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1 Electrified Reefs: Enhancing Growth in a Temperate Solitary

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1 Electrified Reefs: Enhancing Growth in a Temperate Solitary Electrified Reefs: Enhancing Growth in a Temperate Solitary Coral Species? A Thesis Presented to The Faculty of the Environmental Program The Colorado College In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree Bachelor of Arts By Rebekah Barnett May 2015 Approved By: Miroslav Kummel Marc Snyder 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS I. ABSTRACT 3 II. INTRODUCTION 4 i. Claims About the Effectiveness of Biorock® Technology 11 ii. Independent Research on Biorock® 12 iii. Proposed Mechanisms for Biorock®’s Beneficial Impact 16 iv. Our Research On Biorock® 17 III. METHODS 18 i. Tank Description 18 ii. Electrical System 18 iii. Biology 19 iv. Growth Measurements 20 v. Algae Measurements 20 vi. Data Analysis 21 IV. RESULTS 21 i. Coral Growth 21 ii. Coral Growth Based on Size 25 iii. Algae Growth 29 iv. Algae Growth Based on Algae Class 30 V. DISCUSSION 32 VI. WORKS CITED 48 2 ABSTRACT: Coral reefs provide humans with important ecosystem services including food, pharmaceuticals, and water filtration (Moberg and Folke 1999). These ecosystem services, however, are at risk from ocean acidification, coral bleaching, and other destructive anthropogenic activities. Since these ecosystem services are costly to replace and their natural ability to restore themselves has been compromised, active restoration is necessary. A promising tool for active restoration is the Biorock® method. The Biorock® method consists of running an electrode through a large metal cathode and smaller anode. The electrical current causes the precipitation of calcium carbonate onto the cathode. The cathode works as an artificial reef framework by providing a natural substrate onto which corals can grow. Claims about the effectiveness of this technology in terms of increased coral growth, reproduction, health, and diversity are spectacular (Goreau and Hilbertz 2005), but independent research is divided on the question of its effectiveness. In an attempt to help clarify the technology’s effectiveness, we conducted laboratory experiments to test the claims of growth enhancement for the electrolytic technology by exposing the temperate solitary coral Balanophyllia elegans to powered and unpowered treatments. The study focused on coral growth, but careful observations were made on other aspects of the community including presence and thickness of algal cover. Our results are not consistent with claims made about the benefits of electrolysis on coral growth. Growth between treatments was significantly different but, while claims suggest a 3 to 5-fold increase in growth (Goreau 2014), corals exposed to an electrical current grew less than control corals. The results suggest that the electric current may actually depress growth. 3 A species-specific tolerance to electrical currents may help explain our results as well as the variation seen in other studies. In addition to variation caused by species tolerance and current level, there also seem to be overall trends of the technology being effective for warm-water corals, but ineffective or even detrimental to cold-water corals. The variation in effectiveness between warm and cold-water species is surprising given the proposed physiological mechanisms behind the benefit and suggests that photosynthesis may play an important role in determining whether or not the technology is effective. Our results suggest an ability of the electrical current to depress the growth of algae, which can positively impact photosynthesis and the corals’ ability to calcify. Algae inhibition can therefore play an important role in determining whether or not the technology is effective, but is still part of a complex interplay between current density, ion availability, algae and photosynthesis. Further study is needed to clarify these ® interactions and their role in determining the effectiveness of the Biorock method. INTRODUCTION: Coral reefs are imperiled on multiple fronts by ocean acidification caused by rising atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, rising sea surface temperatures, and other anthropogenic impacts including overfishing, pollution, and human introduced pathogens and invasive species (Goreau and Hilbertz 2005; Moberg and Folke 1999). At the same time, these ecosystems provide human society with important services that would be costly or impossible to replace. It is therefore crucial that we consider all alternatives of restoration of coral reefs, especially those that directly counter the effects of increased temperature and acidification. 4 Coral reefs are one of the most biologically diverse ecosystems on the planet. The coral reef framework itself supports this biodiversity through its complex physical shape. The complex, three-dimensional framework creates high habitat heterogeneity and the possibility for niche diversification, resulting in high species diversity. For example, a third of all marine fish species are found on coral reefs. This high biodiversity results in a wide array of biological resources that humans use for everything from pharmaceutical products, jewelry, ornamentation, to food (Moberg and Folke 1999). Coral reefs serve as important fisheries and despite their relatively small geographic area of 0.1-0.5% of ocean floor cover (Moberg and Folke 1999), they constitute approximately 9% of annual global fish catch (Smith 1978). This does not include their production of mussels, crustaceans, and other organisms consumed for food (Moberg and Folke 1999). Consumers, local and global, rely on these organisms as an important component of their diet, especially as a source of protein. Fishermen rely on these organisms for their livelihood. In addition, coral reefs serve as spawning, breeding, and nursery grounds for many marine species, including species from sea-grass beds and mangroves (Moberg and Folke 1999). By providing these functions to non-reef species, coral reefs help to replenish fish stocks and maintain the health of other marine ecosystems on which humans rely. Although biological services are the most easily recognized, coral reefs also provide chemical, physical, and recreational services to humans. Water filtration enhances coastal water quality and helps to process wastes released by humans (Moberg and Folke 1999; Goreau and Hilbertz 2005). Coral reefs therefore serve as de facto sewage treatment plants that can help alleviate pollution problems that negatively impact 5 marine life. Coral reefs serve as physical structures that protect and buildup shorelines by dissipating wave and current energy (Moberg and Folke 1999). This service is not only important during storm events as protection from destructive storm surges, but helps protect coastlines from continual erosion that can result in a significant loss of coastal land over time. Lastly, coral reefs serve as hot spots for tourism due to recreational opportunities for scuba diving and snorkeling as well as their sedimentary contribution to the white tropical beaches attractive to tourists (Moberg and Folke 1999). Tourism supports local economies and provides a viable livelihood to locals, and many countries rely on tourism for the economic health of their nation. The aforementioned services (and numerous others), however, are at risk. The physical reef framework is the basis of the production of these services, but the reef is a structure dependent on reef building processes that equal or exceed erosive processes. The building process, calcification, is not fully understood. Calcification occurs in the lowest layer of tissue, the calicoblastic epithelium. Calcium and carbonate ions must be transported from the water column and into the ECF for calcification to occur. The transport of carbon to the site of calcification is poorly known (Gattuso et al. 1999). Calcium ions are transported either through paracellular pathways (passive transport) or through the transcellular pathway (active transport) (Al-Horani et al. 2002; Tanbutte et al. 1996). Studies show that transportation may combine both of these pathways with paracellular transport occurring along the concentration gradient from the external environmental into the gastrovacular compartment (Tanbutte et al. 1996). Active transportation then moves the calcium ions to the calicoblastic epithelium where they combine with carbonate. Once the concentration is supersaturated, calcium carbonate 6 precipitates (Tanbutte et al. 1996; Al-Horani et al. 2002). The active transport of ions makes calcification an energy intensive process. Calcification is heavily dependent on the corals’ symbiotic relationship with zooxanethellae as photosynthesis enhances calcification (Muller-Parker and D’Elia 1997). Calcification allows the coral reef to grow and maintain itself in the face of erosion. Human activities, however, are rapidly perturbing both calcification and erosion processes. This perturbation may cause erosion to exceed construction, resulting in a net loss of the reef framework. Sedimentation can reduce light availability as can phytoplankton growth caused by nutrient inputs from runoff (Moberg and Folke 1999; Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). Since calcification is photosynthetically enhanced, reduced light results in reduced calcification (Muller-Parker and D’Elia 1997). Dissolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide into the ocean is changing the ocean’s pH into a range that is less favorable for corals. When carbon dioxide dissolves, it reacts with water and forms carbonic acid. Carbonic acid then dissociates, forming bicarbonate and hydrogen ions. The hydrogen ions react with carbonate, forming bicarbonate, but reducing the
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