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AUTHORS Robert C. Wissmar is a professor of aquatic ecology in the School of Fisheries and Center for Steamside Studies at the University of Washington in Seattle, Washington. Jeanette E. Smith is a research assistant in the School of Fisheries at the University of Washington in Seattle, Washington. Bruce A. McIntosh is a faculty research assistant at Oregon State University in Corvallis, Oregon. Hiram W. Li is a professor in the Department of Fish and Wildlife at Oregon State University in Corvallis, Oregon. Gordon H. Reeves is a research fisheries biologist for the Pacific Northwest Research Station, U.S. Department of Agriculture, For- est Service at the Forestry Sciences Laboratory in Corvallis, Oregon. James R. Sedell is a research aquatic ecologist for the Pacific Northwest Research Station, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service at the Forestry Sciences Laboratory in Corvallis, Oregon Ecological Health of River Basins in Forested Regions of Eastern Washington and Oregon Robert C. Wissmar, Jeanette E. Smith, Bruce A. McIntosh, Hiram W. Li, Gordon H. Reeves, and James R. Sedell From Volume III: Assessment Paul F. Hessburg, Science Team Leader and Technical Editor Eastside Forest Ecosystem Health Assessment Richard L. Everett, Assessment Team Leader Published by: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station General Technical Report PNW-GTR-326 February 1994 In cooperation with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Pacific Northwest Region ABSTRACT Wissmar, Robert C.; Smith, Jeanette E.; McIntosh, Bruce A.; Li, Hiram W.; Reeves, Gordon H.; Sedell, James R. 1994. Ecological health of river basins in forested regions of eastern Washington and Oregon. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-326. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 65 p. (Everett, Richard L., assessment team leader; Eastside forest ecosystem health assessment; Hessburg, Paul F., science team leader and tech. ed., Volume III: assess- ment.) A retrospective examination of the history of the cumulative influences of past land and water uses on the ecological health of select river basins in forest regions of eastern Washington and Oregon indicates the loss of fish and riparian habitat diversity and quality since the 19th century. A physiographic framework of the eastern Washington and Oregon in terms of spatial and temporal geologic, climatic and hydrologic condi- tions provides a regional perspective for reviewing influences of human patterns of settlement, resource development and management on the river basins. The study focuses on impacts of timber harvest, fire management, livestock grazing, mining and irrigation management practices on stream and riparian ecosys- tems. Extensive reviews of ecosystem damage and fish losses caused by hydroelectric and large irrigation projects, highway and railroad construction and other factors are beyond the scope of this analysis but are summarized. Case histories of the chronology of natural resource uses and health of select river basins, the Okanogan, Methow and Little Naches River basins (Cascade Mountains of Washington) and the Grande Ronde and John Day River basins (northeastern and central Oregon) show that during European settlement period livestock grazing, mining, and irrigation developments were the major land and water uses impacting streams and riparian ecosystems. After the 1940s, timber harvest, road construction and irrigation were the major management impacts. The examination of past environmental management approaches for assessing stream, riparian, and watershed conditions in forest regions shows numerous advantages and shortcomings. The select management approaches include: instream flow incremental methodology (IFIM) for the evalu- ation of the effect of water diversion on steam flows and salmonid habitats; the equivalent clear-cut method (ECA) for assessing the hydrologic effects of logging; a watershed cumulative effects model (KWCEA) for evaluating the effects of logging and roads on soil loss; and procedures for addressing soil compaction problems. The study concludes by providing recommendations for ecosystem management with emphasis on monitoring and restoration activities. Keywords: History, land uses, rivers, streams, riparian, salmonid, timber, livestock, irrigation, water. Contents INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 EASTERN WASHINGTON AND OREGON PHYSIOGRAPHY ................................................... 1 Geological Landforms ............................................................................................................. 1 Climate Change and the Development of River Drainages .................................................... 3 Ecoregions and Hydrology ..................................................................................................... 5 REGIONAL OVERVIEW .............................................................................................................. 8 Stream and Riparian Ecosystems .......................................................................................... 8 Primary Resource Uses Affecting Stream and Riparian Ecosystems .................................... 13 HISTORY OF LAND AND WATER USES IN SELECT RIVER BASINS ..................................... 18 Okanogan and Methow Rivers (North-Central Washington) .................................................. 18 Little Naches River: Yakima River Basin (Central Washington) ............................................. 23 Grande Ronde River (Eastern Oregon) .................................................................................. 34 John Day River (North Central-Oregon) ................................................................................. 36 SELECT STREAM AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT APPROACHES ................................. 40 Instream Flow Incremental Methodology (IFIM) ..................................................................... 40 Equivalent Clearcut Area Method (ECA): Hydrologic Effects of Logging ............................... 42 The Watershed Cumulative Effects Analysis Model (KWCEA): Logging, Roads, and Soil Loss ............................................................................................... 43 Soil Compaction ..................................................................................................................... 43 RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................................ 44 River Basin Perspectives of Cumulative Effects ..................................................................... 44 Long-Term Monitoring ............................................................................................................. 45 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 49 APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................................... 62 GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................................ 63 INTRODUCTION This document reviews cumulative influences of past land and water uses on the ecological health of select river basins in eastern Washington and Oregon. The first section presents a physiographic framework of eastern Washington and Oregon in terms of spatial and temporal geologic, climatic, and hydrologic condi- tions. It provides a regional perspective for reviewing the influences of human patterns of settlement, re- source development, and. management on the health of river basins. The next section is a brief regional over- view of land and water uses and their effects on stream and riparian ecosystems, focusing on management practices related to timber harvest, fire management, livestock grazing, mining, and irrigation, although damage to stream and riparian ecosystems and fish losses are caused by other factors—such as hydroelectric and large irrigation projects, highway and railroad construction, agriculture and forest chemicals, recreation- al activities and management, flood control, dam passage mortalities of fish, and fish lost to mixed-stock ocean fisheries—these considerations are beyond the scope of this analysis and are acknowledged only with key references. The regional overview sets the stage for more-detailed case histories for select river basins of the region. The case histories focus on the chronology of natural resource uses and health of select river basins in eastern Washington and Oregon: the Okanogan and Methow River basins (north-central Washington), the Little Naches River of the Yakima River drainage in the eastern Cascade Mountains, the Grande Ronde River basin (Blue Mountains of eastern Oregon), and The John Day River basin in north-central Oregon. The his- tory of the Okanogan and Methow River basins focuses on the chronology of events during the last century and the early 1900s that shaped current landscapes and socioeconomic conditions in eastern Washington and Oregon. Summaries of the histories for the Little Naches, Grande Ronde, and John Day River basins provide more-specific reviews of land and water uses that have influenced stream and riparian ecosystems in these river basin landscapes. The next section reviews select management approaches that have been used to improve and protect