americana Mountain sheep Ovis canadensis Elk cer;us canadensis Caribou Rangif er tarandus Moose Alces alces Mountain goat Oreamnos americanus Bison Bison bison 8

to date. One (Davis, Kolva and Mehringer 1977) deals only with the last 1000 years. The other (Mack, Bryant and Fryxell 1976) suffers from too little chronological control and wide sampling intervals.

Interpretation of archaeological faunal data, while holding the potential for inferring paleoenvironments, suffers from effects of the cultural filter

(cf. Gustafson 1972). Use of molluscan remains from paleontological sites in the Grand Coulee area (Landye 1973) resulted in little in the way of paleo­ environmental reconstruction over the last 15,000 years save to note the existence of glacial-related Lake Bretz would have provided paleo-folk with an excellent resource base.

The most influential model of paleoenvironments is Antevs' (1948, 1955; see also Bryan and Gruhn 1964). Antevs postulated a three phase sequence of postglacial climates: cool-moist, hot-dry, and warm-dry. This sequence is better known as the Anathermal-Altithermal-Medithermal sequence. Researchers in the Pacific Norhtwest have molded their data to this model and used the model to fill gaps in their data. At present there is little supportive data for the model in the Plateau area.

A General Sketch of Paleoenvironments

Two lobes of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet extended into COD: the San Poil lobe and the Okanogan lobe, the largest lobe of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet.

The latter lobe extended to a point 50 km south of the Columbia River. The

Okanogan lobe had receded from the Columbia Plateau by 12,000 B.P. (Richmond

~al 1965)~ It seems ice had left the northern COD area by 10,000 B.P.

(Fryxell 1973:24).

Alpine glaciation in the Cascades began to recede before 15,000 B.P., having nearly disappeared around 13,000 B.P. when the Okanogan lobe was near

its maximum extent. Alpine glaciers expanded once more, but not as far as 9

previously, before 12,000 B.P.

Climate during glaciation would have been cooler and moister. than present,

and post-glacial climate would also have been cooler and moister. This is

evidenced by relatively high values of fir pollen in diagrams for eastern

Washington (Hansen 1947:92).

Pollen records for the Altithermal are conflicting, but when compared to

records following the Altithermal seem to indicate a slightly warmer climate

between 6000 and 8000 B.P. After 4000 to 5000 B.P. the climate seems to have

stabilized at near-present conditions. Buechner (1953) has detailed some

biotic changes over the last 100 years, many of which are probably partially

attributable to Euroamerican intrusion and modification of the area.

CULTURAL SETTING

Ethnography

COD fall within the Upper Columbia province of the Columbia-Fraser Plateau

culture area (Kroeber 1939:56). Kroeber (1939:57) characterized the Plateau in

general as consisting of a "low level of culture" resulting from "the relatively

poor subsistence conditions." This characterization was undoubtedly biased by

comparing the Plateau to the more stupendous cultures of the southwest and

eastern areas. Kroeber (1939:7) did note that the Plateau lies in the "salmon

area," being transected by the Columbia and Fraser Rivers, both having large

salmon runs (see Hewes 1973).

Spier (1936) and Ray (1936) have documented distributions of the various

indigenous groups who occupied northeastern Washington at the time of Euro­

american contact. These data are presented in Figure 1. As will become ,. apparent in the discussion below, these distributions are little more than

rough indications of where people spent most of their time. 10

Fig. 1. - Ethnographic Distribution of Indigenous Groups.

Okanogan ••••••• ••••• Lake ++ ++ Met how

~ Sinkaietk (Southern Okanogan)

~rm Nespelem \)f}~'.;. Chelan

.\-:_:, Sinkaqai' ius (Mid Columbia)

Q Wenatchi 11

~ ...

o 10 20 30 miles ...... IC::::==--- 12

While the volume of ethnographic literature on COD is somewhat extensive

(see Bibliography), only a few key references provide the basis for the follow­ ing delineation of COD ethnography. These include Ray (1933, 1939), Spier

(1938), Anastasio (1972), and Chance (1973). The following ethnographic sketch could, with the only exceptions being minor details, fit the entire Plateau culture area.

Native population figures are presented in Table 3. As one will note, the population in general declined through time. This was largely due to epidemics introduced by Euroamericans. These epidemics included smallpox in 1782-3,

1832, 1846, and 1852-3, and measles in 1847. How these population decimations affected socio-.political organization and ethnographic culture is poorly under­ stood at present. Disruption of the entire cultural system to some degree seems probable (Anastasio 1972:118). This should be kept in mind because ethnographic data was collected in the late 1800's and early 1900's after population decimation.

All the groups occupying COD spoke a dialect of Interior Salish.

The village was the basic political unit and as such was basically auto­ nomous. Village occupants generally consisted of groups of relatives (Spier

1938), residence generally being patrilocal (Ray 1933). Even so, "bonds of common habitat, common interest, like customs, like values, one religion, and one language" provided a feeling of unity between villages (Ray 1936). Such bonds resulted in the maintenance of discrete social entities known as the

Chelan, Methow, Nespelem, etc.

Each of these groups occupied a loosely defined territory (Fig. 1) which they considered their home ground. They did not "own" the land or resources in a strict sense because territorial boundaries were crossed regularly by groups for the purpose of resource exploitation (Chance 1973, Anastasio 1972). Mutual TABLE 3

Population Figures for Various Indigenous Groups Occupying Northeastern Washington (blank denotes lack of data)

Date Group 1780 1805 1835 1845 1853 1870

Chelan and Met how 1000 500

Colville 2500 2000 600 600 500 600

Kalispel 2500 2000 1200 700

Lake 2000

Okanogan 2750

Sanpoil and Nespelem 1650 1600 1500 1300 '

Southern Okanogan 800 700 350

Mid Columbia 1500 800

Spokan 1300 800 700 600

Wenatchi 1000 500 14

cross-utilization of resources in the entire Plateau culture area was the rule (Walker 1967:8).

This mutual use of resources found throughout the Plateau undoubtedly was in part responsible for the characterization of Plateau peoples as pacifistic

{Ray 1933, 1939). Anastasio (1972) has elaborated at length on detailing the simultaneous use of resources by resident and foreign groups, and concurrently shown that warfare did exist on a small scale. Mutual use was enhanced by ties of intermarriage between groups (Anastasio 1972, Ray 1939) even though intermarriage between villages of the same group was the common practice.

Warfare for COD folk consisted mainly of defensive actions (Anastasio 1972:143).

For each village (settlement with houses) there was a definite place name and group name (Ray 1933). People were generally considered to be affiliated with a particular village, but they did not have t~ always live at that village.

The subsistence/settlement pattern (see below) saw village ties dissolve as people from different villages and different groups exploited fish, roots, berries, and deer side by side in what Anastasio (1972:152) has called "task groupings". Flexibility in the subsistence/settlement pattern allowed people to go where they wished when they wished. Extensive intermarriage networks as well as political affiliations through task groupings permitted people affili­ ated with village A to stay within their group but live for a time at village B or C, or in a village of a different group. In either case, they could usually stay with in-laws. Connnon practice, however, was for a family or group to winter at the same village locality year after year (Spier 1938).

Each village had a "head-man" who could either inherit the position, or

be chosen for or elected to the position based on personal achievement. He generally acted in the capacity of counselor, judge, arbitrator, and advisor. .. He had no strict control over the people of his village {Ray 1933, 1939). 15

Other prominent figures in a village generally included a shaman, a salmon

• chief, and a deer chief. The latter two were responsible for organizing and

directing communal salmon fishing and deer hunting, respectively {~pier 1938).

Winter was the ceremonial season (Ray 1933), while sunnner was the time of

much social interaction (Anastasio 1972). The single most important individual

religious/ritualistic activity was the attainment of a guardian spirit acquired

during a vision quest. The vision quest was undertaken by boys and girls

around the age of puberty (Ray 1933, Spier 1938). The spirit acquired dictated

what kind of person one was to be and granted special powers to the person.

An important ceremony practiced by every group was the "first salmon ceremony".

This consisted of ritualistic treatment of the first salmon caught each year

(Ray 1933, Spier 1938).

Prior to deer hunts, salmon fishing, a~d war, men usually went to a sweat

house where they would sweat to purify their bodies and souls. Celibacy for a

certain period prior to the activity was sometimes practiced. During menstru­

ation, women would avoid male contact and sequester themselves by going to a

menstrual hut. At least one sweat house and one menstrual hut were generally

associated with each village.

The seasonal settlement/subsistence round followed by the majority of the

peoples occupying COD is illustrated in Figure 2 and presented graphically in

Figure 3. General locations of ethnographically documented sites which were

occupied during the course of this cycle are shown in Figure 4. Some specific

locations mentioned in the ethnographic data include: Moses Lake was a

favorite place to gather eggs and hunt ducks and geese. A large root grounds

was located near Waterville. Flint was obtained from McLaughlin's Canyon.

Camas was gathered in the damp meadows of the Kalispel Valley. Favorite fish­ • ing stations were located at the foot of large rapids. Antelope were hunted . 16

FORESTED MOUNTAINS ___--•\/ Qr...._ _ __.--..••I

Key • WINTER VILLAGE RIVER BANK • COLLECTING STATION A FISHING STATION 0 HUNTING CAMP e COLLECTING STATION SPRING·~,.

e l'O GRASS- SAGEBRUSH/ COLUMBIA BASIN

Fig. 2. - Schematic Depiction of Ethnographic Settlement Pattern. 17

Fig. 3. - The Ethnographic Seasonal Cycle. Fig. 4. - Ethnographic Sites.

Q permanent village • summer camp 0 winter village ~ fishing camp .A root gathering camp x unknown 19

'•• """'"'- . ( : \.·. ) y J ~ ~ ... ·~

··· ~

~ ..

30 miles o~~====~-10 20 20

by many groups around Grand Coulee (Chalfant 1974a, Chance 1973, Spier 1938).

Salmon were taken by individuals with nets and spears, but c9nnnunal traps were the most productive means of fishing in many areas. There was a large trap at Kettle Falls where many people of various groups would gather for fishing, socializing, and trading. Salmon fishing generally took place during summer months during the major salmon runs. Deer hunting took place mainly in

late fall and sporadically during the winter, mainly to supplement stored winter

food supplies. River mussles were also gathered mainly in winter and early

spring to supplement winter diet.

Salmon were dried and stored, as were berries. Roots, such as camas, were

gathered and stored during the spring, These foods made up the basic diet, with deer and river mussels as basic supplements. Food was generally stored

in rock shelters or rock lined pits (Spier 1938). Meat and fish were dried

and stored, or boiled, or roasted. Other foodstuffs as well as meat and fish were pit roasted (baked), steamed, or parched (Ray 1933).

Trading was an important part of intergroup interaction. Three major

trading centers existed in northeastern Washington: Kettle Falls, the Okanogan

River mouth, and the big bend on the Columbia/Spokane River mouth. The loca­

tions correlate with the major fishing stations in the area. Coastal peoples

came east to the mouth of the Wenatchi River to trade with Plateau folk

(Chalfant 1974b).

Winter was the time of coalescence of people into villages along major

river valleys. During this time, the people lived in more or less permanent

structures. These consisted of semi-subterranean pithouses, and in late times,

long mat lodges and conical mat lodges. During the summer while people were

dispersed about the country, a simple lean-to or rectangular mat house served

as shelter. 21

At least one, and sometimes two, burial grounds were located near the winter villages. These were usually located in rocky places such as talus slopes, or in sand banks or dunes. Grave goods were commonly included, and graves were occasionally marked by one or more upright cedar stakes (Ray 1933).

Sometimes dead were placed in trees (Ruby and Brown 1970).

Various items of material culture are listed in Table 4. It should be noted that local folk did not have horses until about A.D. 1730 (Haines 1938), and therefore the archaeological occurrence of saddles, etc., would not be

'expected until after this time. "Horses helped shift tribal boundaries and break village isolation, altered warfare patterns, and permitted their riders to wide.ntheir searches for food" (Ruby and Brown 1970:25-6).

While the ·list of material culture items presented in Table 4 is incomplete, it does list many of the major items. Further, it should be noted that archae­ ological recovery is of ten limited to the stone and bone implements due to lack of preservation of the wood and vegetal items. This serves to illustrate how small the archaeological record is in terms of representing the total cultural system. The discussion below on COD Prehistory/Archaeology should be considered in this light.

Ethnohistory

A brief outline of local history is necessary for purposes of setting the stage for future work. Concerning the indigenous occupants of the area,

Wynecoop (1969), Ruby and Brown (1965, 1970), Ray (1974), and Chance (1973) provide some data. Euroamerican history of the area is outlined to various

degrees by Brown (1914), Giniger et.!!..· (1976), Weber and Wyborney (1970), and

Wynne (1964). Archaeological excavations of Euroamerican sites (Swanson 1962b,

Grabert 1968b) provide additional data.

The beginning of the 19th century demarcates the initiation of the (ethno) .. 22 .

TABLE 4

Material Culture Items of Indigenous COD Peoples

Wood: combs flat board cradle self bow (cedar) sinew backed bow (dogwood or maple) arrow (service berry) arrow wrench dugout canoe (S. Okanogan) log raft paddles and punt poles digging stick awl pestles (hardwood) spear house superstructure

Other vegetal fiber: bark canoe (lakes) hemp deer nets hemp bag coiled baskets (spruce or cedar root, cottonwood bark) clothing tule and slough grass mats for houses and bedding

Bone, horn, animal fiber: hide clothing sinew thread bone-horn arrow wrench bone projectile points deer horn club horn chisel/wedge elk and mountain sheep horn spoons bone/horn awls bone needles (sewing and matting) incised bone gaming pieces arrow foreshaft (?) whistle (bone) bone beads, bangles, pendants net shuttle leister 23

TABLE 4 (Cont.)

Material Culture Items of Indigenous COD Peoples

Stone: knives scrapers projectile points clubs hammers pestles pipes hopper/mortar base pendants, beads awls/perforators/drills

Other: unfired clay pots (rare) 24

historical period. Trade goods of Euroamerican origin became very common in northeast Washington between 1800 and 1810 (Chance 1973). In 1811 David Thompson made a trip from Kettle Falls to the Columbia River mouth. In August of the same year, Alexander Ross came up the Columbia River to Kettle Falls (Chalfant

1974a). John Jacob Astor's Pacific Fur Company established Fort Okanogan in

1811 (Grabert 1968b). Brown (1914) has provided a fairly detailed history of this fort. Fort Colville was established in 1825 and St. Paul's Mission in

1845 (Griniger et al. 1976). The intrusion of Euroamericans into COD disrupted various aspects of the ethnographic cultural pattern of indigenous peoples.

For example, trapping was encouraged by bribery and harassment, disrupting subsistence patterns, and settlement patterns were altered as a result (Chance

1973). The importation of trade goods by Euroamerican traders altered the material culture assemblage of indigenous folk. A sample listing of trade items is presented in Table 5.

The discovery of gold near Fort Colville in 1855 increased the rate of

Euroamerican encroachment so that by the 1860's the early pattern of white development had appeared (Giniger et al. 1976). All of northeastern Washington was made an Indian reservation in 1872. Subsequent deletions of certain areas from reservation lands more than halved original reservation allocations

(Giniger et al. 1976, Ruby and Brown 1965, 1970).

The first real encroachment of Euroamericans into Chelan country was in

the late 1880's (Ray 1974). The towns of Wenatchee, Chelan, and Coulee City were "established" in the late 1880's and early 1890's (Ray 1974).

Mining in northeast Washington has a long history. The Okanogan ore

fields have been exploited since the 1850's (Ray 1974). In the eastern half

of the area mining became an important activity about 1890 (Giniger et al.

1976). Numerous Chinese appeared along the Columbia and Okanogan Rivers about " 25

TABLE 5

Trade Goods Brought into Northeastern Washington. Compiled from Chance 1973.

Gunpowder Beaver traps Guns Scalping knives Gunflints Axes Ball Awls Beaver shot Kettles Tobacco Bells Blankets Beads Shirts Buttons Trousers Brass rings Shoes and Boots Mirrors Fish hooks Combs Firesteels Thimbles

.. 26

this time and did extensive placer. mining (}lynne 1964, Esvelt 1959).

A. In the COD area one of the better historically documented sites is Condon's

Ferry. Weber and Wyborney (1970) have provided an interesting history of th~s • site, along with data on the surrounding area. Condon's Ferry was in operation from the early 1880 ,.s until the mid 1900 1· s, and was a h.J.b of activity, for it represented a river crossing along a major north-south travel route. It was located near the middle of the Chief Joseph Dam Reservoir (see below).

Archaeology

Archaeology in the northwest in general has been summarized through the

early 197o~ · s by Sprague (1973, 1975). These articles present who did what for whom when and supplement the following discussion to a great degree.

For ease of discussion and because research was so divided, COD has been broken up into seven archaeological research districts (Fig. 5). Each area .. will be discussed in turn and a synthesis of each district's archaeology pre­

sented. This will be followed by a brief synopsis of COD prehistory, which

will in turn be followed by a brief review of major models of Plateau prehistory.

Rock Island Dam Reservoir: This reservoir area was not surveyed prior to

dam construction, but a recent survey of the reservoir margin (Cleveland and

Rice 1974) located nine sites in Chelan County and thirteen sites in Douglas

County. It was noted during the survey that agents destroying archaeological

sites included erosion due to wave action, construction, and vandalism or

"pot-hunting".

Four sites in the Rock Island District have been excavated and reported on.

These sites provide data conducive to the construction of a district culture

typology for the last 7000 years. Tabular summation of thb culture typology

will be presented below.

45CH64- The most significant site is the Littles' Landing Site (Fig. 6) 27

···~ ( . J • v.. r··~ ~. ~ ... ~ '°' ... ~ ""

• \ \... ""'. ~ .. \_ r ..

~ ...

0---===--- 10 20 30 miles

Fig. 5. - Archaeological Districts. 28

···~ ( \ , ; ( •

~. I '-... ~ ~'""""· ""

,.· '''"--...

0.... IS:======----- 10 20 30 miles

Fig. 6. - COD Archaeological Sites Mentioned in the Text. 29

because it was excavated and reported first, and it forms the basis for con-

i structing the 7000 year culture typology presented below. Further, all sub­

sequent excavations have compared materials to the 45CH64 assemblage •

• McCoy (1971) distinguished five components based mainly on projectile

point styles (Fig. 7). Radiocarbon dates on components II and IV, and artifact

comparisons with Nelson's (1969) and Grabert•s (1968a, 1970) sequences helped

establish the dates for each component (see also Avey 1972).

Features encountered during excavation included twenty earth ovens, six

hearths, and three bone processing/marrow extraction areas. A single oval house

pit was also discovered. It had two recognizable floors; the upper floor had a

centrally located hearth, while the lower floor was overlain with burnt planks,

suggesting the house had burned, collapsed, and the remaining depression sub­

sequently occupied. A date on the burned planks was 1440 ± 250 radiocarbon • years: A.D. 410 (McCoy 1971). The presence of the house pit suggests the site

was, at least in later times, a winter village.

Details of the material culture and comparisons to other sequences are

presented in Table 6.

45D0174 - The second site to be reported on was the Rocky Road Site (Fig. 6).

Rice and Brauner (1974) defined three components based on diagnostic artifacts

in comparison to McCoy's (1971) sequence, technology, and stratigraphy. Several

fire hearths were excavated, and the site was interpreted to be a sporadically

occupied camp site. Details of the material culture and comparisons to other

sequences are presented in Table 6.

45D0172 - The third site reported on was the Cox's Pond Site (Fig. 6).

Hartmann's (1975) analysis of the material recovered from this site is the most

intensive of all four sites in the Rock Island District. Hartmann distinguished

two components based on artifact differences, and suggests the site was occupied .. JO

a

Fig. 7. - Little's Landing (45CH64) Projectile Point Sequence.

a-h Component 5

i-o Component 4

p-t Component 3

u-bb Component 2

cc-gg Component 1

Redrawn from McCoy 1971. • 31

• {f. . 4). a A.b ' d e f g h

0 k m n

p r s q t

v y z aa bb

cc ee dd ff between 4000 and 2000 B.P. Excavations recovered parts of a burned house with

four associated caches.· Each cache contained projectile points, pigment, knives,

scrapers, biface blanks, perforators, bone, and a pipe. Hartmann (1975) notes

each cache constitutes a typical daily tool kit for a Plateau male and places

these features in his earlier component. The later component seems to represent

a single season occupation where tool repair and maintenance was performed.

Hartmann (1975) suggests the early component shows strong affiliations with the

Okanogan country while the later component more closely resembles Mid-Columbia

materials.

Descriptions of the material culture and components and comparisons to

other sequences are presented in Table 6.

45CH204 - The fourth site reported on is the Rock Island Overlook Site

(Fig. 6). Valley (1975) recognizes four components based mainly on projectile

point types in comparison to McCoy's (1971) sequence. This site was occupied

between 7000 and 2000 B.P. It was probably a workshop as most tools are broken ·1f

and the complete implements show no signs of wear. Descriptions of the com­

ponents and material culture are presented in Table 6.

Summary - Table 6 presents a qualitative listing of the material culture

associated with the various components at the four sites discussed above. All

radiocarbon dates are from 45CH64. The components have been arranged in rough

chronological order and compared to phases proposed by Nelson (1969) and Grabert

(1968a, 1970). Table 6 may be considered a preliminary culture typology for the

Rock Island District and is here proposed by the author as a model for further

testing and modification.

Rocky Reach Dam Reservoir: This reservoir was surveyed prior to dam con­

struction and twenty-one sites were located (Daugherty 1956). Eleven sites were

open sites, three were camps, five were villages, and one rockshelter and one • 33

TABLE 6

• A Preliminary Culture Typology for the Rock Island Dam Reservoir District

Date Component Description Phase Comparisons

AD 1800 CV - CH64 desert side notch, small corner and side notch projectile points, cryp­ tocrystalline knives, scrapers, gravers, spokeshaves, drills, hopper-mortar bases, pestles, hammerstones, net weights, grooved mauls, bone awls, matting needles, wedges, possible microblades.

AD 1500 CIV - CH64 Columbia valley corner notched pro­ Cayuse III­ jectile points, cryptocrystalline Nelson 1969 knives, scrapers, gravers, spoke­ shaves, drills, pestles, hammer­ stones, bone wedges and awls, house pit, earth ovens, possible micro­ blades and net weights.

CIII-D0174 small corner and basal notched (straight to expanding stem) pro­ jectile points, knives, scrapers, gravers, drills, pestles, hammer­ stones, granitic fleshers, net weights.

1170 + 180 radiocarbon years: A.D. 7ao (WSU- ) 1470 + 180 radiocarbon years: A.D. 480 (WSU-1162) 1440 + 250 radiocarbon years: A.D. SlO (WSU-1184)

AD 500 CIII-CH64 large corner notched projectile Quilomene Bar - points, cryptocrystalline knives, Nelson 1969 scrapers, gravers, spokeshaves, drills, pestles, hammerstones, possible microblades. J4

.... TABLE 6 (Cont.)

Date Component Description Phase Comparisons

500 BC CI! - D0172 barbed stennned and expanding stem Chiliwist - projectile points (Rabbit Island Grabert 1968a, stemmed), lanceolate knives, tabular 1970 knives, basalt spall fleshers, scra­ pers, bifaces, burins, perforators, core fragments, edged damaged flakes, hannnerstones, pigment, worked bone.

1000 BC CII - CH64 rabbit island stemmed and indented Frenchman base projectile points, cryptocrys­ Springs - talline knives, scrapers, drills, Nelson 1969 gravers, microblades, incised bone gaming piece, possible burins.

CI! - D0174 rabbit island stennned, laterally barbed and indented base projectile points, pentagonal knives, scrapers, drills, gravers, hammerstones, polished adze blade.

CI - D0172 expanding stem, contracting stem, Indian Dan - and barbed-stemmed projectile Grabert 1968a, points, ovate knives, fleshers (ovate 1970 bifaces), scrapers, biface fragments, perforators, preforms/blanks, choppers, cores, edge damaged flakes, ground stone tubular pipes, pigment pestle, possible microblade core and microblades, possible atlatl weight, bone shafts and points, bone matting needles, antler wedge, worked bone, ceremonial caches, possible house pit.

2750 + 230 radiocarbon years: 800 B.C. (WSU - 1163) 3030 + 290 radiocarbon years: 1080 B.C. (WSU - 1185) .. J5

TABLE 6 (Cont.) • Date Component Description Phase Comparisons

2000 BC CI - D0174 lanceolate and large stemmed pro­ Late Vantage - jectile points, large lanceolate and Nelson 1969 triangular knives, massive preforms, cores and debitage suggestive of the Cascade technique (cf. Muto 1976).

4000 BC CI - CH204 lanceolate and stemmed projectile Vantage - points, knives, core tools, spall Nelson 1969 scrapers, bolas stones, basalt is dominant material.

CI - CH64 basalt and cryptocrystalline lanceo­ late projectile points, massive pre­ forms, cobble tools, spall scrapers, hannnerstones, microblades, large knives, possible burins, basalt more connnon than later.

5000 BC

"· ..

burial site (cairns) were recorded. A more recent survey of a small portion of the Rocky =Reach District (Rice and Lindeman 1976) resulted in the recording of a rock alignment twenty feet long, four feet wid~, and two feet high. This may be a fence (historic), a defensive breastwork, or it may be associated with the vision quest (cf. Lyman and Womack 1977).

Prior to impoundment of the reservoir, four sites were excavated and reported on (Gunkel 1961). These sites were the Stayman Site (45CB61), the

Knapp Coulee Site (45CH57), the Entiat Site (45CB62), and Orondo Rockshelter

(45D059, see Fig. 6). Gunkel (1961) ordered the various components of these sites into two subphases, Orondo I and II.

Orondo I is characterized by corner notched, side notched, and corner removed projectile points. Chisel or keeled end-scrapers are present and olivella shell is more common than in Orondo II. Blades are larger but less

common than in Orondo II. Economic fauna include deer, mountain sheep, marmot,

and possibly elk. Gunkel (1961) sees southern affiliations in Orondo I, and ,.

correlates Orondo I with Swanson's (1962) Cayuse I, II, and Ill. Gunkel dates

Orondo I between 4000 and 2000 B.P.

Orondo II is characterized by basal notched, concave base, and side

notched (desert side notched?) projectile points. Drills, gravers, scrapers,

"draw knives", hopper-mortar bases, choppers, net weights, and antler wedges

are present. Economic fauna include deer, marmot, elk, rabbit, grouse, and

possibly mountain sheep. Gunkel (1961) sees eastern affiliations in Orondo II,

and correlates it to Swanson's (1962) Frenchman Springs III. Orondo II is

thought to date between 2000 and 100 B.P.

Wells Dam Reservoir: The Wells Reservoir District may be second only to

the Grand Coulee District in terms of amount of research undertaken in a

district. The reservoir was initially surveyed in the 1950's (Stallard 1957). 37

Twenty~four sites were located, but only the lower half of the reservoir was

surveyed. Twenty-two camp/village sites, one burial site, and one pictograph

site were located . • Swanson (1962) tested the old site of Fort Okanogan (450K64, see Fig. 6)

and found several structural features. He determined that during early times

at the fort wild game was regularly eaten, but later horses were common food

and dogs also, possibly. Indians had camped around the fort while it was in

operation and on the fort site after Euroamerican abandonment.

Grabert (1968b) returned to 450K64 and did further excavations. The fort

was initially affiliated with and was established by John Jacob Astor's Pacific

Fur Company in 1881. Control of the fort was taken over in 1813 by the Northwest

Company, which coalesced with the Hudson's Bay Company in 1821. The fort was

mainly a rest and repair station for trappers, traders, Indians, and Euroameri­

cans, as well as a trading post (Grabert 1968b).

Grabert's (1968b) excavations revealed that the fort was at least partially

a fonn of wattle-and-daub or stucco construction. Vertical posts made up parts

of the walls and included heavy corner ·posts. The removal and tearing down of

this fort was orderly and all useable materials were salvaged for use at the

second, newer fort site. Finally, as Swanson (1962b) determined, horse meat

was a commaµ part of the diet and was supplemented by salmon and deer meat

(Grabert 1968b, see also Sprague 1971).

Prehistoric archaeology in the Wells Reservoir District has been accom­

plished by Grabert (1968a, 1970, 1971, 1974). Grabert resurveyed the entire

district and recorded 99 sites. Test excavations, surface collections, and

excavation of several sites provided the data base for Grabert's doctoral

dissertation (Grabert 1970) and as such, the Wells Reservoir District is the

most studied and best known research district in COD. .38 -

'1. Grabert ''s (1968~ , 1970) studie's result·ed -1.n the construction of a four r' pha·se, 8000 year culture[ sequence. ' His summation Fof \this sequenc·eb is presented

in Table 7. Grabert (1970) suggests the ~allowing propositf'-ons are mo"re or

less substantiated 1but ncft "tre·cessa r'1:1f prb'"ven "hy · hf"s~ 1:l ata. First, the more

~ rt t b r s,-:r. 1 · i · ~ -· .... E q ':I. r ..,. r-. , mesic condit:fons of the Okano·gan River V~lley would 'not'"· have been as disrupted

by the A1tithef ma=1 as the ·Coltf°mbia Basin '-prhper, and therefore cultut'hl adapta­

tions in the Okanogan would be mdre sbfb!?e d~tl:ng post-glacial times. Second,

and following the first propb1s·i t ion,' the con-siaeration of this northern inter­

niontanef -r eg!fof{'~fs" nilmbe]:u:o{ .lfidt .1.Fe •tr)!{lfgla:> may rin part /c·co\ibtJ T'cfrS the prolifera­

tion1'J c9fj~:ro c:k1." d~11:iit~1x 1;aoi:tif!otrs~.2 ~J '1lffrd'.0; tlien!-7 doe~" rMi: seenf.ItJ :ifctve ~~n any

: [ rea't' in1f fJ~tice'1Io f1 the De ~e · rt3 .f(){il=\:ure ~b":! the bkatrog·~n Jl~. n 1Fdtir""th~0 2t he~ '

scilith~Pd e~'i°'n1s:fbh 'i:; f · .: 5;a:l ish?f.fsp0ei°1€er1f1 r i ~G i fie £ih~r f{froveit- or lntv1'ii•cH{teo ~o:) And

2 0 f:i.1fth ,b t'he! emettge~C'e· of>Piat 1eau ' cif1H1r1P ! ( tlie. -Efdinographic ·pat-t?erh)c, o'rj~ thrre con­

vergence of culture types {n: 2tlt°k[ cbl."l.ffu1i:fil B'"llslttl ~ti'd · the 'Brf ti.!Sb<;) vColumb·ia _:,

.··~ Pfat~au, ! ttfo~ Fp'iat1e \~ ri~t~· rfpt ebfiistc>r0i..,.c ··:tt!nfes5,v fp~rha'p W C'£rouria' 1\r:n. 1100 to 1300.

··:sq qu ·5 'Ke£t:lfotfl CR11.J erd--; 1]:ti' th'e1(,119-)U -s1<:$lfahs'bn)11(lc959"1 d !.e~1.Ecrrel:F mosf'' olf- die length

m<()j:i tne"~Mefth cfw'T 1Ri1'fe't"1!~s:r lfef'.JI.ec'Ol-1f-e1fl s¥t!elf> ~rfd'Fdi'.f.1i f-8b~eL::tf'eis tf:rtfg .2Ils1-X ~uTs) pit

9 d :+t e~t u'b-"¥i1ll9 ~t1:f£i1, I;1;!if1: I illfi.nVi W cW C:f'r'Cle"ff' 1anlit rfcidrns

j B fWer~·n1o~ att!e1fI.l ~r'--e!e Ct&.18sbte :f-if~1P,w'-se\fen \f1'oli'se'ph {v~]:.l ag1fl:sf=tlr~,.a t.worCS1fe?at­

:tt'otise'l89;.' EtJtfI f'p :f"c1!'T'dgl?aph1 s~:t-t.l! !:J3;n==a'ifcHL~hrec:ev l-:rFesJ c-tJift W t h11.sTfor~c; ."'c dmponeh t:s Were al so

recorded. Informants indicated the· r!:f...Pe~ ~ ·Hhyotf Ha

patf ertis' a~parent ly shifted fthr ough time from mannn~ ls only, to fish and mammals,

arldrctheri· to -r""lf:Vifr· ,...inus·~els, -if ish, and mammals. Secon d ; Swanson (1.959) -suggests,

in the Vantage area, t~t rJl:1at:eau e'~ulture (the •ethn ographic pat=trJ·rh) developed 39

TABLE 7

The Okanogan Cultural Sequence. From Grabert 1970.

Phase Time Span Characteristic Traits

Cassimir Bar ca. A.D. 1100 Shallow saucer section housepit, rectanguloid to A.D. 1850 house, small corner-removed, corner-notched, and side-notched projectile points; stone basket mortar base, limited steatite carving; some zoomorphic stone carving; composite har­ poon; geometric designs on bone and stone objects; more extra-regional trade; wood-cyst burial; larger settlements; abundant fish and shell-fish remains.

Chiliwist ca. 1000 B.C. Deeper, steep-walled housepit; larger projec­ to A.D. 1100 tile points of leaf shape, corner and basal­ notched and stemmed points; ground stone adze appears; bone implements relatively common; settlements are smaller, though houses are larger; fish remains abundant in some compon­ ents; a wide variety of rock used in imple­ ments, including obsidian; deer, elk, mt. sheep and goat remains common; antelope not ... identified; extra-regional trade •

Indian Dan ca. 4000 B.C. Large basal-notched and stemmed points; smal­ to 1000 B.C. ler lozenge and leaf-shaped points; possibly a few milling stones, though hand-stones are not found, and pestles not certainly; the pit oven is found, but no housepits, numerous simple flake tools; a few fish remains, and some shellfish.

Okanogan Beginning is Many traits overlap with the Indian Dan Phase; uncertain others are large ridge-backed scrapers or knives, abundant larger flake tools, larger leaf-shaped and some stemmed points. Basalt is most connnon material. 40

in the northern uplands first, and then gradually expanded down into the major river valleys to the south. This is based on the occurrence of housepits, a hallmark of the ethnographic pattern, before and during the formation of the fossil soil on the Methow and only occurring after the formation of the fossil soil in the Vantage area (Swanson 1959, see also Swanson 1962a,c).

Chief Joseph Dam Reservoir: The Chief Joseph District was surveyed in

1949 before construction of the dam (Osborne 1949). Twenty sites were recorded and included eleven sites with housepits, six "midden" sites, two pictograph sites, and one talus burial site. The survey was restricted to the north side of the river because the researchers felt the south side of the river was not conducive to occupation by prehistoric peoples.

Eight of the sites recorded in 1949 were tested in the early 1950's

(Osborne, Crabtree, and Bryan 1952). The sample of material recovered was homogeneous through time and space and suggested a single, late cultural mani­

festation. The dominant projectile point form was small, short stemmed, and

diagonally notched. Housepits averaged 23 feet in diameter and two feet deep,

however no definite house floors were recognized. The researchers suggested

all the material was late due to erosion and flooding by the river and the

resultant lack of large, ha·bitable flood plains (Osborne, Crabtree, and Bryan

1952).

In the mid 1950's salvage excavations were undertaken at 450Kl67 (Garner

n.d.), reportedly the Nespelem tribal burial ground (Fig. 6). Thirty seven

burials were excavated, recorded, and reinterred elsewhere. Thirty burials

were classified as undisturbed. Four basic types of burials were recorded. In

the most common, the body was flexed, wrapped in matting, in a partially

burned cedar cist, and had a cedar marker. Nineteen of this type of burial

were recorded. Seven other burials were the same as the first type, but had a 41

cairn (over the body?). Three burials were flexed interments with no associated boards or rocks. Only one of the fourth burial types was recorded. This type had a cairn directly overlying the body. Twenty bodies had the head oriented

to the west, nine had heads to the east. Thirteen bodies were on their sides.

The burials are dated to prior A.D, 1800, and possibly before 1750 (Garner n.d.).

A sampling survey of the reservoir edge in 1969 recorded nine sites, one

on the south side of the river (Leonhardy 1970). An intensive survey of the

upper six miles of the reservoir in 1975 (Bryant, Leonhardy, and Lyman 1976)

recorded nine sites, seven of which were on the south side of the river. Five

of the sites were historic and four were prehistoric.

A testing and evaluation program was undertaken in the summer of 1975 in

the Chief Joseph District (Lyman 1976). Twenty five sites were recorded, seven

of which were on the south side of the river. Five sites were tested, includ-

ing the partial salvage of an eroding housepit at 450K5 (Fig. 6). The housepit

at 450K5 had been occupied on three separate occasions. The second or middle

occupation was dated to 1070 ± 90 radiocarbon years: A.D. 880 (WSU-1614) and 1210 ± 90 radiocarbon years: A.D. 740 (WSU-1615). Several observations on a

general level were presented. First, it seems settlement patterns included

"site complexes", defined as separate but geographically associated sites

utilized simultaneously for different purposes, such as a village, burial, and

pictograph sites. Second, contrary to the opinion expressed in 1949 (Osborne

1949) the south shore was occupied. Third, at least the lower terraces as well

as the floodplains were occupied in prehistoric times. Fourth, the assemblage

of recovered material seems to date to the last 1500 years or so (Lyman 1976).

This may be due in part to the factor of floodplain erosion as noted by Osborne,

Crabtree, and Bryan (1952). It may also be due to geologic processes resulting

in older sites being deeply buried or in places in such a manner so as to 42

escape detection by survey archaeo~ogiats (cf. Fryxell 1973).

A recent intensive survey of approximately 60% of the reservoir impact area (Munsell and Salo 1977) resulted in the recording of 215 sites. Based on this sample bringing the total ntU11ber of sites recorded in the Chief Joseph

District to 277, it is suggested as 1.1many as 400 sites may exist in this district. Recent archaeological investigations in the Chief Joseph District have been undertaken by the Office of Public Archaeology, University of

Washington, Seattle, the results of which will be published shortly.

Grand Coulee: Of all the research districts considered, the Grand Coulee

District has probably had more research done in it than any other district.

Numerous researchers were involved in salvage excavations in the district during the 1950's and early 1960's.

In the early 1950's a rockshelter (45GR2, see Fig. 6) was excavated (Mills and Osborne 1952). Eleven pictographs were found on the back wall of the shelter. The artifact assemblage included 34 projectile points, 45 scrapers/ ,.. utilized flakes, two fire hearths for a bow drill, a harpoon spur, a piece 0£ a wooden (cedar) bow, a bird bone tube, and a dentalia shell. Vegetal fiber artifacts were very conunon, cordage materials being mostly Apocynum, with lesser amounts of cedar bark (Juniperus occidentalis), alder (Alnus), sage bark (Artemisia), and tule (Scirpus). Matting of rye grass (Elymus condensatus) was also recovered.

Mills and Osborne (1952:358-9) note that, concerning the technical aspects of the cordage, there is "a complete change-over in the twist from cedar bark and tule cord (invariably Z-twist) to the Apocynum cord (almost invariably

S-twist) and alder (also predominantly S-twist)". They conclude "the differing angle of twist in the tule-cedar bark and in the Apocynum cordage from 45GR2 will have a cultural basis rather than a technical basis" because one was just 43

as strong as the other.

Osborne (1959, 1967) tested eleven sites in the lower (southern) half of

Grand Coulee. One site, the Windy Spring Site (45GR88, see Fig. 6), had a

relatively early component which included corner removed-expanding stem pro­

jectile points, triangular and pentagonal points, microblade~ and cores, and

"burin-like" implements (Osborne 1967). Osborne suggests, based on similar

artifact types dated from the Columbia River Valley, the component may be

about 2000 years old. Most of the sites are late, dating within the last

1500 years based on comparisons to dated artifact sequences (Osborne 1967).

Comparison of Osborne's points with Nelson's (1969) sequence suggests to this

author possible ages of 2000 to 4000 B.P. for some assemblages.

Late site assemblages include housepits, ground stone more frequent than

Ii earlier, bones not as intensively fractured, and heavy use of tabular or large

spall scrapers and choppers. Projectile points are small, deeply corner notched

and expanding stem types, the latter being similar to Wallula Rectangular

Stennned points. Earth ovens and "milling slabs" are more frequent than· earlier.

In sunnnary, Osborne (1967) notes the late sites/components were poor at best

when compared with the wealth of late sites in the Columbia River Valley.

Osborne (1967) suggests the coulee was a heavily used travel route in

prehistoric times, and notes the occupation of caves and rockshelters seems to

have been "transitory". Seventeen pieces of cordage were recovered and these

were made of tule, sagebark, and Apocynum. S- and Z-twists were used.

Sprague (1960) excavated the Sun Lakes Site (45GR90, see Fig. 6) and Nat

Cave (45GR100). A housepit at 45GR90 was dated to late prehistoric times

(cf. Fryxell 1961). Four projectile points, four scrapers, a hopper-mortar

• base~ and a dentalium bead were recovered. 45GR100 was dated to the Cayuse III phase of Swanson (1962a). 44

Clinehens (1961) excavated four sites in the lower Grand Coulee, two of which had been tested by Osborne (1959, 1967). Clinehens obtained a date of

1080 + 20 radiocarbon years: A.D. 870 from 45GR88. It is unclear if this date

is associated with Osborne's upper or lower component. Clinehens (1961) found

microblades in both components. Excavations in North Cave (45GR84) revealed a

storage or refuse pit and a fire area. A large piece of sage bark matting or

bag material lined one side of the storage/refuse pit. Clinehens (1961) suggests

the cave was occupied in the spring and early summer by folks gathering roots

and hunting.

Clinehens (1961) also reported on the Mesa Site (45GR101, see Fig. 6).

This site was located on a basalt mesa 30 feet above the surrounding terrain.

Clinehens recorded nine rock features on top of this mesa. Three were elliptical

ovals about 7 to 12 feet by 5 to 11 feet. Four other rock features were circu­

lar arrangements. These seven features all had parts of natural rock outcrops

incorporated in their structure. One cairn, and one rock wall were also

recorded. Clinehens (1961) suggests the features are probably not markers as

they can't be seen from below. The features could be a game lookout, or an

impregnable fortress because there is only one means of egress to the top, or

they could be associated with the vision quest. There is much cryptocrystalline

chipping debris scattered across the mesa top, and Clinehens suggests some

flaking was done at the site. The debris is small, suggesting that tool finish­

ing and/or maintenance was the major activity (Clinehens 1961).

Artifacts recovered by Clinehens (1961) include: corner notched, side

notched, and corner removed projectile points; knives, scrapers, microblades,

car\red soapstone, hammerstones, chopper-scrapers, pestles, edge ground cobbles,

hopper-mortar bases, shell and bone beads (?), textiles, drills, an abrading

stone, cores, and a possible pendant. Comparison of projectile point types to 45

Nelson's (1969) sequence suggests occupation of the area over the last 4000 to

5000 years.

Mallory (1962) conducted a survey of the lower coulee area and recorded

twenty more sites. Sites included one cave, 9 rockshelters, and 10 open sites,

one of which was a burial site. Cairns were placed over the burials in a talus

slope. Other features recorded include talus pits, averaging three to four

feet in diameter, and one and a half to two feet deep. Three large talus pits

were recorded, the largest being 12 feet in diameter and 4 feet deep. Mallory

(1962) notes these pits were found not only in talus but also in river gravels.

He believes these pits are cache pits. Rock walls and two walkways or trails

in talus slopes were also recorded. Mallory (1962) suggests most of the material

is late, however some could possibly be 4000 years old, but not older.

Sprague and Birkby (1970) reported on the Steamboat Rock Mass Grave Site • (45GR98, see Fig. 6). This site was washing out along the shore of Banks Lake

due to wave action. At least six individuals were represented: one adult male,

three adult females, one adolescent, and one child. Five corner notched pro­

jectile points and three projectile point fragments were also recovered.

Even with the large body ·of data presented above, to attempt to formulate

a culture chronology as was done for the Rock Island District would be difficult,

due to a lack of firm dating controls. Data presented by the original researches

is not conducive to such an attempt. It does seem that time depth of the

cultural record extends at least to 5000 B.P. Further, the sequence would pro­

bably be similar to other cultural sequences reported from adjacent areas

(cf. Swanson 1962a, Nelson 1969, Grabert 1968a, 1970).

Moses Coulee: Very little is known about the archaeology of this district.

It has never been fully surveyed for archaeological sites. May (1942) reported

on a black steatite pipe found in a cave about five miles up from the mouth of 46

the coulee. The pipe was in a cedar case wrapped in sagebrush matting, and was under 4~ feet of fill (the cave had been cleaned out by a local farmer so the cave could be used as shelter by cows). The pipe had a bell shaped bowl and a long, straight stem with a flanged mouthpiece. The mouthpiece had holes in it, bw.a on each side. The bowl was ornamented with a striation around the bowl just back form the rim, and striae running from this first striation back along the bowl to the stem. The pipe was 7 7/8 inches long, the bowl two inches in diameter, and the stem one half inch in diameter. The case was orna­ mented with two human-like figures, a lizard, and V-shaped carvings. The case was eleven inches long.

Only one site, 45D0171 (see Fig. 6), in the coulee has been excavated

(Rice 1969a). Two hundred and fifty artifacts representing three components were recorded. Component I is dated, based on artifact typologies, between 500 • B.C., and A.D. 500, and is similar to but earlier than Grabert's (1968a)

Chiliwist Phase. Component II is dated between A.D. 500 and 1000, and is com­ parable to Grabert's (1968a) Chiliwist Phase. These first two components had bison associated. Component III is dated between A.D. 1400 and 1850, and is similar to Grabert's (1968a) Cassimer Bar Phase (see Fig. 8).

The site.seems to have been a seasonal hunting camp and was located at the mouth of a tributary canyon to Moses Coulee. Rice (1969a) suggests this tribu­

tary canyon would have made a good game drive channel. Recovered faunal remains

include antelope, badger, bispn, deer, elk, salmonid bones, Margaritifera shells,

and dentalium shells. Cores and preforms recovered from 45D0171 suggest that

tool manufacturing was one activity undertaken at the site. The paucity of

scrapers recovered indicates hides were not commonly processed at the site.

Rice (1969a) also recorded a stone alignment associated with the site. The

feature was on the floor of the coulee adjacent to the site and seemed to 47 represent an anthropomorphic or zoomorphic figure in outline.

Rice (1969a) summarizes, noting Moses Coulee was used as shelter during winter months and folk hunted and dug roots there in the summer. The coulee was used as a travel route from the Kittitas Valley and Columbia River near

Rock Island to the upper Columbia River area.

Summary of COD Archaeology

The above discussion.has summarized the archaeology performed to August

1977 in the COD area. It is obvious that several deficiencies are present in the data base. The single most blatant deficiency is a lack of data from upland areas. The majority of archaeological research has been restricted to major canyons (Columbia, Methow, and Okanogan Rivers, Grand and Moses Coulees).

We know from ethnographic data prehistoric folk were exploiting the uplands.

Only recently has this Plateau-wide deficiency begun to be alleviated (see

Dancey 1973, Greene 1976). This problem has yet to be addressed in COD, however work elsewhere may be used in a general manner to discuss COD upland prehistory.

Based on comparisons made during the course of this study, it is believed the entire COD area could probably be made to generally fit Nelson's (1969) sequence. Time depth of cultural remains in COD vary from locale to locale, but it seems reasonable based on present data that a time depth of 8000 years throughout the area is likely.

Prehistory of COD

It is not the purpose of this paper to construct a vignette of COD pre­ history, but a few observations and a review of Plateau prehistory as it is now understood are in order.

As far as COD are concerned, riverine prehistory has been outlined to some degree in the archaeology section above. Concerning upland prehistory, one Fig. 8. - 45D0171 Projectile Point Sequence. 41

a-j Component 3 ... k-v Component 2

w-z Component 1

Redrawn from Rice 1969. a ~b

e f g j h c

k m n

s t q r u v

w x z 50 .. must turn to studies undertaken outside COD. Greene (1976) has examined pre­ historic utilization of the channeled scablands, and Douglas County may be viewed as a part of the scablands. Greene's observations may therefore be presented here as a sort of general synopsis of Douglas County upland prehistory.

Greene (1976) notes that "exploitation of economic resources was more

uniform than varying across the entire Scablands province. Variations were pri­ marily those of utilization intensity. Local variations were dependent upon water resources. (There was a) uniformity of the cultural responses to the

environment" (Greene 1976:143). He also notes that the "uniformity of the

Scabland environment has submerged any differences extant between the northern

Salish speaking peoples and the southern Sahaptin speaking peoples that may

have inhabited the Scabland province ••• (Further, cultural) responses in the

Scablands were strongly conditioned by environmental factors so that similar

geomorphic features were used similarly by all Scabland groups ••• Cultural varia­

tions were minimal because microenvironmental differences were minimal".

Finally, G+eene (1976:143-144) states that man's use of the Scablands as a

resource area has fluctuated through time in terms of tool kit used to exploit

the area and in terms of resources exploited.

In order to discuss use of Chelan and Okanogan Counties' uplands, that is,

the eastern slope of the Cascades and the Okanogan Highlands, we must look to

Rice's (1969b) work near Mt. Rainier. Rice recorded a number of sites in the

Cascades, all of which seemed to fit the ethnographic cultural pattern (see

above).

The total of archaeological, prehistorical, and ethnographical data serves

to illustrate that man has very probably used the entirety of COD to some extent

for various purposes over the last 8000 to 10,000 years. Further, it is obvious

much more work is necessary before a complete knowledge of man's prehistory .51 begins to emerge.

The recent models of Plateau prehistory in general (Browman and Munsell

1969, Nelson 1969, 1973, Stryd 1971) are fairly good summations of the present state of our knowledge. These models are basic outgrowths of and incorporate parts of earlier models (Daugherty 1962, Butler 1961, 1965, Swanson 1962a).

It is difficult to synthetically compare these models due to differing levels of abstraction and inference used by each author (cf. Rice 1967, Bicchieri

1975). However, a few connnents are in order.

Butler (1961~ 1965) proposed a widespread, basal culture for much of the

Pacific Northwest which he called the "Old Cordilleran Culture". He believed it dated from about 12,000 B.P. in certain areas, and lasted for various lengths of time in different areas. This culture was hallmarked by lanceolate projectile points and economy was very generalized. The concept of an "Old

Cordilleran Culture" was so general that it saw very little use, although people still refer to it.

Daugherty (1962) proposed a five period sequence of cultural development which began around 11,000 B.P. and which he called "the Intermontane Western

Tradition". These periods were: 1. Early - 9000 to 6000 B.C., diverse hunt­ ing and gathering economies; 2. Transitional - 6000 to 2500 B.C., population concentrated along rivers exploiting river mussels and salmon, regional economic specialization beginning; 3. Developmental - 2500 B.C. to A.D.O., further regional specialization culminating in ethnographic cultural patterns, especially improved fishing techniques all0wing increased population;

4. Late - A.D. 10. ·to 1800, development and full elaboration of Northwest

Riverine Area tradition in the Plateau and local specializations of cultures;

5. Historic. Daugherty (1962) sunnnarized by noting that cultural change had occurred through time, but that change had been conservative and was .52 characterizied by "the accretion of new elements with little loss or replace­ ment of the old" (Daugherty 1962:148).

Swanson (1962a) sees a "Northern Forest Culture" as ancestral to ethno­ graphic Plateau culture. This culture was located in the northern Cascades and became evident . in the Vantage area around 1500 B.C. Subsequent developments

in the culture resulted in "emergence" of the ethnographic pattern in the lower

Cascades around 1500 B.P. (see above, Swanson 1959) and in the Vantage area

around 700 to 800 B.P. Swanson (1962a, 1962c) saw the earliest cultural mani­

festations in the Plateau as a part of the "Old Cordilleran Culture".

Browman and Munsell (1969, 1972, Swanson 1970) presented a seven period

sequence for the culture history of the Plateau. These periods, in brief, are:

1. 13,000 to 8500 B.C., seminomadic big game hunters; 2. 8500 to 6000 B.C.,

influences from Plains and Great Basin result in one tradition concurrent with

a "Proto" Old Cordilleran pattern, hunting economy; 3. 6000 to 4500 B.C., Old

Cordilleran pattern, hunting main economic activity with gathering next and

fishing last in importance; 4 and 5. 4500 to 1500 B.C., increase in exploita­

tion of riverine resources, influences (microblades) from Canadian Plateau and

(Cold Springs side notch point) from Snake River Plains, gradual changes in

tool assemblage; 6. 1500 to 0 B.C., influences (woodworking and pit houses)

from north, increased use of salmon, river mussels, and roots; 7. 0 to 1750

A.D., ethnographic Plateau culture.

Nelson (1969, 1973) presented a seven period sequence of Plateau cultural

development. These periods are, in brief: 1. 9000 to 6000 B.C., stemmed

lanceolate projectile points, mixed hunting and gathering economies; 2. 6000

to 4500 B.C., generalized hunting-gathering patterns in which food gathering

and hunting smaller animals emphasized; 3. 4500 to 2500 B.C . , introduction of

food grinding complex (from Great Basin), major shift from hunting to food 53 gathering; 4. 2500 to 0 B.C., basic economy maintained but with regional variation, coastal contact; 5. 0 to 1650 A.D., strong coastal ties, introduction of fishing technology from coast, regional variation; 6. 1650 to 1810 A.D.,

Euroamerican influences, regional homogeneity of artifact assemblages;

7. Historic (Nelson 1969). Nelson (1973) summarizes by suggesting the Plateau ethnographic cultural pattern began sometime between 2500 and 2000 B.P.

Stryd (1971) recognizes two basic traditions in the Plateau. The first, a "Protowestern Cultural Tradition," is characterized by a generalized adaptive strategy. Subsistence activities were diversified and generalized with no • heavy dependence on any single species of plant or animal. This tradition lasted until ca. 5000 B.C. in the Canadian. Plateau and until ca. 3000 B.C. in the Columbia/American Plateau. It was replaced by a riverine-oriented special- ized lifeway emphasizing the exploitation of riverine resources, especially anadromous fish. This later tradition eventually culminated in the ethnographic cultural pattern.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

In summary, the above reviewed syntheses of Plateau pre~istory again point to our as yet poor understanding of COD prehistory. Numerous and varied schemes may be posited. Most, it should be noted, are areally restricted initially (usually to one or several contiguous sites), and are subsequently posited for the Plateau as a whole, or at least the Canadian or American

Plateau, often erroneously. The recently published work undertaken at Kettle

Falls (Chance, Chance, and Fagan 1977, Chance and Chance 1977) has done much to

clarify the prehistoric picture in the norhteastern corner of Washington. It

is hoped the more recent and ongoing research in the Chief Joseph Dam Reservoir

area will further increase our understanding. 54

Two things seem necessary in light of this overview. First, more research needs to be done in the uplands, out of the major river canyons. Second, an integrative synthesis of Plateau prehistory should be written. Such a synthesis • will serve 1) to clarify and summarize in coherent fashion our present knowledge and understanding of Plateau prehistory, and 2) to illustrate other data deficiencies and suggest potentially fruitful lines of research which will alleviate these deficiencies. This overview can serve as a first step in the writing of such a proposed synthesis. Further and more important to immediate demands, this overview can serve as a guide in cultural resource evaluation and management. It will thus facilitate land holding agencies in land use planning and will result in a cultural resource management program which will benefit the professional archaeological connnunity and the public.

r 55

APPENDIX IN REPLY REFER TO United States Department of the Interior 6400(22)

BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT Spokane District Office Room 551, U. s.. Court House Spokane, Washington 99201

June 13, 1978

Ms. Lee A. Bennett Editor Washington Archaeological Society 1701 Broadway Seattle, WA ·9a122

Dear Ms. Bennett:

The Bureau of Land Management has no objection to the Society publishing Mr. Lyman's work, "A Cultural Resources Overview of Chelan, Okanogan and Douglas Counties, North-Central Washington". Our only stipulation is to make it clear this work was done while Mr. Lyman was a federal employee and it is part of BLM's continuing program for cultural resources inventory, protection and enhancement.

Thank you for your interest in our programs.

Sincerely yours, ~ oger W. Burwell District Manager 57

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