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Hypertext Before the Web – Or, What the Web Could Have Been 215 Belinda Barnet

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9781473980051_OFC.indd 3 12/03/2018 10:45 BK-SAGE-BRUGGER_MILLIGAN-180264-FM.indd 3 01/11/18 4:21 PM Contents List of Figures and Box ix List of Tables xiv Notes on the Editors and Contributors xv Foreword xxv Steve Jones Introduction xxviii PART I THE WEB AND HISTORIOGRAPHY 1 1. Historiography and the Web 3 Ian Milligan 2. Understanding the Archived Web as a Historical Source 16 Niels Brügger 3. Existing Web Archives 30 Peter Webster 4. Periodizing Web Archiving: Biographical, Event-Based, National and Autobiographical Traditions 42 Richard Rogers PART II THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL REFLECTIONS 57 5. Web History in Context 59 Valérie Schafer and Benjamin G. Thierry 6. Science and Technology Studies Approaches to Web History 73 Francesca Musiani and Valérie Schafer 7. Theorizing the Uses of the Web 86 Ralph Schroeder 8. Ethical Considerations for Web Archives and Web History Research 99 Stine Lomborg 9. Collecting Primary Sources from Web Archives: A Tale of Scarcity and Abundance 112 Federico Nanni BK-SAGE-BRUGGER_MILLIGAN-180264-FM.indd 5 01/11/18 4:21 PM vi THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF WEB HISTORY 10. Network Analysis for Web History 125 Michael Stevenson and Anat Ben-David 11. Quantitative Web History Methods 138 Anthony Cocciolo 12. Computational Methods for Web History 153 Anat Ben-David and Adam Amram 13. Visualizing Historical Web Data 168 Justin Joque PART III TECHNICAL AND STRUCTURAL DIMENSIONS OF WEB HISTORY 187 14. Adding the Dimension of Time to HTTP 189 Michael L. Nelson and Herbert Van de Sompel 15. Hypertext before the Web – or, What the Web Could Have Been 215 Belinda Barnet 16. A Historiography of the Hyperlink: Periodizing the Web through the Changing Role of the Hyperlink 227 Anne Helmond 17. How Search Shaped and Was Shaped by the Web 242 Alexander Halavais 18. Making the Web Meaningful: A History of Web Semantics 256 Lindsay Poirier 19. Browsers and Browser Wars 270 Marc Weber 20. Emergence of the Mobile Web 297 Gerard Goggin PART IV PLATFORMS ON THE WEB 313 21. Wikipedia 315 Andy Famiglietti 22. A Critical Political Economy of Web Advertising History 330 Matthew Crain 23. Exploring Web Archives in the Age of Abundance: A Social History Case Study of GeoCities 344 Ian Milligan BK-SAGE-BRUGGER_MILLIGAN-180264-FM.indd 6 01/11/18 4:21 PM CONTENTS vii 24. Blogs 359 Ignacio Siles 25. The History of Online Social Media 372 Christina Ortner, Philip Sinner and Tanja Jadin PART V WEB HISTORY AND USERS, SOME CASE STUDIES 385 26. Cultural Historiography of the ‘Homepage’ 387 Madhavi Mallapragada 27. Consumers, News, and a History of Change 400 Allie Kosterich and Matthew Weber 28. Historical Studies of National Web Domains 413 Niels Brügger and Ditte Laursen 29. The Origins of Electronic Literature as Net/Web Art 428 James O’Sullivan and Dene Grigar 30. Exploring the Memory of the First World War Using Web Archives: Web Graphs Seen from Different Angles 441 Valérie Beaudouin, Zeynep Pehlivan and Peter Stirling 31. A History with Web Archives, Not a History of Web Archives: A History of the British Measles–Mumps–Rubella Vaccine Crisis, 1998–2004 464 Gareth Millward 32. Religion and Web History 479 Peter Webster 33. Hearing the Past: The Sonic Web from MIDI to Music Streaming 491 Jeremy Wade Morris 34. Memes 505 Jim McGrath 35. Years of the Internet: Vernacular Creativity before, on and after the Chinese Web 520 Gabriele de Seta 36. Cultural, Political and Technical Factors Influencing Early Web Uptake in North America and East Asia 537 Mark McLelland 37. Online Pornography 551 Susanna Paasonen BK-SAGE-BRUGGER_MILLIGAN-180264-FM.indd 7 01/11/18 4:21 PM viii THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF WEB HISTORY 38. Spam 564 Finn Brunton 39. Trolls and Trolling History: From Subculture to Mainstream Practices 577 Michael Nycyk PART VI THE ROADS AHEAD 591 40. Web Archives and (Digital) History: A Troubled Past and a Promising Future? 593 Jane Winters Index 607 BK-SAGE-BRUGGER_MILLIGAN-180264-FM.indd 8 01/11/18 4:21 PM 15 Hypertext before the Web – or, What the Web Could Have Been Belinda Barnet Historiography is always guided by specific before hypertext became synonymous with tropes; it is ‘infected by what it touches as the Web; as Ted Nelson1, who coined the the past’ Demeulenaere (2003). Much has term ‘hypertext’ among other things, put it to been written about the history of hypertext me in 1999, ‘People saw the Web and they over the last 20 years, and I’ve contributed to thought, “Oh, that’s hypertext, that’s how that literature; in the process I’ve been it’s meant to look”’. But hypertext is not the infected by the vision behind the early sys- Web; the Web is one particular implementa- tems from the 60s and 70s. This might be tion of hypertext. In this chapter we will use because I’ve got to know some of the inven- Ted Nelson’s definition of hypertext: branch- tors – I conducted 22 interviews with inven- ing and responding text read at a computer tors for my book on pre-web systems Memory screen (Nelson, 1992). The Web is without a Machines (Barnet, 2013) – and drank the doubt the most successful and prevalent ver- same Kool-Aid. The first system was built in sion of hypertext, but it is also an arguably counterculture-soaked 1960s California, limited one. Hypertext existed well before though, so a bit of dreaming is appropriate, the Web – the systems here were imagined along with the occasional Yoga Workstation. (and in some cases built and obsolete) well This was an era when people had grand before Google and Facebook. Insofar as the visions for their pre-web hypertext systems, Web is a hypertext system, it continues an when they believed that the solution to the already established line of evolution, and it world’s problems might lie in finding a way is important to understand this pre-history to to organize the mess of human knowledge: to fully understand the Web. represent its true interconnections. The first hypertext systems were deep and Now for the important bit: this story stops richly connected, and in some respects more before the Web. More accurately, it stops powerful than the Web. These early systems BK-SAGE-BRUGGER_MILLIGAN-180264-Chp15.indd 215 10/13/18 9:58 AM 216 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF WEB HISTORY were not, however, connected to hundreds of the human, to ‘boost our capacity to deal with millions of other users. You could not reach complexity’ as a species (Engelbart, 1999). out through FRESS and read a page hosted in Thailand or Libya. The early systems worked Here’s a human… He’s got all these capabilities on their own set of documents in their own within his skin we can make use of, a lot of mental capabilities we know of, and some of it he’s even unique environments. Although Nelson cer- conscious of. Those are marvellous machines there – tainly envisioned that Xanadu would have motor machinery to actuate the outside world, and the domestic penetration of the Web, and sensor and perceptual machinery to get the idea of NLS had nifty collaborative tools and chalk- what’s going on… (Engelbart, 1998: 213) passing protocols, none of the early ‘built’ sys- tems we look at either briefly or in depth in For Engelbart, the most important element of this chapter – NLS, HES and FRESS – was the ‘human system’ was language; language designed to accommodate literally billions of is a powerful machine. Engelbart would seek users. That’s something only the Web can do. to harness its nonlinear relationships with As Jay Bolter put it in our interview, a computer system and externalize its ‘net- worked’ structure. What the World Wide Web did was two things. Engelbart still remembers reading about One is that it compromised as it were on the Vannevar Bush’s Memex (hypothetical ‘vision’ of hypertext. It said, ‘This is the kind of linkage it’s always going to be, it’s always going to proto-hypertext system that Bush described work in this way’, [but] more importantly it said in his 1945 The Atlantic Monthly article ‘As that the really interesting things happen when We May Think’), and the moment when he your links can cross from one computer to became ‘infected’ with the idea of building another… So global hypertext – which is what the a means to extend and navigate this great Web is – turned out to be the way that you could really engage, well, ultimately hundreds of millions pool of human knowledge. He was a military of users. (Bolter, 2011) radar technician out in the Philippines when he first picked up a reprint of Bush’s article, The goal of this chapter is to explore the in the summer of 1945, and wandered into a visions of the early hypertext pioneers, start- Red Cross library that was built up on stilts to ing over 60 years ago, and in the process, to read it. News of Hiroshima was devastatingly broaden our conception of what hypertext fresh; Engelbart was 20 years old and deep could be. The chapter begins by exploring in thought (Barnet, 2013). He was wondering NLS, then Xanadu and on to HES. how he could ‘maximize [his] contribution to humankind’ as an engineer (Engelbart, 1999). In this article Bush looked towards the DOUG ENGELBart’s oN-LINE postwar world as an engineer and predicted SYSTEM (NLS) an exponential increase in human knowledge, especially scientific and technological knowl- Dr Douglas Carl Engelbart, who died in edge.
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