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Comparative Genome Analyses Reveal Sequence Features Reflecting Wu et al. BMC Genomics (2018) 19:705 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12864-018-5069-z RESEARCHARTICLE Open Access Comparative genome analyses reveal sequence features reflecting distinct modes of host-adaptation between dicot and monocot powdery mildew Ying Wu1†, Xianfeng Ma1,2†, Zhiyong Pan3, Shiv D. Kale4, Yi Song1,5, Harlan King1, Qiong Zhang1, Christian Presley1, Xiuxin Deng3, Cheng-I Wei6* and Shunyuan Xiao1,7* Abstract Background: Powdery mildew (PM) is one of the most important and widespread plant diseases caused by biotrophic fungi. Notably, while monocot (grass) PM fungi exhibit high-level of host-specialization, many dicot PM fungi display a broad host range. To understand such distinct modes of host-adaptation, we sequenced the genomes of four dicot PM biotypes belonging to Golovinomyces cichoracearum or Oidium neolycopersici. Results: We compared genomes of the four dicot PM together with those of Blumeria graminis f.sp. hordei (both DH14 and RACE1 isolates), B. graminis f.sp. tritici, and Erysiphe necator infectious on barley, wheat and grapevine, respectively. We found that despite having a similar gene number (6620–6961), the PM genomes vary from 120 to 222 Mb in size. This high-level of genome size variation is indicative of highly differential transposon activities in the PM genomes. While the total number of genes in any given PM genome is only about half of that in the genomes of closely related ascomycete fungi, most (~ 93%) of the ascomycete core genes (ACGs) can be found in the PM genomes. Yet, 186 ACGs were found absent in at least two of the eight PM genomes, of which 35 are missing in some dicot PM biotypes, but present in the three monocot PM genomes, indicating remarkable, independent and perhaps ongoing gene loss in different PM lineages. Consistent with this, we found that only 4192 (3819 singleton) genes are shared by all the eight PM genomes, the remaining genes are lineage- or biotype-specific. Strikingly, whereas the three monocot PM genomes possess up to 661 genes encoding candidate secreted effector proteins (CSEPs) with families containing up to 38 members, all the five dicot PM fungi have only 116–175 genes encoding CSEPs with limited gene amplification. Conclusions: Compared to monocot (grass) PM fungi, dicot PM fungi have a much smaller effectorome. This is consistent with their contrasting modes of host-adaption: while the monocot PM fungi show a high-level of host specialization, which may reflect an advanced host-pathogen arms race, the dicot PM fungi tend to practice polyphagy, which might have lessened selective pressure for escalating an with a particular host. Keywords: Powdery mildew, Genome comparison, Host adaptation, Effectors, Gene loss, Gene conservation, Host- pathogen arms race * Correspondence: [email protected]; [email protected] †Ying Wu and Xianfeng Ma contributed equally to this work. 6College of Agriculture & Natural Resources, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA 1Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20850, USA Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © The Author(s). 2018 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Wu et al. BMC Genomics (2018) 19:705 Page 2 of 20 Background retrotransposon proliferation in these PM genomes, Powdery mildew is one of the most important and wide- which is believed to be consistent with the obligate bio- spread plant diseases caused by ascomycete fungi belonging trophic parasitic style of the pathogens [11]. Remarkably, to the order of Erysiphales. Over 10,000 plant species are despite a low gene content, ~ 8% of the total annotated susceptible to powdery mildew (PM) diseases. These in- genes in these two genomes encode candidate secrete clude staple crops such as wheat and barley, and important effector proteins (CSEPs) that are presumed to increase horticultural crops such as tomato, grapevine and straw- virulence on specific hosts [9, 11, 12]. More recently, berry [1, 2]. PM fungi are obligate biotrophic pathogens Menardo and colleagues sequenced the genomes of sev- that strictly require living host cells to complete their life eral other grass PM fungi and conducted comparative cycle. Like rust fungi and oomycete pathogens, PM fungi genome analysis to reconstruct the evolutionary history of differentiate appressoria that penetrate the host plant cell different B. graminis lineages. The authors found that in wall and further develop feeding structures (i.e. haustoria) most cases, different B. graminis formae speciales (ff.spp.) to extract nutrients and water from host cells [3, 4]. fungi have co-evolved with their hosts, leading to host Interestingly, while monocotPMfungidisplaynarrow specialization. Yet, there are exceptions where possible host ranges [e.g. Blumeria graminis ‘formae speciales’ host jumps or host range expansions might have occurred tritici and hordei can infect only wheat or barley, [17]. Additionally, while the majority of grass PM fungi respectively [5]], some dicot PM fungi are capable of are monophylogenetic, there may be exceptions; for ex- infecting hosts belonging to different plant families [6]. ample, there are different B. graminis isolates affecting For example, Oidium neolycopersici is capable of infect- Dactylis glomerata, and therefore B. g. f.sp. dactylidis is ing plants from 13 families including Arabidopsis and probably not a monophyletic group [17, 18]. More inter- tomato that have diverged > 100 million years ago [7, estingly, Menardo and colleagues also discovered that B.g. 8]. How obligate biotrophic fungi adapt to a single or f.sp. triticale capable of infecting the artificial hybrid crop numerous host species remains to be an important triticale originated through a hybridization of isolates of open question. the Bgt and of the B.g. f. sp. secalis [19]. These findings Because powdery mildew fungi cannot be cultured in suggest that multiple mechanisms have contributed to vitro and there is no effective method for genetic trans- the genome evolution of B. graminis ff.spp., which is formation, it is very difficult to conduct functional studies believed to reflect their co-evolutionary struggle with of PM fungi via conventional genetic manipulations. The their respective host plants. next generation sequencing (NGS) and other OMICS Previous extensive studies demonstrate that barley and technologies have been used to understand the genome wheat resistance (R) gene conferring race-specific resistance evolution of PM fungi in relation to host-adaption [9]. to isolates of Bgh or Bgt encode immune receptors belong- Such studies however have mainly been focused on PM ing to the nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NB-LRR) fungi infecting monocot plants belonging to the subfamily superfamily and that multiple R alleles exist at the barley Pooideae of Poaceae, the only taxon of monocot plants Mla locus [20, 21] and the wheat Pm3 locus [22–24]. The that can be infected by PM fungi. These grass PM fungi availability of B. graminis genome and transcriptome data are considered to have originated from a single species have accelerated the identification of the Avirulence (Avr) Blumeria graminis [10]andaforma specialis (f.sp.) is used genes that are recognized by some of the characterized R to describe a B. graminis form specialized on a particular genes. Not surprisingly, several recently identified PM Avr host species. The genome of B. graminis f.sp. hodei (Bgh) genes that are recognized by alleles of R genes at the barley specialized on barley was first sequenced, partially assem- Mla locus, or the wheat Pm3 or the Pm2 locus encode bled, annotated and analyzed [11], which was followed by canonical CSEPs [25–27]. Moreover, a recent comparative similar work with B. graminis f.sp. tritici (Bgt) specialized genomic analysis of several host-specific B. graminis line- on wheat [12]. A recent study further improved the gen- ages found evidence for a rapid turnover of CSEP genes as ome assembly of two Bgh isolates, DH14 and RACE1, to a well as lineage-specific (LS) amplification of several CSEPs near-chromosome level, which has led to the annotation through repeated gene duplication [13, 28]. This analysis of 7118 genes for DH14 and 7239 for RACE1 [13]. These along with other studies also identified typical signatures of studies revealed that the three B. graminis genomes (two positive selection on effector genes of different B. graminis Bgh and one Bgt) are large in size (120-180 Mb) yet con- lineages presumably due to host-imposed selection pressure tain surprisingly few protein-coding genes (~ 7000 genes [12, 28, 29]. Thus, genetic, genomic and molecular evidence in total) compared with closely related necrotrophic support a notion that there has been an arms race between ascomycete fungi such as Botrytis cinerea and Sclerotinia B. graminis ff.spp. and their monocot hosts especially after sclerotiorum (11,707 and 10,175 from EnsembleFungi domestication [28, 30, 31]. Database) [14–16]. Both the extraordinary genome Compared to the extensive genomic studies of monocot expansion and gene loss are associated with massive PM fungi, there have been only limited whole-genome Wu et al. BMC Genomics (2018) 19:705 Page 3 of 20 scale studies on dicot PM fungi [9]. Spanu et al. compared genes of the four dicot PM fungi to those of Bgh (both the Bgh genome sequence with those of two dicot PM bio- DH14 and RACE1) [13], Bgt and E.
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