Botanic and Poetic Landscapes A Reading of Two Persian Texts on Early Safavid Gardens Zahra Ranjbari Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Supervisors Professor Samer Akkach Dr. Katharine Bartsch Centre for Asian and Middle Eastern Architecture School of Architecture and Built Environment May 2018 Abstract Existing scholarship on Persian gardens reveals a pattern of common interest in spatial layout, formal quality, and symbolic meaning. Gardens are often depicted as symmetrically laid out enclosures, as introverted places for hedonistic purposes, as passive spaces for contemplation, and as symbolically charged, earthly embodiments of Qur’anic paradise. Such depictions present Persian gardens as salubrious oases intended purely for repose and delight. This discourse has oversimplified the history, meaning and function of Persian gardens, which were dynamic venues serving multiple and complex purposes. Against this background, the study attempts to shed new light on Persian gardens and landscapes through a fresh reading of two key Persian texts that provide historically grounded perspectives on the gardens’ botanical functions and poetical meanings. The first text, Irshād al-zirā‘a (Guidance on Agriculture), is a botanical manual offering extensive material on the science of agronomy and gardening as well as rare agricultural instructions regarding the laying out and planting of formal gardens, taking into account both garden aesthetics and the science of horticulture. The second text, Jannāt-i ‘adan (Gardens of Eden), is a compilation of five poems composed in 1557 by Shah Tahmāsp’s court poet and historian, Navīdī Shīrāzī, to celebrate the completion of the new imperial garden city of Qazvin. The new reading of these texts shows how Persian gardens served multiple functions ranging from the most practical to the most poetic, how formal aesthetics and paradise symbolism played only marginal roles in their design and creation, and how different considerations contributed to the creation of desirable garden environments. Adopting a historical method of analysis and interpretation, the study examines examples of both existing and imagined sixteenth-century Safavid gardens, in order to support the reading of and excerpt translations from the selected texts. The study paints a new picture of early Safavid gardens and their centrality as dynamic and adaptable places that fulfil the needs of their patrons, courtiers, harem members, visitors, and even the citizens of their respective cities. It brings to light overlooked factors that contributed directly or indirectly to garden form, structure and meaning, while reintroducing the Persian garden as an intersection where nature, i indigenous design, local cultural and social lifestyle, economic efficiency, power, patronage and dynastic politics meet. ii Declaration I, Zahra Ranjbari, hereby declare the following thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in my name, in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. In addition, I certify that no part of this work will, in the future, be used in a submission in my name, for any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution without the prior approval of the University of Adelaide and where applicable, any partner institution responsible for the joint‐award of this degree. I give consent to this copy of my thesis, when deposited in the University Library, being made available for loan and photocopying, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I also give permission for the digital version of my thesis to be made available on the web, via the University’s digital research repository, the Library Search and also through web search engines, unless permission has been granted by the University to restrict access for a period of time. Signature: __________________________________________________ Date: __________________________________________________ iii Acknowledgements I am indebted to many people for this research. First and foremost, my sincere appreciation goes to my principal supervisor, Professor Samer Akkach, and my co‐ supervisor, Dr. Katharine Bartsch, who constantly and patiently guided me through this ambitious doctoral project. I sincerely acknowledge their enthusiasm, immense knowledge, selfless time and genuine care. Without them, I could not have undertaken this research. Their critical comments immensely helped to enrich this research. I would like to acknowledge the University of Adelaide for granting me the APA scholarship for three and half years. In addition, I am grateful to the School of Architecture and Built Environment for providing the annual postgraduate allowance for thesis editing, conference participation fees and other research support. My special thanks to the Australian Garden History Society (AGHS) and Mr. Ray Choate, Chair of the SA Branch of AGHS, for granting me the Kindred Spirits Fund and Travel Grant for data collection and to attend the Fifth International Cultural Landscape Conference in Tehran, Iran. This research involved a large number of people along the way, too many to mention here. However, I would like to especially thank Associate Professor Muhammad Gharipour and Dr. Manu Sobti who gave their time for deeper discussion around their expertise and experiences on Persian gardens and landscapes. I also acknowledge Dr. Kavoos Hassanli for his precious guidance and help with Persian classical poetry and literature and better understanding of the studied original texts. I am very grateful to my dear friends, Hoda Rashidinia, Mansoureh Rajabitanha and Rabee Nouri, for assisting me at various stages of this research, such as data collection, texts analysis and graphical drawings. Many thanks again to my co-supervisor, Dr. Katharine Bartsch, as postgraduate coordinator and the staff of the School of Architecture and Built Environment, and especially Professor George Zillante as Head of the School of Architecture and Built Environment, who kindly provided the support for my research needs. My special thanks to my dear colleagues at the University of Adelaide, as well as my best and closest friends, for providing me with amazing moral support throughout my doctoral study. I also would like to thank Dr. Diane Brown for copyediting my thesis in accordance with the Australian iv Council of Graduate Research / Institute of Professional Editors guidelines for editing research theses. Last but not least, I would like to express my deepest appreciation and love for my family, to whom this thesis is dedicated: my parents, my dear husband and my siblings for their endless love, sacrifice, tolerance, concern and moral support. Particularly, I would like to sincerely thank my supportive husband, Dr. Reza Hassanli, for lovingly enduring my research anxiety. Thanks, I love you all. v Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................. i Declaration ..................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ iv Table of Contents ........................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ................................................................................................................. ix Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 2 Research background, aims and significance ............................................................. 2 Sources and method ................................................................................................... 6 Primary sources ............................................................................................... 6 Secondary sources ......................................................................................... 11 Studies of Primary Sources ............................................................................ 15 Research scope, limitations and contributions ......................................................... 19 Thesis outline ........................................................................................................... 22 1 Persian Gardens and the Emergence of Islam..................................................... 26 Pre-Islamic Persian gardens and landscapes .................................................. 27 Achaemenid Empire ....................................................................................... 27 Achaemenid gardens ...................................................................................... 30 Pasargadae .................................................................................................... 33 Sassanian Empire .......................................................................................... 39 Sassanian gardening and architecture styles ................................................ 40 Islamic-Persian gardens: the late Timurid period .......................................... 45 Timurid gardening and agricultural