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The Mineral Accretion Technology sustainability Article Development of an Eco-Sustainable Solution for the Second Life of Decommissioned Oil and Gas Platforms: The Mineral Accretion Technology Lucia Margheritini 1,2,3, Giuseppina Colaleo 1, Pasquale Contestabile 1,4, Trine Larsen Bjørgård 2, Morten Enggrob Simonsen 2, Caterina Lanfredi 1, Antonio Dell’Anno 5 and Diego Vicinanza 1,6,* 1 Department of Engineering, University of Campania, via Roma 29, 81031 Aversa, Caserta, Italy; [email protected] (L.M.); [email protected] (G.C.); [email protected] (P.C.); [email protected] (C.L.) 2 Department of Civil Engineering, Division of Water and Environment, Aalborg University, Thomas Manns Vej 23, 9220 Aalborg Ø, Denmark; [email protected] (T.L.B.); [email protected] (M.E.S.) 3 Department of Chemistry and Bioscience, Aalborg University, Niels Bohrs Vej 8, 6700 Esbjerg, Denmark 4 Inter-University National Consortium for Marine Sciences (CoNISMa), P.zzale Flaminio, 00144 Rome, Italy 5 Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, Via Brecce Bianche, 60131 Ancona, Italy; [email protected] 6 Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, 80121 Napoli, Italy * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-081-5010245 Received: 5 February 2020; Accepted: 28 April 2020; Published: 5 May 2020 Abstract: With the approaching end of the productive lives of offshore oil and gas platforms, the issue about decommissioning and what to do with existing structures arises. In this regard, this study aims to test solutions, at a preliminary level, for the eco-sustainable reuse of platforms at the end of their extraction phase. In particular, mineral accretion technology is applied by low-voltage electrolysis of seawater due to the precipitation of calcium carbonate on a cathode material in order to assess the protection capacity of the platforms against corrosion. This approach allows the extension of a platform’s “life” under a more sustainable purpose. The results, derived from laboratory and field experiments, will allow us to reduce uncertainties and define the best operating conditions to increase the efficiency of the mineral accretion technology in the marine ecosystem. The data collection on the main parameters that influence the process (i.e., temperature, salinity, and applied current) and the quantitative analysis of the collected material allowed us to acquire a better knowledge about mineral composition and deposition rate. Keywords: decommissioning, oil and gas platforms; mineral accretion technology; calcareous deposits 1. Introduction The growing concern about the effect of climate change is leading the energy sector in moving from fossil fuel to renewable energies. The transition may consist in the replacement of production facilities, or in their conversion or repowering, maximizing the efficiency and minimizing the environmental impact. An important form of energy transition can be represented by the reuse of offshore oil and gas (O&G) platforms at the end-of-life production phase [1]. Offshore oil and gas platforms have a limited duration of operations (average productive phase from 10 to 50 years). In the world, there are currently more than 7500 structures in offshore waters, located on the continental shelves of about 53 different countries (about 4000 are located in the Gulf of Mexico, around 950 in Asia, around 700 in the Middle East, and 600 in Europe, the North, and north-east Sustainability 2020, 12, 3742; doi:10.3390/su12093742 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2020, 12, 3742 2 of 17 Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 17 Atlantic) [2,3]. About 0.4% of the world’s oil and gas reserves are located in the Mediterranean basin withnorth-east 127 offshore Atlantic) platforms. [2,3]. These Abou ot ff0.4%shore of structures the world’s are oil mainly and locatedgas reserves in the are central located Mediterranean in the sea, inMediterranean the northern basin and with central 127 Adriatic offshore Seaplatforms. at depths These from offshore ca. 10 structures to 120 m, are and mainly also located in the Ionianin the Sea and thecentral Sicily Mediterranean channel [4]. sea, in the northern and central Adriatic Sea at depths from ca. 10 to 120 m, Aboutand also 85% in the of Ionian O&G Sea platforms and the Sicily will becomechannel [4]. obsolete and will require removal within the next About 85% of O&G platforms will become obsolete and will require removal within the next ten ten years [5]. Accordingly, this is raising the issue about how to manage the existing platforms’ years [5]. Accordingly, this is raising the issue about how to manage the existing platforms’ decommissioningdecommissioning or reconversion.or reconversion. Possible Possible solutionssolutions have have been been investigated investigated for forboth both fixed fixed offshore offshore platformsplatforms and and subsea subsea off shoreoffshore pipelines pipelines (Martins (Martins et al., 2019). 2019). Figure Figure 1 1shows shows the the possible possible options options availableavailable for the for decommissioning the decommissioning of O&G of O&G platforms, platfo distinguishingrms, distinguishing between between fixed fixed offshore offshore platforms and subseaplatforms off andshore subsea pipelines. offshore pipelines. DECOMMISSIONING Fixed offshore Subsea offshore platform pipeline Total removal Partial removal Leave in place Total removal Partial removal Leave in place Remove uncovered Remove uncovered Dismantling and Cut and lift of Alternative use Artificial reef Reverse reeling Reverse S-lay/J-lay sections and bury cut sections and cover transport to sections ends with rock cut ends Energy Other Onshore Commercial site offshore Scientific Multipurpose Reuse Artificial reef Recycle Energy Disposal Scientific Figure 1. Decommissioning options of offshore assets according to Martins et al., 2019 [6]. Figure 1. Decommissioning options of offshore assets according to Martins et al., 2019 [6]. Most nations require the complete removal of obsolete structures; however, this practice presents Most nations require the complete removal of obsolete structures; however, this practice significant socio-economic and ecological challenges [7,8]. presents significant socio-economic and ecological challenges [7,8]. TheThe complete complete removal removal policies policies are are basedbased on the the assumption assumption of of“leaving “leaving the theseabed seabed as found” as found” and apparentlyand apparently could could represent represent thethe most most ecologically ecologically sustainable sustainable option. option. However, However, it is known it isthat, known that, duringduring their their productiveproductive lives, lives, the theplatforms platforms are ab arele to able support to support numerous numerous and diversified and diversified fish and fish and invertebrateinvertebrate assemblages, assemblages, also also of ofcommercial commercial interest interest [9], [many9], many of which of which are of are great of great ecological ecological importanceimportance and and/or/or protected protected by by di differentfferent international international and and national national legislations. legislations. These These favorable favorable conditionsconditions are reinforcedare reinforced by theby the enforcement enforcement of of exclusion exclusion zones zones aroundaround oiloil platforms that that prevent prevent the exploitationthe exploitation of living of biological living biologic resources.al resources. It is therefore It is therefore unlikely un thatlikely the that removal the removal of these of structuresthese representsstructures the bestrepresents practice the from best an practice environmental from an /environmental/ecologicalecological point of view, point and thisof view, awareness and this has led awareness has led some nations to leave obsolete structures to act as artificial reefs and/or to find some nations to leave obsolete structures to act as artificial reefs and/or to find alternative solutions for alternative solutions for their sustainable reuse [9]. their sustainableThe international reuse [9 ].legal framework on decommissioning has been established over the past fifty Theyears. international Currently, the legal activities framework are regulated on decommissioning by three international has been conventions established and overby a series the past of fifty years.guidelines, Currently, the theapplicability activities of are which regulated depends by on threethe area international in which the conventionsinfrastructures and are located. by a series of guidelines,The the main applicability objective of of the which conventions depends is to on ensure the area the safety in which of navigation the infrastructures and the protection are located. of Thethe marine main objective environment of the during conventions the decommissio is to ensurening the safetyoperations. of navigation The international and the protection reference of the marineconventions environment are summarized during the below: decommissioning operations. The international reference conventions are summarized• Geneva Convention below: [10] (1958—United Nations Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf) is the first document relating to the removal of offshore installations. In particular, the Art. 5 of Geneva Convention [10] (1958—United Nations Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf) • is the first document relating to the removal of offshore installations. In particular, the Art. 5 of this
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