Weed Society of Victoria Inc. PROCEEDINGS SECOND VICTORIAN WEED CONFERENCE

Weed Society of Victoria Inc.

PROCEEDINGS SECOND VICTORIAN WEED CONFERENCE

Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success

SPONSORED BY

Department of Sustainability and Environment Blank page PROCEEDINGS SECOND VICTORIAN WEED CONFERENCE Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success

17–18 August 2005

All Seasons International Hotel, Bendigo

Weed Society of Victoria Inc. PO Box 987, Frankston, Victoria 3199 Tel/fax 03 9576 2949 Email [email protected] Website www.wsvic.org.au

CONTENTS

SESSION 1 Early detection and response Weeds in botanic gardens Roger Spencer 1 Review of Victoria’s noxious weed list John Weiss, Trevor Hunt, Robert Edgar and Tereso Morfe 4

SESSION 2 Integrated weed management Integrated Weed Management on a National scale Rachel E. McFadyen 7 Integrating IWM into crop management plans Ken Young, Karl Schilg, Brad Bennett and Kristin Sutton 9

SESSION 3 Early detection and response (concurrent) Site management strategies for six National Environmental Alert List weed species in Victoria Michael Hansford 11 What is a weed? John Dwyer 14 Invasive garden plant display at the Melbourne International Flower and Garden Show 2005 Daniel Joubert 18 Nursery people aren’t all environmental pests Robert Chin 21 Sustainable garden centre project Mary Trigger 24 Olives – new industry or environmental threat Michael Laity and Ken Young 25 Aquatic weeds of national significance – coming to a waterway near you! Phil Moran, Andrew Petroeschevsky and Steve Wingrave 30 Operation rapid response – dealing with the potential incursion of branched broomrape (Orobanche ramosa Linnaeus) into Victoria, Australia David A. McLaren, Kate Blood and Geoff Harvey 32

SESSION 4 Integrated weed management (concurrent) Chilean needle grass (Nassella neesiana) – integrated grazing for success Charles Grech, Aaron Dodd, David McLaren, David Chapman and Brian M. Sindel 35 Enviromark: a system for integrated weed management along roadsides Christine Corbett 36 Delivering strategic conservation outcomes through the integrated management of bitou bush, a Weed of National Significance Paul O. Downey and Hillary Cherry 41 Gorse task force Jeanette Bellchambers 46 Weed Warriors – engaging and empowering the community Megan McCarthy and Kate McArthur 48 Evidence based verses community driven Weed Action Plans Leigh Dennis 50 Understanding and managing weed effects on establishment of native tree seedlings in riparian zones Nigel Ainsworth and Fiona Ede 52 SESSION 5 Successful monitoring Monitoring weed eradication programs and evaluating performance F. Dane Panetta 55 Using geospatial technologies to map and monitor environmental weeds Jennifer Emeny, Anne Wallis and Dianne Simmons 56 The role of monitoring in weed management: a case study from the Victorian Alps Cathy Allan, Kelly Raymond and Lynise Wearne 63

SESSION 6 Getting technical Molecular genetic breeding to produce non-GM crops Jim Kollmorgen, Rebecca Ford, Mohan Singh and Paul Taylor 67 Verification of the factors affecting clodinafop efficacy T.S. Andrews, R.W. Medd, R. van de Ven, and D.I. Pickering 68 Ways to improve pesticide application in Australia through new sprayer technology and adoption of sprayer manufacturing and testing standards J.H. Combellack 69

SESSION 7 Successful monitoring (concurrent) Weed biological control impact assessment in Victoria: notes on current activities Tom Morley 79 Taking the wind out of willows: a national focus to willow management in Australia Sarah Holland Clift 83 Using community-based networks for the distribution of biological control agents for Paterson’s curse in Victoria Kerry L. Roberts and Raelene M. Kwong 87 Regional priority-setting for weed management on public land in Victoria Stephen Platt, Robin Adair, Matt White and Steve Sinclair 89 Machinery hygiene – what is on our vehicles? Michael Moerkerk 99

SESSION 8 Getting technical (concurrent) The National Serrated Tussock Survey – impacts and implications of its resistance to the herbicide flupropanate in Australia D.A. McLaren, S. Ramasamy, A.C. Lawrie, G. Pritchard and T.A. Morfe 102 Applying field-based information tools to weed management – an examination of field information issues in DPIS Landscape Protection Program Naomi Wilson 106 Robotic weeding in grain crops Malcolm Taylor 113 Weed spread prevention wash down trial Byron Crowe 115 Himalayan honeysuckle control at Mt Buffalo Darin Lynch 117

POSTER SUMMARIES An insecticidal exclusion method for studying biological control impacts on ragwort (Senecio jacobaea L.) and Paterson’s curse (Echium plantagineum L.) Thomas B. Morley and Julio C. Bonilla 119 Establishment and dispersal of dock moth Pyropteron doryliformis (Ochsenheimer) (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) in Victoria Thomas B. Morley, Steven Faulkner and Ian G. Faithfull 119 Gallery 750DF Herbicide tankmixes are safe to trees and vines with effective residual weed control Gregory S. Wells, Gregg Baynon, Nicholas Koch and Peter Nott 120 Spraytopping as a management tool to reduce seed production in Chilean needle grass infestations Shiv Gaur, David McLaren and Kym Butler 121 Ecology of the invasive weed Salvia verbenaca (wild sage) in the rangelands of western New South Wales Robyn Fisher, Martin Westbrooke and Singrayer Florentine 125 Flupropanate resistance in serrated tussock (Nassella trichotoma) in Victoria S. Noble, G. Pritchard, S.G. Casonato, A.C. Lawrie and D.A. McLaren 125 SESSION 1 Early detection and response

be harnessed for commerce and garden decoration.

Weeds in botanic gardens Now How dramatically, profoundly and per- Roger Spencer, Royal Botanic Gardens and National Herbarium, manently our perception of these former Birdwood Terrace, South Yarra, Victoria 3141 times has changed. In those days gardens, both public and private, were seen as relatively small and insignificant sanctuar- ies in an almost infinite world ruled by the prodigious and unpredictable forces ‘Wonder and India, magic and China’ being returned from distant lands. In the of nature. Now, in a desperately short Dylan Thomas late sixteenth and early seventeenth cen- space of time, the sad reality is that over turies the plants came from Eastern Eu- much of the globe this situation has com- Abstract Botanical gardens must play rope and nearby Asia. Gardens competed pletely reversed with nature strongly in their part in the global attempt to reduce with one-another to have the most excit- retreat under the human invasion. Large the impacts of invasive plants. The chal- ing collections and in the late seventeenth areas of encroaching cultivated land sur- lenge is to minimise the importation, century the Jardin des Plantes in Paris was round small patches of former wilderness. cultivation and promotion of known or leading other European gardens with its Distant reaches of the globe are a short potential weeds. An Australian Botanic diversity of collections, notably the new flight away in a jet airliner. Gardens Weed Network (ABGWN) has introductions from Canada. In the eight- The recent Millennium Ecosystem As- been formed to combine information and eenth century novelties came from the sessment 22 paints the broad picture: expertise in the formulation of a united Cape of South Africa and the East Indies ‘The structure of the world’s ecosys- approach to weed policy and weed man- and plants from warm climates initiated tems has changed more rapidly in the agement. The ABGWN is also working a boom in glasshouse collections. Here we second half of the twentieth century with the Cooperative Research Centre for have, presumably, the first stirring of glo- than at any time in recorded history, Australian Weed Management to produce balisation – the opening up of the world and virtually all the Earth’s ecosystems a weed risk assessment procedure that can to Europe. Scientific endeavour was stim- have now been significantly trans- be used by Australian botanic gardens. ulated by the myriad newly discovered formed through human actions. The paper outlines the context of botanic organisms brought triumphantly home Over the past few hundred years, gardens in relation to weeds, the tension for description and classification. Botanic humans have increased the species ex- between botanic garden and environmen- gardens began to display systems gardens tinction rate by as much as 1000 times tal values, and current progress of the AB- or ‘order beds’ demonstrating the new background rates typical over the plan- GWN. plant classification schemes of the day. et’s history (medium certainty).’ But the demands of economic botany and Botanic gardens not only display the plant Then ornamental horticulture were not to be world in all its glory but also, consciously The role of Botanic gardens has changed distracted as, during the late eighteenth or not, help mould the public perception of over the years according to the demands and early nineteenth century, the influx what plants mean. The current dire state of and interests of the day. of plant treasures continued. Collection the biosphere is not a sexy message to sell Botanic gardens are generally assumed sources included Western North America, – but it is a story that must be told never- to have originated in the sixteenth century South America, the Himalayas, China, theless, for the sake of future generations. with the Italian gardens of Pisa (est. 1543 East Asia and, of course, the tropics and We can both enjoy and protect plants and but site moved) and Padua (est. 1545) still Oceania, especially Australia, Tasmania that must be part of the botanic gardens in existence. These gardens hark back still and New Zealand1,2,3. Of course it was not mantra. And high on the agenda must be further to earlier monastery gardens which long before these countries were setting the environmental and agricultural dam- were laid out formally with a section up their own botanic gardens. age caused by invasive plants. called a ‘herbularis’ or physic garden for In retrospect we can see clearly how medicinal plants known as the ‘simples’ or botanic gardens were a significant part The environmental cost ‘officinals’. These plants were studied and of the era of Romanticism. There was the Some general statistics: dispensed by the resident apothecaries in intrepid individualism of the botanical ex- • In 1930 it is estimated that 10% of the a time when botany had not yet emerged plorers in far-off lands and tales of vast planet’s primary productivity was di- as a scientific discipline. One major aspect rivers, jungles, strange and fascinating for- rected to human needs, mostly food of botanic gardens from this time on has eign cultures and customs, and the breath- crops: by 2000 this had grown to 40%. been the fascination with plants from oth- taking wonders of the natural world to be In other words, towards half of the er places. From the sixteenth century on- seen on distant parts of the globe. This was plant matter on the planet is now ca- wards European colonial expansion and an unattainable world, but everyone was tering for human needs4. exploration gathered momentum and the keen to share in the bounty gleaned by • About 24% of the planet’s land surface focus of botanic gardens changed as they the few. The plant kingdom was an excit- is now devoted to agriculture22. became the repositories for the beautiful, ing and unrestricted palette of colours and • In Australia 60% of the land surface curious and new plant trophies that were textures with seemingly infinite variety to has been harnessed for agriculture and

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 1 approximately one third of the forests of sustainability, the attempt to leave the the global threat and support the imple- that existed prior to European settle- biological world in as good a state as pos- mentation of Article 8 of the CBD. As a re- ment have been cleared for agriculture, sible for future generations. High on the sult of these international initiatives there forestry and mining6. list of priorities is the devastation caused is now a common agreement among many by biological invasions. botanic gardens to carefully monitor the Garden plants, naturalised plants To date botanic gardens have played a acquisition and use of genetic resources, and declared weeds relatively small role in the effort to stem one aspect of which is obtaining consent • 60–70% of the naturalised plants in Aus- invasive plants; regulating their own ac- from the country and/or organisation of tralia have escaped from gardens7,8. tivities in relation to weeds has been large- origin to ensure potential benefit sharing • In 1999 the Australian National Weeds ly informal, the result of expert opinion, (including non-monetary benefits). There Strategy Executive Committee an- which nowadays gets pretty bad press. It is no more dipping into the Seed List nounced a list of 20 weeds of national is a difficult and controversial area. Out- candy store. The major Australian botanic significance (WoNS). These are consid- comes are likely to be regulatory or pro- gardens have not produced Index Semina ered the most damaging weeds in the hibitive and the process will involve time, for many years and seed acquisition from country based on their invasiveness, labour and money – factors that discour- overseas is dealt with by special request potential for spread, and their socio- age enthusiastic action. and supervised with caution. economic and environmental impacts: Best estimates of numbers of plants in 14 of these plants (70%) are garden es- botanic gardens and the nursery indus- Australian Botanic Gardens Weed capes. try, together with numbers of naturalised Network • About 40% of Australia’s current de- plants and those on important weed lists In October 2004 the Council of Heads of clared weeds are invasive garden are given in Table 1. Australian Botanic Gardens (CHABG) ap- plants8. proved a proposal for a cooperative effort Present-day figures indicate that, even The way forward to deal with the problem of environmen- with the wisdom of hindsight, we have a For many years Botanic Gardens were tal and agricultural weeds. This issue had long way to go in increasing public aware- part of an international network exchang- emerged clearly at the Botanic Gardens of ness, and managing potential weeds used ing seed lists (Index Semina) – this be- Australia and New Zealand Conference in in horticulture. ing the main means of plant acquisition, Geelong in 2003. CHABG supported the • Between 1971 and 1995 about 200 of the especially the rare and unusual species. development of common policies, proce- 300 newly naturalised plants in Aus- However, seed exchange is now restricted. dures and a weed risk assessment meth- tralia were introduced to the country Firstly, there is the legally binding Con- odology for Australian botanic gardens, as ornamentals9. vention on International Trade in Endan- committing staff to the process. I was ap- • About 54% of the currently recognised gered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna pointed facilitator for the establishment 720 naturalised invasive garden plants (CITES). Secondly, under Article 8 of the of a Working Group to coordinate a clear were on sale in nurseries in 20028. 1993 Convention on Biological Diversity statement of objectives and a possible (CBD) national governments are called on time-line to meet these objectives. The task The economic cost ‘to prevent the introduction of’ and ‘con- was to be carried out with the assistance of • Current estimates suggest that the cost trol or eradicate those alien species which the Cooperative Research Centre for Aus- to Australia’s primary industries in lost threaten ecosystems, habitats or species’. tralian Weed Management. production and weed control now ex- The Global Invasive Species Program A working group of representatives ceeds $4 billion p.a.10, 11. (GISP), was established in 1997 to address has been established, called the Australian Botanic Gardens nowadays are multifac- eted. There is still an interest in rare, attractive and curious plants from around Table 1. Numbers of plants in Australian botanic gardens, in the nursery the world so horticultural display is well industry, and on lists of national importance on the agenda. There is still the process of Kind of weed Number documentation and ordering to be done 12 by classification botanists in Herbaria, the Total number of alien species in 27 000 apothecaries of the twenty-first century, Australia but now there is greater emphasis on the Total number of taxa in major urban c. 33 400 13 less obvious groups – fungi, algae, lichens botanic gardens (includes hybrids and mosses. The public, as always, is ever and cultivars) eager for new excitement and entertain- Naturalised 3 244 14 ment. To give them ‘bang for their buck’ there are the events, new structures and Declared 429 15 garden displays, shops, cafes, art exhibi- Alert List 28 16 tions, sculpture, theatre, music, education- 17 al activities and so on. WoNS 20 On the environmental front botanic NAQs 4118 gardens began to tackle conservation is- 19 Estimate of total number of taxa c.35 000 sues as the environmental movement got in the nursery industry (includes underway in the 1960s and 1970s. Con- hybrids and cultivars) servation collections of rare or threat- 20 ened plants were established, and botanic Garden thugs 958 gardens became plant havens. But the Naturalised invasive and 1 036 21 agenda has changed. As the natural world potentially invasive gardens staggers under the pressures of an ever- plants increasing human population efforts to Naturalised invasive garden 720 21 slow the process of environmental degra- plants dation have galvanised around the notion

2 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 Botanic Gardens Weed Network (ABG- landscapes contain trees of historical sig- scope to share the workload; keeping WN). To date the ABGWN has a member- nificance within an overall landscape style records of plant performance in particular ship of about 75 organisations with rep- exemplified by few other sites. They are areas will help together with building up resentatives from the major city botanic therefore sites of great cultural, education- profiles of particular species and genera. It gardens, the regional botanic gardens of al and scientific value and are managed may be possible to do some weed trials to Victoria and New South Wales, and also according to recommendations outlined help the process of risk analysis. Certainly representation from the zoo community. in their Conservation Analyses. Undoubt- botanic gardens can assist with preventing The following targets were estab- edly some of the major structural compo- future weed invasions but perhaps their lished: nents of these landscapes would pose a greatest contribution will be to assisting 1. Development of a common Weed Poli- threat were they to ‘escape’. with a necessary change of public percep- cy statement Here, an example of difficulties with tions. 2. Establishment of an initial cooperative commerce and education. Wheat and car- sharing of policies, weed procedures, rots are widely naturalised plants – should Acknowledgment lists, and information resources and ap- they be grown in a botanic gardens kitch- I would like to acknowledge the input of proaches to weed risk assessment and en garden? If the answer to this is ‘yes’, the following groups in the formulation of weed risk management then what about Olea europaea, olive, and ideas presented in this paper. 3. Development of an effective strategy Cynara scolymus, globe artichoke which are Weed Working Group, Melbourne Bo- for the detection and management of possibly more invasive species? And then tanic Gardens: Michael McNabb, Peter weeds in botanic gardens through the what about widely grown plants such as Symes, Theresa Turner, Val Stajsic, David use of agreed Weed Risk Assessment mints, nasturtium, asparagus, fennel, and Robbins, Ollie Sherlock. and Weed Risk Management Proce- mustards? Australian Botanic Gardens Weed dures And here a difficulty with science and Working Group: John Arnott, Trevor At the time of writing (early July 2005) education. The horsetail, Equisetum, is Christensen, Bob Dixon, David Griffiths, Targets 1 and 2 are essentially complete extremely distinctive and botanically im- Paul Janssens, Ross McKinnon, Natalie and a combined workshop is due in late portant as it is the only genus in the fam- Papworth, Bernard Proctor, John Sand- July to discuss the way forward with Tar- ily Equisetaceae that, in turn, is the only ham, Mark Savio. get 3. family within the broader Horsetail group Australian Weed CRC: Dane Panetta, Sphenopsida. This unusual plant genus John Virtue, John Weiss, Kate Blood. Environmental and botanic garden exemplifies the kinds of plants that thrived values on the Earth in the Carboniferous period References Australian Botanic Gardens have a poor over 350 million years ago. It is valuable 1. Hill, A.W. (1915). The history and func- reputation in relation to weeds, with for botany students to study the botani- tions of botanic gardens. Annals of blackberry (Rubus spp.) supposedly dis- cal structures of such an important plant the Missouri Botanical Garden 2, 185- persed from the Royal Botanic Gardens, group, while its form and history make this 240. Melbourne, and Mimosa pigra from the a very interesting curiosity for the general 2. Mueller, F. von (1871). The objects of a Darwin Botanic Gardens. A study of those public and visiting students. However, Eq- botanic garden in relation to industries, plants originating from botanic gardens uisetum is also a highly destructive weed 151-188. and known to be environmental or eco- with underground spreading rhizomes 3. Stafleu, F.A. (1969). Botanic Gardens be- nomic weeds is yet to be done. Realising that can penetrate to a depth of 1 m or so fore 1818. Boissiera 14, 31-46. I should not pre-empt its conclusions it and, once established, is extremely diffi- 4. Groombridge, B. and Jenkins M.D. seems to me that, in most cases, weed dan- cult to eradicate; it is undoubtedly an en- (2000). ‘Global biodiversity Earth’s liv- gers posed by botanic gardens are more vironmental threat when it escapes from ing resources in the 21st century’. (World likely to result from the supply of plants gardens, whether public or private. Conservation Press, Cambridge). to other organisations and people than by 5. Glanznig, A. (2005). Making State weed their direct escape into the environment. Other factors laws work. WWF-Australia, Sydney. The difficulties confronting botanic gar- No doubt part of the task ahead will be to www.wwf.org.au/News_and_infor- dens will no doubt focus on the tension develop monitoring procedures for plants mation/Publications/PDF/Policies_ between environmental values and what that pose some weed potential. position/makingstateweedlawswork. may be termed botanic gardens values One area of particular concern is the pdf such as: heritage, education, science and supervision of affiliated organisations. 6. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Publica- scientific research, conservation, and pub- These include: Friends of Botanic Gar- tion 4613. lic landscape. Botanic gardens also often dens; groups that deal with botanic gar- 7. Groves, R.H. (1998). Recent incursions enjoy good relations with the nursery in- dens plants such as the Growing Friends of weeds to Australia 1971–1995. CRC dustry. It is not difficult to think of exam- at Melbourne; retail outlets that might un- for Weed Management Systems, Glen ples in each of these areas where specific wittingly supply the public with invasive Osmond. cases are likely to test our weed risk as- plants or seeds; education sections that are 8. Groves, R.H., Boden, R. and Lonsdale, sessment methodology to its limits. Here not in touch with the latest information; W.M. (2005). Jumping the garden fence. are a few examples. craft groups; commercial agreements or Invasive garden plants in Australia and Botanic gardens have traditionally dis- exchange with the nursery industry; and their environmental and agricultural played a wide range of plant diversity: plants going to staff. impacts. CSIRO report for WWF Aus- this not only serves science and a natural Botanic gardens are noted for their in- tralia. human curiosity about the plant kingdom troduction and cultivation of rare and un- 9. Environment, Communications, Infor- but also has a valuable educational func- usual plants. These are especially difficult mation Technology and the Arts Refer- tion. to assess for their weed potential because ence Committee. (Dec., 2004). Turning Several of the major botanic gardens their cultivation history is non-existent or back the tide – the invasive species chal- are cultural landscapes of such signifi- negligible. lenge. Commonwealth Government, cance that they have been placed on the With this combined effort it is to be Canberra. National Register and are therefore sub- hoped that botanic gardens can help stem 10. Sinden, J. et al. (2004). The economic ject to heritage planning legislation. These the tide of invasive plants. There will be impact of weeds in Australia. CRC for

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 3 Australian Weed management Techni- cal Series 8: 1-55. See also http://www. weeds.crc.org.au. Review of Victoria’s noxious weed list 11. Sinden, J. et al. (2005). The economic impact of weeds in Australia. Plant Pro- John WeissA,B, Trevor HuntA, Robert EdgarC and Tereso MorfeA,B tection Quarterly 20 (1), 25-32. A 12. Glanznig, A., McLachlan, K. and Kes- Department of Primary Industries – Frankston, PO Box 48, Frankston, sal, O. (2004). Garden plants that are Victoria 3199 invasive plants of national importance: B CRC for Australian Weed Management an overview of their legal status, com- C 11 Benong Place, Karingal, Victoria 3199 mercial availability and risk status. WWF Australia, Sydney. 13. www.anbg.au/chabg. 14. John Hosking personal communication Summary Weeds are an emotive is- CMAs were established by the Victo- (2005). sue throughout Victoria. The ten Victo- rian government in 1997 under The Catch- 15. www.weeds.org.au/noxious.htm. rian Catchment Management Authorities ment and Land Protection Act 1994 (CaLP 16. Department of the Environment and (CMAs) have all ranked weeds amongst Act), as community-based organisations Heritage. (Nd). Weeds on the National the top-three natural resource issues in responsible for integrated planning and Environment Alert List. www.deh.gov. their Regional Catchment Strategies. coordination of land and water manage- au/biodiversity/invasive/weeds/ A systematic review of Victoria’s nox- ment in each of the State’s catchment- alert-list.html. ious weed list and potential additions is based regions (Figure 1). The CMAs under 17. Thorp, J.R. and Lynch, R. (2000). The currently being conducted. This is the the CaLP Act have the responsibility to re- determination of weeds of national sig- first detailed review since 1974. There is view, consult with the public, stakehold- nificance. National Weed Strategy Ex- the potential that the review will create ers and nominate plants for noxious weed ecutive, Launceston. differences of opinion. To reduce the pos- declaration. 18. Glanznig, A. (2005). Closing Austral- sible negative impact of the review, species The present noxious weed list in Victo- ia’s quarantine loophole to new weeds. assessments, extensive consultation and ria is outdated. There has not been a sys- WWF-Australia, Sydney. www.affa. extension about the process of the review tematic review of the weeds since 1974. gov.au. has been underway since 2001. Minor revisions and additions occurred 19. Hibbert, M. (2004). Aussie Plant Finder. The review process is following the with the proclamation of the CaLP Act in (Florilegium, Glebe). principles contained in the Proposed Na- 1994 and again by DPI and the CMAs in 20. Randall, R.P. (2001). Garden thugs, a tional Protocol for Post-Border Weed Risk 2003, but most weeds have not changed national list of invasive and potentially Management produced by the CRC for their declaration status. invasive garden plants. Plant Protection Australian Weed Management. The CMAs through their Regional Weed Quarterly 16, 138-71. This paper describes the strategies, is- Action Strategies, have since 2000, updated 21. Randall, R. and Kessal, O. (2004). Na- sues and difficulties faced in this review. their priorities and actions against specific tional list of naturalised invasive and Keywords Weed risk assessment, con- weeds. These regional weed priorities are potentially invasive garden plants. sultation, implementation, noxious weed sometimes inconsistent with the current WWF-Australia, Sydney. www.wwf. review. declaration status of those weeds. org.au/News_and_information/Pub- Prior to a weeds declaration the CaLP lications/index.php?type=All&filter= Introduction Act (Section 69) also requires an assess- weeds The main Victorian weed policy document of the extent and severity of the 22. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment ment, The Victorian Pest Management impact in Victoria and suggested meas- Synthesis Report. (2005). www.mille- Framework – Weed Management Frame- ures and costs for the management of the niumassessment.org. work (Anon 2002), requires the CMAs to plant. review the noxious weed list, including To support the review and to ensure all the economic, environmental and social relevant issues are dealt with a decision impacts, by the end of 2005. support framework was utilised. The

Figure 1. Victorian Catchment Management Regions

4 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 framework (Figure 2) ensured input DPI CMAs Pest Plant Score = α (Invasiveness score) + from weed scientists, regional staff and Regional Staff β (Present : Potential Distribution) + δ community consultation with an overview Present distribution Community (Impact) by the Victorian Catchment Management Control strategies consultation (where α, β and δ are the subcomponent's Council (VCMC). Economic Noxious weightings). analysis weed The Noxious weed review is being review done in three phases. Phase one consists Review process stage two of reviewing the existing declared nox- An economic assessment process (Weiss ious weeds, Phase two; the non-declared Invasiveness et al. 2002) was utilised in a second stage weeds identified as a priority in Regional Potential distribution of this prioritisation process. This process Impact assessment Weed Action Plans, while Phase three fo- allows for scenario building of different cuses on national weeds (WoNS and Alert DPI-Frankston control strategies and the return on gov- Lists) as well as new weeds nominated by ernment investment in weed control. the CMAs. To ensure objective decisions were Figure 2. The inputs into the Communication made in the prioritisation of pest plants, Victorian Noxious Weed review Because of the newness of the process, the a decision support system was developed amount and detail of information, Depart- and utilised. (Weiss and McLaren 2002, ment of Primary Industry (DPI) regional Weiss et al. 2004). This process followed the Invasiveness staff and members of the CMAs and Vic- Proposed National Technical Specification Workshops in June 1998 decided on a set torian Catchment Management Council for Post-Border Weed Risk Management of criteria to assess the biological proper- have been regularly briefed, since 2002, at (CRC for Australian Weed Management) ties of a plant to indicate its potential to presentations and workshops on the proc- which outlines four main considerations be an invasive weed. The criteria have ess and information outputs of the scien- for determining the relative importance of been published (Weiss et al. 2004) and fall tific assessments. To date over 110 existing invasive species. These are: into four main categories based upon the declared species have been assessed for • How invasive is the weed. plants ability to establish, grow and com- their invasiveness, impact and distribu- • The present and potential extent of the pete, reproduce and disperse. tion. species. • What social, environmental and agri- Impact Discussion cultural values are impacted. A further three workshops with stakehold- The scientific assessment of the data pro- • The feasibility of control or Cost : Ben- ers in 2002–3 identified criteria to assess duced a ranking of weeds for each of the efit analysis. potential impact on Victorian social, agri- CMAs. As expected State Prohibited weeds The Victorian decision support system cultural and environmental values. These generally scored highly in all CMAs. Weeds meets the above requirements. This paper focus on social, natural resources, native that scored higher should then be of higher documents the process by which the above flora and fauna, vegetation and agricul- priority for control than lower scored or criteria were used to review and justify tural values (Weiss et al. 2004). rank ones. However recommendations for weed declarations in Victoria. which declaration category, rely on criteria Distribution outlined in the CaLP Act. Review process stage 1 Potential distribution is a major factor in State prohibited weeds are those that it Victoria has developed a risk assessment comparing the threats posed by weed spe- is reasonable to expect that it can be eradi- process, the Pest Plant Prioritisation Proc- cies (Panetta and Dodd 1987). The greater cated from the state. Regionally prohib- ess (PPPP) (Weiss and McLaren 2002, the potential distribution of a weed spe- ited weeds are those that it is reasonable Weiss et al. 2004). The PPPP is a decision cies, the greater the potential impact and to eradicate from the region. Regionally support system relying on multi-criteria management costs. The present Victorian controlled weeds are those where to pre- analysis/analytical hierarchical process distribution of a plant was estimated from vent its spread, continuing control meas- (AHP). The AHP assists with decisions a number of GIS and non-spatial data- ures are required and Restricted weeds are about priorities using qualitative and/or bases. These include Victorian herbarium those where if sold or traded there would quantitative information and facilitates records, Flora Information Systems, Inte- be a risk of it spreading within Victoria. effective decisions on complex issues by grated Pest Management Systems and a So although a weed may rank highly, simplifying and expediting the intuitive 1980 survey of noxious weeds of Victo- such as serrated tussock and blackberry decision making process. ria. This information was compiled and in nearly all the CMAs, based on Groves Basically the AHP is a method of break- regional DPI staff had input in updating and Panetta (2002) principles, it may not ing down a complex unstructured situation and validating the data. Potential distri- be able to be eradicated. The weed may into its component parts; arranging these bution was estimated for Victoria and then be allocated to one of the lower cat- parts into a hierarchical order; assigning CMAs using climate modelling overlayed egories, but still be sufficiently resourced. numerical values to subjective judgements upon susceptible vegetation and land-use However with limited resources available on the relative importance of each vari- geospatial layers as described by Weiss et some existing weed control programs may able; and weighting the components to al. (2002). A ratio of present area from the have to be reassigned to higher priority determine which variables have the high- input from regional staff and the predicted weeds and these species dropped down est priority. The three components, inva- potential area was used to obtain the in- the list to the Restricted weed category. siveness, impact and distribution, each sit tensity level for distribution. Preliminary results indicate that there above a hierarchy of criteria and intensity The final weed score is obtained by mul- are no major changes to the noxious weeds ratings. Criteria for evaluating these com- tiplying the score for each component by list. No weeds were dropped off the list, ponents were developed, grouped into its weighting to obtain a value between 0 while some high ranking species such as similar themes and assigned weightings and 1. The higher the score, the greater the African feather grass, Pennisetum macro- according their perceived importance. risk potential of a species. The Pest Plant urum, became more important in most of Assessment score is expressed as: the CMAs (Figures 3 and 4). It is unlikely that there will be disagreement about the increased

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 5 Figure 3. Current declaration of African feather grass under the Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994. Dark shaded CMAs indicate where Regionally prohibited weed declaration. Light shaded area indicates where declared Regionally controlled (East Port Phillip CMA only)

Figure 4. Proposed declaration of African feather grass. Dark shaded CMAs indicate where Regionally prohibited weed declared importance of some of the weeds, however Acknowledgements Panetta, F.D. and Dodd, J. (1987). Bio- the downgrading of others is more likely Many organisations and people assisted climatic prediction of the potential to receive negative public comment. To try in determining the criteria and weight- distribution of skeleton weed, Chon- and manage this ‘fall out’ over the review ings for invasiveness, distribution and drilla juncea L. in Western Australia. The process, a strong reliance on the scientific impact. The CRC for Australian Weed Journal of the Australian Institute of Agri- assessment, understanding of the process Management – Program 1, Parks Victoria, cultural Science 53 (1), 11-16. and extension is required. Regional DPI Melbourne Water, Department of Primary Weiss, J. and McLaren, D. (2002). Victoria’s co-ordinators assisting the CMAs in mak- Industries – Catchment and Agriculture pest plant prioritisation process. Pro- ing recommendation are one of the key Services, Department of Sustainability and ceedings of the 13th Australian Weeds components in the successful adoption of Environment and the Victorian Catchment Conference, eds H. Spafford Jacob, J. this review. Communicating preliminary Management Authorities and Council all Dodd and J.H. Moore, pp. 509-12. (Plant results, involving these co-ordinators in played crucial roles within the review. Protection Society of Western Australia, validating information and feedback en- Perth). sure they support the review. References Weiss, J., Morfe, T.A. and McLaren, D. The community consultation process Anon. (2002). Victorian pest management (2002). Assessing the financial implica- resulted in preliminary recommendations. framework – a framework for action, tions of alternative investment options These underwent a statewide review to weed management strategy. (The State in weed control. Proceedings of the 13th check for inconsistencies between adjacent of Victoria, Department of Natural Re- Australian Weeds Conference, eds H. CMAs. Minor alterations were made and sources and Environment). Spafford Jacob, J. Dodd and J.H. Moore, a final statewide review was undertaken CRC for Australian Weed Management pp. 505-8. (Plant Protection Society of by the VCMC with final recommendation (in prep.). Proposed National techni- Western Australia, Perth). for Phase 1 weeds going to the Minister. It cal specification for post-border weed Weiss, J., Hunt, T. and Iaconis, L. (2004). is expected that the scientific assessment risk management. (CRC for Australian Noxious weed review; phase 1. – and the trained DPI regional co-ordinators Weed Management Adelaide, South assessment data. (The State of Victo- will play a crucial role in managing com- Australia). ria, Department of Primary Industries, munity expectations about the lowered Groves, R.H. and Panetta, F.D. (2002). Frankston). position of some widespread weeds. The Some general principles for weed Weiss, J., Edgar, R., Hunt, T and Morfe, T. review will be ongoing with Phase two eradication programs. Proceedings of (2004) Victoria’s noxious weed review; and three assessments circulated for CMA the 13th Australian Weeds Conference, roll out not fall out. Proceedings of the and public consultation and recommenda- eds H. Spafford Jacob, J. Dodd and J.H. 14th Australian Weeds Conference, eds tions to the Minister on a regular yearly or Moore, pp. 307-10. (Plant Protection So- B.M. Sindel and S.B. Johnson, pp. 707- bi-yearly basis. ciety of Western Australia, Perth). 10. (Weed Society of New South Wales, Sydney).

6 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 SESSION 2 Integrated weed management

them boating and fishing on the local river, but have no understanding of weed impact on water quality, or on evaporation Integrated Weed Management on a National scale of scarce water from dams. They admire the spectacular “wild flowers” in Western Rachel E. McFadyen, Cooperative Research Centre for Australian Weed Australia, and never ask how many are Management, Block B, 80 Meiers Road, Indooroopilly, Queensland 4068 invasive species from elsewhere and how many of the native wildflowers are still surviving. So the first priority is to demonstrate the environmental damage that can be caused by the worst invasive species, Integrated Weed Management to be considered are not primarily which and then to get that information out into (IWM) are the best control methods for particular the public arena (Martin 2003). IWM is generally taken to mean two weeds, but rather they are issues of pri- As part of this, we also need to counter slightly different things: i) integration of oritisation - prioritising weed manage- the belief that invasive plants do not affect different weed management methods in ment as one of many competing NRM wilderness areas, i.e. that it is possible to the one paddock or farm; ii) integration problems, determining which are priority declare an area a National Park, restrict all of weed management into the other proc- areas for protection from invasive plants, human traffic and the environment will esses/systems used on the property or and which weed species are priorities for then look after itself. Unfortunately, this catchment. The first can be thought of as management action. Only then is it appro- is often not true. Invasive plant seeds are integrating different weed management priate to consider the ‘best management blown in or brought in by birds and wild- methods to achieve the best weed man- method’ for individual species. life, or are already present along existing agement outcome, usually understood in Nationally, therefore, the first step is to tracks and roads. Too often, the edge of the economic terms i.e. minimum yield loss determine what is the objective of weed park, or roads through it, runs along the for minimum cost. The second looks at management. This means consideration ridges, and initial infestations then spread managing weeds as one of the many proc- of which are the ‘assets’ or ‘values’ which downstream through untracked country. esses underway on a property or catch- we wish to protect from damage from in- Natural disturbances such as storm dam- ment (others might be preservation of wa- vasive plants. These are usually agreed to age, fires, landslips and stream bank ero- ter quality and soil sustainability, spread of be our agricultural (and general economic) sion, all leave open spaces and gaps for economic risk), and attempts to integrate productivity (Sinden et al. 2004), the health invaders. Some invasive plants, such as the methods used in order to achieve the and well-being of our human population Siam weed in the grasslands of the north best overall outcome for the whole system. (which include maintenance of water flows or bridal creeper in southern Australia, For example, the best herbicide may not and clean waterways), and our native bio- can invade intact native vegetation with- be appropriate close to waterways, or ad- diversity. Preservation of biodiversity en- out any need for disturbance. Therefore ditional vegetation control may be needed compasses both the protection of whole management is needed even in set-aside as a vermin-management tool. ecosystems, usually in designated Nation- wilderness areas, and certainly in National The most frequent use of the term al Parks and World Heritage areas, and of Parks subject to human traffic along tracks IWM is the first one, for a single paddock individual species where these have been and from camping grounds. Adequate or farm. The new CRC publication ‘Inte- identified as Threatened or Endangered. resources for weed management has to grated Weed Management for Austral- Preservation of human well-being also in- be part of any National Park system; too ian Cropping Systems’ (in preparation) cludes the maintenance of recreational are- often, this is still not true (Sinden et al. starts with a series of ‘tactics’ – depleting as including smaller environmental parks 2004). the weed seedbank, killing weeds, stop- in urban and semi-urban regions. These ping weed seed set, preventing viable may not be important to the preservation Prioritisation seed entering the seedbank, and prevent- of threatened and endangered species as Once objectives have been set, the next ising new weed infestation. The focus is on such, but provide a ‘bush’ experience and sue is prioritisation, which can be thought finding the best tactic to manage existing contact with native wildlife important to of as determining where resources should weeds within the particular paddock and the people living nearby. be directed. The National Weeds Strategy crop, and only secondarily on preventing In all cases, it is first necessary to dem- is currently being revised, nearly 10 years new weeds coming onto the paddock or onstrate that the invasive plant or plants from its first inception. The initial Strat- farm. are a specific threat to the assets or values egy identified three main goals: preven- to be preserved, that is, to the survival of tion (stopping the flow of new weeds); IWM on a national scale the ecosystems or species, or to water qual- managing existing weeds; and develop- On a national scale, IWM falls into the sec- ity or quantity, or human health. The main ing national capacity, but most effort went ond category, integration of weed man- reason why weeds have not been taken se- into the second two tasks. The National agement into the other processes/systems riously on a national level is that this link Weeds Executive undertook the mam- used, and is closest to IWM within a large has not been made. The urban public does moth task of developing a national prior- catchment, such as the Natural Resource not understand that weed pollen may be ity list for major weeds, which resulted Management Regional Areas or Catch- the cause of their hayfever. They quickly in a list of 71 priority national weeds, ment Management Authorities. The issues react if waterweed infestations prevent with the worst 20 becoming the Weeds of

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 7 National Significance (WoNS). Hopefully Finally, management of existing al- the revised Strategy will put more empha- ready-widespread species requires con- sis on the first goal: just as for an individual sideration of IWM principles, that is, use landholder, the best return on investment of all appropriate control methods in comes from prevention, preventing the ways that integrates with other land uses weeds getting hold in the first place. On and values. In practical terms, this may a national scale, this means border control mean use of non-chemical control meth- (preventing them coming into Australia) ods where volunteer labour is available, or followed by regional-scale containment use of carefully targeted chemicals (such (keeping them contained into the one or as gel applications) in sensitive areas. In two original infested areas). Our border other heavily-invaded environments, the control system is generally good, even ‘heavy artillery’ approach, using bull- excellent by international standards, but dozers to clear all vegetation beneath the our post-border containment is still woe- largest trees, burning the trash and then ful (Australian Biosecurity Group 2005). replanting, can give excellent results (field For example, in northern Australia, major trip, Qld Weeds Symposium Townsville efforts are made to eradicate new areas of July 2005). For high-impact widespread Mimosa pigra in Queensland, or of rubber- weeds, biological control gives the best vine in the Northern Territory or Western results and has to be a key part of any na- Australia, but gamba grass is still planted tional IWM strategy (Walton 2005). and promoted across the north, and hymenachne, even though it is a WoNS, is Conclusion still sold and planted in the NT and WA. In summary, the principles of IWM on a There are innumerable examples of orna- national scale are similar to those for a mental plants which are declared noxious catchment or region: consider objectives, weeds in some states or councils, but are then prioritise these and determine avail- legally sold across the state boundary. So a able resources. Then decide how to use first priority must be to establish a national the best available management methods in system to control the promotion and sale each site or system in such a way as to sup- of known invasive plant species (Austral- port all land-use objectives for that site. ian Biosecurity Group 2005). Use adaptive management methods, i.e. The next priority must be to determine be prepared to learn from experience and which areas most need protection. To some adapt methods as the situation changes, extent, this has already been done: World whether this is due to new weeds or new Heritage areas, national biodiversity ‘hot- methods or changes in political or other spots’, and National Parks have been iden- priorities. tified and set aside with the priority objective of preserving our native biodiver- References sity. There is therefore a clear priority to Australian Biosecurity Group. (2005). In- protect these areas from invasive species, vasive pests, weeds and diseases: solu- both plants and animals, and, for example, tions to secure Australia. (CRC for Pest significant national resources have been Animal Control, CRC for Australian expended to keep mimosa out of Kakadu Weed Management, and WWF-Aus- (Sinden et al. 2004). Unfortunately, very lit- tralia, Canberra.) tle money has been made available to con- Martin, P. (2003). Killing us softly – Aus- trol pond apple in the Wet Tropics World tralia’s green stalkers. A call to action Heritage area, or buffel grass spreading on invasive plants, and a way forward. across central Australia, and no doubt (CRC for Australian Weed Manage- there are many other examples. ment, Adelaide.) Other priority areas are those which, on Sinden, J., Jones, R., Hester, S., Odom, D., a regional or landscape scale, are most eas- Kalisch, C., James, R. and Cacho, O. ily invaded, i.e. under most threat. These (2004). The economic impact of weeds might be remnant ecosystems which are in Australia. (CRC for Australian Weed fragmented and under high human pres- Management Technical Series 8, Waite sure, i.e. with many invasive weeds plant- Campus, Glen Osmond). ed nearby. Examples would be the Blue Walton, C.S. (2005). Reclaiming lost prov- Mountains and the Adelaide Hills, where inces: a century of weed biological con- housing is moving deeper and deeper trol in Queensland. (Queensland Gov- into previously uninvaded environments, ernment, NR&M, Brisbane). or remnant rainforest east of the Divid- ing Range. Riparian areas generally have richer soils and better water supply and for these reasons are often heavily invaded, often by a complex of weed species. Yet the very same features make them key ecosystems for many wildlife species. Management of weed invasions in these key environments must be a high priority for any national IWM system.

8 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 competitive ability of crop plants in breeding programmes (Lemerle et al. 2001a, Le- Integrating IWM into crop management plans merle et al. 2001b). Herbicide tolerant crop whether GM or conventional also introduce new selection pressures and impli- Ken Young, Karl Schilg, Brad Bennett and Kristin Sutton, The University of cations in their use, especially GM crops. Melbourne, Dookie Campus, Victoria 3647 While, the release of GM varieties needs to have an approval from the Office of the Gene Technology Regulator to ensure that there are no adverse implications to human health and the environment, their ef- Summary When developing integrated IWM Effects fect on off target species is under question weed management systems, it is neces- Biological management effects on some fronts (Snow et al. 2005) but other sary to ensure the broader picture of the While biological control has offered many studies have shown no change in soil mi- whole crop management plan is taken in examples of effective weed management crobial populations when comparing GM to consideration. The implementation of (Briese 2000), integrating these into man- to non GM crops (Lee et al. 2003; Milling weed management practices may impact agement plan whether these be crop, farm et al. 2004). on other aspects of crop management in or catchment scale can offer some difficul- the current or future seasons. Many of ty. For many biological agents the imple- Chemical management effects these impacts have been well understood mentation of other IWM techniques can be Herbicides can have several non target (e.g. the residual effect of herbicides, weed detrimental to the biocontrol agent, as the effects which if used according to label management on disease and insect popu- agents food source is depleted (Ireson et al. instructions should not occur (e.g. spray lations), however their impact on the soil 2000, Huwer et al. 2005). Perhaps another drift). Labels also give an indication of the fauna and flora has not been well under- approach is required such as those used persistence of herbicides in the soil. Here stood. Since the introduction of biotech- to combat insect resistance. For instance, there has been a welcome change in labels nological techniques, the full range of soil in GM cotton IPM systems; there has been getting away from just a time frame (plant microbes is now becoming evident. The the use of insect refuges to ensure that back period) to also including informa- role of these microbes on plant function there remains enough susceptible popu- tion about biological activity /requiring is still being discovered as is the effects lations to dilute any effects of resistant soil moisture as well (e.g. Syngenta’s Lo- of weed management decisions on these insect populations increasing (Carriere gran® and DuPont’s Glean® labels). While microbes and their interaction with plants. et al. 2004). A similar approach has been this change in labels occurred due to the Perhaps it is time for those in main stream suggested in theory for herbicide resist- prolonged dry season over the last decade, agriculture to pay a little more attention to ance utilising a mosaic boomspray pattern it has allowed users to be more aware of those that have been utilising ‘biological (Roux 2004). the processes required to degrade herbi- farming systems’ and for us to understand cides. the full interactions that occur between the Physical management effects plant that we are wishing to enhance and Physical management techniques include Plant and soil microbes interactions their environment. cultivation, cutting, mulches, flooding, An area that is becoming a major research and seed collection (Pratley 2000). While area is that of the soil microbial popula- Introduction cultivation is effective in controlling many tions and how agricultural practices are Integrated weed management (IWM) has arable weeds, the negative effect of culti- changing their populations. Only 17% of been developed from integrated pest man- vation on soil structure makes it undesir- the known fungal species can be cultured agement (IPM) utilising biological, chemi- able on Australian soils. The utilisation of , yet there has been the identification of cal, physical, ecological and genetic meth- burying seeds (Young 2003) to stop emer- 80 000 species of fungi from observation of od to manage weeds (Sindel 2000). IWM gence again is effective but not practical fruiting bodies in situ or by culturing soil as did IPM due to the development of re- in continuous large scale cropping enter- extracts, with more species being identi- sistance of the control species to applied prises. The use of mulches can provide fied through genomics (Bridge and Spoon- chemicals. The reliance of the chemical both a mechanism of weed management er 2001). Present research is investigating management option caused high selection but also increase plant nutrition through the role of agricultural production systems pressure which enhanced the resistance improving organic matter but cause issues including GM based systems on their ef- gene within the original population to be- in sowing crops and harbouring crop pests fect of the soil microbial diversity. come dominant. Alternating management such as snails and slugs. In work conducted at the University of options then reduced the gene frequency. Melbourne, Dookie campus, the effect of Initially the change in management was Ecological management effects herbicides on non target soil microbes has just to another chemical, sometimes even Changing the ecological balance of plant been investigated in vitro (Sutton 2003, with the same mode of action. This how- populations through altering sowing Bennett 2004, Schilg 2004). The effect of ever was short lived before multiple resist- dates, increasing sowing rates (Lemerle changing canola cropping systems from ance started to occur. Then IWM or IPM et al. 2004), retaining stubble, providing triazine tolerant canola to either glypho- becomes necessary in order to continue quarantine can also affect populations of sate tolerant or glufosinate tolerant canola, cropping. As the resistance issue was the other organisms. indicated that there could be an increase driving force to ensure crop production in the amount of sclerotinia present un- there was a tendency for practitioners to Genetic management effects der glyphosate tolerant crops(Sutton 2003, solely focus on its management and not Immediately these days one thinks of ge- Schilg 2004). Though (Lee et al. 2003) re- consider the side effects of the resistance netic engineering, but the whole process ported that glyphosate did not affect the management options on the whole crop/ of weed management is to manipulate the defence response of glyphosate resistant paddock plan not just in one season but populations’ genetics through favouring soybeans to sclerotinia. The effect of the over seasons. This paper reflects on the of some species against another, by ap- triazine herbicides atrazine and simazine IWM strategies and the side effects that plying artificial selection pressure. Other was to stop the formation of asci hence can occur due to their implementation. methods of genetic effects are to utilise to the sporolation of sclerotinia. As asci

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 9 formation has a light requirement, the use Erickson, H.P. (1998). Atomic structures of (2004). Activity of microorganisms in of herbicides affecting the photosytems, tubulin and FtsZ. Trends in Cell Biology the rhizosphere of herbicide treated and it could be theorised these herbicides act 8, 133-7. untreated transgenic glufosinate-toler- in a similar way in fungi. Glufosinate also Huwer, R.K., Briese, D.T., Dowling, P.M., ant and wildtype oilseed rape grown stopped the formation of asci. And has Kemp, D.R., Lonsdale, W. M., Michalk, in containment. Plant and Soil 266 (1-2), been shown to be produced naturally by D.L., Neave, M.J., Sheppard, A.W. and 105-16. Streptomyces spp. has some antimicrobial Woodburn, T.L. (2005). Can an integrat- Sindel, B.M. (2000). The history of inte- activity (Sessitsch et al. 2004). The dinitro- ed management approach provide a ba- grated weed management. In Austral- analine herbicides also have been shown sis for long-term prevention of weed ian weed management systems, ed to affect the nodule formation in legumes dominance in Australian pasture sys- B.M. Sindel, pp. 253-66. (R.G. and F.J. (Bennett 2004), due to the interference of tems? Weed Research 45 (3), 175-92. Richardson Melbourne). the bacterial protein FtsZ required for cell Ireson, J.E., Leighton, S.M., Holloway, R.J. Snow, A.A., Andow, D.A., Gepts, P., Hall- division. This protein is of similar struc- and Chatterton, W.S. (2000). Establish- erman, E.M., Power, A., Tiedje, J.M. and ture to tubulin, the site of activity for ment and redistribution of Longitar- Wolfenbarger, L.L. (2005). Genetically these dinitroanaline herbicides (Erickson sus flavicornis (Stephens) (Coleoptera: engineered organisms and the environ- 1998). Chrysomelidae) for the biological con- ment: current status and recommenda- trol of ragwort (Senecio jacobaea L.) in tions. Ecological Applications 15 (2), 377- Conclusion Tasmania. Australian Journal of Entomol- 404. Herbicides are not always detrimental to ogy 39, 42-6. Sutton, K. (2003). Effect of atrazine and soil microbes with some studies reporting Lee, C.D., Penner, D. and Hammerschmidt, simazine on Sclerotinia. School of Ag- an increase in the numbers of bacteria and R. (2003). Glyphosate and shade effects riculture and Food Systems. Dookie fungi (eg:(Balasubramanian and Sankaran on glyphosate-resistant soybean de- Campus, The University of Melbourne: 2001, Araujo et al. 2003). Also many soil fence response to Sclerotinia sclerotio- pp. 32. microbes are beneficial to plant growth, rum. Weed Science 51 (3), 294-8. Young, K. R. (2003). Cultural weed control: with more of these fungi bacteria and in- Lemerle, D., Cousens, R.D., Gill, G.S., Pelt- management of wild radish – a case vertebrates being discovered each year zer, S.J., Moerkerk, M., Murphy, C.E., study. Proceedings of the 1st Victorian (Bonkowski 2004). Hence, it is important Collins, D. and Cullis, B.R. (2004). Reli- Biennial Weeds Conference, Bendigo, to determine what the effect of herbicides ability of higher seeding rates of wheat pp. 30-2. are on the soil microbial populations, not for increased competitiveness with just in numbers but also on which are pro- weeds in low rainfall environments. moted and which are decreased. Those Journal of Agricultural Science 142, 395- herbicides that enhance the beneficial 409. groups and either suppress or not effect Lemerle, D., Gill, G.S., Murphy, C.E., the harmful groups are the herbicides that Walker, S.R., Cousens, R.D., Mokhtari, we need to utilise and conserve within our S., Peltzer, S.J., Coleman, R. and Luck- plant production systems. ett, D.J. (2001a). Genetic improvement and agronomy for enhanced wheat References competitiveness with weeds. Austral- Araujo, A.S.F., Monteiro, R.T.R. and Abar- ian Journal of Agricultural Research 52 (5), keli R.B. (2003). Effect of glyphosate on 527-48. the microbial activity of two Brazilian Lemerle, D., Verbeek, B. and Orchard, B. soils. Chemosphere 52 (5), 799-804. (2001b). Ranking the ability of wheat Balasubramanian, K. and Sankaran, S. varieties to compete with Lolium rigi- (2001). Effect of pendimethalin on soil dum. Weed Research 41 (3), 197-209. microorganisms. Indian Agriculturist Milling, A., Smalla, K., Maidl, F.X., Schlot- 45(1/2). er, M. and Munch, J.C. (2004). Effects Bennett, B. (2004). The effect of dinitroana- of transgenic potatoes with an altered line herbicides on the legume rhizobia starch composition on the diversity of symbiosis in field peas (Pisum sativum). soil and rhizosphere bacteria and fungi. School of Agriculture and Food Sys- Plant and Soil 266 (1-2), 23-39. tems. Dookie Campus, The University Pratley, J.E. (2000). Tillage and other physi- of Melbourne, pp. 49. cal management methods. In Austral- Bonkowski, M. (2004). Protozoa and plant ian weed management systems, ed growth: the microbial loop in soil revis- B.M. Sindel, pp. 105-22. (R.G. and F.J. ited. New Phytologist 162 (3), 617-31. Richardson, Melbourne). Briese, D.T. (2000). Classical biological con- Roux, F.G.J. and Reboud, X. (2004). A spa- trol. In Australian weed management tially based concept to manage herbi- systems, ed B.M. Sindel, pp. 161-92. cide resistance: the mosaic strategy. (R.G. and F.J. Richardson, Melbourne). Proceedings 12th International confer- Bridge, P. and Spooner, B. (2001). Soil fun- ence on weed biology, Dijon, France, gi: diversity and detection. Plant and European Weed Research Society. Soil 232 (1-2), 147-54. Schilg, K. (2004). Effect of glufosinate-am- Carriere, Y., Dutilleul, P., Ellers-Kirk, C., monium and glyphosate herbicides on Pedersen, B., Haller, S., Antilla, L., Den- the carpogenic germination of Sclerotin- nehy, T.J. and Tabashnik, B.E. (2004). ia sclerotiorum. School of Agriculture Sources, sinks, and the zone of influ- and Food Systems. Dookie Campus, ence of refuges for managing insect re- The University of Melbourne, pp. 55. sistance to Bt crops. Ecological Applica- Sessitsch, A., Gyamfi, S., Tscherko, D., tions 14 (6), 1615-23. Gerzabek, M.H. and Kandeler, E.

10 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 SESSION 3 Early detection and response (concurrent)

3. Physical removal of the seedbank In the case of Acacia karroo, with so few trees Site management strategies for six National to remove, and a large and persistent seedbank beneath the trees, it was consid- Environmental Alert List weed species in Victoria ered advantageous to physically remove the top few centimetres of soil from be- Michael Hansford, Catchment and Agriculture Services, Department of neath the trees. This ‘contaminated soil’ Primary Industries, Locked Bag 3000, Box Hill, Victoria 3128 was then disposed of at an appropriate landfill and deeply buried along with the removed A. karroo trees themselves. At the sites of removal, the topsoil was then re- Summary Six National Environmental subterranean Cape sedge; Piptochaetium placed with ‘clean’ fill prior to revegeta- Alert List weed species (three of which are montevidense, Uruguayan rice grass; Cyti- tion of the sites. declared State Prohibited Weeds in Victo- sus multiflorus, white Spanish broom. The Physical removal of the seedbank of ria) were targeted for early detection and six species were targeted through a Natu- one entire Nassella charruana infestation eradication in Victoria by the Department ral Heritage Trust funded project called was also undertaken. This was done to of Primary Industries: Nassella charruana, ‘Victoria’s Dirty Half-Dozen – Alert and reduce the risk of seed spread from the Acacia karroo, Hieracium aurantiacum, Trian- action on six new weeds in Victoria’. The soil seedbank at the site, which was about optiles solitaria, Piptochaetium montevidense, project, which ran from May 2003 to De- to be developed as a housing estate. With Cytisus multiflorus. During the course of cember 2004, was delivered as a part of a numerous construction workers and their the project, which ran from May 2003 to broader, Victorian Government project tar- machinery about to start undertaking December 2004, more infestation sites geting new weed incursions, called ‘Weed earthworks at the site, appropriate hygiene were discovered for several of the species, Alert Rapid Response’ (Department of Pri- measures would have been very difficult although Piptochaetium montevidense was mary Industries 2005). Three of the target- to implement. Removal and burial of the unable to be detected in Victoria and may ed species, N. charruana, A. karroo, and H. seedbank prior to the land development already have been eradicated. All species aurantiacum are declared State Prohibited phase was seen as a best-bet option to re- detected have received at least one treat- weeds in Victoria under The Catchment and duce the risk of seed spread from the site. ment of the original infestation sites, with Land Protection Act 1994, a status which re- With N. charruana, there is certainly scope the exception of Trianoptiles solitaria, which quires these species to be eradicated from to further utilise and harness land devel- initially proved difficult to detect. Treat- the State if possible (Table 1.). In addition, opment to remove or permanently bury ment programs for Nassella charruana, Aca- two of the targeted species, N. charruana, seedbanks. This is because this species is cia karroo, and Hieracium aurantiacum are and P. montevidense are Priority Sleeper only known to occur on the northern out- now well advanced. Critical success fac- Weeds (Cunningham et al. 2003). skirts of Melbourne, mainly on land about tors in eradication programs include that to be developed for housing or other de- containment of further spread is achieved Materials and methods velopments in the near future. by the use of weed spread and hygiene Site management strategies protocols, and best-practice control tech- 1. Site hygiene Staff and contractors 4. Site rehabilitation Site rehabilitation niques are instigated at each site of occur- involved in surveying and treating the was undertaken on a case by case basis, rence. weed species were briefed on the impor- depending on the requirements at each Keywords National Environmental tance of site hygiene. For example, they site. No revegetation was normally un- Alert List, Nassella charruana, Acacia kar- were required to inspect/clean their boots, dertaken with spot spraying among other roo, Hieracium aurantiacum, Trianoptiles soli- clothing, tools and vehicles on exiting in- vegetation, because weeds will be normal- taria, Piptochaetium montevidense, Cytisus festation sites to help prevent the spread ly be replaced by the natural regeneration multiflorus, weed hygiene, eradication. of propagules. In the case of Hieracium au- of the surrounding vegetation. Indeed, in rantiacum, if flowers and seedheads were cases where follow-up spraying for several Introduction present on the plants at the time of treat- years is required, having to protect plant- The National Environmental Alert List ment, it was usually possible to remove ed vegetation at the sites could hinder fur- (Alert List of Environmental Weeds) iden- and bag these propagules prior to the spot ther spraying attempts. However, where tifies 28 weed species in the early stages spraying operation to reduce the chances the large Acacia karroo trees had been re- of establishment which have the potential of seed spread from the site. moved from parks and zoos, revegetation to become a significant threat to biodiver- was usually undertaken to rehabilitate the sity in Australia if they are not managed 2. Managing the soil seedbank In the landscape values of these sites. (Department of Environment and Herit- case of Nassella charruana, Hieracium au- age 2004). Six National Alert List weed rantiacum and Cytisus multiflorus, the strat- Site monitoring species were targeted for early detection egy was to ‘spot spray’ the plants to kill DPI’s Integrated Pest Management In- and eradication in Victoria by the Depart- them before they set seed and to enable formation System (IPMS) is the database ment of Primary Industries (DPI): Nassella the germination of soil stored seed and to used to collect the data for infestations, charruana, lobed needle grass; Acacia kar- continue to follow up spray, so exhausting assessments, and treatments of the six spe- roo, Karoo thorn; Hieracium aurantiacum, the seedbank over time. cies in Victoria. orange hawkweed; Trianoptiles solitaria,

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 11 Results and discussion Acacia karroo – Karoo thorn has detected infestations in and around Treatment/eradication strategies for Acacia karroo is considered a serious com- the Falls Creek village and in the Alpine individual species petitor and can form dense thorny thick- National Park (Carr et al. 2004) (Table 2). Nassella charruana – lobed needle grass ets. In Australia, it is limited to a number Strategic management has been under- Nassella charruana is a serious weed due of horticultural plantings in zoos, parks taken as a cooperative effort between DPI, to its invasiveness and competitiveness. and arboreta, and its pre-emptive removal Parks Victoria and the Falls Creek Resort In Australia, it is limited to a few small from these sites has been undertaken in Management Board. For example, DPI has infestations on the northern outskirts of light of its weed risk potential to Australia provided chemical control advice, Parks Melbourne. It was discovered on a rural (CRC for Australian Weed Management Victoria has run the spraying operation in property, 20 km to the north of Melbourne 2003b). the national park areas, Falls Creek Resort in the 1990s. It is not known when or how In Victoria, A. karroo is known from a Management Board staff and contractors it was originally introduced to Australia, limited number of Zoo and garden plant- have run the spraying operation within but the landowner of the original rural ings (Table 2), and so far it has not been re- the Falls Creek village area. The strategy is property at Epping has recognised the corded as naturalised in the State, although to ‘spot spray’ individual plants or patches grass’s presence at his property at least seedlings have been observed growing of plants to kill these plants before they since the 1950s (CRC for Australian Weed under planted A. karroo trees at Werribee set seed and to enable the germination of Management 2003a). Open Range Zoo (Hansford 2004). soil stored seed and to continue to follow up spray, so exhausting the seedbank over Harnessing land development A small Just a few trees left in zoos and parks time. Seed and flower heads should be number of the N. charruana infestation sites The strategy is to physically remove each removed and bagged before spraying, if are in grassland reserves, but the majority tree and the top few centimetres of soil practical. Ideally, plants would be sprayed of infestation sites are on private land on from underneath each tree to remove the prior to flowering. All sites surveyed in the northern fringes of Melbourne, in the seedbank and tree to landfill disposal. Site the summer of 2003/2004 were revisited Epping area (Table 2). It is anticipated that rehabilitation, including topsoil replace- and sprayed again in the 2004/2005 sea- most of the properties with N. charruana ment and revegetation is then undertaken. son. This work will need to continue and infestations will be sold for residential There are so few trees to be removed in any new outbreaks will also need to be and/or industrial development in a few Victoria that eradication from the State detected and sprayed each time. During years time, enabling the harnessing of should be achievable in the near future. the project period, another species of Hier- land development to help eradicate the in- Six infestations were removed by DPI dur- acium was detected in the Alpine National festations. DPI will maintain contact with ing 2003–2004. There are now believed to Park, King devil hawkweed, H. praealtum the landholders regarding the timeframe be only seven remaining trees in Victoria, ssp. bauhinii. This is the first time this spe- for land development. This will enable with five trees remaining at Werribee Open cies has been recorded in Australia. The an opportunity for DPI to work with the Range Zoo, one tree in the Melbourne new infestation of H. praealtum ssp. bauhi- developers to ensure the use of hygiene area and one at Bendigo. In some cases, nii has since received treatment by spot protocols during the development process the trees have been valued as exhibits. For spraying. and that any remaining seedbank topsoil example, the Werribee Open Range Zoo is removed or buried on the sites as part has based its visitor experience around an Trianoptiles solitaria – subterranean of the land development process. This will African savanna landscape, including the Cape sedge ensure the eradication of the species from use of A. karroo trees. A staged removal Trianoptiles solitaria may out-compete more these sites. In the meantime, the strategy is and revegetation program is being nego- desirable indigenous plants. The earliest to ‘spot spray’ individual plants to kill in- tiated to minimise the impact to the Zoo known record of this species in Australia dividual plants before they set seed and to (Hansford 2004). Due to the Melbourne was a population in a reserve at North enable the germination of soil stored seed Zoo’s diligence in removing its A. karroo Balwyn, Melbourne in 1989. The origin of and to continue to follow-up spray when- trees in August 2003 (with assistance from the population is unknown. The weed is ever growth conditions allow, so exhaust- DPI in hygiene and disposal), the Zoo won a small, leafy annual herb that grows to ing the seedbank over time. This strategy a Special Achievement Certificate at the about 200 mm in height (CRC for Austral- will continue to exhaust the seedbank over 2003 Weedbuster Awards (Keel and Jou- ian Weed Management 2003d). time to reduce the risk for any eventual bert 2004). During the project period, Trianoptiles removal or burial of the seedbank at these solitaria proved difficult to detect at the sites. Hieracium aurantiacum – orange hawk- North Balwyn site. It was finally sighted weed by DPI for the first time in September 2004 Freeway construction, has it spread N. Hieracium aurantiacum is a threat to the al- (Table 2). However, within a few weeks charruana? The new Cragieburn Bypass pine country and the temperate tablelands of the tiny plant’s emergence, it became freeway extension was constructed in a of eastern Australia. It was probably intro- obscured by grass growth. The grass was northerly direction through the most heav- duced to Tasmania as a garden plant in the then mowed by the landowner, making ily infested N. charruana affected property early 20th century, but was not recorded it difficult to observe the plant, and the in late 2002. The freeway construction was in mainland Australia until much later. H plant then progressed to its annual dor- the subject of a VicRoads weeds strategy aurantiacum spreads by runners over short mancy. The brief seasonal opportunity to (McMahon 2002), and it is hoped that the distances and by seed over larger areas treat the weed and the regular mowing of road construction has not spread the weed (CRC for Australian Weed Management the site by the landowner adds complexity northwards, away from Melbourne. To this 2003c). New Zealand experience with this to its ease of control. More work needs to end, DPI has engaged with both VicRoads and other hawkweed species has shown be done to forge a closer working relation- and its contractors regarding the need for the danger of letting these weeds become ship with the landowner in order to see DPI to conduct surveys for N. charruana established (Espie 2001). that the site is treated and the landown- for several years along the construction In Victoria, a combination of survey- er’s grass mowing is postponed during route. ing by staff of Falls Creek Resort Man- the brief seasonal opportunity available agement, Parks Victoria, and contractors for treatment each year.

12 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 Piptochaetium montevidense – Uruguay- there are no records in surrounding areas, Conclusion an rice grass or anywhere else in Australia. The project was successful. It has enabled Piptochaetium montevidense forms dense the detection of many more infestation tussocks, is stimulated by fire and is re- Cytisus multiflorus – white Spanish sites than were originally known. Treat- sistant to grazing. It is a South American broom ment regimes have been set up for most stipoid grass, estimated to have a huge Cytisus multiflorus is a serious environ- species and sites. Some species such as potential distribution in Victoria and New mental weed that can form dense stands Acacia karroo are now likely to be eradi- South Wales. So far, only one infestation and out-compete native species. There is cated from Victoria in the near future. has been found in Australia, discovered at also concern that the species could hybrid- Other species, such as Nassella charruana Cherry Lake at Altona, Melbourne in 1988 ise with it close relative, Cytisus scoparius, are likely to be longer-term candidates. (CRC for Australian Weed Management to possibly form a hybrid weed (CRC for The innovative treatment strategies devel- 2003e). It is not known how or when the Australian Weed Management 2003e). oped during this project, such as physical species was first introduced to Australia. During the project period, all plants removal of the seedbank, and the use of During the project period, several at- that could be reliably detected within the hygiene and disposal protocols will likely tempts were made to detect the species boundaries of the Creswick Regional Park have application to other eradication cam- at the Altona site, however, no plants of were treated (Table 2). Plants reported paigns elsewhere. P. montevidense were detected (Table 2). outside the park boundary have not nec- It was then determined, and confirmed essarily been treated. The strategy is to Acknowledgements by the original botanist who discovered ‘spot spray’ individual plants to kill these I thank Michele Arundell, project officer the infestation, that the construction of a plants before they set seed and to enable for this project from March-July 2004, large embankment at the site for this spe- the germination of soil stored seed and to project team members Kate Blood and cies has likely buried the entire infesta- continue to follow up spray, so exhaust- Daniel Joubert (DPI), Natasha Baldyga tion. This ‘inadvertent eradication’ may ing the seedbank over time. A selective (DPI) for recent assistance with the eradi- have occurred several years prior to the chemical was used. Spraying before the cation campaign for Nassella charruana, start of this project. No additional sites flowers have fully developed is the best David McLaren, John Weiss and El Bruzz- have been detected in Victoria. However, approach, since flowering and seed set is ese (DPI) for introducing me to Nassella in November 2004, the occurrence of an- then prevented. However, it is often diffi- charruana and Acacia karroo, Colin Knight other Piptochaetium species (P. uruguense) cult to locate scattered C. multiflorus plants (Melbourne Zoo), Richard Rowe (Werribee was discovered in a reserve in the north- when they are not flowering. In a limited Open Range Zoo), Michael McNabb and ern Melbourne suburb of Reservoir. This number of situations, where the plants staff (Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne), discovery was confirmed by the National grow along the boundary of the park with Ian Shears (City of Melbourne), Mark Juler Herbarium of Victoria to be the first and private gardens, C. multiflorus plants were (Boroondara City Council), Peter Wlodarc- only record of this species in Australia. treated by a cut-stump herbicide method. zyk and Louise Beams (GAGIN Pty Ltd.), The land manager, the Merri Creek Man- The seedbank may be persistent in the af- Penny Gillespie (DPI) for field surveys of agement Committee, then spot sprayed all fected areas of the park and is likely to re- sleeper weeds, Craig Hore, Charlie Pas- the plants that could be found to attempt quire several years of follow-up spraying coe, Paul Fernando (Parks Victoria), Stan to eradicate this infestation. It is baffling as and surveys in order to eventually eradi- Cantwell, Jill Dawson (Falls Creek Resort to how this species became established, as cate the species from the park. Management Board), Rudi Pleschutschnig,

Table 2. Detection and treatment of the six species during the project period Species Number of Location of original Additional number Total number Number of infestations covered project scope infestations of infestations of infestations infestations treated by original project detected by detected by by December 2004 scope (May 2003) December 2004 December 2004 Nassella charruana 2 Thomastown, Epping 13 15 15 Acacia karroo 2 Parkville, East Melbourne 8 10 7 Hieracium aurantiacum 4 Falls Creek 23 27 27 Trianoptiles solitaria 1 Balwyn North 0 1 0 Piptochaetium montevidense 1 Altona 0 0 0 Cytisus multiflorus 4 Creswick 0 4 3

Table 1. Weed status of the six species. Note multiple status of several species Species Common name National Declared noxious (Victoria) Priority Sleeper Weed Environmental State Prohibited Weed (Cunningham et al. 2003) Alert List Nassella charruana Lobed needle grass    Acacia karroo Karoo thorn   Hieracium aurantiacum Orange hawkweed   Trianoptiles solitaria Subterranean Cape sedge  Piptochaetium montevidense Uruguayan rice grass   Cytisus multiflorus White Spanish broom 

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 13 Geoff Carr and staff (Ecology Australia), Brian Bainbridge (Merri Creek Manage- ment Committee), Kathryn Costello (Bio- What is a weed? sis), Val Stajsic and John Reid (National Herbarium of Victoria). John Dwyer, 14 The Valclause, Richmond, Victoria 3121 References Carr, G.W., Roberts, N.R., Wearne, L.J. and McMahon, J.B. (2004). Alpine Na- tional Park post-fire mapping of Or- ange Hawkweed and other pest plants. What is a ‘weed’; should we continue to meaning ‘of the fields’ and, rudus mean- Report to Parks Victoria from Ecology say that whether a plant is a weed is in the ing ‘broken stone, rubbish, debris’). Australia Pty Ltd. eye of the beholder? The two most frequently used defini- CRC for Australian Weed Management tions in the weeds literature today are: (2003a). Weed Management Guide – Introduction ‘a plant growing where it is not wanted’ Lobed needle grass Nassella charruana. The community response to weeds is af- and ‘a plant out of place’ (Usher 1996). Al- CRC for Australian Weed Management fected by the way we talk about them. though sometimes treated as if they are (2003b). Weed Management Guide The literature provides many examples equivalents, or used in combination, there – Karroo thorn Acacia karroo. of ‘weed’ being defined by reference to may be differences between them. Dr Wil- CRC for Australian Weed Management human preferences, e.g. ‘A plant grow- liam Parsons, for example, began his Nox- (2003c). Weed Management Guide ing where it is not wanted by man’ (Usher ious Weeds of Victoria with the following: – Orange hawkweed Hieracium auran- 1996); or ‘weediness is in the eye of the ‘A weed is usually defined as a plant tiacum. beholder’ (Roth 2001). Stearn wrote that growing out of place (that is, growing CRC for Australian Weed Management weeds ‘are not so much a botanical as a hu- where we do not want it to grow). Both (2003d). Weed Management Guide man psychological category’ (Stearn 1956). of these definitions involve man’s as- – Subterranean Cape sedge Trianoptiles It is common to hear that a plant may be a sessment of the plant in a situation – it solitaria. weed to one person and a valued plant to is growing out of place as we interpret CRC for Australian Weed Management another. It is suggested that this is too per- the meaning of “place” or it is growing (2003e). Weed Management Guide missive. Although such definitions con- where “we” do not want it to grow.’ – Uruguayan rice grass Piptochaetium tinue to be given, the true position today In the weed science literature, texts com- montevidense. is that some plants are weeds by reason of monly begin with the matter of definition, CRC for Australian Weed Management characteristics such as invasiveness, and and commonly accept definitions such as (2003f). Weed Management Guide remain weeds even if some people want those set out above. In 1956 the Terminolo- – White Spanish broom Cytisus multi- to grow them. gy Committee of the Weed Science Society florus. of America adopted the definition, ‘a plant Cunningham, D.C., Woldendorp, G., Bur- Definitions of ‘weed’ growing where it is not desired’. American gess, M.B. and Barry, S.C. (2003). Pri- Edna Walling wrote that in one of her first weed science texts often accept this defini- oritising sleeper weeds for eradication: lectures at the Burnley School of Horticul- tion. For example, Weed Science Principles Selection of species based on potential ture in 1916 she was told that a ‘weed is and Practices begins with an ‘Introduction impacts on agriculture and feasibility of a plant out of place’ (Hardy 2005). This to Weed Science’ which contains the fol- eradication. Bureau of Rural Sciences, definition was probably a standard one for lowing passage, Canberra. the time (Ewart and Tovey 1909). The bota- ‘The first question is “What is a weed?” Department of Environment and Heritage nist Dr Winifred Brenchley, however, in Before a plant can be considered a (2004). Weeds on the National Environ- Weeds of Farm Land, noted a few years later weed, humans must provide a defini- mental Alert List. Available: http:// that the word was used very loosely, and tion. Many varying definitions have www.deh.gov.au/biodiversity/inva- sometimes was made to apply to ‘almost been developed for weeds, depending sive/weeds/alert-list.html (Accessed: any plant in any situation’. She sought to on each particular situation where they 15 July 2005). narrow the meaning down to ‘an exact occur and the plants involved. For the Department of Primary Industries (2005). significance’. What resulted were separate purpose of this book, we define a weed Weed Alert Rapid Response Plan Vic- definitions, for each of the two distinct sys- as a plant growing where it is not desired, toria 2004/2005 – A surveillance and tems of working farm land: land under or a plant out of place – some plant that, response plan for potential, new and the plough, and grass-land. A weed of ar- according to human criteria, is undesira- emerging weeds in Victoria. able land was defined as ‘any plant other ble. We decide for each particular situa- Espie, P.R. (2001). Hieracium in New Zea- than the crop sown’. A weed of grass-land tion which plants are or are not desired land: ecology and management. AgRe- was defined as (a) ‘a plant of low feeding in terms of how they affect our health, search, Invermay, NZ. value’ or (b) ‘a plant that grows so luxuri- our crops, our domesticated animals, Hansford, M. (2004). Karoo thorn’s last antly or plentifully that it chokes out other or aesthetics. For example, some people stand. Under Control No. 28 pp. 14-15. plants that possess more valuable nutri- consider a dandelion in a lawn a weed Keel, S. and Joubert, D. (2004). The 2003 tive properties’ (Brenchley 1920). It may and want to control it, whereas others Victorian Weedbuster awards. Under be suggested that these definitions hardly feel the dandelion is desirable and do Control No. 26 p. 9. provide the exact significance sought, but not control it. The same thinking is in- McMahon, R.G. (2002). Craigieburn By- serve rather to demonstrate that precision volved for any weed situation, whether pass Weed Strategy. Prepared for Vic- is hard to achieve. The definitions are also in a crop field, a pasture, a body of wa- Roads by Ecology Australia Pty Ltd. confined to what are sometimes called ter, or in a non-cropland or natural site’ ‘agrestals’, weeds of agricultural land (Monaco et al. 2002).. (Usher 1996). Other categories of weeds As might be expected from such a begin- have long been recognised, e.g. ‘ruderals’, ning, this book is mostly about herbicides or weeds of waste places and roadsides and other ways of controlling weeds (Usher 1996). (From the Latin, agrestris, rather than about the weeds themselves.

14 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 It does contain a short section on invasive weed. Thus Campbell (1923) wrote, ‘…a a paradigm weed in mind, about weedy plant species generally, but this is clearly plant is a weed – not according to specific behaviour quite independent of human marginal in terms of the book’s concerns. qualities – nor by a definite concept in the wants and thus inconsistent with that no- At the same time reference is made, in this mind of man, but by human caprice’. This tion. work as in other texts, to attempts to iden- extreme position is not supported by lin- tify biological characteristics which may guistic use. There are usually grounds for A paradox serve to describe weeds, often by reference describing a plant as a weed, and exam- This paradox of weeds discourse was rec- to the work of the botanist Herbert Baker ples of capricious attribution are hard to ognised long ago. The agronomist Pro- (1974). find. fessor Jack Harlan and J. de Wet of the Alfred Crosby (2000) asserted that weed Oklahoma State University pointed out Definitions by ecologists is not a scientific word, and does not refer forty years ago that it was characteristic Ecologists also tend to use the ‘plant out of to plants of any specific species or genus of ‘the professional weed men’ that de- place’ definition. The glossary to Ecology: or any category recognised by scientific spite adopting the open ended ‘unwanted’ an Australian Perspective adopts the usual taxonomy. This, however, may mean no definition; they demonstrated a belief that definition: ‘Quite simply, a plant growing more than that in formulating the scien- there is a body of plants which are weeds. in the wrong place (a place where we do tific categories the features or qualities They ‘give long lists of “weeds” as though not want it to grow). A plant that is neither which make a plant a weed were not taken weeds were species’ and speak of ‘weedi- desired nor appreciated in that place.’ (At- into account. The question whether such ness’ when they do not mean ‘unwanted- tiwill and Wilson 2003). characteristics are able to be discovered is ness’ (Harlan and de Wet 1965). Despite The Oxford Dictionary of Ecology takes not to be deflected by a definition. this paper, which has been widely cited, the definition a little further: Professor William Stearn suggested this pattern of behaviour has continued. ‘A plant in the wrong place, being one that the appropriate sphere of science for An Australian example is provided by that occurs opportunistically on land considering weeds was psychology rather Charles Lamp and Frank Collet’s A Field or in water that has been disturbed by than botany: Guide to Weeds in Australia (Lamp and Col- human activity (see RUDERAL) or on ‘Taken as a whole, weeds are not so let 1984). The work begins with an interest- cultivated land where it competes for much a botanical as a human psycho- ing discussion of ‘What is a weed?’ which nutrients, water, sunlight, or other re- logical category within the plant king- adopts as the best working definition, ‘a sources with cultivated plants…’ (Al- dom, for a weed is simply a plant which plant growing in the wrong place’. Their laby 1998). in a particular place at a particular time discussion considers the usual point about Such wrong place definitions depend logi- arouses human dislike and attempts some plants being welcome additions to cally on there being a right place, and the are made at its eradication or control, the flora to some, and weeds to others. But right place seems likely to take us back usually because it competes with more they proceed to give very useful illustrated to what humans want. Some ecologists, desirable plants, or sometimes because descriptions of 283 weeds, the unwanted- troubled by the feature of the ‘un-wanted’ it serves as a host to their pests and dis- ness of which is taken for granted. definition that one man’s crop may be an- eases or is unpalatable or dangerous to The true position appears to be that other man’s weed, have preferred to de- domestic beasts’ (Stearn, 1956). books about weeds and weed science fine weeds as ‘pioneers of secondary suc- Despite this suggestion, scientists such as are directed not to all or any plants but cession’ (Bunting 1960, Harlan and de Wet horticulturists, ecologists, botanists, and rather to specific plants which are recog- 1965). There is something troubling about others persist in the attempt. The New Roy- nised as or accepted to be weeds. While the standard definition. al Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gar- adopting the generally accepted defini- dening entry begins with the customary tion, the literature is usually prescriptive Problems with the standard definition, but seeks to take the analysis about what plants are weeds and about definition further: the need to prevent their spread. Lists of When encountered in the scientific lit- ‘A weed is any plant growing where the world’s worst weeds (Holm et al. 1977) erature such definitions of ‘weed’ have it is not wanted – the wrong plant in do not appear to be compiled on the basis a strange uncertainty about them. It is the wrong place at the wrong time. The of mere preference or caprice. They rest as if the task of developing a definition distinction between weeds and more on an assumption that there will be ob- by which weeds could be distinguished desirable plants is a subjective one: one jective agreement as to which plants are from non-weeds has been avoided. The gardener’s deliberately grown plant weeds. It follows that objective, scientific question, ‘How are we to tell whether may be a weed to another, and gener- defining characteristics by which plants this plant is a weed?’ has been given not ally desirable plants like Himalayan are included as weeds should be able to even the response, ‘It all depends on the primroses can under certain circum- be identified. Perhaps we need to look be- circumstances’, but rather, ‘That is not a stances become weeds needing to be yond the standard definitions to see what question for botanical science to answer.’ eradicated. All kinds of plants can oc- writers have in mind when they talk about Dr B. Auld and Dr R. Medd for example, cur as weeds including algae, ferns and weeds. having defined a weed as ‘a plant growing horsetails, but the majority are flow- where it is not wanted’, go on to say that ering plants, both woody and herba- Noxious weeds ‘Any species in the plant kingdom, includ- ceous. Weeds are opportunists, taking Declared noxious weeds have always been ing algae, ferns and trees can be a weed’ full advantage of gaps in plant cover, a special case, standing outside the stand- (Auld and Medd 1996). A number of writ- often showing exceptional plasticity ard definitions. Weed status is determined ers have taken the view that any plant may which allows them to thrive under a by statute. Legislation in Victoria probe a weed, and that as a corollary, ‘weedi- wide range of environmental condi- scribed designated plants, first as ‘thistles’ ness is in the eye of the beholder’, as Roth tions’ (Huxley 1999). (Thistle Prevention Act 1856 and successive (2001) put it. If, as Auld and Medd assert, The last sentence of this quotation illus- Thistle Acts) and from 1922 as ‘noxious any plant may be a weed, it cannot be by trates the muddled thinking which so of- weeds’ (Vermin and Noxious Weeds Act reason of some feature or characteristic of ten accompanies discourse about weeds. 1922). The statutory regime under which the plant that it is a weed. That definition It contains a slide from the notion that any plants were declared ‘noxious’ has now means that it is always a contingent mat- plant may be a weed depending on hu- been replaced by the Catchment and Land ter as to whether any particular plant is a man wants to a proposition, perhaps with Protection Act 1994 under which plants

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 15 may be declared ‘State prohibited weeds, in Victoria for many years. Blackberry was undulatum, for example see Dwyer (2004). regionally prohibited weeds, regionally declared for the whole of Victoria in 1908, There are contentious issues to resolve as controlled weeds or restricted weeds’. The and horehound in 1932. Both had earlier to which plants should be regarded as en- logical status of declared weeds remains been proclaimed for particular shires. Of vironmental weeds, but this paper cannot the same, in that weed status is still deter- the 24 weeds listed as ‘Important Weeds be extended to consider them. mined by the declaration; other definitions of Public Land in Victoria’, nineteen were Use of the expression ‘environmen- have been superseded by stipulation, even declared noxious weeds, most of very long tal weed’ is largely confined to Australia though the concept of weed has been used standing. What was new in this pamphlet (Randall 1996). But there is concern world in that stipulation. is the consideration of well-known weeds, wide about plant invasions of indigenous not as weeds of agriculture or horticulture, plant communities, as demonstrated by Environmental weeds but of bushland and reserves. The weeds the vast literature on the topic, including In the 1970s some weeds began to be rec- which threaten native plant communities Invasive Plant Species of the World (Weber ognised as environmental weeds. The have often been well known agrestal or 2003). It may be that invasiveness is a key earliest publication referring to environ- ruderal weeds. defining characteristic of weed species. It mental weeds was by R.L. Amor and P.L. Following a national conference in 1984, is, of course, well recognised that many Stephens from the Keith Turnbull Re- Bitou bush and boneseed (Love and Dyson invasive species are not invasive every- search Institute, Frankston in 1975. Their 1985), there was a series of workshops in where, and that factors such as climate, reference was taken up by W. Holzner Victoria on environmental weeds between disturbance and competition from native from the Institute of Botany, University 1988 and 1991. Don Saunders (1991) from species may be significant in a plant be- fur Bodenkultur, Vienna, Austria in Biol- the Department of Conservation and Envi- coming invasive. ogy and Ecology of Weeds, where a definition ronment, in his invited editorial to a spe- was given; ‘Environmental weeds are in- cial number of Plant Protection Quarterly Conclusion troduced, aggressive species that colonise on environmental weeds, said of the 1988 As has been demonstrated by examples natural vegetation and suppress the native workshop, Weeds on Public Land – an action from the weeds literature, weeds have species to a certain extent’ (Holzner 1982). plan for today (Richardson 1988). been defined so often as a plant growing This definition provides criteria which are ‘Although some people had been con- out of place or where it is not wanted (or not about human wants or desires, but cerned about environmental weeds be- desired) that this can be called the stand- about what the plants do. fore then, that symposium was respon- ard definition. The standard definition That some plants were behaving in sible for bringing more widespread at- of weed, however does not accord with this way was recognised long before the tention to the problem of environmental agreement in practice about which plants expression ‘environmental weed’ was weeds in Victoria’ (Saunders (1991). should be included in lists of weeds. The adopted, even as early as the 1850s, for ex- The Minister for Conservation, Forests definition does not sit well with the desig- ample see John Robertson’s 1853 writing and Lands, Joan Kirner took part in the nation of invasive alien plants as weeds, or about ‘silk-grass’ (Vulpia myuros) in Say- symposium; as did Dick de Fegely MLC lists of environmental weeds. In addition, ers (1983). South African bone-seed, (Chry- on behalf of the Liberal Party. Both ex- gardeners may not only choose to grow santhemoides monilifera), the plant which pressed concern at the spread of weeds environmental weeds in their gardens, but Amor and Stevens called an environmen- and supported their eradication and con- may also deny weed status on the ground tal weed, provides an interesting 20th cen- trol (Richardson 1988). that their desire to grow the plants takes tury example. The harm which boneseed By 1991 there was widespread accept- them outside the standard definition (see was causing to native plant communities ance by environmentalists of the need for Blood and Slattery 1996). They may ar- in the You Yangs was documented by Jack action to deal with environmental weeds. gue that it cannot be said of plants which Wheeler in the Victorian Naturalist in 1964 That year also saw the publication of they choose to grow that they are growing (Wheeler 1964). Soon afterwards boneseed Kowari 2 Plant Invasions: the Incidence of where they are not wanted. It is suggested was proclaimed a noxious weed in Victo- Environmental Weeds in Australia (Hum- that efforts to gain community support ria (Victoria Gazette February 21, 1969). phries et al. 1991) and G.W. Carr’s contri- for the control of invasive plant species Concern about environmental weeds bution to Flora of Melbourne, ‘Environmen- should recognise that the standard defi- increased as the environment movement tal weed invasions and their conservation nition may itself be part of the problem. gathered strength in the 1960s and 1970s. implications’ (Carr 1991). If it was ever the case that weediness is Increasing concern found expression in Publications such as Kate Blood’s En- in the eye of the beholder, environmen- the 1976 publication by the Australian In- vironmental weeds: a field guide for SE Aus- talists may wish to argue that there are stitute of Agricultural Science, The threat of tralia, demonstrate increasing concern grounds for saying that it is no longer ap- weeds to bushland. A Victorian study (Anon that effective action be taken regarding propriate to talk about weeds in this way. 1976), which Richard Groves saw as the environmental weeds. Indeed, the whole The standard definition may thus require beginning of ‘the recent attention to en- movement formalised in the CRC for revision. vironmental weeds’ (Groves 1991). The Australian Weeds Management could be 1976 study, which did not use the term, seen as a demonstration of that concern. Acknowledgements is about what would today commonly It should be noted, however, that the lists Dr Janet Schapper and Dr Andrew Alex- be called ‘environmental weeds’, and is of plants said to be environmental weeds andra kindly read a draft of this paper and important as a demonstration of grow- are now becoming very large. Many plants made helpful comments. ing concern about the problem. It identi- which have not previously been regarded fied three weeds which posed a serious as weeds, but as popular garden plants References threat to bushland in Victoria: boneseed are being included in such lists (see for Allaby, M. (1998). ‘A dictionary of ecol- (Chrysanthemoides monilifera), blackberry example Carr et al. 1992 and Randall 2001). ogy’. 2nd edition, p. 427. (Oxford). (Rubus fruticosus) and horehound (Marru- Further, the lists are not confined to natu- Amor, R. and Stevens, P. (1975). Spread of bium vulgare); and included Appendix 1 ralised exotic plants. By ‘exotic’ I mean weeds from a roadside into sclerophyll ‘Important Weeds of Public Land in Victo- ‘introduced’ or ‘alien’: see Michael (2001) forests at Dartmouth, Australia. Weed ria’ containing those plants and a further and Ewart and Tovey (1909). Native plants Research 16, 111-18. 21. It is worth noting that many of these ‘outside their natural range’ are now be- Anon. (1976). The threat of weeds to bush- plants had been declared noxious weeds ing classified as weeds, e.g. Pittosporum land. (Melbourne).

16 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 Attiwill, P. and Wilson, B. (2003). ‘Ecol- gardening’, Volume 4, p. 697. (Lon- ogy: an Australian perspective’, p. 587. don). (South Melbourne). Lamp, C. and Collet, F. (1984). ‘A field Auld, B.A. and Medd, R.W. (1996). ‘Weeds guide to weeds in Australia’. (Inkata – an illustrated botanical guide to the Press, Melbourne). weeds of Australia.’ (Inkata Press, Mel- Love, A. and Dyson, R. (eds) (1985). ‘Bitou bourne). bush and boneseed’. (Sydney). Baker, H. (1974). Characteristics and modes Parsons, W.T. (1981). ‘Noxious weeds of origin of weeds. In ‘Genetics of colo- of Victoria’, p. 3. (Inkata Press, Mel- nizing species’, eds H.G. Baker and G.L. bourne). Stebbins, pp. 147-72 (New York). Michael, P. (2001). Alien plants. In ‘Aus- Blood, K. (2001). ‘Environmental weeds: a tralian vegetation’, ed. R.H. Groves. field guide for SE Australia’. (C.H. Jer- (Cambridge). ram and Associates, Mt Waverley). Monaco, T., Weller, S. and Ashton, F. Blood, K. and Slattery, D. (1996). I’ve got (2002). ‘Weed science: principles and angled onion in my garden and I reckon practices’, p. 3. (New York). it’s OK. Environmental weeds and com- Randall, J. (1996). Defining weeds of natu- munity education’. Proceedings Elev- ral areas. In ‘Assessment and manage- enth Australian Weeds Conference, ed. ment of plant invasions’, ed. J. Luken, R.C H. Shepherd. (Weed Science Society and J. Thieret. (New York). of Victoria, Frankston). Randall, R. (2001). Garden thugs, a na- Brenchley, W. (1920). ‘Weeds of farmland’, tional list of invasive and potentially p. 2. (London). invasive garden plants. Plant Protection Bunting, A. (1960). Some reflections on Quarterly 16, 138-70. the ecology of weeds. In ‘The biology Richardson, R.G. (ed.) (1988). Weeds on of weeds’, ed. J. Harper. (Oxford). Public Land – an action plan for today. Campbell, E. (1923). What is a weed. Sci- (Weed Science Society of Victoria, Mel- ence, 58. bourne). Carr, G. (1991). Environmental weed in- Roth, S. (2001). ‘Weeds, friend or foe?’, p. vasions and their conservation impli- 8 (London). cations. In ‘Flora of Melbourne’. (Mel- Saunders, Don (1991). Opening address, bourne). third symposium on the control of envi- Carr, G., Yugovic, J. and Robinson, K. ronmental weeds. Plant Protection Quar- (1992). ‘Environmental weeds in Vic- terly 6, 94. toria; conservation and management Sayers, C. (ed.) (1983). ‘Letters from Victo- implications’. (Department of Conser- rian pioneers’, pp. 167-9 (Melbourne). vation and Environment and Ecological Stearn, W. (1956). Review of ‘Weeds’ by Horticulture, Melbourne). W.C. Muenscher. Journal of the Royal Crosby, A. (2000). ‘Ecological imperialism’, Horticultural Society, p. 285. p. 28. (Cambridge). Weber, E. (2003). ‘Invasive plant species of Dwyer, J. (2004). Natural range, nature and the world’. (Cambridge). weeds. Proceedings of the 14th Austral- Wheeler, J. (1964). South African bone- ian Weeds Conference, eds B.M. Sindel seed becoming a curse. Victorian Natu- and S.B. Johnson. (Weed Society of New ralist 81, 255-6. South Wales, Sydney). Usher, G. (1996). ‘The Wordsworth dic- Ewart, A. and Tovey, J. (1909). The weeds, tionary of botany’, p. 398. (Ware, Hert- poison plants, and naturalised aliens of fordshire). Victoria. (Melbourne). Zimdahl, R. (1999). ‘Fundamentals of Groves, R. (1991). Status of environmental weed science’, p. 14. (San Diego). weed control in Australia. Plant Protec- tion Quarterly 6, 95-8. Hardy, S. (2005). ‘The unusual life of Edna Walling’. (Melbourne). Harlan, J. and de Wet, J. (1965). Some thoughts about weeds. Economic Botany 19, 16-24. Holm, L., Plunknett, D., Pancho, J. and Herberger, J. (1977). ‘The World’s worst weeds’. (Honolulu). Holzner, W. (1982). Concepts, categories and characteristics of weeds. In ‘Biology and ecology of weeds’, eds W. Holzner and M. Numata. (The Hague). Humphries, S., Groves, R. and Mitchell, D. (eds) (1991). Plant invasions: the incidence of environmental weeds in Aus- tralia. Kowari 2. Huxley, A. (ed.) (1999). ‘The New Royal Horticultural Society dictionary of

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 17 selected weed species as nursery stock on benches alongside safer less-invasive alternatives. This provides a read- Invasive garden plant display at the Melbourne ily accessible range of alternative selec- International Flower and Garden Show 2005 tions, promoting the garden centre in providing non-weedy selections. Daniel Joubert, Department of Primary Industries, PO Box 48, Frankston, • To ensure that State Prohibited Weeds Victoria 3199. Email: [email protected] were not displayed by performing good Cooperative Research Centre for Australian Weed Management extension and communication prior to the event.

Discussion The exhibit The ‘Future Choice Garden Centre’ exhibit Summary In April 2005, the Victorian Introduction at MIFGS put weeds into a new perspec- Government staged an exhibit at the Mel- A display incorporating weeds or inva- tive. MIFGS took place from 6 to 10 April bourne International Flower and Garden sive plants at a garden show is not a new 2005 in the Royal Exhibition Building and Show (MIFGS). The exhibit was about idea. In the United Kingdom at the Chel- surrounding Carlton Gardens on the edge invasive garden plants and safer alterna- sea Flower Show, displays incorporating of the central business district of Mel- tives. The exhibit was a joint effort by the this concept have been staged in the past bourne, Victoria. Victorian Department of Primary Indus- (for further information refer to: www.rb- The ‘Future Choice Garden Centre’ ex- tries (DPI) and Department of Sustain- gkew.org.uk/education/chelsea or www. hibit was in the form of a nursery and gar- ability and Environment (DSE). This was rhs.org.uk/chelsea/). den centre, with the theme ‘Your Garden, achieved with the support and involve- Invasive plants have been featured in Our Future’, and exhibited a range of inva- ment of the Royal Botanic Gardens Mel- displays at large garden shows and ex- sive garden plants alongside less-invasive, bourne (RBG), the Nursery and Garden pos in Australia, including Sydney, Can- safer alternatives. Industry Victoria (NGIV), the Coopera- berra and Perth. The display by DPI and Invasive garden plants in pots were ex- tive Research Centre for Australian Weed DSE was the first time that an exhibitor at hibited on nursery-style benches. Under- Management (Weeds CRC) and the Weed MIFGS has used invasive garden plants neath the benches were pots containing Society of Victoria (WSV). as the theme. safer alternatives to the invasive garden The exhibit was presented in the form MIFGS had its tenth annual exhibi- plants. The safer alternatives were then of the ‘Future Choice Garden Centre’, a tion in 2005. This show is regarded as the used to create different themed effects in garden centre raising awareness about in- largest and most successful horticultural nearby garden beds. These garden beds vasive garden plants and suggesting safer event in the Southern Hemisphere, rated were visually attractive and provided alternatives for the home gardener. among the top five flower and garden five different garden styles for different The Victorian Government, through shows in the world. For more information gardening conditions i.e. shade, aquatic, DPI and DSE, were involved in the Mel- refer to www.melbflowershow.com.au/. coastal, etc. The safer alternatives se- bourne International Flower and Garden The event has the support and participa- lected were also plants requiring less Show to: tion of key industry bodies. This includes watering. • Generate awareness about the invasive NGIV, Flowers Victoria (Flowers Vic), the DPI, DSE, RBG and the NGIV brought potential of garden escapees; Landscape Industries Association of Vic- the display to fruition with support from • Build partnerships; toria (LIAV), and Australian Institute of the Weeds CRC and the WSV. A display • Host a quality display; and Landscape Architects (AILA), plus active of this nature, combining government, • Ensure that State Prohibited Weeds were participation from leading horticultural nursery industry and community group not exhibited or sold at the event. colleges and universities throughout Vic- involvement, is an historic achievement, The event was seen as a success for the toria and Australia. and was rewarded with a ‘Highly Com- following reasons: A total of 350 companies and organisa- mended Award’ from a panel of inde- • The display received high praise on its tions exhibit at the show including land- pendent judges. quality and value from attendees at the scape designers, floral designers, flower A major contribution by the RBG was show; growers, nurseries and allied gardening the top quality site design by Andrew • The display was developed as a result retailers. Laidlaw, the resident landscape architect. of collaboration between government The objectives of the invasive garden The primary objective of the display and industry, and a community group; plant display at MIFGS were: was to increase garden and landscape in- • The ‘Future Choice Garden Centre’ • To create a display to increase public, dustry, horticultural media and general display won a ‘Highly Commended’ media, and garden and landscape in- public awareness of pest plant issues re- award in the show's outdoor exhibition dustry awareness about invasive gar- lated to ornamental horticulture. Many category; and den plant issues. current and potential pest plant species • The DPI compliance team detected • To create a successful partnership be- are sold in nurseries and informal mar- only two floral displays exhibiting tween a range of stakeholders. This kets or distributed through garden clubs, horsetail stems (Equisetum species). No partnership between the industry, gov- botanical societies and landscape design- live State Prohibited Weed plants were ernment and the gardener is powerful, ers. The focus of the display was the range found. This illustrates compliance by as it includes all parties involved, in- of invasive garden plants in Australia exhibitors and the effectiveness of good cluding growers, retailers, open space that were originally garden plants or are extension and communication prior to managers, researchers, regulators, gar- still grown in gardens. It is vital that the the event. deners and conservationists. understanding and cooperation of home Keywords Invasive garden plants, • To use the concept of a garden centre gardeners are gained if we are to succeed weeds, flower show display. entitled ‘Future Choice Garden Centre’ in preventing the further spread of these as the focus of the display. To present plants and the introduction of new ones.

18 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 Informing gardeners and the industry is Pelletier and additional information about images and information. These were a key component of the Victorian Govern- the display. mounted next to each of the weeds to aid ment’s Victorian Pest Management – A A central garden centre building, in the identification. Framework for Action. form of a counter and a basic roof cover- Plant identification labels were pro- ing, provided a suitable setting to display duced for all the plants used in the exhibit, Organising the exhibit brochures as well as a space for staff to both invasive and safer alternatives. The Once agreement had been reached to stage interact with visitors. This setting was labels were attached to plastic stakes that an exhibit at MIFGS, a Project Manager used to reinforce the role of the garden were inserted in the containers the plants needed to be appointed. DPI employed centre as a place to obtain good advice on were grown in and displayed common Rob Pelletier, trading as R.J. Pelletier Pty plant selection, weed identification and and scientific names. All the weeds were Ltd. , a highly experienced Project Man- weed management. Compared to a land- labelled with big red crosses and the safer ager for the exercise, through a competi- scaped garden display, where most of the alternatives were labelled with big green tive tender process, to assist the DPI Team area is out of bounds, the garden centre ticks. Leader, Daniel Joubert. layout, with two access points, enabled Negotiation and liaison with the large numbers of visitors to occupy and Construction funders, partners, sponsors and the event efficiently move through the site. An extensive team of DPI and RBG staff organisers, International Management DPI and RBG staff were trained prior to assisted in the set-up, staffing, and dis- Group of America Pty Ltd. (IMG) as well the event in site construction, visitor rela- mantling of the MIFGS display. During as DPI/DSE/RBG staff was an integral tions and general event logistics. A range the set-up phase, skilled labourers were and ongoing process. of information was collated for the train- employed to take care of the site construc- IMG provided an exhibitor manual ing including exhibitor requirements, pos- tion. DPI facilities at Frankston were used covering general information and guide- sible frequently asked questions (FAOs) for much of the timberwork storage and lines to exhibiting at MIFGS. It also con- and copies of important weed documents processing. A local contractor, Steve Gib- tained all terms and conditions, judging and site maps. To create the perception of son and his team were responsible for this criteria, event set-up and pull-down time a ‘real’ garden centre, all staff involved in activity. Timber panels, garden bed edges frames and exhibitor application forms. To the display were issued with uniforms dis- etc were prefabricated and then transport- be able to exhibit, an application had to be playing the ‘Future Choice Garden Cen- ed to the Carlton Gardens in a rented truck. submitted and for ‘Landscape Gardens’, tre’ logo. This logo was incorporated in all Alan Broadbent, a skilled handyman, a design plan and written brief had to be other display material in the exhibit. assisted during the set-up phase on site. provided. The involvement of the RBG highlight- The truck was also used for transporting The Project Manager was responsible ed the potential to show leadership and equipment and plants on loan from nurs- for obtaining sponsorship and in-kind influence visitors from organisations in- eries. The truck was used to store tools and contributions from a range of organisa- volved in public open space management, materials during the set-up phase. During tions. Several independent businesses such as local government. dismantling a second truck was obtained supported the exhibit by supplying plants to assist with returning plant material to and materials, including Repeat Products Publications the sponsoring nurseries. (decking, signs and seats), Gardman Gar- Show-specific publications and general The rules concerning site preparation den Products (fence screen panels) and weed publications were produced by and maintenance were strict. Allocated Fud Products (mulch and compost). Plants DPI/DSE. This included a brochure enti- sites had to be returned in good condition for display purposes were loaned by Dan’s tled ‘Future Choice Garden Centre’ and after the show and inspections are per- Plants, Lotus Water Gardens, Royal Botan- five postcards illustrating safer alterna- formed to ensure that this happened. This ic Gardens (Melbourne and Cranbourne), tives for coastal, shade, grass, succulent made construction difficult, as no holes Smith and Gordon Nursery and the Victo- and water gardens. Visitors were able to could be dug or vehicles driven or parked rian Indigenous Nurseries Co-operative. collect postcards corresponding to the five on grassed areas. To protect existing veg- DPI and a few NGIV members supplied different garden bed designs used in the etation, all works were done on hessian most of the weedy plant species. exhibit. Each postcard had the garden bed covered with black plastic sheeting. The Project Manager was able to secure design and the names of the safer plants Set-up and construction took place over a high profile site at no cost. The display used. The postcards were very popular a nine-day period. On average, seven staff occupied a site which was classified un- with the visiting public. per day were available during this period. der the ‘Landscape Gardens’ category A general publication with the title These people were volunteers that were and was required to contain significant, ‘Invasive Garden Plants jump the back prepared to do just about any task. This high quality garden design features. The fence’, was produced in brochure form. included assisting in timber and walkway garden centre theme was an ideal context The Victorian Tackling Weeds on Private construction, obtaining plants from nurs- to exhibit invasive garden plants along- Land (TWoPL) initiative funded these eries, painting, loading and unloading side less-invasive, safer alternatives. This publications. DPI used some images in the timber and plants from a truck, spreading enforces the role of the garden centre in postcards with permission from the Port mulch or gravel and any other odd jobs. providing non-weedy selections. This dis- Phillip Catchment Management Authority The days were long and it was hard play method allowed the use of good in- (CMA). A set of media packs containing a work. Staff often started early and only terpretative material in the form of point- range of weed information was produced. finished after dark. The weather was good of-sale posters, signs and plant labels. A This included publications produced by a with no rain. Bad weather was probably large amount of information could be pas- range of sources. one of the biggest risks factors associated sively supplied in this way, compared to Kate Blood was responsible for the risk with success at the show. a pure landscaped garden display setting assessment of all display plants. Plants Prior to and during the set-up, several where signage and labels would detract that were too invasive or were a potential people were involved in a range of tasks from the presentation. The point-of-sale serious threat to Victoria were rejected and that had to be done simultaneously. For posters used some humour and made a not recommended as safer alternative gar- instance taking care of publication ap- point about invasiveness of garden plants den plants for the exhibit. proval, compiling plant lists, ensuring that in general. Refer to www.mediaspread. Posters for each of the invasive gar- the required information was provided to com for a range of photographs by Rob den plants were developed with coloured staff, arranging staff accommodation and

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 19 rosters, and keeping staff updated with of noxious weeds which DPI staff were design and was a pleasure to work with. the latest information and progress. able to record and follow-up on after the I would like to thank Richard Barley and show. Michael McNabb as well as the follow- Open for business ing Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne The Victorian Minister for Agriculture, Cost staff involved in staffing the display: Bill The Honourable Robert Cameron MLA, It is difficult to do an accurate costing be- Bampton, Dermot Molloy, Ken Lake, Matt opened the exhibit on the first morning cause a large number of activities were Flinn, Matt Howard, Neil Perkins, Olivia of the show. Other speakers included Ri- performed as an in-kind contribution. In Thwaites, Peter Symes, Renee Wierzbicki chard Barley, Divisional Director of the many cases volunteers contributed ad- and Therese Turner. RBG and David Mathews, President of ditional time (private and official). It is The contribution of our partners and the NGIV. Ron Harris, Executive Director, estimated that the cost involved in host- sponsors made the display a reality. The Catchment and Agriculture Services, De- ing the display would be at least one hun- contribution of Michael Gainger and Rob- partment of Primary Industries, was the dred thousand dollars with an additional ert Chin from the NGIV is appreciated. In- master of ceremonies at the official open- fifty thousand dollars being contributed volvement by the Weed Society of Victoria ing ceremony. by sponsors in the form, for example, of and Peter Martin from the Weeds CRC is The show was open for a five-day pe- plants on loan. acknowledged. riod. Because of the long opening hours, I would especially like to thank a col- each day was divided in approximately Visitors league, Kate Blood, and the Project Man- four-hour shifts to ensure staff were re- A total of approximately 120 000 people ager, Rob Pelletier, for their enthusiasm freshed. A range of people was involved visited MIFGS, an estimated one third be- and valued contribution to the event. in staffing the display for several days in ing international tourists and one third succession and this can be a tiring exercise. from other Australian States. Feedback To be able to respond to questions from about the DPI exhibit from members of the public a range of reference literature the public was overwhelmingly positive. was made available on site. These items The weed display in the midst of the nurs- were secured in a lockable container or re- ery industry’s premier showcase was a moved from site when staff were not there. strong and positive way to convey mes- A visitors logbook was kept at the display sages, not only to the home gardener, but where visitors could record their thoughts also to the industry and professional open and comments. space managers. From the DSE/DPI per- The dismantling of the display took spective the opportunity to engage with place over a period of three days and the large numbers of gardeners was invalu- site was handed back to the organisers in able: the event enabled us to present weed good condition. awareness messages in positive ways, to RBG staff assisted visitors with plant receptive audiences. The comment, ‘This selection advice and many home garden exhibit is the best in the show, because it weed control enquiries. A major contribu- makes you think’ (or words to that effect) tion by the RBG was the top quality site was regularly heard. design by Andrew Laidlaw, the resident At the peak visitor times during the landscape architect. This was supported show, an estimated 2000 visitors per hour by the good plant knowledge represented passed through the ‘Future Choice Garden in the RBG. Centre’ exhibit. DPI staff were able to assist visitors The quotation that states ‘Success with questions about weeds, invasive gar- doesn’t happen by chance, it is the out- den plants and environmental issues. come of good planning, team work, commitment and a lot of hard work’ is true in Compliance activities this case. DPI enforces the noxious weed provisions of the Catchment and Land Protection Act Acknowledgements 1994 and is also responsible for identifying The huge commitment and passion of the and acting on new and emerging weeds. DPI and RBG staff to make the display a The MIFGS exhibit was an effective way success is acknowledged. The following for DPI to display and transfer this infor- DPI staff were involved in training, set- mation to visitors. After obtaining agree- up, compliance, display, dismantling or ment with the NGIV, information about other activities: Adam Kay, Anthony Wil- declared State Prohibited Weeds was dis- son, Byron Crowe, Claire Norris, Drew tributed to all exhibitors through IMG. Gracie, Donna Smithyman, Ian Faithful, This included a list of taxa and legal ob- Jaye Caldwell, John Weiss, Kristy Roche, ligations concerning these noxious weeds. Kate Blood, Les Bould, Linda Iaconis, To ensure that compliance was discreet Mark Watt, Marg McKenzie, Megan Mc- and did not impact on show activities, Carthy, Michael Hansford, Natasha Bald- this activity took place before the show yga, Penny Gillespie, Ryan Cooke, Sarah opened. During the compliance investi- Holland Clift, Sarah Keel, Shane Bettess, gation, involving the inspection of all the Pamm Brittain, Tim Bloomfield and Trevor show sites for declared State Prohibited Hunt. I would like to thank Tony Lovick, Weeds, a good result was obtained with Neil Smith and Rob McNally for their con- no live weeds encountered. structive contribution. Members of the public visiting the ex- Andrew Laidlaw from the Royal Bo- hibit reported occurrences of a number tanic Gardens was responsible for a great

20 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 seem to be getting targeted. People like WWF, The Weekly Times, Weeds CRC and Nursery people aren’t all environmental pests many others are unfairly targeting us. The headline grabbers often exaggerate or under-estimate the truth. Headline grabbers Robert Chin, Nursery and Garden Industry Victoria, PO Box 431, East spread hysteria and are not useful (Figure Caulfield, Victoria 3143. Email: [email protected] 1).

Where do the numbers come from? Let’s put this into perspective – and be re- Introduction coast by the NSW Soil Conservation alistic. As explained above – the truth is of- Villainous vendors or careful conservation- Service to reduce dune erosion and as- ten the first casualty in these emotionally ists? sist in post mining rehabilitation. sensitive environmental areas. Exaggera- e) Garden introductions – of course, but tion is rampant. Here are some examples. The truth is probably somewhere in the mid- not always. dle. For the first 100 years of Australia’s history Press Release AUSTRALIA’S LANDSCAPE we did not really have a nursery industry. ‘UNDER SIEGE’ (5 January 2005) For a long time the nursery industry has Plants were imported by early settlers and ‘…Few people seem to realise that the been an easy target for those in the bur- governments. Governments and other ad- rate of landscape loss to introduced geoning weed movement who are critical visory people have been telling us to plant plants is accelerating,’ warns Dr Rachel of us – but is this fair and justified? It may weeds for ages. McFadyen, Chief Executive Officer of have been in the past but is it now? the Co-operative Research Centre for The history of weeds in Australia is var- What is a weed now wasn’t always! Australian Weed Management. ied and yes we have contributed – but we History is littered with well intentioned ‘Already more than 27 million hectares are actually working very hard to stop the people and organisations wreaking havoc have been swamped by over 2500 for- impact of weeds on our natural and built on the environment. We have not always eign invasive plants, and new threats environments. known, or even cared about the environ- are emerging constantly as plant im- ment. It is only relatively recently that the ports continue to rise. Where do weeds come from – a bit general public has started taking an inter- ‘Besides the damage to native land- of history? est in weeds. scapes, weeds inflict a $4–5 billion loss The nursery industry is often blamed for There are many examples of plants on the economy, mainly through agri- being the source of weed problems. We that were brought into Australia for use culture, and a growing toll of ill-health have been in the past but not through all of as crop plants, fodder, grains etc. that are among people who suffer allergies, history as the following examples show. now considered weeds. Many of these lung problems or poisoning,’ she says. a) Blackberry – one of our biggest weeds. were imported and recommended by gov- ‘One way to look at this is that it takes Initially spread by Baron Von Mueller ernment departments. Is canola the next almost the entire earnings of the gold as a food source for drovers. big weed? Would we have a soft timber industry just to pay for the harm done b) Prickly pears – brought to Australia by industry without those Pinus radiata that to our economy by weeds. And that Captain Arthur Phillip on the 1st fleet have been known to jump the fence! What takes no account of the harm done to to start a cochineal industry to dye the about olives? the environment.’ uniforms for the colonies’ soldiers. Why pick on the nursery industry? Comment: this is very emotional languag- c) Chilean needle grass – introduced to es. Where does the estimate of $4–5 billion Australia from South America (circa Why do the media pick on us? come from? 27 million hectares is a good 1934) as a contaminant of sheep wool As with all things we need to take our share number but what is its origin? Probably or fodder. of responsibility for the problems that we 90% of all plants sold in Australia are for- d) Bitou bush was planted along the NSW have caused. As an industry through we eign plants.

Press Release: A KNOTTY PROBLEM FROM THE GARDEN (27 April 2005) ‘…Since blackberries now occupy an estimated 8 million hectares of southern Australia – arguably the nation’s

Figure 1. Here are some examples from the Victorian Weekly Times Newspaper

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 21 largest plant threat – the concern over Spreading the word stakeholders e.g. CRC, Federal govern- knotweed isn’t exaggerated’, says John • Several articles in our GroundSwell ment departments etc. Weiss. ‘The plant has the potential to Magazine • National Weeds Advisory Group – colonise the wetter areas of the south- • Distribute list of declared weeds member ern third of the continent…’ through magazine • National Invasive Species Framework Comment: to do this we would need to • Talk about weeds to various industry – member displace the other 100 or so weeds that bodies • Invited WWF to National Board meet- take over the environment, pull down our • Nursery Papers on weeds and garden ing cities and towns, pull up our roads and fill escapes • Work nationally through state NGIs in our lakes and rivers.) • Best Management Practice manual and IDOs Let’s try and use less rhetoric and work – weeds section • Nursery Industry EMS nearing com- positively together. The nursery industry • Five minute environment checklist pletion is a $6 billion industry employing about • Regular weed column in Australian • Nursery Papers and other publications 30 000 people. Being negative towards us Horticulture? (Figure 2) affects us. Why aren’t you picking on the Which list? olive industry, pine plantation industry or Sustainable Gardening Australia The biggest problem that we, as an indus- even Agriculture because this is where the (SGA) try face is knowing which plants are weeds majority of real environmental weeds are • SGA is a not for profit association total- and which list should we refer to. Is it real- coming from? ly committed to achieving real, contin- istic to expect every member to stop sell- ually improving and easily understood ing and growing every plant on every list What is the Nursery Industry environmental solutions for gardeners when nobody can agree on which plants doing? • Support of industry body should be on a list. This is very difficult. In Victoria the Nursery industry, in other • Our biggest and best members are in- So which list should we use? states and nationally are working towards volved • B.A. / WWF List – is this a good list? removing pest plants and Greening Aus- • Weeds are a component of SGA Ac- • AQIS List tralia. We all need to work together to creditation • State Govt – Declared noxious list solve this problem. We are doing our bit. • Nearly 30 and growing • WoNS (not all have legal standing) Here are some examples. • http://www.sgaonline.org.au • WoNS 2 • Working on projects together • Local Government lists Future choice garden centre at Melbourne In- • Local Landcare and Green groups lists ternational Flower and Garden Show Other things we are doing/planning • Garden thugs/escapees lists • Showcase at MIFGS • Assisting DPI and DSE with various • Nursery Industry lists • Assisted with lists, concept, supply of weed initiatives (time consuming) Confusion reigns supreme! No wonder plants • ‘Grow me Instead’ brochure our members struggle. Maybe their needs • Difficult to find ‘weedy’ plants • Future regular publication – Australian to be only one list? Who will decide which • Good relationship builder Horticulture is the right list though? • 120 000 spectators • On-going communication • Offered alternatives • Part of the NGIA, national approach Back to basics – what is a weed? – driving this Who defines a weed? The perception is List of 50+ weeds – voluntary removal that the ‘weed industry’ bureaucracy is • Developed list in partnership with In South Australia: growing almost as big as the problem it- Government • Andreas Glanznig WWF – Speaks at self. One of the key jobs of the regulators • Agreed to list of plants for voluntary State Conference must be to help out in this area – not make removal • ‘Grow Me Instead’ brochure in con- it worse. • Distributed information/list to indus- junction with Weeds CRC • Some plants known as weeds are only try • On-going involvement with govern- plants that people can grow e.g. north • First of many to come ment and other relevant stakeholders of divide • No problems with implementing • Must have a basis in scientific fact (for a list of voluntary banned pest plants National – NGIA • Can not rush listings see Appendix I) • On-going dialogue with relevant • Just because it is a weed in one area of one part of the world does not mean it will be a weed here in Oz • Sterile hybrids • Not just because they are popular • How do we as an industry know if it is a weed if the Government lets it in? • Whose responsibility is it to define a weed? e.g. Agapanthus example

The Future – working smarter and harder There must be a better way. We need to work better and smarter. Working together and educating must be better than slan- der, exaggeration and taking shots at each other. So how can we go forward? Here are some thoughts: • Better communication – across all Figure 2. Nursery industry publications stakeholders

22 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 • Working closer together – workshop Appendix I. List of 50 plants voluntarily removed from sale example Botanical name Common name • Which plants are weeds? – Sterile cultivars – proper scientific basis Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Delile* Prickly acacia • Which list do we use? Lets simplify Ambrosia L. spp. All ragweeds this Annona glabra L.* Pond apple • Don’t play the blame game! • Talk to me – or my counterparts in your Anredera cordifolia (Ten.) Steenis Madeira vine states Asparagus asparagoides (L.) Druce* Bridal creeper • Considered education program Bassia scoparia , B. sieversiana , Kochia alata, K. scoparia var. Kochia References and acknowledgements culta, K. scoparia var. pubsecens , K. scoparia var. subvillosa Moq., K. scoparia var. trichophila (Stapf), K. sieversiana, K. The following resources were used in the trichophila Stapf. preparation of this presentation: • Weeds Australia website: http://www. Cabomba Aubl. spp. (all)* Cabomba weeds.org.au Calystegia silvatica (Kit.) Griseb. Greater bindweed • Weeds CRC – various publications, press releases and website: http:// Carthamus glaucus M.Bieb. Glaucus start thistle www.weeds.crc.org.au Cenchrus incertus M.A.Curtis Spiny bluegrass • Enviroweeds Centaurea maculosa Lam. Spotted knapweed • Weekly Times – Various clippings and letters Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Robinson Siam weed Thank you to WSV for invitation to attend Cryptostegia grandifloraRoxb. ex R.Br.* Rubber vine and speak, to the various nurseries that Disa bracteata Sw. African weed-orchid have contributed to this presentation and other stakeholders that I work with in this Gymnocoronis spilanthoides DC. Senegal tea area that assisted us. Hedera helix L. English ivy Hymenache amplexicaulis (Rudge) Nees* Hymenache Hypericum calycinum L. Grow under permit Large flowered St John’s wort Hypericum canariense L. Canary Island St John’s wort Hypericum humifusum L. Grow under permit Trailing St John’s wort Lantana camara L.* Lantana Miconia Ruiz & Pav. spp.* Miconia Mimosa pigra L.* Giant sensitive plant Nassella (Trin.) Desv. spp.* Needlegrass Onopordum L. spp. Onopordum thistles Onopordum tauricum Willd. Taurian thistle Opuntia aurantiaca Lindl. Tiger pear Parkinsonia aculeata L.* Parkinsonia Rubus alceifolius Poir. Giant bramble Rubus argutus Link Florida blackberry Rubus rugosus J.E. Smith Keriberry Sagittaria graminea Michaux Sagittaria Sagittaria montevidensis Cham. & Schltdl. Arrowhead Sagittaria platyphylla (Engelm.) J.G.Sm. Delta arrowhead Sagittaria pygmaea Miq. Dwarf arrowhead Salix aegyptiaca L.* Asian sallow Salix alba L.* White willow Salix cinerea L.* Common sallow Salix exigua Nutt.* Sandbar willow Salix fragilis L.* Crack willow Salix glaucophylloides Fernald* Dune willow Salix humboltiana Willd.* Pencil willow Salix L. spp. (all except S. babylonica L., S. calodendron [= Willow, sallow, osier S. × calodendron Wimm. = S. caprea L. × S. purpurea L. × S. viminalis L.], S. × reichardtii A.Kern [= S. caprea L. × S. cinerea L.], S. alba var caerulea)* Salix matsudana Koidz.* Tortured willow

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 23 Sustainable garden centre project

Mary Trigger, Sustainable Gardening Australia, 6 Manningham Road West, Bulleen, Victoria 3105. Email: [email protected]

The aim of the Sustainable Garden Cen- • Ensure no noxious weeds or DPI tre environmental accreditation project is banned plants are sold to provide retail garden businesses and • Liaise with SGA and council to remove home gardeners with a pathway to sus- from sale the worst garden escapees of tainability the local area • Publicly display this list and include in Project development and structure staff manual and plant buyers guide Sustainable Gardening Australia (SGA) • Tag with an SGA Weed Warning label worked with the University of Melbourne any other plants council may be con- (Burnley Horticultural College), local gov- cerned about ernment and retail nurseries across Mel- • Remove any weeds from the nursery bourne for 18 months to develop and trial display gardens e.g. car park an environmental accreditation for retail • Patrol the nursery boundary monthly garden centres that was industry relevant for escapees and customer focused. From the onset Sustainable Garden Centres are audited SGA recognised the important role local annually to encourage businesses to in- government played, the importance of crementally and continually improve their aligning with council initiatives and the environmental performance. valuable role SGA could play in building communication pathways between retail Staff training nurseries and local government. To achieve accreditation garden centre staff The working group identified six key undertake a training course in sustainable areas of sustainability relevant to the gar- gardening to ensure they are aware of the dening: environmental issues and provide appro- • Pesticides and herbicides priate advice to customers. This training • Composting and organic waste recy- incorporates the free TAFE accredited Our cling Water Our Future Green Gardeners course • Water conservation developed and delivered by SGA with • Environmental weeds funding from Our Water Our Future, Mel- • Indigenous plants bourne Water and the Catchment Man- • Sustainable purchasing agement Authorities. Within this training SGA Sustainable Garden Centres have to program there is a focus on the impact of demonstrate ongoing commitment to all weeds on the natural environment, the the key areas of the project and to undergo responsibility of the horticultural and an annual audit. To be an accredited mem- gardening industries, identification of lo- ber of SGA, garden centres have to: cal environmental weeds and alternative • Develop policies and practices that plant species to recommend to customers. meet the internal best practice guidelines of the project; Customer education material • Undergo staff training to ensure staff The SGA working group has developed are giving reliable advice to home gar- and trialled a number of customer edu- deners and; cation tools including posters displayed • Pro-actively promote, educate and in- at the point of sale when the gardener is fluence home gardeners to garden in a making a purchasing decision. SGA en- more sustainable manner by displaying courages the gardener to think about the the SGA ratings systems and education issues and make a decision that will have material. a positive environmental impact beyond their backyard. Sustainable Garden Cen- Internal operations tres also distribute council publications on To obtain accreditation garden centres weeds and indigenous plants. are required to address numerous envi- SGA has detailed information sheets on ronmental issues relating to chemical and their website that customers are referred water use, waste and energy reduction to as well a monthly magazine that fo- and promotion of indigenous plants and cuses on a weed and alternative species renewable products. Specifically with re- each month. Twenty six mainstream gar- gard to weeds nurseries must: den centres are currently committed to the • Develop an Environmental Weed Poli- project. cy and a Purchasing Policy

24 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 surveys of olive tree numbers in Australia have ranged between 3.8–9.6 million trees Olives – new industry or environmental threat (Table 1), there is a lack of accurate information about the size and distribution of Michael Laity and Ken Young, The University of Melbourne, Dookie the olive industry in Australia (Davies 2002, King 2004). Campus, Victoria 3647 Victorian olive industry There is little information about the current size and distribution of the industry in Victoria. Various estimates of indus- Summary The olive tree is known world- with increased numbers and distribution try size place the Victorian industry be- wide for its symbolism, aesthetics and gas- of groves will provide a seed source for tween 596 000 (ABS 2001) and 2.6 million tronomic value. Unfortunately the olive new generations of feral olives with a (Sweeney 2002), (Table 1). Importantly, the have also naturalised and invaded native much wider distribution (Bass et al. 2004). census indicated a large number of recent vegetation in many areas, reducing bio- In response to this concern South Aus- plantings with 89% of the trees less than diversity. tralia and Tasmania have initiated strate- six years old (ABS 2001), suggesting many The olive industry in Australia is rap- gies to manage the risk of olives dispersing trees were yet to come into full produc- idly developing with many groves being off farm. These have included education tion. established in new areas. The increased campaigns, grove registration, research Olives are grown throughout Victoria number and distribution of olive groves activities, and the development of Weed with the ABS finding the largest concentra- threatens native vegetation. South Aus- Risk Assessments for the approval of new tion of olive trees is in the Swan Hill region tralia and Tasmania have addressed this olive groves (APCC 1999, Hanson 2002). (233 529). There are also large numbers of issue by developing management strate- Despite significant olive industry de- trees in the South Grampians (54 696), gies. Despite significant industry devel- velopment in Victoria, the industry or Horsham (54 013), Loddon (33 866), and opment in Victoria, the government and government has not yet developed any Moira regions (32 252) (Figure 1). Current industry has not yet addressed the issue. management strategies for the issue of data sets (Table 1, Figure 1) are likely to This paper considers the influence of the feral olives. The management strategies underestimate the distribution of olive environment and potential management devised by South Australia and Tasmania trees, as there have been significant plant- on olive dispersal and growth. This data could provide a guideline for developing ings since the time of the census. was incorporated into distribution models strategies for Victoria. However, differing which showed Victoria’s climate and en- legislative and natural environments re- Olive ecological attributes vironment is well suited to olives. Unless quire a strategy specific to Victoria. Rainfall properly managed, the current expansion While it is considered commercial produc- in olives plantings will pose a very high Present industry situation tion of olives should receive between 700 risk to Victoria’s remnant bushland. The olive industry in Australia has rapidly to 1100 mm of water annually (Booth and It is recommended that: 1). The Victori- developed in the past decade. The new Davies 1996). Feral olives are able to grow, an government and olive industry address and existing groves range in size from very reproduce and invade new areas with the issue of feral olives; 2). A stakeholder small to large investment driven corporate much lower annual rainfall, being highly group be formed to examine the issue; 3). groves (Kailis and Sweeney 2002). Most invasive where annual rainfall is 500–800 An education and awareness campaign be growers entering the industry are small, mm (Cooke 1989, Parsons and Cuthbert- implemented; 4). Risk management guide- with farm diversification projects or hob- son 1992, Muyt 2001) but capable of sur- lines be developed for olive groves; 5). Ex- by farms of less than 5000 trees (D’Emden viving in regions with less than 400 mm isting and new feral olive trees be control- 2001, Davies 2002). While estimations and annual rainfall (Crossman et al. 2002), but led; and 6). The potential for preventing new olive groves in high-risk areas using a weed risk assessment be further inves- Table 1. Estimations of tree numbers in Australia tigated. Tree numbers Tree numbers Approximate Sales as at June Introduction from 2000/2001 based on nursery olive tree 2002 + orders for The olive tree (Olea europaea ssp. europaea) censusA sales and orders numbers as of 2002–2003D is known worldwide for its symbolism, 1990–2002B 2001C aesthetics, hardiness and the gastronomic VIC 596 040 1 561 677 2 300 000 2 657 416 value of the olive fruit (drupe). The olive industry is currently undergoing a period NSW 785 965 1 926 117 2 000 000 2 209 050 of significant expansion in Australia. Large SA 856 443 1 255 792 1 500 000 1 767 519 numbers of new olive groves have been WA 843 989 1 602 790 1 300 000 1 418 240 established throughout the country, many of them in Victoria. The current industry QLD 746 429 1 096 520 1 200 000 1 241 020 expansion is in somewhat of a renaissance, TAS 53 864 107 730 170 000 170 799 as there have been past expansions and NT 2 300 5 000 2 300 contractions in the olive industry, particularly in South Australia. ACT 1 700 Included in The early development and contrac- NSW tion of the olive industry resulted in olive Unknown 100 000 100 100 seeds dispersing from abandoned groves, causing a major weed problem of feral ol- Australia 3 884 432 7 652 926 8 475 000 9 566 344 ives. There is concern that if not properly A (ABS 2001); B (RIRDC 2002); C (Miller 2002 in Kailis and Considine 2002); D (Sweeney managed, the current industry expansion 2002)

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 25 Alternatively, is to utilise birds perching habits to ensure dispersal is close to the orchard. The South Australian APPC (1999) code of practice for olive trees, recommends a 25–50m olive free ameliora- tion zone, for monitoring and fire control and a 50–200m buffer zone within the property boundary. The required width of the buffer zone depends on the number of perching sites (APCC 1999), as the aim of the buffer zone is to encourage feeding birds to perch and drop the seed near the orchard. As most bird damage is done when alternative food sources are scarce (Feare 1980), providing alternative food sources could reduce bird predation of olives (Feare 1980, Sinclair 1999). This requires knowledge of the nutrition requirements and feeding habits of different age and sex Figure 1. Victorian olive tree numbers by Local Government Area from the groups (Feare 1980) and the availability of 2000/2001 census (ABS 2001) alternative food sources. The most effective control is physically excluding birds from orchards by the use of netting. The cost of netting means it is this may be associated with run-off (Muyt Spennemann and Allen 2000). Whether generally only appropriate to high value 2001) or abnormally wet seasons (Spen- the birds can ingest the olive depends on crops with a high level of fruit loss (Sin- nemann and Allen 2000). olive size (Fabbri et al. 2004) and the gape clair 1999, Bomford and Sinclair 2002). size of the bird (Rey et al. 1997). The cost of netting varies between $15 000 Temperature The main non-avian vectors are foxes to $30 000 per ha (APCC 1999) at least A vernalisation temperature of approxi- (Lowe 1982, Paton et al. 1988). Unlike most tripling the present, establishment costs mately 12°C average daily temperature is bird predation, foxes are likely to be long (Trapnell and Carmichael 1998, Burgess required for flowering and fruit set to occur distance vectors of olive seeds (Burr 1999), 1999, Kailis and Considine 2002). (Denney and McEachern 1983). Growth of with a potential dispersal range up to 5 km Effective fox management requires a olives can occur up to 33°C, with mature (Spennemann and Allen 1998). Kangaroos group of landholders conducting a wide- tree entering dormancy above this (Re- have also been reported as feeding on ol- spread baiting program (APCC 1999). nowden 1999). Temperatures below zero ive fruits (Burr 1999). Other possible dis- will damage tree extremities(Renowden persal vectors of olives include mice (Mus Harvesting 1999) but temperatures need to be below musculus), rats (Rattus rattus, R. noregicus), Greater efficiencies in harvesting reducing −5°C to kill young seedlings and less than flying foxes (Pteropus sp.), sugar squirrels the amount of fruit left on the trees or on −10°C for large mature trees (Sibbett and (Petaurus breviceps), possums (Pseudochei- the ground is required. Hand harvesting

Osgood 1994), with a LD50 of three-year- rus; Trichosurus), rabbits (Oryctolagus cu- is more effect in getting the majority of old trees ranged between −11.39°C to niculus), goats (Capra hircus), sheep (Ovis fruit (up to 95%) compared to mechanical −18.16°C, depending on the cultivar (Bar- aries) and wombats (Wombatus ursinus) harvesting (65–80%), but can be improved tolozzi and Fontanazza 1999). (Spennemann and Allen 1998). Farm an- by either using chemical loosening agents imals including pigs, cattle and poultry (80–95%) or if followed by hand pick- Soil characteristics will eat olive seeds and could contribute to ing (99%) (Booth and Davies 1996, ABC Olives are capable of growing on hilly and dispersal (Tompson 1888, in Spennemann 2003). rocky areas and will generally grow in any and Allen 1998). soil type, with the exception of pure sands Increasing fruit size or clays (Burr 1999). The soil pHCaCl2 pa- Management options to reduce As smaller olive seeds are likely to be rameters for suitable for olive production dispersal swallowed by a greater number of birds, range between 5 and 8.5 (Sibbett and Os- Vector management thereby dispersing the seeds (Sinclair good 1994, Burr 1999), though have been Effective bird management in orchards 1999), the growing of larger size varie- observed growing as a weed, in quite use many different methods such as visu- ties should be encouraged. Thinning the acidic soils(<5 pHwater) (Hamilton 1999). ally scaring (scarecrows, reflective mirrors, number of olives shortly after fruit set will The olive is a moderately salt tolerate tree bird silhouettes or kites),auditory methods also increase the size of fruit (Maranto and (Connell and Catlin 1994), with soil salin- (bangers or other explosive devices) can be Krueger 1994, Martin et al. 1994). Similarly ity greater than 8.4 dS m-1 unsuitable for used to cause fear, disorientation, disrupt pruning can also be used to adjust the lev- commercial olive production (Burr 1999). communication and to mimic distress calls els of fruit on the tree, with less fruit the (Sinclair 1999). Population reduction by large fruit size (Fowler 1940). Olive dispersal shooting birds is generally an inefficient Birds are considered the main dispersal control measure, but can be used success- Time of ripening mechanism for feral olives. While the com- fully to reinforce auditory control meth- Unevenness in ripening is likely to result mon starling is generally recognised as the ods. Emus can be controlled by frequent in a smaller harvesting efficiency (Burr main avian vector for olive dispersal nu- harassing (Temby 2003). They can also be 1999)with more fruit remaining on the merous bird species have been seen to feed excluded by installing a sloping electric tree, which could be eaten and dispersed. on olives, including emus (Cleland 1952, fence (APCC 1999, Temby 2003) or an extra As variety influences maturity time, hav- Black 1965, Forde 1986, Mladovan 1998, high non-electric fence (APCC 1999). ing a region with similar varieties will

26 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 leave only a small window of opportunity for food sources to vectors, reducing build up of vectors over time.

Victoria at risk The computer program CLIMATE was used to analyse the potential distribution of olives based on climatic suitability. Weather data utilised by the program was weather station data from the Mediterra- nean region where olives originated from, and weather stations matching the FIS locations of feral olives in Victoria (DSE 2004) were added to the data. Weather stations were removed where a) temperatures below −5°C, b) Stations with annual rainfall below 350 mm and c) Stations above 45°N. The Mediterranean based CLIMATE map of Victorian suitability was joined Figure 2. Climatic and vegetative suitability of Olea europaea L. in Victoria in Arcview to the vegetation data from from CLIMATE modelling of Mediterranean locations overlayed with of land classes where olives could estab- recorded sites of olive invasion lish (Crossman et al. 2002) and included: Lowland grassland, grassy woodland, dry sclerophyll forest, dry sclerophyll woodland, riparian vegetation and rock out- 6. Establishment of new olives should be Education and awareness campaign crop vegetation, but excluded grazing and prevented in high-risk areas. An education and awareness campaign cropping land use areas. The CLIMATE 7. An effective grove registrar must be es- must be implemented. At present, culti- map for the Mediterranean locations was tablished. vated and even feral olives tend to be per- also joined in Arcview to a layer of roads ceived as good plants. Many small grow- in Victoria supplied by the Department of Victorian government and olive industry ers are likely to be unaware of the weed Primary Industries Frankston. involvement threat of olives. Although such an educa- The CLIMATE prediction for Victoria The conflict of interest between the po- tion program may only have limited suc- using all naturalised locations suggests tential economic and cultural benefits of cess in reducing the risk of olives spread- that the majority of Victoria’s climate is olives versus the potential negative envi- ing in the short to medium term, the in- very highly suitable for olives. However ronmental externalities, suggests that the creased awareness of the issue would over after factoring in land use (i.e. discount- Victorian government and olive industry a longer-term, increase the acceptance and ing grazing and cropping land use areas), must address the issue of feral olives. If the success of other initiatives such as a code it is the area of remnant vegetation that government was not to address the issue of practice. Lessons on involving the in- is most at risk particularly in the central of feral olives they would be disregarding dustry and public could be learnt from the and Gippsland areas (Figure 2). When this their own visions of ‘sustainable develop- South Australian and Tasmanian educa- prediction is compared with recorded sites ment’ and ‘protecting the environment for tion campaigns for feral olives or more of olive invasion in Victoria these sites future generations’ (DPC 2001). Address- general campaigns such as Weedbusters. occur outside of the suitable vegetation ing the issue of feral olives may provide a (Figure 2). Many of these sites are likely precedent and lessons for resolving future Risk management guidelines to have occurred in non-arable areas such weedy conflicts of interest. Guidelines for olive growers on reducing as roadsides or small reserves that are not Victoria is currently well behind other the risk and harm caused by dispersal of included in the vegetative map. Australian states in tackling the issue of olives must be developed. The actual form feral olives despite the olive industry de- of such guidelines should be decided by Recommendations veloping significantly in recent years. The the stakeholder group but could be a Code The continued development of the Victo- olive industry in South Australia and to of Practice or incorporated into Environ- rian olive industry will have major eco- a lesser extent Tasmania, have set a prec- mental Management Systems for the olive nomic and social benefits for the state, par- edent in the control of feral olives. Their industry. Experience from other states has ticularly in rural areas. However, from the strategies such as an education campaign, shown a poor level of cooperation with evidence presented in this paper it can be industry code of practice and grove da- voluntary measures. Stronger incentives concluded that olives in Victoria will pose tabase would be relatively easy to imple- and promotion are needed for such guide- a serious environmental weed risk if they ment in Victoria. lines to be adopted by growers. are not properly managed. 1. Victorian government and olive indus- Formation of stakeholder group Control of feral olives try must address the issue of feral ol- The way forward is for the Victorian gov- The long non-reproductive period of ju- ives. ernment and industry to form a stakehold- venile feral trees presents a good oppor- 2. A stakeholder group must be formed to er group to examine the options for reduc- tunity to control these trees before they examine strategies for reducing weed ing the weed risk of olives. It must widely disperse seed. Controlling existing feral risk. incorporate all stakeholders in the olive trees must be given a much greater prior- 3. Implementation of an education and industry including ornamental growers, ity than they are presently as it these fe- awareness campaign. as their involvement and ownership in of ral trees that produce smaller seed which 4. Risk management guidelines must be the process is likely to increase their co- pose a much greater risk of dispersal than developed for olive groves. operation with strategies developed from cultivated fruits. Feral olives could be con- 5. Control of feral olives the group. trolled regionally or locally, however as

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 27 olives appear to pose a weed risk through- presenting a united effort to tackle the is- L. Ferguson, G.S. Sibbett and G.C. Mar- out the state, a statewide approach should sue. tin. pp. 43-50. (University of California, be adopted. Although the current Victo- Oakland, CA, USA). rian noxious weed legislation doesn’t cur- Conclusion Cooke, D.A. (1989). New records in the rently have the capacity to differentiate Victoria is well suited to grow olives as naturalised Flora of South Australia, II. between commercial and feral plants, as is demonstrated by the increase in the South Australian Naturalist 63 (4), 100-6. the South Australian legislation does, it is number of orchards being established. Crossman, N.D., Bass, D.A., Virtue, J.G. recommended that unharvested or feral This suitability also presents a risk to the and Jupp, P.W. (2002). Feral olives (Olea olives should be declared a noxious weed, native vegetation as olives have proven to europaea L.) in southern Australia: an requiring control and a legally enforceable be a major invasive species in Australia issue of conservation concern. Ad- requirement to control or remove unhar- and overseas. It is imperative that both the vances in Horticultural Science 16 (3/4), vested groves. olive industry and the Victorian govern- 175-83. ment implement strategies to stop or at Davies, G. (2002). A discussion paper for Olives in high-risk areas. least minimise off farm dispersal of olives, updating the research and development The single most effective method to pre- while allowing for the expansion of this plan for the Australian olive industry vent invasion of feral olives into ecologi- industry. 2003–2008. R&D Plan for the Austral- cally sensitive areas is by not allowing ian Olive Industry 2003-2008. Rural high-risk groves to be established near References Industries Research and Development those areas. This could be done in Victo- ABC (2003). Olive harvester special. ABC, Corporation, Kingston, ACT. ria, as it has been in South Australia by Landline, Australia. D’Emden, F. (2001). A strategic marketing developing a Weed Risk Assessment for ABC News (2003). Weed controllers ask analysis of the Western Australian ol- new olive groves. Such a Weed Risk As- olive growers to foot bill for ‘feral’ trees. ive industry. AGWEST Trade and Mar- sessment would need to assess the likeli- ABC Rural News, 11 Feb. ket Development, Agriculture Western hood of dispersal and the harm caused by ABS (2001). Agricultural Census Data for Australia. successful dispersal. The South Austral- 2000/01. Australian Bureau of Statis- Denney, J.O. and McEachern, G.R. (1983). ian model provides a good example where tics, Canberra, ACT. An analysis of several climatic tempera- groves assessed as higher risk are more APCC (1999). Risk assessment and man- ture variables dealing with olive repro- restricted. agement of olives. Animal and Plant duction. Journal of the American Society A detailed study of dispersal from com- Control Commission, Primary Indus- for Horticultural Science 108 (4), 578-81. mercial groves would benefit both the de- tries and Resources South Australia. DPC (2001). Growing Victoria together. velopment of a WRA and code of practice. Bartolozzi, F. and Fontanazza, G. (1999). Department of Premier and Cabinet, The study should include historical studies Assessment of frost tolerance in olive Melbourne, Victoria. of distances and pattern of dispersal and (Olea europaea L.). Scientia Horticulturae DSE (2004). Flora Information System. current studies of dispersal, examining 81, 309-19. Fabbri, A., Bartolini, G., Lambardi, M. and the dispersal characteristics of commer- Bass, D., Crossman, N.D., Richards, N. and Kailis S.G. (2004). ‘Olive propagation cial groves, particularly the relationship Virtue, J.G. (2004). WMSSA Inc. submis- manual’. (Landlinks Press Colling- between management, drupe size and dis- sion to the Inquiry into the regulation, wood, Victoria) persal. Some of this information may arise control and management of invasive Feare, D.J. (1980). The economics of star- from current and planned research activi- species and the Environment Protection ling damage. In ‘Bird problems in ag- ties around the Dookie district by the Uni- and Biodiversity Conservation Amend- riculture’, ed. E.N. Wright. pp. 39-55 versity of Melbourne (Hamilton personal ment (Invasive Species) Bill 2002. Weed (British Crop Protection Council Publi- communication 2004). Management Society of South Australia cations, Croydon, UK). Inc, Adelaide, SA. Forde, N. (1986). Relationships between Grove registration Black, J.M. (1965). ‘Flora of South Aus- birds and fruits in temperate Austral- A complete grove register is particularly tralia: Part IV Oleaceae–Compositae’. ia. In The dynamic partnership: birds important for groves in high-risk areas (South Australian Branch of the British and plants in Southern Australia, eds as it would provide information for im- Science Guild Handbooks Committee, H.A. Ford and D.C. Paton, pp. 42-58. plementing monitoring and control pro- Adelaide). (The flora and fauna of South Australia grams. The experience from South Aus- Bomford, M. and Sinclair, R. (2002). Aus- Handbooks Committee, South Aus- tralia and Tasmania suggest voluntary tralian research on bird pests: impact, tralia). grove registers are unlikely to be effective management and future directions. Fowler, R. (1940). Cultivation of the olive. in Victoria, without significant incentives. Emu 102, 29-45. The Journal of Agriculture, South Aus- Victoria should investigate the potential Booth, N. and Davies, G. (1996). Olive tralia. for compulsory registration or compiling growing in Southern Australia. Primary Hamilton, S. (1999). Dookie bushland re- a register of existing groves using tech- Industries South Australia. serve draft management plan, p. 72. niques such as remote sensing or drive by Burgess, A. (1999). Initial cost estimates (The University of Melbourne, Dookie surveys. for the establishment of a 120 hectare College). olive grove. In ‘Realising the potential Hamilton, S. (2004). Senior Lecturer, A National approach of olives’, ed. S. Field, pp. 32-43. (Salsi Dookie College, The University of Mel- There have been calls for a national ap- Pty Ltd, St Arnaud, Victoria). bourne. proach to the problem of feral olives (Bass Burr, M. (1999). Australian olives: A guide Hanson, C. (2002). A weed risk minimisa- et al. 2004) and a levy to help fund olive for growers and producers of virgin tion strategy for the Tasmanian olive in- removal (ABC News 2003). Initiatives oils. Stepney, South Australia. dustry. Department of Primary Indus- such as an education program led by the Cleland, J.B. (1952). Dispersal of plants by tries, Water and Environment, Kings Australian Olive Association would have birds. South Australian Ornithologist 20 Meadows, Tasmania. long-term benefits and should be imple- (7), 72-7. Kailis, S.G. and Considine, J.A. (2002). The mented. The Adoption a similar weed Connell, J.H. and Catlin, P.B. (1994). Root olive Olea europaea L. in Australia: 2000 management strategy to other states (e.g. physiology and rootstock characteris- onwards. Advances in Horticultural Sci- WRA and COP), would be beneficial in tics. In ‘Olive production manual’, eds ence 16 (3/4), 299-306.

28 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 Kailis, S.G. and Sweeney, S. (2002). Olives in Spennemann, D.H.R. and Allen, L.R. Australia. Acta Horticulturae 586, 385-3. (1998). The spread of Olives (Olea sp.) King, G. (2004). National olive growers on Wagga Wagga Campus. II. Distribu- levy: Consultative Draft – April 2004. tion and dispersal. Johnstone Centre of Horticulture Australia and Kingsgrove Parks, Recreation and Heritage, Albury, Consulting, West Lakes, South Aus- NSW. tralia. Spennemann, D.H.R. and Allen, L.R. Lowe, D.W. (1982). The analysis of 701 fox (2000). The avian dispersal of olives scats from Morialta conservation park, Olea europaea: implications for Austral- South Australia. South Australian Natu- ia. Emu, Journal of the Royal Australasian ralist 56 (4), 52-7. Ornithologists Union 100 (4), 264-73. Maranto, J. and Krueger, W.H. (1994). Ol- Sweeney, S. (2002). Olive tree numbers ive fruit thinning. In ‘Olive production 2002. The Olive Press 26, Summer 2002. manual’, eds. L. Ferguson, G.S. Sibbett Temby, I. (2003). Emu. Victoria, Flora and and G.C. Martin pp. 87-89. (University Fauna Notes, Department of Sustain- of California Oakland, CA, USA). ability and Environment. Martin, G.C., Connell, J.H., Freeman, Trapnell, L. and Carmichael, S. (1998). M.W., Krueger, W.H. and Sibbett, G.S. Making money from olives – a possi- (1994). Efficacy of foliar application of bility for diversification in north east- two naphthaleneacetic acid salts for ern Victoria. Department of Natural olive fruit thinning. Acta Horticulturae Resources and Environment, Benalla, 356, 302-5. Victoria. Mladovan, L.M. (1998). Avian dispersal of the European olive Olea europaea, especially by the common starling Sturnus vulgaris: ecological implications for weed management, p. 62. University of Adelaide, South Australia. Muyt, A. (2001). ‘Bush Invaders of South- East Australia: a guide to the identification and control of environmental weeds found in South-East Australia’. (R.G. and F.J. Richardson, Melbourne, Victoria). Parsons, W.T. and Cuthbertson, E.G. (1992). ‘Noxious weeds of Australia’. (Inkata Press, Melbourne). Paton, D.C., Tucker, J.R., Paton, J.B. and Paton, P.A. (1988). Avian vectors of the seed of the European olive. Olea europaea. South Australian Ornithologist 30, 158-9. Renowden, G. (1999). ‘The olive book’. (Canterbury University Press, Christch- urch, New Zealand). Rey, P.J., Gutiérrez, J.E., Alcántara, J. and Valera, F. (1997). Fruit size in wild olives: implications for avian seed dispersal. Functional Ecology 11 (5), 611-18. RIRDC (2002). R&D plant for the Aus- tralian olive industry 2003–2008, pp. 30. Rural Industries and Research and Development Corporation, Kingston, ACT. Sibbett, G.S. and Osgood, J. (1994). Site selection and preparation, tree spacing and design, planting, and initial training. In ‘Olive production manual’, eds L. Ferguson, G.S. Sibbett and G.C. Mar- tin, pp. 31-7. (University of California, Oakland, CA, USA). Sinclair, R. (1999). Birds: guidelines for best practice bird control to protect commercial olive orchards and minimise the risk of seed dispersal. Risk As- sessment and Management of Olives, Animal and Plant Control Commis- sion, Primary Industries and Resources South Australia.

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 29 either plant trading or dumped aquarium plants in Victoria but in all states and Aquatic weeds of national significance – coming to a territories. The following two case studies illus- waterway near you! trate the problematic nature of this aquatic WoNS. Phil MoranA, Andrew PetroeschevskyB and Steve WingraveC A Lake Macdonald Catchment Care Group, Tewantin, Queensland 4565 Case study 1 – Impacts of cabomba on B New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Grafton, New South Northern Territory waterways Wales 2460 Since its detection in the Northern Ter- ritory (NT) in 1997 in a man made lake, C Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Environment, Palmerston, cabomba has proven to be a difficult plant Northern Territory 0830 to manage. All attempts at control using various physical methods including hand- pulling, draining the lake, dredging the lake and shading infestations failed over Abstract Early detection of the aquatic conditions in eastern and southern Aus- the next four years. In 2002 a single ap- Weeds of National Significance (WoNS) tralia (ARMCANZ 2000). plication of 2,4-D n-butyl ester plus dia- is essential for successful eradication or Cabomba was introduced to Australia tomaceous earth resulted in the disappear- containment. Unfortunately this concept for the aquarium trade and by the mid ance of the species from the lake which has has not been widely adopted in Australia, 1980s naturalised populations of cabomba been confirmed by monitoring the site on resulting in these and many other aquatic were been discovered. Such infestations a monthly basis since then. weed species proliferating largely were either the result of aquatic plant trad- In October 2004 cabomba was again re- unnoticed at many locations. ers deliberately seeding waterways for corded in the NT, however this time it was Cabomba (Cabomba caroliniana), one of commercial purposes or through aquarium found in a natural and pristine waterway the aquatic WoNS, poses a serious threat dumpings. Infestations of cabomba have over an 11 km stretch of the Darwin River. to waterways in all States and Territories. since been discovered at various sites on A massive publicity and awareness cam- Attractive, hardy and easy to grow, ably coastal Queensland and NSW from Cairns paign immediately following this resulted describes this plant that enjoyed immense to Sydney, Katoomba NSW, Darwin and in a further 13 sites being positively identi- popularity with aquarium and fishpond the nearby Darwin River, and Lake Nag- fied in backyards, ponds and fish tanks in enthusiasts. It’s widely believed that this ambie and Lake Benalla in Victoria. suburban Darwin, with one record 200 km plant was deliberately planted in water- These infestations occupy only a frac- south at Pine Creek. ways to meet retail demand and many tion of its potential range. It’s feared that The Darwin river site is complex from such plantings may remain undiscovered due to the plants submerged and hard to the point of management due to the wide today, posing a `serious risk to water- detect nature many infestations are yet range of land use groups and land tenures ways. to be discovered so its true distribution in addition to the river being a potable wa- Keywords Aquatic weeds, cabomba, could be much greater than what is cur- ter supply. A herbicide control program early detection, waterways. rently known. commenced late in 2004, with three treatments occurring before the on set of the Introduction The cabomba threat Wet Season in late December. Only one The aquatic Weeds of National Signifi- Cabomba is a WoNS due to its invasive- live plant was found on December 17 2004, cance (WoNS) include alligator weed ness, potential to spread and its potential however by July 2005 cabomba had recov- (Alternanthera philoxeroides), cabomba economic, social and environmental im- ered to approximately 60% of the infesta- (Cabomba caroliniana) and salvinia (Salvinia pacts (Thorp and Lynch 2000). Cabomba tion level mapped prior to treatment. Fur- molesta), each an aquatic plant from South tends to invade slow moving or ponded ther control operations are scheduled to America. These species cause considerable waterways where it can form dense un- recommence in August with priority given environmental and economic impacts and derwater thickets. Such thickets can: to fine tuning application techniques as have potential to spread to waterways in • dangerously interfere with swimming further developments occur. all states and territories. This paper will and boating activities outline the threat of the aquatic Weeds of • deplete oxygen and light levels in the Case Study 2 – Sunshine Coast, South- National Significance, using cabomba as water, which reduces fish stocks East Queensland a case study and will highlight processes • replace native aquatic plants Cabomba was first noticed in Lake Mac- and benefits for implementing aquatic • clog irrigation channels and water in- donald and the Ewen Maddock Dam in WoNS early detection procedures. takes 1991. At the time these two impound- • increase water treatment costs. ments were the major potable water sup- What is cabomba? In addition cabomba is proving to be a dif- plies for Noosa and Caloundra Shires, Cabomba, a submerged aquatic plant ficult plant to manage. Herbicide appli- respectively. native to parts of both North and South cations are difficult due to its submerged Various methods have been used in America, is a hardy perennial that fa- nature and currently there are no biologi- the fight against this most tenacious of vours slow moving or still waterbodies. cal controls. Mechanical harvesting and aquatic bullies. At Ewen Maddock dam, Although cabomba flowers it is known lowering of water bodies are feasible but mechanical harvesting, draw down, and to only reproduce vegetatively, although are expensive. the current method of using a venturi (or there are anecdotal reports of seeding The problematic nature of cabomba underwater vacuum cleaner), operated populations in the Northern Territory. It and its status as a WoNS has seen the by divers, have achieved some degree of tolerates a wide range of water tempera- plant banned from sale in all states and control but at considerable economic cost. tures, including tropical and cool temper- territories except Victoria. The ongoing Cost as at June 2005 was $176.00 per hour ate waters. CLIMEX modelling suggests legal trade of cabomba in Victoria poses to operate. its potential distribution includes all an unnecessary risk of further cabom- At Lake Macdonald, in the Noosa hin- states and territories with excellent habitat ba infestations eventuating through terland, cabomba grows in water up to

30 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 10 metres deep, with foliage increasing to- developed that provide effective detec- References wards the light (surface). This foliage pre- tion tools whilst meeting end user re- Agriculture and Resource Management vents light from reaching the floor of the quirements in terms of minimal time and Council of Australia and New Zealand. Lake resulting in the decimation of a once skill levels required (Watts 2003, NAWMG (2000). Weeds of national significance, vibrant native aquatic plant population. 2005). Such methodologies provide a proc- cabomba strategic plan. (National Where healthy clumps of Potamogeton cris- ess to: Weeds Strategy Executive Committee pus and Vallisneria nana once thrived, the 1. identify and prioritise high risk aquatic Launceston). area is now an underwater desert. Watch- weeds, National Aquatic Weeds Management ing underwater video transects is depress- 2. identifying high risk sites of aquatic Group (2005). ‘Aquatic weeds recon- ing, as well as boring… pitch black, and weed invasion and establishment, naissance survey’. (Unpublished docu- nothing, apart from cabomba. This South 3. inspecting high risk sites, ment). American bully has drastically reduced the 4. data collection, and National Invasive Species Council (2003). ecological diversity of this water body. 5. post reconnaissance survey tasks. ‘General guidelines for the establish- Adding to these ecological impacts was These methodologies are also simple ment and evaluation of infestive species the need to ban swimming and boating enough to allow participation from exist- early detection and response systems. activities in the lake due to safety concerns ing volunteer weed detection networks or Version 1’. (National Invasive Species and to reduce the risk of the plant spread- community organisations such as Water- Council, Washington DC). ing. Other recreational activities such as watch. With minimal training and provi- Thorp, J.R. and Lynch, R. (2000). ‘The de- sailing, canoeing and fishing are all activi- sion of identification aids, volunteers can termination of weeds of national sig- ties hampered by cabomba. increase the effectiveness of established nificance’. (National Weeds Strategy Managing the Lake Macdonald infes- active detection programs. Executive Committee, Launceston). tation is an expensive and ongoing task, Passive detection programs involve Watt, J. (2003). ‘Management plan for early made more difficult due to it being a po- people reporting infestations they fortui- detection and response to aquatic weed table water supply (thus herbicides are tously detect as they conduct other activi- to aquatic weed incursions’. (Flinders not an option). A purpose built aquatic ties. Such programs can be established by University, Adelaide). harvester has actively cut and removed increasing awareness and identification cabomba from the lake for the last four skills amongst those people most likely to years. At its peak, the harvester was re- notice an aquatic weed incursion. They in- moving up to nine tons of cut Cabomba clude natural resource management staff, per day. Due to heavy metal concerns (no- fishing and boating enthusiasts, Water- tably manganese at 5400 mg kg-1) harvest- watch and other community groups. ed Cabomba is classified as contaminated Early detection of aquatic weeds is a waste and requires disposal at landfill relatively new concept in Australia with sites, thus increasing treatment costs. only few existing efforts, mostly conduct- Unsuccessful attempts to reintroduce ed at local scales. However, implementing native plants to help manage cabomba early detection programs is a key national were made by the Lake Macdonald Catch- priority listed in the National Cabomba ment Care Group, and Caloundra Council strategy and for the National Aquatic (Ewen Maddock Dam). Whilst establish- Weeds Management Group. It is hoped ment was successful, predation by birds that through the Defeating the Weeds and other aquatic animals severely limited Menace program adequate resources can the long-term survival of these introduc- help establish such programs in areas of tions. Australia thought to be at high risk of aquatic weed invasion. Once established, How early detection programs can such programs will require long term sup- help port and commitment from weed control Early detection and treatment of cabomba authorities, weed detection networks and and other aquatic weed infestations is an community groups. essential preventative measure that can help avoid the problems listed previously. Conclusion Containment or eradication of submerged Despite its limited distribution cabomba, aquatic weeds such as cabomba are only a WoNS, poses significant management possible if infestations are detected and challenges to weed control authorities treated whilst small (generally less than 1 where established populations exist. Its ha in size). Early detection efforts increase significant impacts and submerged habi- the likelihood of successful eradication or tat, rapid growth and hidden nature make containment whilst populations are still it an extremely difficult plant to effectively low, resulting in significant long term cost manage. National management is also not savings and protection of downstream helped by the fact that it can still be traded aquatic habitat (National Invasive Species legally in Victoria. Council 2003). A lesson learnt from infestations Early detection can involve: throughout Australia is the important 1. active detection programs, and role early detection programs could play 2. passive detection programs. in preventing future cabomba and other Active detection programs involve weed aquatic weed outbreaks. Methodologies control authorities methodically survey- for aquatic weed early detection are avail- ing designated areas for prioritised aquat- able. Long term benefits of their imple- ic weeds. In Australia, methodologies mentation will out way their costs and will for undertaking such surveys have been help preserve our waterways.

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 31 km by 70 km. In 2005, infestations in this region are confined to an area of approxi- Operation rapid response – dealing with the potential mately 6500 ha with 457 properties under quarantine (Nick Secomb personal com- incursion of branched broomrape (Orobanche ramosa munication). There is a nationally funded eradication and containment program for Linnaeus) into Victoria, Australia this region costing approximately $2 mil-

A,D B,D C lion per annum, supported by the Federal David A. McLaren , Kate Blood and Geoff Harvey and State Governments and industry. It has A Department of Primary Industries Frankston, PO Box 48, Frankston, Victoria seen extensive surveys, tracebacks, imple- 3199, email: [email protected] mentation of quarantine (Jupp et al. 1992), B Department of Primary Industries, PO Box 7, Beaufort, Victoria 3373 research into herbicides (Mathews 2002), C Department of Primary Industries, PO Box 120, St Arnaud, Victoria 3478 and research into its host range (Virtue et D CRC for Australian Weed Management al. 2002). Concurrently, ongoing research is being carried out on fumigation, seed de- cay, identification (a genetic probe, sniffer dogs), vectors, lifecycle and seed dispersal. Through the strict eradication and containment program in South Australia, Summary The Victorian Government is science has provided more information approximately 32% of paddocks infested placing a high priority on potential, new on the potential distributions and impacts with O. ramosa in 2000 have remained free and emerging weeds. Preventing the es- of new and emerging weeds (Kriticos and of O. ramosa through host denial (Nick Se- tablishment of serious weeds is a worth- Randall 2001). It has become evident that comb personal communication). while government investment. It saves governments can get much better value All broomrape (Orobanche) species are money, protects the environment and may by either preventing weed species com- prohibited imports to Australia and have reduce the impact on human health. ing into Australia or by identifying new largely been kept out by quarantine con- The Department of Primary Industries weed species very early in their colonisa- trols, but the seeds could easily enter un- (DPI), and the Department of Sustainabil- tion phase and targeting their suppression detected. The Australian Quarantine and ity and Environment (DSE) have devel- or eradication. Today’s management pays Inspection Service (AQIS) is responsible oped the Weed Alert Rapid Response pro- attention to the principle of ‘prevention for screening and vetting plant and plant gram to target potential, new and emerg- is better than cure’ as opposed to the past product imports to ensure new weeds are ing weeds in Victoria. The main focus is philosophy of ‘treating weed problems as not introduced. For example, AQIS is re- on surveillance, collection, identification, they arise’ (Csurhes and Edwards 1998). sponsible for monitoring the 52 000 aircraft assessment and response. A network The recent identification of new out- that arrive annually, carrying in excess of of Weed Spotters has been established breaks of branched broomrape, Orobanche 7.3 million passengers and aircrew and 1.8 to look for new weeds and report them ramosa Linnaeus in South Australia has million airfreight containers. Intercepting when found. More intensive surveillance highlighted the importance of pro-active each and every illegal item and contami- programs are being conducted for serious weed alerts and rapid responses in Victo- nant is impossible. At seaports Australia potential weeds. ria. O. ramosa is an obligate root parasite of wide, 10 000 ships dock annually carrying An outbreak of the parasitic weed a wide range of broad-leaved plants and its 1 million cargo containers, of which ap- branched broomrape (Orobanche ramosa) distribution extends from central Europe, proximately 5% are checked (Anon. 1999). in the Murray Bridge region of South the Middle East and northern Africa. It has Many of our trading partners prohibit all Australia is threatening agricultural pro- been introduced to a number of other re- broomrapes, so Australian export markets duction in Victoria. Trace-back opera- gions, including South Africa, Mali, Aus- will be severely affected if these plants be- tions in South Australia have identified 34 tralia, Cuba and several sites in Central come widely established. Branched broom- Victorian properties linked to the South America and the USA (Parker and Riches rape is a declared exotic disease under the Australia infestation. To stop this poten- 1993). The potential hosts of O. ramosa in Victorian Plant Health and Plant Products Act tial incursion, the Victorian Government Australia have been listed by Virtue et al. 1995 and is a State Prohibited Weed under has set up an “Operation Rapid Response (2002) and include species such as canola, the Victorian Catchment and Land Protection – Branched Broomrape Team” in much the cabbage, tomato, potato, carrot, coriander, Act of 1994. same way as a team is put together to deal vetch, faba bean, lupin, chickpea, lucerne, with natural disasters. This team has over- burr medic, annual white clover, lettuce, Materials and methods seen the surveillance for this weed in Vic- safflower and sunflower. It has also been Upon receiving notification in 1999 of the toria and raised awareness of the problem found attacking various weeds and na- outbreaks of O. ramosa in South Australia with key stakeholders and the Victorian tive herbs. An economic assessment of the and trace-backs (links to infected prop- community. potential costs of O. ramosa to Australia erties through movement of produce, Keywords Branched broomrape, has estimated that if left uncontrolled, stock, machinery or other materials) to Orobanche ramosa, eradication, weed alert, infestations could cost Australia $240.7 Victorian properties to infested areas in weed incursion, weed surveillance. million within five years and as much as South Australia, the Victorian DPI called $2.1 billion within 25 years, with the main a meeting to develop a plan of how Vic- Introduction impacts on oilseed, pulse and vegetable toria would respond. It was decided that Historically, weed management priorities cropping and through rejection of exports branched broomrape should be treated have been dictated by weed economics. such as cereal grains contaminated with like an emergency (i.e. bushfires) and a Weed policy was directed by the number broomrape seed (Milne 2000). ‘Branched Broomrape Operation Rapid of weed complaints government depart- The history of O. ramosa introduction Response Team’ was set up. The team was ments received from farmers. This meant and spread in Australia is described in Jupp structured according to the Australian that by the time action happened, the et al. 1992. The infestation is located in the Interservice Incident Management Sys- weed was already out of control and be- Murray Bridge area of South Australia and tem – Incident Control System. As such yond eradication. More recently, weed extends over an area of approximately 70 the team was composed of a program

32 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 leader (controller), a planning manager, a These include the DPI/DSE Pest Manage- for O. ramosa, provides confidence that the logistics manager and a communications ment Coordinating Committee (PMCC), a search procedures were effective (Brian manager. Weed Assessment Panel, Weed Incursion Dowley, DPI Victoria, personal communi- The program manager oversaw and Management Teams, and appointment of cation). The number of properties requir- coordinated the entire program. The plan- the Project Leader WARR, Implementa- ing repeated surveying will fall dramati- ning manager dealt with issues such as tion Officer WARR and Weed Compliance cally if further inspections demonstrate political support, management structures, Officer. In the field, Weed Alert Contact the absence of O. ramosa and quarantine frequently asked questions, what other Officers are being put in place to deal with measures prevent any new linkages to Vic- States were doing, timing, trace forwards new incursions. The WARR plan defines toria from the infected area. and staff training needs. The logistics man- their reporting relationships and responsi- A branched broomrape incursion con- ager dealt with ordering equipment, data- bilities. The National Herbarium of Victo- tingency flowchart has need developed bases and management of the budget. The ria is responsible for formal identification for Victoria (Figure 1) In the event of an communications manager drafted a com- of weed specimens. incursion being found, this flowchart de- munications plan, identified and briefed A network of people who can carry out tails what and when responses will take regional media staff, organised press re- weed surveillance, recognition and collec- place, who will undertake them and also leases, printed and distributed identification has been formed called the Weed Alert describes the lines of communication re- tion material and briefed stakeholders. Network. These ‘Weed Spotters’ including quired for the response. Being prepared The operations manager identified opera- community group members, officers of in advance facilitates quick and decisive tional staff, organised training, examined State and local governments and members actions to deal with serious incursions. operational hygiene, organised staff au- of the public will be supported with train- To enhance the potential surveillance thorisations and how to inform and work ing opportunities and an email discussion coverage of branched broomrape, the net- with the land owners. group. They will be encouraged to deliver work of over 600 registered Weed Spot- The draft rapid response program was specimens of potential, new and emerging ters can be asked to look for and report evaluated during the early stages of op- weeds to the Herbarium for formal iden- incursions. The Cooperative Research eration through a risk management proc- tification via the field-based Weed Alert Centre for Australian Weed Management ess that examined all the tasks within this Contact Officers. (Weeds CRC), in association with DPI, is project and identified those that required When a new weed incursion is dis- now using the Victorian model for a Weed active management. Planning and obtain- covered, the weed will undergo a risk Spotter network and piloting it in parts of ing adequate resources for implementa- and threat assessment by the Weed As- Queensland. It may then be applied across tion of the plan were identified as the most sessment Panel and an appropriate type Australia. important tasks. Inspections of properties of response (high, medium, low) will be were undertaken as has been described in recommended to the PMCC and the ap- Discussion Jupp et al. 2002. propriate responses put into action. This Failure to find branched broomrape in ar- 1n 2002, the Victorian Department of rapid response plan can be and is being eas of Victoria identified most at risk may Primary Industries started the develop- used as a model for reporting and acting only provide a temporary reprieve, but ment of a Weed Alert Rapid Response Plan upon weed and other incursions in Victo- during this time planning and research (WARR) for potential, new and emerging ria, nationally and overseas. has enabled strategies to be put in place weeds. The Plan guides further develop- to minimise damage should it be found. ments in surveillance, collection, identi- Results Victoria needs to ensure all land manag- fication, assessment and rapid response. The number of Victorian properties in- ers are aware of how to identify branched It ensures the timely implementation of spected for branched broomrape is shown broomrape, so it can be immediately rec- effective management measures for the in Table 1. After consultation with South ognised and acted upon. The WARR pro- protection of Victorian environments and Australia, six of the previously surveyed gram is a critically important component industries and other social values. The properties were excluded from the 2004 of this process. The Victorian government WARR plan is consistent with various surveys. These had been surveyed for at in collaboration with industry should also National and State policies and strategies least three years without the plant being invest in determining the best fumigation and fits within a policy framework hierar- detected and also they were perceived to techniques should the plant becomes es- chy within Victoria. The importance of bi- pose a low risk of harbouring branched tablished in Victoria. The current branched osecurity management is well recognised broomrape because of their location, soil broomrape fumigation program in South by government agencies across Australia type, link type etc. After five years of Australia relies on methyl bromide and and internationally. The WARR Plan was detailed surveys of Victorian properties currently costs in excess of $1.5 million an- launched in 2005. The plan defines the re- linked to O. ramosa infestations in South nually. Methyl bromide will be phased out porting relationships and responsibilities Australia, no O. ramosa has been found in of production because of environmental of those involved and ‘Operation Rapid Victoria. The fact that the rapid response concerns by 2008. A proactive research and Response – Branched Broomrape’ now team have found several clover broom- awareness program will help keep Victo- falls under its guidance in Victoria. rape, O. minor specimens while searching ria free of branched broomrape. To ensure sufficient preparedness for future weed incursions, various networks Table 1. Surveys of traceback properties in Victoria and documents are being prepared to supplement the WARR plan. These include Year Properties surveyed Area surveyed (ha) O. ramosa plants found a communication strategy, contingency 2000 7 6 827 0 plans, weed collection guidelines, a hygiene and disposal protocol and a com- 2001 27 17 774 0 pensation protocol. The plan will significantly enhance the effectiveness of any 2002 34 20 992 0 weed incursion response. Various individual positions and 2003 34 20 992 0 groups or committees have new respon- 2004 28 17 807 0 sibilities in Victoria as part of the plan.

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 33 BBR incursion confirmed

BBR Controller informs

Communication

DPI Plant Standards–Biosecurity Issues Operations

Operations Person • Counsellor DPI Plant Standards Incident control centre • Landholder contacts: established Surveillance on information kit • Ministers properties • Relevant Government continues Departments • Industry/Victorian Incursion BBR Controller contacts: Farmers Federation management team • BBR team established • DPI Media Unit • DPI Pest Plant and Animal Manager • Director Land • Briefs Plant Standards Stewardship & Operational staff Biodiversity Communications Contact South Australia (quarantine process) • Regular brief and request supervisor for • BBR Controller SA • Nominates Plant • media incursion treatment Standards quarantine process manager Establish temporary quarantine on property Receive management Management advice Plan

Buffer areas & quarantine Trace assessment and management forward/back Contact fumigator

Further surveying if required at forward/ back Undertake locations treatment as appropriate

Figure 1. A branched broomrape incursion contingency flowchart

Acknowledgements Jupp, P., Warren, P. and Secomb, N. (2002). Moore, pp. 274-5 (Plant Protection Soci- The authors would like to thank Eligio The branched broomrape eradication ety of Western Australia, Perth). Bruzzese and Ian Faithfull for reviewing program: methodologies, problems Milne, M. (2000). Economic evaluation the manuscript. encountered and lessons learnt. Pro- of the proposed branched broomrape ceedings of the 13th Australian Weeds (Orobanche ramosa) management pro- References Conference, eds H. Spafford Jacob, J. gram. Unpublished consultancy report Anon (1999). The Australian Quaran- Dodd and J.H. Moore, pp. 270-3 (Plant prepared for the Department of Pri- tine Report. Quarantine activities and Protection Society of Western Australia, mary Industries and Resources, South achievements, August 1997–December Perth). Australia. 1998. Kriticos, D.J. and Randall, R.P. (2001). A Parker, C. and Riches, C.R. (1993). Para- DSE and DPI (2005). Weed Alert Rapid comparison of systems to analyse po- sitic weeds of the World: biology and Response Plan Victoria 2004/2005. De- tential weed distributions. In Weed risk control. (CAB International, Walling- partment of Sustainability and Envi- assessment, eds R.H. Groves, F.D. Pan- ford, UK). ronment, and Department of Primary etta and J.G. Virtue (CSIRO Publishing, Virtue, J., DeDear, C., Traeger, A., Ander- Industries, Victoria. Melbourne). son, F. and Broomell, B. (2002). Potential Csurhes, S. and Edwards, R. (1998). Poten- Mathews, J.M. (2002). Herbicide and crop- hosts of branched broomrape (Orobanche tial environmental weeds in Australia. ping trials relevant to the eradication of ramosa L.) in Australia. Proceedings of Candidate species for preventative branched broomrape (Orobanche ramo- the 13th Australian Weeds Conference, control. (Environment Australia, Can- sa) in South Australia. Proceedings of eds H. Spafford Jacob, J. Dodd and J.H. berra.) the 13th Australian Weeds Conference, Moore, p. 292 (Plant Protection Society eds H. Spafford Jacob, J. Dodd and J.H. of Western Australia, Perth).

34 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 SESSION 4 Integrated weed management (concurrent)

Chilean needle grass (Nassella neesiana) – integrated grazing for success

Charles GrechA,B,C, Aaron DoddC, David McLarenC,D, David ChapmanE and Brian M. SindelB,C A Department of Primary Industries, 475 Mickleham Road, Attwood, Victoria 3049 B School of Rural Science and Agriculture, The University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351 C Cooperative Research Centre for Australian Weed Management D Department of Primary Industries, PO Box 48, Frankston, Victoria 3199 E School of Agriculture and Food Systems, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010

Chilean needle grass (Nassella neesiana, 0.015), and stem cleistogene seed (P = CNG) is able to over-run pastures resulting 0.015) when compared with the ungrazed in canopy cover of up to 60%. Such infesta- controls. Within the grazed treatments, tions can lead to a substantial reduction cattle grazed significantly (P = 0.043) more in livestock carrying capacity as the grass CNG panicle seeds compared with sheep. produces large numbers of unpalatable Pasture regrowth of grazed treatments had flower stalks and sharp seeds that pose a significantly less CNG dry matter than risk to animal welfare, particularly sheep. ungrazed treatments in early spring (P = A large scale grazing study was initiated 0.039, day 56) although there was no dif- over spring 2004 to compare the ability of ference later in spring. Animals in the trial set stocked or rotationally grazed sheep gained weight satisfactorily. Cattle gained and cattle, to reduce CNG seed produc- significantly more (P = 0.015) weight than tion, as well as to monitor the effects on the sheep during the first month although animal production and the botanical com- this trend did not continue. The method of position of the pasture regrowth. grazing, whether set stocked or rotational, Sheep (Suffolk X ewes and lambs) did not significantly affect any of the pa- and cattle (Angus cows and calves) were rameters listed above. grazed in separate paddocks stocked at 12 Grazing significantly reduced the DSE ha-1 in a set stock or simple rotational number of both CNG panicle and stem system. Simple rotational treatments con- seeds whilst changing early spring re- sisted of a four paddock time based rota- growth to a more palatable composition. tion. Rotation length at the start of spring Managed grazing with cattle could po- was eight weeks and was reduced to four tentially be used therefore to reduce the weeks by the end of spring. amount of CNG seeds entering the soil Grazing significantly reduced the seedbank whilst not compromising ani- amount of standing panicle seed (P = mal productivity or welfare.

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 35 priority issues and locations to be managed by Enviromark, for example which weeds Enviromark: a system for integrated weed or threatened species, over what area. This decision will depend on resources, exist- management along roadsides ing mapping, priorities, funding opportunities, obligations and the level of existing Christine Corbett, Greening Australia, Tasmania, GPO Box 9868, Hobart, information on corridor management. Tasmania 7001. Email: [email protected] Next an agreement is signed between the corridor manager and Greening Aus- tralia, setting out who provides what and the timeframe and budget. A licence agreement is signed also, to ensure that Enviro- mark is used properly. After this the road Summary This paper introduces Enviro- The issues manager and Greening Australia decide mark, a system that has been developed, Many organisations undertake work on on codes, prepare specifications and run in partnership with road managers, to roadsides and different organisations own training. There are many cost options de- overcome problems in managing roadside and manage different areas, so who’s job pending on how much the road or corridor weeds. Enviromark is not just a series of is it to manage the weeds? Weeds thrive manager wishes to do and what informa- markers on roadsides, but an integrated in disturbed roadside ground and spread tion they have already available. Monitor- system that delivers practical information along road reserves. Adjacent land can be ing and evaluation is done yearly. on what to manage where, to the people threatened by the weeds on road reserves. on the ground managing roadsides. Information on how to manage the weeds System overview Keywords Enviromark, roadsides, is out there, but often this is not communi- Enviromark uses a range of tools and can environmental management system cated to, or is not in a useful form for, the be applied at different levels, as priorities people who actually work on roadsides. and resources allow. The components are; Introduction Road corridors can also contain threat- • Field markers Managing weeds on roadsides is a diffi- ened species and their habitat or other sig- • Specifications cult task. There are so many weeds but nificant vegetation. Sometimes roadsides • Training some are more significant than others. contain the most significant remnants of • User guide Some are spread by road maintenance ac- native vegetation in a region. • Mapping database tivities and some look like native plants. Many roadside marker systems have • Monitoring Many roadside marker systems have been been invented over the years. Also much The field markers identify where impor- developed to mark weeds, and there is roadside mapping of vegetation has been tant weeds or other significant vegetation information available on how to manage done, and many roads have management occurs on the ground. The field markers weeds, but very often the right informa- plans. However cases of weeds being have a code that relates to a particular tion, on what to manage how and where, spread by roadside slashing, spoil full of specification. Specification sheets outline does not get through to people working weed seeds being moved and threatened a particular management regime which on the ground. species being damaged continue. can be applied to a particular weed, or Greening Australia has developed an Unlike previous marker systems, En- group of weeds. These specifications de- integrated environmental management viromark translates existing maps, plans tail how road management activities are system for mapping, marking and manag- and strategies into on-ground actions, to be performed in each area marked with ing weeds and significant environments. informing field crews on how to operate a particular code. Called Enviromark, it can help organisa- within marked areas, so they do not need For the system to work there must be tions to observe their responsibilities un- to be botanists or ecologists to improve training for the on-the-ground crews and der weed management legislation and lo- roadside management. supervisors, and anyone else working cal and regional natural resource manage- within the marked areas. A user guide is ment strategies. Enviromark allows weed Who is using Enviromark? produced for the training, detailing which management to be prioritised and enables Under the Tackling Weeds on Private issues are covered and how the Enviro- road management plans to be enacted. Land Initiative several Victorian coun- mark system works in each project area. This paper outlines the issues that Envi- cils are taking up Enviromark to manage There also needs to be regular monitor- romark addresses and describes how the roadside weeds. VicRoads is also setting ing of the system to make sure it is being system works, focusing on its application up a trial. A couple of councils in Tasmania used effectively. There is an optional da- to weeds on roadsides. and Victoria (Clarence City and Indigo) tabase that holds inventory information are already using Enviromark to manage on roadside weed infestations and their Background Weeds of National Significance. The sys- management and can be used to generate Enviromark was developed and road-test- tem is also being used by the Tasmanian road-map reports. ed over five years, by Greening Australia State roads department to manage weeds with the Tasmanian State Department of (and threatened species) and is likely to The field markers Infrastructure, Energy and Resources and be taken up by other councils and cor- Field markers show the location on the several Tasmanian councils, with input ridor managers. The use of Enviromark roadside of different management areas from other corridor managers. Initially has resulted in the Tasmanian main roads and have links to information on the ap- called the Tasmanian Roadside Vegetation department and a local council working propriate management response. Informa- Marker System, positive feedback led to together for integrated management of a tion is coded on the markers with colours, a name change to Enviromark so that the Weed of National Significance across ju- symbols and codes, as demonstrated be- system can be applied Australia-wide. En- risdictional boundaries. low. viromark is now managed as a licensed The field markers are designed to be product by Greening Australia on a fee- The Process easily recognisable from a slow moving for-service basis. The first step is for the road or corridor vehicle. Standard white or coloured guide manager to make decisions regarding the posts are marked with vinyl stickers (50 ×

36 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 153 mm) as the recommended option (Fig- ure 1), although the stickers can also be attached to a semi-flexible backing which can then be attached to electricity poles, guard rails or fence posts. Figure 2 shows the elements of the field markers and their arrangement. There are a range of main markers available for different applications, described in detail below.

Pest Species Area marker Management areas marked with this symbol (Figure 3), contain pest species of plants or animals that can be spread by common roadside management activities. It is important to note that this marker is not used to identify all roadside weeds. This is because not all species are spread by roadside management activities and some species are more significant than others. These markers only identify those species and occurrences where hygiene measures are likely to reduce their spread and where the application of hygiene measures is practical. The purpose of this marker is to minimise the further spread of the pest species through routine road management activities and to direct activities to remove the pest species. To achieve this the directions for working in these areas focus on managing the hygiene of works personnel, machinery and associated materials. The label below the main marker (Fig- ure 4) refers to the specification relevant Figure 1. An example of a Pest Species Area field marker to that management area. The code labels for the root rot fungus and Chilean needle grass are shown below. Chilean needle grass is a major pest species occurring on roadsides in Victo- Main marker ria, New South Wales, the ACT and found recently in South Australia, Queensland and Tasmania. Roadwork hygiene has a major influence on its spread. This species would be marked with the Pest Species Area marker. Directional arrows

Other main markers Enviromark can be used to manage any significant vegetation. Below are examples of other main markers and specification Post or other backing link codes created to manage particular issues (Figure 5). Other markers could be developed to cover different issues.

Markers for specific actions Stockpile and Parking Area marker These markers are used to direct vehicles to appropriate parking and stockpiling areas. The markers should be used in areas Label identifying the that do not have pest species, threatened relevant specification species or significant habitat that could be damaged by parking or stockpiling. This marker (Figure 6) can also be used Contact label for temporary construction areas. A set zone for the movement of construction vehicle can be defined or designated using this marker. This should minimise any unnecessary damage or disturbance. Figure 2. The elements of the field markers and their arrangement

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 37 Direct Seeding Direct Seeding DS Revegetation area Revegetation area Figure 3. The Pest Species Area Figure 5. Examples of other Enviromark main markers main marker

of chemical that is prohibited, thereby al- The standard specifications lowing the use of other herbicides or pes- This is the crux of Enviromark; the man- ticides that do not pose a risk. agement regime that accompanies the field markers. For each code on the label The contact label on the field markers there is a correspond- The contact label contains the phone ing specification, which sets out the man- number of the organisation implement- agement regime for the marked area. The ing Enviromark. This provides a source of specification sets out specific management further information on the markers. The actions, listed by activity such as slash- number must be one that is monitored ing, drain cleaning and grading. Figures during most working hours. 8 and 9 give examples of a pest species and a threatened species specification. Directional arrows The specification is an A4 sheet that is to Directional arrows should be stuck on the be carried in the glove box of all vehicles marker posts to indicate the location, with working in the marked management area respect to the marker post, of the manage- with that code. Figure 4. Examples of pest species ment area to which the marker refers. Specifications for weeds generally fo- code stickers cus on hygiene measures that prevent the Marker placement spread of weeds. For example, when mow- A note of safety: The placement of marking in areas of Chilean needle grass, parts No herbicide marker ers and the associated management re- of the grass, including seeds, will end up The purpose of this marker (Figure 7) is to gimes are not to compromise safety or on top of the mower. Hence it is essential prevent damage to non-target significant the reasonable functioning of the road that the machine is cleaned of plant ma- species or areas. These may be in the actual corridor at any time. The determination terial before leaving a weed-infested site. marked area or in adjacent areas where of management practices and placement The actions set out in the specification translocation of the pesticide is likely due of markers is to be done in consultation must be practical and road managers and to wind or water movement. The mark- with road managers and their input is supervisors need to be consulted dur- er can also be used around human areas sought in making guidelines practical and ing specification preparation to ensure a where herbicide spraying is not desirable, safe. management regime that can and will be such as near organic farming enterprises Field marker stickers can be placed on followed. The management regime must or adjacent to schools. dedicated guide posts, either at the back allow for the safe use and maintenance of The capability exists with this marker of the road reserve, or in line with existing the road and furniture. Changing mainte- to add a label that specifies the actual type road furniture. nance regimes will have implications for

38 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 works programs that need to be planned. The specification sets out a management regime and it may be the case that several weed species can be managed by one management regime. Thus for example a grassy weeds code and specification could be prepared. It may be more practical to mark and specify actions for areas that are weed-free, and manage to maintain those, than to focus on the weed-infested areas.

Training For Enviromark to work there must be training. Training needs to result in road works crews knowing what the field markers are, where they are and having the right specification. They may need particular equipment, such as brush-down or wash-down equipment or mower cov- ers, to undertake the actions required when working in marked areas. Also the supervisors and other relevant people in the road management authority should attend. Changes in works schedules required by the altered management regimes need to be considered and approved. The training should involve looking at field markers in place.

The Database The Enviromark database is a purpose Figure 6. The Stockpile and Parking Figure 7. The No Herbicide built database for storing and displaying Area main marker Spraying main marker

Figure 8. Specification for Chilean needle grass Figure 9. A grassland threatened species specification

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 39 roadside vegetation and management information. It consists of a data entry and a display facility (Figure 10). The former is used for collecting inventory information on roadside vegetation and storing the locations and their associated management regimes. The display facility allows selected information to be displayed in schematic road maps (Figure 11). In this way a user can create maps for the area they are working in, for the job they are doing, as needed. Descriptions of vegetation and management regimes are mostly entered via pick lists to ensure they are standardised. The database was developed in Access to provide mapping capability without the need for GIS expertise.

Monitoring Monitoring system use Each year the use of the Enviromark sys- Figure 10. The main panel for the Enviromark database tem needs to be reassessed, to check that it is being used properly, that the markers are in place and undamaged and that the problem(s) for which it was implemented are still being adequately addressed and Distance still require the prescribed management, from start intersection within the marked areas. The aim is to look for ways of improving the system and its use. After five years the whole project should be reassessed and it is likely that the roadsides will need to be re-mapped. Hopefully there will be less weeds to manage and you have an informed and empowered road workforce that is making a difference to managing significant areas on roadsides.

For more information, contact Christine Colours match the colour on Corbett, Greening Australia Tasmania, 110 the markers Hampden Road, Battery Point, Phone 03 6223 6377, or see our web page for more Selected information www.greeningaustralia.org. activities displayed for au/GA/TAS/OnGroundAction/ right and left verge

Figure 11. Schematic road maps generated by the Enviromark database. The central column represents the road with distance in kilometres from the start intersection shown where management areas start and finish. The column either side displays the colour that matches the colour on the roadside marker. Thus, red areas indicate Threatened Species Habitat Areas, green are Native Habitat Areas and purple are Pest Species Areas. On both sides are displayed the management activities selected and instructions on how that activity should be performed within that area

40 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 strategic outcomes at a national level through the WoNS program. Delivering strategic conservation outcomes through The Bitou Bush Threat Abatement the integrated management of bitou bush, a Weed of Plan approach National Significance In 1999, the ‘invasion of native plant communities by bitou bush and boneseed’ was listed as a Key Threatening Process (KTP) Paul O. Downey and Hillary Cherry, Pest Management Unit, Parks under the NSW Threatened Species Conser- and Wildlife Division, Department of Environment and Conservation vation Act 1995. This listing required the (NSW), PO Box 1967, Hurstville, New South Wales 2220. Email: paul. development of a Threat Abatement Plan [email protected], [email protected] (TAP) to abate, ameliorate or eliminate the threat posed by bitou bush to native plant communities. Prior to the development of the TAP, the number of species reported Abstract Weeds pose the greatest threat legislative requirements for invasive spe- to be threatened by bitou bush was six to Australian biodiversity after land clear- cies management – i.e. some species are (ARMCANZ et al. 2000). Given that bitou ing. However, knowledge of the specific listed under a range of Acts (e.g. Threat- bush occupied approximately 80% of the biodiversity threatened by weeds is cur- ened Species Conservation and Noxious NSW coastline (Thomas and Leys 2002), rently inadequate, despite many major Weeds Acts), while others are not listed the number of species threatened was pre- weed strategies aiming to reduce such im- under any Acts (see Downey 2003); and, sumed to be much greater than six. A more pacts (e.g. the National Weeds Strategy). (iv) the separate historical management accurate reflection of the species at risk Thus, it is extremely important to obtain approaches of these two disciplines (Saun- was needed to meet the objectives of the detailed information on the biodiversity ders et al. 1995, Downey 2003) . TAP. To achieve this, a systematic review threatened by weeds. A new approach was undertaken which involved wide adopted for the management of bitou Assessment of the impact of weeds to consultation and a series of workshops bush (Chrysanthemoides monilifera subsp. biodiversity with botanists, weed managers and scien- monilifera (DC.) T.Norl.) in NSW provides Historically, attempts to assess the impacts tists to consider all species potentially at a methodology for determining biodiver- or risks of weed invasions to biodiversity risk. A draft list of species at risk was then sity at risk and a framework for reduc- have either been through specific scien- modelled to develop a set of priority spe- ing the impacts of weeds to biodiversity. tific investigation (e.g. Weiss and Noble cies and circulated for wider comment and This approach could be adopted for other 1984a,b, French and Zubovic 1997, Matarc- subsequent revision – attributes consid- widespread weeds, such as the Weeds of zyk 1999, Vranjic et al. 2000) or reviews of ered in the model were: (i) invasibility of National Significance (WoNS), to enable such studies (e.g. Grice et al. 2004, Vidler the habitat, (ii) distribution of native spe- targeted weed management for conserva- 2004). To provide a more comprehensive cies compared to that of bitou bush, (iii) tion purposes. The development of this assessment, recent work has focused on native species susceptibility to invasion, approach required a strategic framework, an examination of threatened species da- and (iv) native species ability to persist such as the WoNS program, to gain ac- tabases (see Coutts-Smith and Downey in in the environment. Information was then cess to on-ground networks across vary- press), as well as systematic reviews and gathered from known locations with the ing land tenures, and stakeholders. These consultation with stakeholders who have distribution of these species to determine networks provided valuable information specific working knowledge of weeds and priority sites for control. This approach during the planning stages, and are cru- native species (DEC 2004, Downey 2004). forms the basis of the draft NSW Bitou cial for effective implementation of this These new approaches have significantly Bush Threat Abatement Plan (Bitou TAP; approach. increased the number of species consid- see DEC 2004) and has led to the identifica- ered to be at risk from weed invasion. For tion of approximately 150 species and nine Introduction example, a review by Vidler (2004) found ecological communities at risk from bitou The severity of the impacts of invasive 41 species threatened by weeds in Aus- bush invasion in NSW. The Bitou TAP also species (i.e. weeds and pest animals) to tralia, while Coutts-Smith and Downey (in identifies priority sites where the control global biodiversity has been widely ac- press) increased this number by an order of bitou bush will result in significant ben- knowledged (see IUCN 2000). While the of magnitude for NSW alone, using this efits for conservation, independent of land impacts of invasive species on biodiversity new approach. Although, this study ex- tenure (see Downey 2004). can be documented through interactions amined weeds collectively using existing like competition by weeds and predation datasets, a similar result was also achieved Applying the TAP approach to other by introduced carnivores (e.g. foxes), de- using the systematic review and consulta- weeds tailed information on the actual species tion approach for a single weed species. The TAP approach was developed for one impacted upon is not readily available (see The result of which was that the number of of Australia’s 20 worst weeds. It is not pos- Downey et al. 2004, also see below). This species threatened by bitou bush in NSW sible to develop a TAP for each environ- lack of data has contributed to a histori- was found to be 25 times higher than pre- mental weed in Australia; however it may cally poor linkage between invasive spe- viously recorded (see Downey 2004). be feasible to develop a TAP for each of the cies management and biodiversity con- Here we outline the process/approach Weeds of National Significance (WoNS). servation, especially from an on-ground used to determine the species at risk from perspective (Mahon 2000, Downey 2003). bitou bush in NSW and investigate the Weeds of National Significance Reasons for this include: (i) invasive spe- possibility of adopting this process for In 1997, the Australian Government cies management has not been aligned other target weeds (i.e. WoNS species). launched the National Weeds Strategy with available information on invasive The other new approach is outlined in (NWS: ARMCANZ et al. 1997) to help de- species impacts to biodiversity (Mahon Coutts-Smith and Downey (in press). We liver strategic and consistent weed man- 2000); (ii) information on the species di- also describe how information gained from agement of weeds throughout Australia. rectly impacted by each invasive species is these processes can be used to improve One of the three goals in the strategy is inadequate (Downey 2004); (iii) the varied weed management strategies and deliver to ‘reduce the impact of existing weed

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 41 problems of national significance’. To meet (see Gordon 1998, Mack and D’Antonio minimising impacts (or similar wording) this goal, a list of nationally significant 1998)). within the strategic framework (i.e. ob- weeds was needed (Objective 2.2 of the Despite the goal of the NWS to reduce jectives and actions) was not included in NWS). Twenty Weeds of National Signifi- the impact of WoNS, little has been done some of the national strategies (see Table cance (WoNS) were identified from an ini- to establish the individual impact of these 1). One Strategy, viz. athel pine, did not in- tial list of 71 weeds (see Thorp and Lynch weeds, particularly to biodiversity. Here clude any action for reducing the impacts 2000). The WoNS include environmental, we examined information and actions to biodiversity (Table 1). While in many agricultural and aquatic weeds. Since the on the impacts to biodiversity for each of cases the reduction of impacts is implied, initiation of the WoNS programs, signifi- the 20 WoNS as presented in the National it is not clearly identified in some of the cant work has been directed at WoNS man- Strategies (see ARMCANZ et al. (2000a–g, strategies. Thus, if we are to meet the goal agement, including the development of a 2001a–l, 2003). For the purposes of this of the NWS, an assessment of the impacts National Management Strategy for each review, only actions with specific refer- to biodiversity is needed for the WoNS, WoNS. These National Strategies describe ence to biodiversity/conservation were especially those that are classified as envi- a range of impacts attributed to weed examined. Many of the National WoNS ronmental weeds. invasions, including: (i) environmental, Strategies do not identify the biodiversity Listing WoNS as key threatening proc- (ii) agricultural, (iii) economic, and (iv) at risk in a manner that can be used to esses (see Downey and Leys 2004) can re- human health impacts. Impacts to biodi- deliver effective management (see Table sult in significant increases in our knowl- versity, or environmental impacts, can be 1). For example, many of the WoNS only edge of the species at risk as highlighted either direct (e.g. competition) or through provided information at a generalised by Downey (2004). The listing of specific modification of ecosystem processes (e.g. level (i.e. grasslands are at risk from in- WoNS as KTPs is an action in four nation- alteration of disturbance regimes like fire vasion). In addition, a specific section on al strategies viz. bridal creeper, cabomba,

Table 1. The biodiversity identified at risk, and information on the associated actions to reduced such impacts as outlined in the 20 WoNS strategiesA Weed of National Weed typeB Number of Number of Number Summary on Section in Number of Significance threatened threatened of other impactsD strategic plan actions relating species ecological biodiversity (section 2) to reducing reported communities values on mimising impacts to reported reported to be impactsD biodiversity. impacted (e.g. Total number of grasslands) actions outlined in brackets alligator weed Aq/Ag 0 0 1 yes (1.3) no 3 (50) athel pine Ag/E 0 0 6 yes (1.3) no 0 (43) bitou bush/ E 19 2 7 yes (1.3) yes (2.2) 6 (38) boneseed blackberry E/Ag 0 0 0C yes (1.3) no 1 (23) bridal creeper E 1 0 1 noE yes (2.3) 7 (71) cabomba Aq 0 0 5 noE yes (2.3) 2 (49) Chilean needle grass Ag 3 0 3 yes (1.3) no 2 (36) gorse E/Ag 0 0 2 noE no 2 (46) hymenachne Aq/Ag 0 0 2 noE yes (2.2) 1 (40) lantana E/Ag 5 0 67 noE yes (2.1) 1 (42) mesquite E/Ag 0 0 2 noE yes (2.2) 1 (78) mimosa E/Ag 2 0 4 yes (1.3) yes (2.4) 2 (48) parkinsonia Ag/E 0 1 19 noE no 3 (64) parthenium weed Ag/E 0 0 4 noE yes (2.3) 2 (40) pond apple E 5 0 32 noE noF 3 (72) prickly acacia E/Ag 25 0 1 noE yes (2.2) 2 (60) rubber vine E/Ag 4 13 15 noE yes (2.2) 1 (51) salvinia Aq 0 0 5 yes (1.3) yes (2.3) 3 (45) serrated tussock Ag/E 0 0 0 yes (1.2) yes (2.2) 2 (18) willows E/Ag 1 1 3C noE no 3 (41) A Information derived from ARMCANZ et al. (2000a–g, 2001a–l, 2003) B Ag = agricultural weed, E = environmental weed, Aq = aquatic weed C Mention of widespread ‘impacts’ without references to specific species or ecological communities D Number in parentheses are section numbers in the National Strategy E No section entitled impacts, rather information on impacts is contained under a section entitled ‘Weed of National Significance’ F Not mentioned, however there is a section entitled ‘2.1 alert the community to the impact and seriousness of pond apple’

42 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 mimosa and pond apple (see Table 2), of which is the draft NSW Bitou Threat mechanism to reduce the impacts of other while bitou bush/boneseed is already Abatement Plan (TAP). WoNS to biodiversity. listed in NSW (see above). The Bitou TAP has established an in- The threat abatement planning ap- tegrated approach to weed management Acknowledgements proach can be used to increase knowledge using best-practice principles to deliver Comments by Aaron Coutts-Smith and of the species at risk (see Downey 2004). conservation outcomes to those species Andrew Leys on an earlier version were While identification of the species at risk most at risk. The threat abatement plan- greatly appreciated. is a crucial component of a TAP, addition- ning process outlined in the Bitou TAP al components are required for effective may provide a good premise for achiev- References implementation of a TAP, which include: ing biodiversity conservation outcomes ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource (i) understanding where those species at through IWM principles aimed at reduc- Management Council of Australia and risk occur with respect to the distribution ing the distribution, abundance and bio- New Zealand), ANZECC (Australian of the weed; (ii) involving all stakehold- diversity impacts, which could be adopted and New Zealand Environmental and ers in the management of priority species more broadly. Conservation Council) and Forestry at priority sites; (iii) creating site-specific Ministers (1997). The National Weeds management plans for each site, and; (iv) Applying this approach to other Strategy: A strategic approach to weed ensuring holistic weed management con- WoNS species problems of national significance. (Com- tinues at all priority sites. This approach The Bitou TAP approach, of identifying monwealth of Australia, Canberra). is being developed for bitou bush in NSW the species/biodiversity at risk and pri- ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource through the Bitou TAP (see DEC 2004). ority locations to enable the greatest con- Management Council of Australia and servation benefits, could be adopted for New Zealand), ANZECC (Australian Bitou bush and boneseed WoNS WoNS. For example, the Bitou TAP ap- and New Zealand Environmental and program proach was trialled recently for lantana Conservation Council) and Forestry Bitou bush and boneseed (Chrysanthe- in northern NSW/southern Queensland, Ministers (2000a). Weeds of National moides monilifera subsp. rotundata (L.) in conjunction with the National Lantana Significance Alligator Weed (Alternan- T.Norl.) were identified as one of the Coordinator. Results of this trial are very thera philoxeroides) Strategic Plan. (Na- WoNS (Thorp and Lynch 2000). Follow- promising, with a significant increase in tional Weeds Strategy Executive Com- ing this determination, the NSW National the number of species at risk (i.e. from 21 mittee, Launceston). Parks and Wildlife Service (now part of to over 160 species). Despite a few minor ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource the Department of Environment and Con- modifications, this trial indicated that the Management Council of Australia and servation) agreed to act as the host agen- Bitou TAP approach appears to work for New Zealand), ANZECC (Australian cy for the national program. A National lantana. Thus, further examination is war- and New Zealand Environmental and Strategy was developed (see ARMCANZ ranted to see if the Bitou TAP approach can Conservation Council) and Forestry et al. 2000) and a National Coordinator ap- be applied more broadly to other WoNS. Ministers (2000b). Weeds of National pointed to administer actions within the Significance Bitou Bush and Boneseed Strategy. To date, significant progress has Summary (Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. rotun- been made towards actions outlined in Improving our understanding of the bio- data and monilifera) Strategic Plan. (Na- the National Strategy, however, significant diversity threatened by weeds has signifi- tional Weeds Strategy Executive Com- work is still needed to tackle the impact cant implications for managing weeds. For mittee, Launceston). of bitou bush and boneseed throughout example specific conservation outcomes ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource Australia. Through the National Coordi- can be established within weed manage- Management Council of Australia and nator, the bitou bush and boneseed WoNS ment strategies (e.g. control of bitou bush New Zealand), ANZECC (Australian program can foster effective weed man- to protect littoral rainforests). The Bitou and New Zealand Environmental and agement and conservation outcomes na- TAP identifies the species at risk as well Conservation Council) and Forestry tionally by coordinating integrated weed as establishing a framework for deliver- Ministers (2000c). Weeds of National management (IWM) and planning activi- ing on-ground conservation outcomes. Significance Cabomba (Cabomba caro- ties across states, regions and land tenures. Based on our experiences during the de- liniana) Strategic Plan. (National Weeds This coordinated approach is highlighted velopment and implementation of the Bi- Strategy Executive Committee, Launce- through a number of key strategies, one tou TAP, this approach could be used as a ston).

Table 2. Specific actions relating to listing WoNS as KTPs in the 20 National Strategies A Weed of National Strategy in plan relating to reducing Actions in plan relating to reducing current impacts to Significance impacts to biodiversity biodiversity bridal creeper 2.1.3 – apply for bridal creeper to be Prepare a submission to Environment Australia listed as a Key Threatening Process under Commonwealth environment legislation cabomba 2.3.4 – quantify the impacts of cabomba Identify if cabomba is a threatening process under federal biodiversity legislation mimosa 2.2 – implement land management Present the case for recognising mimosa as a key threatening strategies that decrease the susceptibility process under the Endangered Species Protection Act 1992 of land to mimosa invasion pond apple 2.1.3 – nominate pond apple as a key Collate information required to nominate the impacts of pond threatening process apple invasions to Environment Australia as a key threatening process under Commonwealth legislation A Information derived from ARMCANZ et al. (2000c, 2000e, 2001c, 2000i)

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 43 ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource New Zealand), ANZECC (Australian and New Zealand Environmental and Management Council of Australia and and New Zealand Environmental and Conservation Council) and Forestry New Zealand), ANZECC (Australian Conservation Council) and Forestry Ministers (2001k). Weeds of National and New Zealand Environmental and Ministers (2001d). Weeds of National Significance Rubber Vine Cryptostegia( Conservation Council) and Forestry Significance Chilean Needle Grass Nas( - grandiflora) Strategic Plan. (National Ministers (2000d). Weeds of National sella neesiana) Strategic Plan. (National Weeds Strategy Executive Committee, Significance Hymenachne (Hymenachne Weeds Strategy Executive Committee, Launceston). amplexicaulis) Strategic Plan. (National Launceston). ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource Weeds Strategy Executive Committee, ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and Launceston). Management Council of Australia and New Zealand), ANZECC (Australian ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource New Zealand), ANZECC (Australian and New Zealand Environmental and Management Council of Australia and and New Zealand Environmental and Conservation Council) and Forestry New Zealand), ANZECC (Australian Conservation Council) and Forestry Ministers (2001l). Weeds of National and New Zealand Environmental and Ministers (2001e). Weeds of National Significance Willows Salix( taxa, exclud- Conservation Council) and Forestry Significance Lantana (Lantana camara) ing S. babylonica, S. × calodendron and S. Ministers (2000e). Weeds of National Strategic Plan. (National Weeds Strate- × reichardtii) Strategic Plan. (National Significance Mimosa (Mimosa pigra) gy Executive Committee, Launceston). Weeds Strategy Executive Committee, Strategic Plan. (National Weeds Strate- ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource Launceston). gy Executive Committee, Launceston). Management Council of Australia and ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource New Zealand), ANZECC (Australian Management Council of Australia and Management Council of Australia and and New Zealand Environmental and New Zealand), ANZECC (Australian New Zealand), ANZECC (Australian Conservation Council) and Forestry and New Zealand Environmental and and New Zealand Environmental and Ministers (2001f). Weeds of National Conservation Council) and Forestry Conservation Council) and Forestry Significance Mesquite (Prosopis species) Ministers (2003). Weeds of National Sig- Ministers (2000f). Weeds of National Strategic Plan. (National Weeds Strate- nificance Gorse (Ulex europaeus) Strate- Significance Salvinia (Salvinia molesta) gy Executive Committee, Launceston). gic Plan. (National Weeds Strategy Ex- Strategic Plan. (National Weeds Strate- ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource ecutive Committee, Launceston). gy Executive Committee, Launceston). Management Council of Australia and Coutts-Smith, A.J. and Downey, P.O. (in ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource New Zealand), ANZECC (Australian press). The impact of weeds on threat- Management Council of Australia and and New Zealand Environmental and ened biodiversity in NSW. (Technical New Zealand), ANZECC (Australian Conservation Council) and Forestry Series, CRC for Australian Weed Man- and New Zealand Environmental and Ministers (2001g). Weeds of National agement Systems, Adelaide). Conservation Council) and Forestry Significance Parkinsonia (Parkinso- Department of Environment and Conser- Ministers (2000g). Weeds of National nia aculeata) Strategic Plan. (National vation (DEC) (2004). Draft NSW Threat Significance Serrated Tussock (Nassella Weeds Strategy Executive Committee, Abatement Plan: Invasion of Native trichotoma) Strategic Plan. (National Launceston). Plant Communities by Bitou Bush/ Weeds Strategy Executive Committee, ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource Boneseed (Chrysanthemoides monilifera). Launceston). Management Council of Australia and (Department of Environment and Con- ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource New Zealand), ANZECC (Australian servation, Hurstville). Management Council of Australia and and New Zealand Environmental and Downey, P.O. (2003). Invasive species and New Zealand), ANZECC (Australian Conservation Council) and Forestry plant conservation: woody weeds. In and New Zealand Environmental and Ministers (2001h). Weeds of National Plant conservation: approaches and Conservation Council) and Forestry Significance Parthenium weed (Parthe- techniques from an Australian per- Ministers (2001a). Weeds of National nium hysterophorus) Strategic Plan. (Na- spective’, eds C.L. Brown, F. Hall, and Significance Athel Pine (Tamarix aphylla) tional Weeds Strategy Executive Com- J. Mill, Module 4, pages unnumbered. Strategic Plan. (National Weeds Strate- mittee, Launceston). (Australian Network for Plant Conser- gy Executive Committee, Launceston). ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource vation, Environment Australia, Can- ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and berra). Management Council of Australia and New Zealand), ANZECC (Australian Downey, P.O. (2004). Bitou bush manage- New Zealand), ANZECC (Australian and New Zealand Environmental and ment and plant conservation: establish- and New Zealand Environmental and Conservation Council) and Forestry ing priorities for control. Proceedings of Conservation Council) and Forestry Ministers (2001i). Weeds of National the 14th Australian Weeds Conference, Ministers (2001b). Weeds of National Significance Pond Apple (Annona gla- eds B.M. Sindel and S. Johnson, pp. 697- Significance Blackberry (Rubus fruti- bra) Strategic Plan. (National Weeds 700. (Weed Society of New South Wales, cosus L. agg.) Strategic Plan. (National Strategy Executive Committee, Launce- Sydney). Weeds Strategy Executive Committee, ston). Downey, P.O. and Leys, A.R. (2004). Launceston). ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource Weeds as key threatening processes: ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and implications for managing environ- Management Council of Australia and New Zealand), ANZECC (Australian mental weeds. Proceedings of the 14th New Zealand), ANZECC (Australian and New Zealand Environmental and Australian Weeds Conference, eds and New Zealand Environmental and Conservation Council) and Forestry B.M. Sindel and S. Johnson, pp. 454- Conservation Council) and Forestry Ministers (2001j). Weeds of National Sig- 7. (Weed Society of New South Wales, Ministers (2001c). Weeds of National nificance Prickly Acacia (Acacia nilotica Sydney). Significance Bridal Creeper (Asparagus subsp. indica) Strategic Plan. (National Downey, P., Mahon, P., Haering, R. and asparagoides) Strategic Plan. (National Weeds Strategy Executive Committee, Leys, A. (2004). Threat abatement plans Weeds Strategy Executive Committee, Launceston). – combining invasive alien species man- Launceston). ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource agement and biodiversity conservation ARMCANZ (Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and (Australia). Aliens Newsletter 19 and 20 Management Council of Australia and New Zealand), ANZECC (Australian (double issue), 21-2.

44 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 French, K. and Zubovic, A. (1997). Effect Weiss, P.W. and Noble, I.R. (1984b). Inter- of the weed Chrysanthemoides monilifera actions between seedlings of Chrysan- (bitou bush) on bird communities. Wild- themoides monilifera and Acacia longifolia. life Research 24, 727-35. Australian Journal of Ecology 9, 107-15. Gordon, D.A. (1998). Effects of invasive, non-indigenous plant species on ecosystem processes: lessons from Florida. Ecological Applications 8(4), 975-89. Grice, A.C., Field, A.R. and McFadyen, R.E.C. (2004). Quantifying the effects of weeds on biodiversity: beyond blind Freddy’s test. Proceedings of the 14th Australian Weeds Conference, eds B.M. Sindel and S. Johnson, pp. 464-8. (Weed Society of New South Wales, Sydney). IUCN (The World Conservation Union) (2000). ‘IUCN Guidelines for the Pre- vention of Biodiversity Loss Caused by Alien Invasive Species’. (Species Sur- vival Commission, Invasive Species Specialist Group, IUCN, Switzerland). Mack, M.C. and D’Antonio, C.M. (1998). Impacts of biological invasions on disturbance regimes. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 13 (5), 195-8. Mahon, P. (2000). The New South Wales Threat Abatement Plan for Predation by the Red Fox. Proceedings of the NSW Pest Animal Control Conference’, ed. S. Balogh, pp. 39-47. (NSW Agricul- ture, Orange). Matarczyk, J.A. (1999). Impacts of environmental weeds on Pimelea spicata R.Br. (Thymelaceae). BSc. Honours Thesis, (Australian National University, Can- berra). Saunders, G., Coman, B., Kinnear, J. and Braysher, M. (1995). ‘Managing vertebrate pests: foxes’. (AGPS, Canberra). Thomas, J. and Leys, A. (2002). Strategic management of bitou bush (Chrysan- themoides monilifera ssp. rotundata (L.) T.Norl.). Proceedings 13th Australian Weeds Conference, eds H. Spafford Jacob, J. Dodd and J.H. Moore, pp. 586- 90. (Plant Protection Society of Western Australia, Perth). Thorp, J.R. and Lynch, R. (2000). ‘The determination of Weeds of National Sig- nificance’. (National Weeds Strategy Executive Committee, Launceston). Vidler, S.J. (2004). Using your cute and furries: the role of threatened species in weed awareness. Proceedings of the 14th Australian Weeds Conference, eds B.M. Sindel and S. Johnson, pp. 652-8. (Weed Society of New South Wales, Sydney). Vranjic, J.A., Woods, M.J. and Barnard, J. (2000). Soil-mediated effects on germination and seedling growth of coastal wattle (Acacia sophorae) by the environmental weed, bitou bush (Chrysanthe- moides monilifera ssp. rotundata). Austral Ecology 25, 445-53. Weiss, P.W. and Noble, I.R. (1984a). Status of coastal dune communities invaded by Chrysanthemoides monilifera. Austral- ian Journal of Ecology 9, 93-8.

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 45 infestations from the South Australian border, across to Gippsland. The Gorse Task Force (GTF) now named because of this Gorse task force statewide approach managed the WoNS process. Jeanette Bellchambers, Gorse Task Force, RMB 1250, Shelford, Victoria 3329 Weeds of National Significance and DSE Good Neighbour program allow work to be achieved on public land and 75 ha of public land is under long term gorse control as a result. The GTF encour- In general, it is pretty much, a take it or infestations of gorse in the Ballarat re- ages projects to involve all land managers leave it attitude with weeds in our com- gion. whether freehold, linear managers such munity. In 1999, a Gorse Control Strategy as Vic Rail and Vic Roads, DSE and Parks The situation of weeds abounding in was developed, one of the main aims is Victoria. many locations creates much discussion to increase community awareness of re- During the time of GTF operation 1782.2 and inevitably, they are always someone sponsibility and possible control options ha of gorse has been treated from 121 708 else’s problem and responsibility. – thereby, overall reducing infestations of ha of agricultural land in the South West Some of the most common weed state- gorse. The two principle goals of the strat- region, involving 6500 properties and a ments that we are all familiar with are: egy are: similar number of landholders. • It is the Governments problem because 1. Reduce overall extent of gorse within An extremely rewarding result for the we used to have those people who the GTF area by 25% within five years GTF Committee who are representatives came along and sprayed the roadside (2000 ha). from the 40 Landcare groups, three CMA weeds regularly. 2. Reduce the extent of gorse by 15% regions of Corangamite, Glenelg/Hop- • It is a neighbours problem, because within five years on all roadsides and kins and North Central and the six Lo- they are quite neglectful and seem to waterways (1000 ha). cal Government areas of Golden Plains, do nothing about a particular problem Ballarat Region Gorse Task Force, as it was Ballarat, Ararat, Hepburn, Pyrenees and weed. then known, focuses on targeted agricul- Moorabool. • It is a Local Government problem, be- tural areas that are nominated by Landcare Clearly, additional change has occurred cause we didn't have those weeds in groups. A small financial incentive is paid outside of target areas because of the in- our locality until there was that heavy to the landholder, towards gorse clearance fluence of target area work. This supports machinery work, the movement of costs in roadside and riparian locations; as the fact that, while we do nothing there gravel or re-sheeting of the road. this delivers the greatest public benefit in will be no change, we stay ‘comfortable’ • Not to mention the state of many Crown reducing the spread of seed, but remov- with weeds in our environment, but when Land Reserves – so why doesn't Land- al of gorse on the landholders adjoining change occurs it inspires others to do care do something about that! property is at their own expense. something about their weeds! The facilitation component of Task In July 2004, the GTF invested in the Gorse Task Force Force operation is an important part of evaluation of the Gorse Control Strategy Gorse was deliberately introduced into the interaction and guidance process. This (GCS) with the evaluation split into two Australia in the early 1800s and used ex- enables the two parties to develop a Work distinct components: tensively for hedgerows and has grown Plan Agreement (WPA) which is an agree- 1. The use of an independent consultant out along hundreds of kilometres of fence ment between the facilitator and land- to provide the GTF a clear picture of its line. Eventually it invaded many stream holder about how and when the work is partners and stakeholders satisfaction and river locations and as a legacy of ex- to be achieved. This agreement allows lati- with current programs, and to high- tensive mining around Ballarat, in any dis- tude and is considerate of the landholder’s light issues with these programs that turbed areas of soil, it readily established. circumstances – it is usually preceded by need to be addressed. So comfortable was the Ballarat locality letters, individual contact and the actual 2. A desktop study to determine progress with gorse, that the Ballarat region was WPA allows at least 2–3 months for the towards the key actions outlined in the possibly the largest operating maze of control work. GCS. roadside and riparian gorse. With support from Corangamite, The GTF has evolved over the five years, In 1998 a small but representative Glenelg /Hopkins, and North Central adapting to the complexities of funding group, mainly the central highland Local CMAs a co-operative roadside program changes, improving the operational proc- Government region, a number of Land- was established that involved Local Gov- ess with Landcare groups and harnessing care groups, some really committed peo- ernment areas around Ballarat and in some new partners in the task of gorse reduc- ple and the then Department Natural Re- cases dollars were matched by that shire, tion. sources and Environment (DNRE) formed increasing roadside outcomes. the community driven – Ballarat Region However, it has not been all clear sailing! Gorse Task Force (BRGTF). Change began to occur… Gorse Task Force is constantly challenged In 2001, Gorse Control Strategy was by the lack of clarity with The Catchment Looking back on our early adopted as an Interim Statewide Strategy and Land Protection Act (CaLP Act) and achievements… for Victoria after the BRGTF committee in particular the roadside responsibility These were very optimistic times, with successfully gained Weeds of National issue for regionally controlled weeds on a small budget of about $50 000, which Significance (WoNS) funding of $615 000 undeclared roads. We have been able to enabled two facilitators working part for 2002–2004 years of operation. advance this situation with funding from time, 2–3 days per week and considerable Part of this funding enabled a greater the Department of Sustainability and En- DNRE operational support. Each year our emphasis on removing Gorse from the vironment for an Interim Roadside Pro- primary funding source has been Second Ballarat region and really accelerated our gram. This has enabled six Local Govern- Generation funding from the State Gov- Ballarat program. WoNS funding benefit- ment regions to arrange control work on ernment’s Victorian Landcare Program. ed many other strategic locations across priority roadsides and protect previous The task had begun, tackling the huge the state, allowing GTF to target gorse investment in these locations.

46 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 Each year the uncertainty of continu- to our many unique ecosystems, our ing funding is disruptive to our programs. neighbours and the broader region. Considerable legal training for facilitators working under the CaLP Act, short-term Compliance – from the first knock on the tenure and twelve-month employment ar- door, letter or phone contact, the landhold- rangements do not deliver the best return er becomes part of the compliance process. for the dollars invested. This is what the community wants – eve- The GTF has also realised that when ryone being involved, ‘not just a scatter- work is undertaken in an area, return and gun approach’. possible follow-up of that area, must remain for several years to achieve perma- Enforcement – in fairness to the work nent change. planned, delivered and those of the com- As well as those who invest in our munity who accept the challenge and do work, we also want the best outcome for the work, enforcement is a necessary push the dollars invested; weeds are possibly for a minority. Often it is only the threat of our greatest Natural Resource Manage- enforcement that gets the work done. ment challenge and need long term support and focus. The GTF realises there is F.I.E.R.C.E. is the acronym for – everyone much more work still to be done, but it is desiring and working towards the goal of possible to see considerable change in and weed eradication. The benefit is that, all around Ballarat the stakeholders desire the same outcome – we all want a reduction in weed infesta- To secure the process… tions. Weed action needs to be fair but F.I.E.R.C.E. and most of these six components have Because weeds are everyone’s helped the GTF deliver success! problem! To achieve this united outcome requires Facilitation – one on one with landholders, an integrated approach. We need stronger facilitators work with many community partnerships with State and Local Govern- members who are not necessarily Landcare ment, Catchment Management Authori- members. Facilitators work with Landcare ties, Landcare and the broader commu- executive committees to estimate gorse nity, to work towards this goal. infestations and calculate incentive pay- Every partner needs to be sending out ments, this helps build human capacity at the same message, encouraging better land many levels and has helped to lessen the management, which delivers productivity burden on Landcare groups. benefits but most importantly, enforces landowner responsibility. Information – there has been an increasing number of calls to DPI requesting information on gorse control and many requests for assistance in urban and small township areas. Urban areas are presently not the focus of the Gorse Control Strategy and the restrictions of funding limit control work to designated areas. The GTF are presently supporting the feasibility of an existing Local Government By Law, that could assist the clean up of gorse in township locations. In 2001, GTF printed 30 000 brochures (sponsored by Dow AgriServices) detailing the options for gorse control, (not just chemical) – so great was the demand, we had to get another 20 000 printed!

Education – about changing the landscape from weed encroachment and the apathy that allows it to happen. This is the interaction fore front that can inform of productivity benefits and establishes the continu- ity of regular weed control. In partnership with Keith Turnbull Research Institute, GTF have assisted the Weed Warriors program that has operated the gorse spider mite breeding and release program involving school children at many schools.

Responsibility, this requires an attitude change, a responsibility to the landscape,

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 47 by visits from members of the local community and those willing to act as mentors Weed Warriors – engaging and empowering the to the students. Through the initial classroom session, community students are taught the skills needed to breed the biological control agents for the Megan McCarthyA,C and Kate McArthurB,C chosen target weed. The weed species tar- A Department of Primary Industries, PO Box 48, Frankston, Victoria 3199 geted and biological control agent reared B Department of Sustainability and Environment, 8 Nicholson Street, East will depend on what weed problems oc- Melbourne, Victoria 3002 cur in the local area and the availability of C Cooperative Research Centre for Australian Weed Management agents for those weeds. The breeding phase The breeding phase of the Weed War- riors program generally lasts four to six Summary Weed Warriors is a community biological control agent required for the weeks. During this time students become engagement and empowerment program research and control program. responsible for the breeding of the bio- that focuses on joining together regional As part of the program, students are logical control agents and making basic stakeholders, local schools and communi- provided with an insectary and a colony observations about the biological control ty groups to tackle local weed problems. of agents, and are taught the skills needed agent’s life cycle and its impact on the The program is a proud Victorian ini- to breed them. The students then take on target weed. Duties include watering and tiative, commencing as a pilot program in the role of ‘weed scientists’ and turn their providing quantities of the weed to act as 2001 and representing the culmination of classroom into a mini ‘research institute’ a food source. The agents chosen for the almost ten years experience of DPI/DSE as they investigate and research the rela- program are highly visible in their impact researchers, catchment management and tionship between living things by direct and students are encouraged to measure extension officers and land managers. In observation and active participation. After their observable impact and report on 2002, the program was launched nation- rearing the agents for a period of time, the what they find. ally through the support of the CRC for students release them at weed infestations Australian Weed Management, and to localised to the school in collaboration The field-based activity date over 180 networks of participants with the network of regional stakeholders The field-based activity is usually of two across Australia are proud to call them- and community groups, helping to make a hours duration and centres on the release selves Weed Warriors. valuable contribution towards addressing of the classroom reared biological control Keywords Weed Warriors, biological a weed problem in their own community. agents at a suitable weed infestation lo- control, community engagement and em- calised to the school. Media attendance at powerment. The structure of the Weed Warriors the event is encouraged as is attendance program by parents and other interested parties. Introduction - what is Weed The Weed Warriors program is designed to Through participating in the release event, Warriors? run for at least four weeks and consists of students are given an opportunity to relate Weed Warriors is an innovative national an initial classroom session, the breeding their classroom-based learning to a real- community engagement program, sup- phase and concludes with a field-based world experience. ported by the Department of Primary activity. A follow-up activity is recom- Industries and the Cooperative Research mended six to twelve months after the The follow-up activity Centre for Australian Weed Management conclusion of the program. An important follow-up activity is to in- that aims to enhance community aware- volve the students in monitoring the es- ness of and involvement in local weed is- The initial classroom session tablishment and spread of the biological sues. The initial classroom session is usually control agents at the release site at least six The programs focus is on linking school of one hour duration and is aimed at in- or twelve months after their release. students, the land managers of the near creasing the student’s knowledge of weed future, with a network of regional stake- related issues, linked both to their local The logic behind the Weed Warriors holders and community groups, and em- community and a wider context and in- program powering and engaging them all in weed troducing them to various weed manage- Weed Warriors represents a departure management through a series of ongoing ment tools including biological control. away from traditional education and practical hands-on experiences based on The initial classroom session is supported awareness programs towards a new biological control. (Biological control is the management of a weed using natural en- emies from the weed’s country of origin). The experiences are designed to take the program participants beyond knowledge Initial Breeding Phase Field-based to action and help to encourage a sense of Classroom Activity connection to and responsibility for their Session natural environment. Through the program, school students are given the unique opportunity to participate in real life weed research and control Follow-up programs within and beyond the class- Activity room. As Weed Warriors students become actively involved in the management of a local weed problem when they take on the task of breeding, in their classroom, a Figure 1. The structure of the national Weed Warriors program

48 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 Anticipated Impact Change in SEE conditions : What change in Social, Environmental and Economic conditions do you want to see as a result of the program? Practice Change What change in the participant’s adoption of improved practices is required to bring about an ‘end result’ – a change in SEE conditions? KASA Change What change associated with participating in the program is needed in participants’: Knowledge, Attitudes, Skills, Aspirations to bring about practice change? Reactions How do people feel as a result of participating in the program? Participants What are the characteristics of the people who are targeted for participation the program? Activities What activities (strategies, methods, events and communication efforts) will be used in the program to involve participants? Resources What resources (time, money, staff (including volunteers) will be used to plan, promote, implement, monitor and evaluate the program? Adapted from the Program Evaluation Training Course Handbook, DPI 2005

Figure 2. A Bennett’s Hierarchy highlighting the reactions category as the causal link between activity and change methodology emphasising empowerment. a change in their attitudes and behaviour. Importantly, 100% of all program par- Traditional education programs generally The causal link between activity and ticipants surveyed (n=40 people) found operate in the area of intellect and strive to change in a program lies in the realm the program professionally and person- increase the knowledge and understand- of ‘reactions’, and of all the phases of a ally very rewarding. Work is continuing ing of a particular issue or set of issues. program, the generation of a reaction in to monitor how this positive reaction links The Weed Warriors program acknowledg- participants is the most powerful catalyst to practice change and ultimately to ‘end es that increasing people’s awareness of and the most difficult to control. Program results’. an issue without empowering them with evaluators acknowledge that it is within However the Weed Warriors program is the practical tools needed to become part the realm of reactions that ‘miracles’ occur, designed to translate this strong emotive of the solution to the problem can leave meaning that the invaluable contribution response into community empowerment people feeling overwhelmed and discon- reactions make to the ultimate success of and sustainable stakeholder engagement. nected, often leading to inactivity and at our programs is often elusive and little un- While the program recognises children worst, apathy. derstood. Importantly the Weed Warriors as the land managers of the near future Consequently the Weed Warriors pro- program has developed an effective vehi- it acknowledges that the development of gram is designed to take people from cle to harness this potent phenomenon. regional stakeholder networks to facili- knowledge to action and encourages par- tate and support their involvement in the ticipants to develop a sense of connection The key to success? classroom rearing and release of biological to and responsibility for local places that is Arguably the key to the success of the control agents is a powerful tool to achieve critical to bringing about lasting change. Weed Warriors program lies in its ability practice change in a diverse stakeholder A deeper understanding of how Weed to consistently generate strong reactions in group. Warriors works requires an investigation a diverse range of people. Building Weed into the logic that underpins the program. Warriors on sound program logic has en- Conclusion While developing the Weed Warriors mod- sured that the program was developed The national Weed Warriors program has el significant thinking was employed to with inherent empathy with the needs of proved itself an effective vehicle for en- map the anticipated cause and effect rela- program participants and is flexible and gaging both students and the community tionship between the program’s activities dynamic enough to ensure outcomes for a in local weed management issues. and the desired ‘end result’, in this case, a wide range of stakeholder groups. Its interactive approach has allowed change in the way weeds impact on social, Intensive evaluation of participants in students and the community to gain environmental and economic conditions the Weed Warriors program seeks to both greater understanding and appreciation in Australia. quantify and qualify the way they react to for the environment in which they live The logic behind the Weeds Warriors’ the program, and to identify the change in and the impact weeds have on it and us. program was described using a Bennett’s their KASA as a result of Weed Warriors. The strength of the program lies in the Hierarchy (Bennett and Rockwell 2002). In the course of the Weed Warriors eval- development of supportive and mutually Figure 2 illustrates the lay-out of the Ben- uation, program participants are asked to beneficial Weed Warriors networks of en- nett’s Hierarchy used and illustrates the describe their reactions to the program by thusiasm, experience and expertise to help type of questions that were asked and an- answering the following questions: create a program driven by empowered swered in defining the core drivers of the and engaged stakeholders. Weed Warriors program. I found the Weed Warriors program per- Bennett’s Hierarchy suggests that the sonally: skeleton of program design should ac- Unrewarding ____2____3____ Very Re- knowledge that we employ resources to warding generate activity for people to participate in and support the following assumption. I found Weed Warriors program profession- Participants will develop a reaction associ- ally: ated with participating in the program’s Unrewarding ____2____3____ Very Re- activities and that this reaction can lead to warding

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 49 Discussion With all the effort that has been put into Evidence based verses community driven Weed managing weeds in Australia since Eu- ropean settlement, why are weeds still a Action Plans problem? There are believed to be about 2700 naturalised species of non-native Leigh Dennis, Corangamite Catchment Management Authority, 64 Dennis plants in this country. Thirty percent of Street, Colac, Victoria 3250 these (798) are considered to be a major problem (Groves et al. 2003). Introduced plants are perceived in different ways by different individuals, what is seen as being Abstract Meeting expectations are the weed management around assessing the a useful plant by one individual or group key to the success of any plan of action. All actual threat that these plants present is seen as a serious threat by others. forms of investment are based on achiev- through a vigorous understanding of Perceptions of individuals, groups and ing a return on those resources invested the plant’s capacity to invade and cause the community provide the drivers as to through some form of change. If Weed Ac- impact. This thinking has been clarified why plants are considered weeds. To rural tion Plans are to provide the basis for in- through the Victorian Weed Management communities plants that effect primary investment in weed management they must Strategy (VWMS) under the Victorian Pest dustries such as agriculture, horticulture, be able to demonstrate how they will meet Management Framework with key objec- animal production and forestry reduce expectations and provide return on invest- tives being to ‘assess the threat and risk economic output and have a direct effect ment. Community driven plans have the posed by new plant species with weed po- on those communities are considered to strength of ownership but may be sus- tential’ and to ‘assess the current and po- be weeds. Users of waterways, irrigation ceptible if the outcomes they seek are not tential impact of existing weed problems and drainage systems consider plants that achievable. Evidence based plans provide in Victoria’. Strategic action nine of the hinder fishing, reduce flows, effect water the logic for weed management but may VWMS is to assess the benefits and costs quality and effect habitats to be weeds. not represent the aspirations of the com- of weed management. The required action Plants that effect human or animal wel- munity in the location to which they apply. to achieve this is to ‘develop a decision- fare are considered by those affected to The success of any plan is dependent on making process for investment in weed be weeds. Plants that are fire hazards, re- the resources that are available to imple- management that considers economic, en- duce aesthetic values, impede visibility or ment it, the likelihood of success and the vironmental and social values’. cause structural damage are considered to acceptance of those stakeholders involved. be weeds. Plants that adversely affect the All Weed Action Plans need to incorporate Background integrity, conservation value or diversity the ownership of the community based on Australia’s first noxious weed legislation of natural ecosystems are viewed as weeds logical and achievable outcomes. was enacted in South Australia in 1851 within that context. through an ‘Act for Preventing the Further A plant is not necessarily a weed in all Introduction Spread of the Scotch Thistle’ (Parsons and circumstances, it is only when it is hav- What are Weed Action Plans? In Australia Cuthbertson 1992). ing an adverse impact that its weedy at- at present there are a range of documents In Victoria over recent years weed man- tributes comes to the fore. Some plant spe- that could be classified as weed action agement has taken a more strategic focus, cies have this propensity in a number of plans. The various state and federal leg- this focus has been articulated through situations due to their physiology (spiny islations that have provisions to deal with the development of weed action plans. or injurious), their habit (smothering) or species of plants considered to be weeds Prior to this approach being adopted weed their biochemistry (odour, poisonous, al- are a form of action plan. The various state management was very much the responsi- lergenic) and these are generally consid- and federal strategies such as the National bility of the individual land manager, with ered our worst weeds. On the other hand Weeds Strategy and in this state, the Victo- the consequence of their management and some plants only cause impact in certain rian Pest Management Framework and the its associated impact, not being considered situations, so if they are not occurring in associated Victorian Weed Management by the community as a whole. Govern- locations where they can cause this impact Strategy, could be considered as weed ac- ment intervention on behalf of the com- or have the potential to cause impact, they tion plans. At the regional level Catchment munity occurred through the provisions are not necessarily weeds. Management Authority Regional Weed of noxious weeds legislation where land Given that not all introduced plant spe- Action Plans also comply with the defini- managers could be required to comply cies are weeds and that some plant spe- tion. Species based strategies such as those with managing species of plants declared cies are only considered to be weeds when for serrated tussock, gorse, blackberry, rag- under such legislation. they cause an impact on something that wort, and Chilean needle grass are also ac- In Victoria the first concerted effort to an individual or the community values, tion plans for weeds. Localised programs develop regionally based weed action for Weed Action Plans to be effective they that are articulated within a document of plans occurred at the turn of last century. need to consider this. Another considera- some form can also be defined as weed The provisions of the Catchment and Land tion is that weeds need to be managed to action plans as such. Protection Act state that a Catchment Man- minimise their impact and that all forms The basis of most of these plans has agement Authority has the function to pre- of management have a cost, then utilising been that they have been developed be- pare a regional catchment strategy for the the available resources to manage them cause the community has identified the region and to co-ordinate and monitor its in the most cost-effective, efficient man- need to strategically plan and implement implementation. Regional Weed Action ner should be the outcome sought by any weed management programs. The major- Plans were seen by government to be an Weed Action Plan. A Weed Action Plan ity of these plans have been developed by appropriate mechanism to ensure that the that does not consider these factors will the community on what they perceived weeds deemed by the community of that be unlikely to succeed. are the species of plants that present the region to present the greatest threat to the What then is a community driven greatest threat and have the most impact. values of that region, were dealt with in a Weed Action Plan and how is it different In recent times there has been the recogni- strategic, cost-effective manner. to an evidence based plan? Traditionally, tion for the need to base decisions about community driven plans concentrate on

50 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 dealing with weeds that the community Comment management plans. Planning provides the perceives as being a threat to the things The development of community driven mechanism for integration and manage- they value, i.e. Paterson’s curse is a seri- plans can be vulnerable to being influ- ment of weed issues within a wider natural ous weed that has invaded large areas of enced by any prejudices of those who are resource management context by address- Australia therefore we need to deal with it. involved in such development. Develop- ing the causes, and not just the symptoms, These plans usually apply to a geographic ment of community driven plans are also of weed problems (LWBC undated). region or to a particular species of plant. vulnerable to being manipulated by sec- Ideally a mixture of evidence based and They are generally developed by a group tors of the community to leverage individ- community driven processes is the best of individuals who have a common need ual gain through funding or other forms of approach to development and implemen- and are embraced by those involved in resource allocation. tation. their development. When large segments Alternatively, if the community do not of the community or the majority of the have ownership of evidence based plans References population from a geographic area are in- or are not supportive of the logic used, Groves, R.H., Hosking, J.R., Batianoff, volved, these plans can be powerful driv- then these plans can be seen as an imposi- G.N., Cooke, D.A., Cowie, I.D., John- ers for change. tion and may not be supported. The notion son, R.W., Keighery, G.J., Lepschi, B.J., Evidence based plans tend to use de- of ‘managing’ weeds as opposed to ‘eradi- Mitchell, A.A., Moerkerk, M., Randall, cision support processes based on robust cating’ them is often against what the com- R.P., Rozefelds, A.C., Walsh, N.G. and information to decide when interven- munity has been conditioned to and is a Waterhouse, B.M. (2003). Weed catego- tions against weeds need to take place. culture that can be difficult to change. ries for natural and agricultural ecosys- Such evidence can come from science tem management. (Bureau of Resource (invasiveness, suitable climate, suitable Conclusion Science, ACT). situations, vulnerability of ecosystems to There are pros and cons to both forms of LWBC (undated). Principles of weeds leg- invasion), economics (cost to production, Weed Action Plans and neither should be islation discussion paper. www.weeds. cost to manage, cost-benefit) and social mutually exclusive. The strength of com- org.au/docs/weeds_leg_dd.pdf. values (recreation, amenity, cultural). The munity driven plans is that if appropriate Parsons, W.T. and Cuthbertson, E.G. major strength of these plans is that they consultation occurs and the community (1992). ‘Noxious weeds of Australia.’ can readily justify investment and clarify to which these plans refer to is support- (CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne). benefit to investors. ive then ownership by those practitioners Government has increasingly applied who will play a major role in their imple- the ‘beneficiary pays’ principle for assign- mentation will greatly enhance the pros- ing the costs of natural resource rehabili- pects of success. These communities must tation programs, including weed control. ensure that the outcomes they are seek- The principle states that the costs are as- ing through the implementation of these signed to the beneficiaries, be they private plans are achievable within the constraints individuals or the local or national com- of available resources. munity. It is generally held that invest- Evidence based plans provide a sound ment in weed management by the gov- basis on what action to take over time ernment should not seek to replace private and can be used to ascertain the resources investment, but should seek to leverage that are required, but if the community private investment to ensure a coordinat- to which these plans apply do not have ed approach to weed management can be ownership, then these too are vulnerable implemented so that the spread of weed to failure. populations is reduced. Well-developed management plans There are significant public benefits should lay the foundations for a successful from government investment in weed weed management program. Weed man- management – if such investment can agement plans can provide the following make a difference in the rate at which benefits: weed populations spread through time. • identification of the underlying causes Every hectare invaded by weeds cause of the weed problem(s) and associated economic and environmental losses. This issues, in turn has important social implications – • establishing priorities, reduced opportunities for wealth creation • identification of best management or investment opportunities in regional practices to address the causes of the communities. weed problem(s), As the community’s representative • outlining the preferred outcomes from governments: any action, • Invest in weed management strategies • increased coordination amongst stake- that minimise the likelihood of new holders, weed infestations from outside Victoria • community involvement and commit- to the extent that the net gain to Victoria ment, is maximised. • identification and acceptance of roles • Address market failure that leads to and the allocation of responsibilities, landowners not investing in weed • improved resource allocation, and management strategies in other land • increased monitoring and evaluation of areas. actions. • Identify community outcomes where Successful weed management requires government investment is justified a coordinated, strategic approach which – based on assessment of private, in- can be more readily achieved through dustry and public beneficiaries. the widespread adoption of weed

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 51 Materials and methods The experiments were set up at six Understanding and managing weed effects on riparian sites in southern Victoria, five in Gippsland and one on the Morning- establishment of native tree seedlings in riparian ton peninsula. Three sites were used for zones blackberry and the remaining three for blue periwinkle. Experimental areas were chosen that as far as possible contained Nigel Ainsworth and Fiona Ede, CRC Australian Weed Management, only the weed species of interest. With the Department of Primary Industries Frankston, PO Box 48, Frankston, exception of one blackberry site all had a Victoria 3199 canopy of mature native trees. Potential plot locations were marked out at each site and then assigned at random to one of eight treatments in a totally randomised design. Treatments were clearing of 0, 40, Summary This paper reports early results (Humphries et al. 1991, Carr et al. 1992). 80 or 120 cm diameter gaps in the weed of a field experiment in which cover of two The frequency of natural disturbance that cover, which were then planted with two exotic weed species was modified to ex- creates the mosaic of habitats within the seedlings of either blackwood or manna amine the effect on seedling establishment riparian zone is thought to contribute to gum. One seedling of each pair was des- of two native tree species. The weeds were the high invasibility of riparian commu- ignated the primary plant for the plot and blackberry (Rubus fruticosus agg.) and blue nities by exotic species (Naiman and De- the other was a reserve plant to be used periwinkle (Vinca major). Both commonly camps 1997). only in case of death of the primary plant. form extensive near-monocultures in ripar- It is often stated that weed species pre- Due to a shortage of suitable blackwood ian zones. Blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) vent the recruitment of native trees and seedlings not all blackwood plots had re- and manna gum (Eucalyptus viminalis) shrubs in various habitats (e.g. Randall serve seedlings. There were six replicate were the native tree species. Experiments 1996, Muyt 2001), but empirical evidence plots of each treatment at every site, giv- were set up in October 2004 at six riparian to support such claims is often lacking. In ing a total of 48 plots per site. Seedlings sites in southern Victoria. Three sites were riparian habitats, understanding the im- had been purchased from a commercial used for each weed. Treatments consisting pact that weeds have on the recruitment of nursery and were selected for uniform size of 0, 40, 80 or 120 cm diameter gaps in the native trees is further limited by the pau- and appearance. When planted in October weed cover were planted with seedlings city of information relating to the natural 2004 mean the height of manna gum seed- of either blackwood or manna gum. Once recruitment processes of key overstorey lings was 10.7 cm (range 6 to 20) and for created the gaps were allowed to close up species. A study of weed cover and native blackwoods 7.6 cm (4 to 16). Remaining without further interference. There were seedling occurrence at riparian sites in Vic- backup plants were removed in January six replicate plots of each treatment per toria (Ede et al. 2004) found that contrary 2005 unless the primary plant in the plot site, giving a total of 48 plots per site. to expectations, the abundant riparian was dead, which happened in only six of Overall survival to March of manna weed blackberry (Rubus fruticosus agg.) 288 plots. Only data from primary plants gum (30%) was much less than that of did not appear to influence the abundance are considered here. blackwood (74%). There were very highly of native tree seedlings. Furthermore, high Gaps in blackberry cover were created significant effects of tree species and gap cover of some exotic groundcover plants by cutting canes around a central marker size and a significant influence of weed was in fact associated with finding greater to create a gap of the required diameter, species. Initial seedling size had no sig- numbers of native tree seedlings. One rea- with any canes arising within the plot cut nificant influence on survival. Generally son for these findings could be that data at ground level. Root material was not re- seedlings of both species were taller at were collected at a site (3000–4000 m2) moved because the resultant disturbance blue periwinkle sites than at blackberry scale, whilst the assumed competition be- would have been excessive due to the sites, across all gap sizes. Gap size was a tween exotic weeds and native tree seed- deep rooting habit of blackberry. Since significant factor for height of blackwoods lings occurs at a smaller scale. blackberry canes can grow up to 7 m in a but not for manna gums, however there This paper reports early results of an single growing season it was considered were only three gap sizes for manna gum ongoing field experiment in which cover that removal of root material within the heights, due to death of all manna gums in of two exotic weed species was modified plots would in any case have little effect zero gap plots. Results from the remainder and the responses of two species of native on the rate of gap closure. Blue periwinkle of the experiment will be useful for priori- tree seedling examined. The weed species gaps were created similarly but in this case tisation of weed species for management. chosen were the shrub blackberry and the the much shallower roots were removed. The results will also define the minimum perennial herb blue periwinkle (Vinca ma- Once created the gaps were allowed to weed-free space that must be created when jor). Both of these species commonly form close up without further interference. planting different native trees extensive near-monocultures in riparian Seedlings were watered in and then zones. Blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) covered with wire mesh guards to exclude Introduction and manna gum (Eucalyptus viminalis) browsing. No further watering was pro- The riparian zone is the interface between were the native tree species used. Both of vided. Survival and height growth were terrestrial and freshwater systems and can these trees are common in riparian vegeta- recorded in November and December be defined as ‘the area of land that adjoins, tion but have very different phenologies. 2004 and January and March 2005. On regularly influences, or is influenced by, a The objectives were to determine how each occasion remaining gap size was as- river’ (DNRE 2002). In Victoria, as else- different levels of weed cover affected sessed by measuring the total remaining where in Australia, riparian vegetation the survival and growth of the native tree gap (any lengths greater than 10 cm) along communities have been degraded by a seedlings, whether the weeds differed in four equally spaced diameters. number of processes, and are particularly their effects and whether the two native Number of surviving tree seedlings vulnerable to invasion by environmental tree species differed in their susceptibili- were analysed by logistic regression weeds in comparison with other habitats ties to competition from weeds. and seedling height data by analysis of

52 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 variance after natural logarithm transfor- 100 a. b. mation. manna gum 90 blackwood Results 80 Seedling survival 70 Initial survival was good in all treatments 60 and the majority of mortality occurred 50 from January onwards. Overall survival to March of manna gum (30%) was much % survival 40 less than that of blackwood (74%). Figure 30 1a shows survival in different gaps sizes at 20 blackberry sites. A third of the blackwood 10 seedlings survived even without any gap 0 in the weed canopy and when any size 0 40 80 120 0 40 80 120 of gap was created, blackwood seedling survival exceeded 70%; in 120 cm gaps al- Gap diameter (cm) Gap diameter (cm) most all blackwood seedlings survived. All manna gum seedlings died in zero gap Figure 1. Percent survival of tree seedlings planted into (a) blackberry and blackberry plots, and survival progres- (b) blue periwinkle sively increased with increasing gap size up to 50% in 120 cm gaps. Survival of both tree species was better 45 a. b. at blue periwinkle sites (Figure 1b). Two manna gum thirds of blackwood seedlings survived 40 even with no gap and this increased to blackwood 35 almost 80% in a 40 cm gap. Manna gum survival was much lower with once again 30 no survivors in zero gap plots and only 25 around a third surviving in 40 or 80 cm gaps. However in 120 cm diameter gaps 20 almost 90% of manna gums survived. 15

Within each group of three sites with Seedling height (cm) the same weed there was no effect of site 10 on tree seedling survival. Site was there- 5 fore removed as a factor in the analysis. 0 There were very highly significant effects 0 40 80 120 0 40 80 120 of tree species and gap size (P = 0.000) and Gap diameter (cm) Gap diameter (cm) significant influence of the weed species (P = 0.010). Initial tree seedling size had Figure 2. Mean heights (with standard errors) of tree seedlings planted into no significant influence on survival. When each tree species was considered separate- (a) blackberry and (b) blue periwinkle. Figures are back-transformed from ly, the weed species they had been planted logged data into was not significant for blackwood and was only marginally significant for manna gum (P = 0.049). weed species was also a significant effect Table 1a. Anova of log-transformed on both tree species. There was significant blackwood seedling height. Height growth variation in height of both species due to df F P Seedling heights at blackberry sites are differences amongst the three sites of each shown in Figure 2a. Blackwood seedlings weed species. The site effect for both tree Gap size 3 9.8 0.000 were taller than manna gum seedlings in species was strongly influenced by poor Initial height 1 14.6 0.000 80 and 120 cm gaps. Whilst blackwood growth at the Mornington peninsula black- seedlings tended to be taller as gap size berry site, where the overstorey of native Weed species 1 6.5 0.012 increased this was not evident for manna trees was denser than at other sites. Sites within weed 4 4.4 0.002 gum seedlings. Figure 2b shows seedling Gap size was a significant factor for species heights at blue periwinkle sites. Black- blackwoods but not for manna gums, but Error 97 wood seedlings appeared to be suppressed it is important to note that a much smaller in zero gap plots but of a similar height in number of plots still contained live manna all other gap sizes. There was a tendency gums (45 plots compared to 107 blackwood Table 1b. Anova of log-transformed for blackwood seedlings in 80 and 120 cm plots) and also that there were only three manna gum seedling height. gaps to be larger than the corresponding gap sizes for manna gum height measure- manna gum seedlings, but this was less ments, due to death of all manna gums in df F P strong than at blackberry sites. Generally zero gap plots. Gap size 2 2.8 0.076 seedlings of both species were taller at Initial height 1 9.1 0.005 blue periwinkle sites than at blackberry Discussion and conclusions sites (Table 1), across all gap sizes. The results from this trial which was de- Weed species 1 10.1 0.003 Table 1 shows the factors that had sig- signed to investigate the effect of weed Sites within weed 4 2.9 0.037 nificant effects on seedling height. Unsur- competition on individual seedling sur- species prisingly initial seedling height affected vival and growth are consistent with black- March height of both tree species and berry suppressing growth and survival of Error 36

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 53 both tree species more than blue periwin- periwinkle this information will be useful kle and with manna gum seedlings be- for prioritisation of weed management. ing more susceptible to weed effects than The results will also assist in deciding the blackwood. These findings support opin- minimum weed-free space that must be ions from land managers that blackwoods created for different native trees if it is in- are relatively tolerant of weed competi- tended to augment native tree recruitment tion. It is too early to determine whether with small-scale planting within weedy the seedlings that survived to March 2005 riparian zones. will establish successfully. Blue periwinkle at these sites is generally less than 0.5 Acknowledgements m tall, so some of the larger seedlings are The authors gratefully acknowledge the now above the level of the weed canopy assistance of many colleagues and volun- and appear to have a good prospect of es- teers in establishing and monitoring the tablishing. However at one blue periwin- experiments and also the cooperation of kle site the climbing exotic weed cape ivy landholders in providing access to the (Delairea odorata) may prevent this. field sites. Funding for this project was Seedlings planted into blackberry ben- provided by the Weeds CRC, DPI and DSE efited from the summer of 2004–05 being Victoria and Melbourne Water. a good year for the blackberry rust fungus (Phragmidium violaceum) which caused References significant defoliation from mid summer Carr, G.W., Yugovic, J.V. and Robinson, onwards at all three blackberry sites. Thus K.E. (1992). ‘Environmental weed in- although gaps in the blackberry cover ini- vasions in Victoria: Conservation and tially closed over quite rapidly, in some management implications’. (Depart- cases the plots then became less shaded as ment of Conservation and Environ- the season went on. No seedlings have yet ment, East Melbourne, and Ecological overtopped blackberry and their survival Horticulture Pty Ltd., Clifton Hill). may be determined by whether they can DNRE (Department of Natural Resources do so in spring 2005 before renewed black- and Environment) (2002). Healthy riv- berry growth shades them out. Shading ers healthy communities and regional appears to be the major factor determining growth: Victorian river health strategy. outcomes in this field experiment. A glass- The State of Victoria, Department of house experiment is currently underway Natural Resources and Environment, to examine the response of these two tree Melbourne. species to different levels of shade to see Ede, F.J., Ainsworth, N. and Hunt, T.D. whether our assumption that blackwood (2004). Assessing weed impacts on the is much more shade tolerant than manna recruitment of riparian overstorey spe- gum is correct. cies. Proceedings of the 14th Australian The ability of young tree seedlings, par- Weeds Conference, eds B.M. Sindel and ticularly blackwoods, to survive and grow S.B. Johnson, pp. 218-21. (Weed Society in small or zero gaps in blue periwinkle of New South Wales). may explain the observation during our Humphries, S.E., Groves, R.H. and Mitch- earlier survey (Ede et al. 2004) of native tree ell, D.S. (1991). Plant invasions of Aus- recruitment coexisting with high cover of tralian ecosystems: A status review exotic herb weeds such as blue periwinkle. and management directions. Part One, Seedlings that survived to March in black- ‘Plant invasions – The incidence of en- berry in this experiment may well die once vironmental weeds in Australia’, a re- blackberry growth resumes, because they port to the Australian National Parks are all still well below the height of the and Wildlife Service, Canberra. weed. If this proves to be the case there Muyt, A. (2001). ‘Bush invaders of South- would appear to be a contradiction be- East Australia: A guide to the identi- tween this experiment and the observation fication and control of environmental from the survey that amount of blackberry weeds found in south-east Australia’ cover does not affect number of native tree (R.G. and F.J. Richardson, Melbourne). seedlings. Several explanations are pos- Naiman, R.J. and Decamps, H. (1997). The sible, including that within the 3000 to ecology of interfaces: Riparian zones. 4000 m2 sites surveyed there was sufficient Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics space not occupied by blackberry for tree 28, 621-58. seedlings to establish in reasonable num- Randall, J.M. (1996). Weed control for the bers; an explanation supported by the fact preservation of biological diversity. that blackberry cover in the survey never Weed Technology 10, 370-83. exceeded 65% of a site. Thus perhaps at a small scale tree seedlings cannot establish within blackberry thickets, but at a larger scale sufficient gaps exist in blackberry cover for seedling establishment. If the results from the remainder of the experiment confirm that blackberry has worse consequences for tree seedlings than blue

54 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 SESSION 5 Successful monitoring

Monitoring weed eradication programs and evaluating performance

F. Dane Panetta, Alan Fletcher Research Station, Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines, PO Box 36, Sherwood, Queensland 4075 CRC for Australian Weed Management

Eradication is a management strategy that does occur, it will be reflected by increas- has considerable appeal because of its ing total area of infestation, hence will potential to provide substantial benefits be covered by the delimitation criterion. when invading pest organisms are elimi- The delimitation and extinction criteria nated. Eradication programs for weeds are examined with regard to eradication that develop persistent seed populations programs targeting kochia (Bassia scoparia will require relatively long-term funding (L.) A.J. Scott), skeleton weed (Chondrilla and institutional commitment by compari- juncea L.) (both in Western Australia) and son with those targeting other pest organ- branched broomrape (Orobanche ramosa L.) isms. Such programs typically require 10 in South Australia. years or more to complete. A procedure A scoring system for the evaluation of for the evaluation of eradication programs progress towards the eradication objec- is required to distinguish potentially suc- tive is presented. This system takes into cessful programs from those that are des- account five-year trends in cumulative in- tined to become indefinite control efforts. fested area, the detection ratio (infested There are three basic criteria by which area detected/area searched) and the av- progress towards the weed eradication ob- erage distance between new infestations jective may be evaluated. The most funda- and known infestations. It also includes mental of these is the delimitation criterion, an extinction score, which is a composite which relates to the degree of knowledge of the percentage of infestations in the of the total extent of a weed incursion. The monitoring phase (no plants detected other two criteria (containment and ex- for at least 12 months) and the percent- tinction) relate to the prevention of further age of infestations eradicated. The system spread of an incursion and the elimination is applied to the previously successful of individual infestations, respectively. As- eradication program targeting bitterweed sessing conformity to the containment cri- (Helenium amarum L.) and to the ongoing terion is problematic owing to practical program targeting branched broomrape. difficulties in demonstrating containment The data required for this scoring system failure. However, if containment failure are fairly simple.

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 55 this? What factors influence mapping success? Using geospatial technologies to map and monitor This paper attempts to answer some of these questions. Firstly, a review will environmental weeds be presented on the application of remote sensing to environmental weed mapping Jennifer EmenyA, Anne WallisA and Dianne SimmonsB and monitoring in Australia. The species, A School of Ecology and Environment, Deakin University, PO Box 423, study conditions, methods and levels of Warrnambool, Victoria 3280 success will be discussed. A case study will B School of Ecology and Environment, Deakin University, 221 Burwood then be presented to explore the choices in- Highway, Burwood, Victoria 3125 volved in method selection in practice. Fi- nally, implications for future applications will be discussed, and an attempt made at answering the broader question: Can remote sensing can be used successfully in Summary Since development of the first Anderson 2004, Cooksey 2002), and is gen- mapping and monitoring environmental geospatial technologies (remote sensing, erally used for assessing the effectiveness weeds in Australia? GIS and GPS), there has been consider- of weed control strategies. able interest in their application to weed Demand for accurate weed mapping The role of geospatial technologies management. Remote sensing in particu- and monitoring data is great as govern- in weed mapping and monitoring lar has been presented as a cost-effec- ment and funding agencies increasingly Geospatial technologies refer collectively tive means for mapping and monitoring need to prioritise weed control and assess- to remote sensing, Geographic Positioning weeds, with the ability to obtain complete es management outcomes. Yet mapping Systems (GPS), and Geographic Informa- spatial coverage and repeat acquisition and monitoring are often neglected from tion Systems (GIS). All of these technolo- over time. Whilst there has been consider- weed management programs due to the gies may play an independent or com- able progress in this area for detecting and difficulties of obtaining adequate spatial bined role in weed management. mapping and agricultural weeds, the prac- and temporal information on weed loca- Remote sensing may be operationally tical application to environmental weeds tion. Traditional weed mapping methods defined as the acquisition of image data remains uncertain. such as on ground surveying or question- from a remote airborne or satellite plat- This paper addresses the question of naires are time consuming and expensive form. The primary use of remote sensing whether remote sensing can be used suc- (Pitt and Miller 1988, McGowen et al. 2001, in weed management is to collect data cessfully to map and monitor environmen- Grice 2004), and as a result are often lim- from which weed distribution informa- tal weeds in Australia, including discus- ited in extent and coverage. tion can be extracted to create weed maps. sion specific to Victorian conditions. Two Remote sensing and other geospatial A wide range of imagery is available with components are presented: a review of the technologies have greatly enhanced our varying spatial coverage (area), spatial current use of remote sensing for mapping ability to map land features and land resolution (smallest image unit), and and monitoring environmental weeds in cover change. Remote sensing provides spectral resolution (number of recorded Australia, and a case study using remote a cost effective means of obtaining data spectral bands in different regions of the sensing to map and monitor a single envi- over extensive areas, and has the advan- electromagnetic spectrum) (Table 1). For ronmental weed in south-west Victoria. tage of complete coverage and temporal a weed species to be accurately mapped Although not suitable for all species repetition. Operational use of remote sens- using remotely sensed imagery, it must be and conditions, it is concluded that current ing in Australia for large scale mapping spectrally distinct from surrounding land remote sensing technologies can be used and monitoring has already been taken up cover types, and the characteristics of the successfully in weed mapping, provided in areas such as broadscale vegetation as- imagery must be such that this difference careful consideration is made in matching sessment and salinity monitoring (Wallace can be detected (Bulman 2000, McGowen imagery to the species and mapping envi- et al. 2004). et al. 2001). A complete review of remote ronment. Recent advances in technology Unlike the ready uptake in other areas sensing principles and their application to may greatly increase our ability to do this, of natural resource management, remote weed mapping may be found in Bulman the main limit now being cost. The op- sensing has not been widely used in weed (2000) and Lass et al. (2005). erational use of remote sensing for weed management (McGowen et al. 2001). Un- A Geographic Positioning System monitoring is yet to be realised in Austral- certainties remain over its practicality due (GPS) is a hand held unit which can ac- ia; however, Australian pilot studies and to past technical difficulties with single- curately identify geographic position on overseas examples indicate considerable species mapping (McGowen 2001, Lass et the ground. In weed management, GPS possibilities. al. 2005). This is highlighted in titles of re- units are used by managers to record point cent agricultural-based papers on the sub- locations of weed infestations or control Introduction ject, including ‘Is the application of remote efforts in the field, which can then be up- Weed mapping and monitoring are both sensing to weed mapping just ‘S-pie in the loaded into a computer for storage and recognised as key steps in strategic weed sky?’ and ‘Remote sensing for broadscale analysis (Tucker personal communication, management. Weed mapping is gener- weed mapping – is it possible?’ (Bulman Honan personal communication.). The ac- ally carried out as a single assessment 2000, McGowen et al. 2001). Whilst there curacy of GPS units can vary considerably that aims to identify and delineate weed was much promise for weed mapping according to price and the presence or ab- populations on the ground (Dewey and applications when remote imagery first sence of differential correction (i.e. remov- Anderson 2004, Cooksey 2002). It is used emerged, there have since been lingering al of noise signals introduced by the US for assessing the severity of infestation, doubts over its widespread applicabil- Army to reduce positional accuracy). Top planning management strategies, and al- ity for this purpose. Can remote sensing, of the range units with differential correc- locating resources. Weed monitoring on combined with associated geospatial tech- tion can now obtain sub-meter accuracies, the other hand aims to repeatedly and nologies, be useful in practice for weed although some cheaper units (less than consistently map weed populations over mapping and monitoring in Australia? AU$500) can achieve accuracies of within time in order to detect change (Dewey and Are there many successful examples of 10 m or better. A number of GPS units have

56 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 Table 1. Examples of remotely sensed imagery in Australia potentially Successful mapping environments included mixed (e.g. native vegetation/ru- useful for weed mapping (adapted from Lass et al. 2005) ral/urban) (Frazier 1998, Bowman 2000, Imagery Type Spatial Spectral resolution (bands) Crossman and Kochergen 2002, Emeny et resolution al. 2005, Cuneo personal communication), Landsat MSS# Multi-spectral 80 m 3 colour (green, red, NIR) open grassland/agricultural (Ullah et al. satellite 1989a, Brown and Carter 1998, Bulman 2000, McGowen et al. 2001, Robinson and Landsat ETM* Multi-spectral 30 m colour 7 colour (blue to infrared) Metternitch 2005), and riparian/wetland satellite 15 m pan 1 panchromatic (Catt and Thiranongnarong 1992, Kasta- SPOT 4 Multi-spectral 20 m colour 3 colour (green, red, NIR) nis and Cranfield 1992, Abbott et al. 1999, satellite McIntyre et al. 2002, Ticehurst et al. 2003). There were no examples in pure forest en- SPOT 5 Multi-spectral 5 m colour 3 colour (green, red, NIR) vironments or closed woodlands, although satellite 2.5 m pan 1 panchromatic in some cases these made up a smaller EO1 – ALI Multi-spectral 30 m thermal 10 colour component of the study area (e.g. Frazier satellite 10 m pan 1 panchromatic 1998, Emeny et al. 2005, Crossman and Bass Quickbird High resolution 2.4 m colour 4 colour (blue, green, red, NIR) 2002). In all cases, species mapped were multi-spectral 0.6 m pan 1 panchromatic either present in the canopy or mapped in satellite relatively open environments. More than half of the species listed in Table 2 are seri- IKONOS High resolution 4 m colour 4 colour (blue, green, red, NIR) ous or very serious environmental weeds multi-spectral 1 m pan 1 panchromatic under Victorian conditions. satellite Unsuccessful attempts (Table 3) were EO1 – Hyperion Hyperspectral 30 m 220 colour mostly from the same studies and species satellite represented in Table 2, but using different Multispectral video Multispectral 0.25 – 4 m 3 – 8 colour, user imagery. Nine are from the study reported or still camera airborne choice in Crossman and Kochergen 2002 (Cross- man and Bass 2002), which successfully AVIRIS Hyperspectral 4 m and 20 m 224 colour mapped six other species. airborne Virtually all 18 studies were single ITRES – CASI Hyperspectral 0.5 – 10 m User programmed event mapping attempts with the primary airborne aim of testing remote sensing technologies for future mapping or monitoring. # No longer collects current data (since 1992) Only three had the primary aim of assess- * A scan line correction malfunction in May 2003 means data is less useable ing current weed extent and distribution to inform management or for analysing also been customised specifically for weed of GIS for analysing weed spatial patterns weed distribution patterns (Crossman and mapping (Kolomeitz personal commun- or change over time. Kochergen 2002, Emeny et al. 2005, Cu- ication). neo personal communication). The only A Geographic Information System (GIS) Review of remote sensing as a tool temporal mapping attempts were those is a computer based system for storing, for environmental weed mapping by Brown and Carter (1998) and Robinson displaying and analysing geographically and monitoring in Australia and Metternicht (2005), who mapped the referenced data. In weed management, A search of available literature and consul- historical spread of weed species. Bulman GIS is useful as a framework for handling tation with field experts revealed 28 envi- (2000) attempted to repeat mapping by Ul- spatially referenced weed information. A ronmental weeds across 19 studies in which lah et al. 1989a of Patterson’s curse using range of GIS frameworks exist, from those remote sensing was applied for mapping Landsat TM to test its operational use in allowing complex spatial analysis (Arc- or monitoring in Australia (Tables 2 and 3). monitoring, however was unsuccessful. GIS and MapInfo), down to basic systems The characteristics of these studies in terms Strikingly, there were no operational ex- suitable for use by non-technical groups of species, mapping environment, methods amples of remote sensing in environmen- e.g. Streets Ahead and Catchman (Emeny and levels of success are reviewed. tal weed monitoring. 2004). A number of GIS-like programs are currently being used in state level weed Species and study conditions Methods – selected imagery and scale management, including the Pest Man- Of the 28 environmental weeds to which Most of the reviewed studies used tradi- agement Information System in Victoria remote sensing has been applied in Aus- tional image sources for weed mapping, (Backholer 2000) and PestInfo in Queens- tralia, 17 were successfully detected using such as medium resolution satellite data land (Bryant and Lockton 2003). Although at least one type of imagery and method (mainly Landsat) and aerial photography not strictly GIS, these programs all allow (Table 2). Two studies mapped more than (see Tables 2 and 3). There are currently for the integration of spatially referenced one species simultaneously (McGowen et no published studies in Australia which information. al. 2001, Crossman and Kochergen 2002), have used new high resolution multi- The greatest benefit of geospatial tech- and a number of weeds were mapped spectral imagery, such as SPOT 5, Quick- nologies comes through their integra- in more than one study (Acacia longifo- bird or IKONOS. Additionally, only two tion. The use of GIS in planning weed lia var. sophorae, Cryptostegia grandiflora, Australian studies have made use of new control programs can benefit enormously Echium plantagineum, Mimosa pigra, Rubus hyperspectral airborne imagery (Bulman from information obtained in a spatially fruticosis). Most species mapped are either 2000, Ticehurst et al. 2003), and only one referenced format using GPS or remote trees or shrubs (14 out of 17 successful of hyperspectral satellite data (Ticehurst sensing. Remote sensing can also benefit attempts). Three of the four successfully et al. 2003). The only other imagery used through the use of GPS in assessing map- mapped grasses/herbs were in open agri- included airborne video (Frazier 1998, Ab- ping accuracy on the ground, and the use cultural settings. bott et al. 1999), which is often used as a

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 57 Table 2. Successful attempts at mapping environmental weeds using remotely sensed imagery in Australia (using at least one method) Species name Growth form Reference/s Imagery used Accuracy rate/s (where given) Annona glabra Tree Ticehurst et al. 2003 Hymap, Hyperion, Landsat Not stated, some success Fraxinus rotundifolia ssp. Tree Crossman and Kochergen High resolution CIR aerial Producer’s: 79% rotundifolia VS 2002 photos User’s: 35% Mesquite Tree Robinson and Metternicht Panchromatic aerial photos Not stated, considered 2005 successful Mimosa pigra Tree Fitzpatrick et al.1988; Landsat TM, MASTER, aerial 88% detection of dense stands McIntyre et al. 2002 photography using Landsat TM Olea europaea ssp. europaea S Tree Crossman and Kochergen High resolution CIR aerial Producer’s: 93% 2002 photography User’s: 63% Olea europaea ssp. cuspidate Tree Cuneo personal Landsat ETM To be assessed, considered communication. successful Pinus radiata VS Tree Crossman and Kochergen High resolution CIR aerial Producer’s: 65% 2002 photography User’s: 73% Acacia longifolia var. Shrub Race and Rollings 1992, Landsat TM and ETM Producer’s: 71–89% sophorae VS Emeny et al. 2005 User’s: 82–92% Acacia nilotica Shrub Brown and Carter 1998 Conventional aerial Not stated, considered photographs (pan and successful colour) Crataegus monogyna VS Shrub Crossman and Kochergen High resolution CIR aerial Producer’s: 73% 2002 photography User’s: 62% Genista monspessulana VS Shrub Crossman and Kochergen High resolution CIR aerial Producer’s: 89% 2002 photography User’s: 96% Rubus fruticosis VS Shrub Ullah et al. 1989b, Frazier High resolution CIR aerial Producer’s: 79–97% 1998, Crossman and photography, airborne User’s: 43–100% Kochergen 2002 videography Cryptostegia grandiflora Shrub Kastanis and Cranfield Landsat TM, multispectral Overall: 63–89% 1992, Abbott et al. 1999 airborne video Echium plantagineum S Herb Ullah et al. 1989a, Bulman Landsat TM, CASI Not stated, considered 2000 successful Onopordum acanthium Herb McGowen et al. 2001 Landsat ETM Overall 80–86% Brachiaria mutica Grass Catt and Thirarongnarong High resolution CIR aerial Not stated, considered 1992 photography successful Nassella trichotoma VS Grass McGowen et al. 2001 Landsat ETM Overall: 72–82% VS = Very serious threat to one or more vegetation formations in Victoria (Carr et al. 1992) S = Serious threat to one or more vegetation formations in Victoria (Carr et al. 1992)

40 cheaper alternative to aerial photography 40m + et al (Abbott . 1999). 35 Most studies were conducted over local to sub-regional scales in the range of 30 1000s to 10 000s of hectares. Only two 100 000ha + were less than 1000 ha in extent, both of 25 ( m )

which were pilot studies for testing re- o i t

u 20 mote sensing methods (Frazier 1998, Tice- l hurst et al.2003). There were also only two o attempts at mapping areas of more than R e s 15 100 000 ha (Ticehurst et al. 2003, Emeny et 10 al. 2005). Not surprisingly, most studies map- 5 ping large extents (greater than 50 000 ha) used coarse resolution imagery (Fig- 0 ure 1). However, the opposite was not 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000 90000 100000 always true. Whilst many small scaled Extent (ha) Increasing overall cost studies used fine resolution data, some Successful Unsuccessful also tried to use coarse resolution imagery (shown in the top left corner of Figure 1). Figure 1. Association between study area extent, imagery resolution and Interestingly, most unsuccessful attempts success of mapping in Australian examples of using remote sensing for occurred using this combination. With weed mapping

58 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 Table 3. Unsuccessful attempts at mapping environmental weeds using remotely sensed imagery in Australia Species Reference Imagery used Stated reasons Brachiaria mutica Catt and Thirarongnarong Landsat MSS, SPOT Not stated 1992 Chrysanthemoides monilifera Crossman and Bass 2002 High resolution CIR aerial photos Understorey species Cyrnara cardunculus Crossman and Bass 2002 High resolution CIR aerial photos Scale of imagery relative to species Cytisus scoparius Crossman and Bass 2002 High resolution CIR aerial photos Scale of imagery relative to species, time of year Echium plantagineum Bulman (2000) Landsat TM Coarse resolution Lavandula stoechas Crossman and Bass 2002 High resolution CIR aerial photos Scale of imagery relative to species, time of year Leptospermum laevigatum Bennett and Ogleby (1994) Landsat TM Coarse imagery resolution, similar reflectance to other species, variable cover of target Mimosa pigra McIntyre et al. 2002 TopSAR and fused TopSAR/Landsat Spectral similarity to other species Pinus halepensis Crossman and Bass 2002 High resolution CIR aerial photos Not stated Rhamnus alaternus Crossman and Bass 2002 High resolution CIR aerial photos Understorey species Rosa canina Crossman and Bass 2002 High resolution CIR aerial photos Understorey species Rosa rubiginosa Crossman and Bass 2002 High resolution CIR aerial photos Understorey species Ulex europaeus Crossman and Bass 2002 High resolution CIR aerial photos Understorey species the exception of species unsuccessfully study areas (42 ha and 1469 ha). Only Where quantified, successful mapping mapped by Crossman and Bass (2002), two attempts were made at incorporating attempts ranged in accuracy from 71% all other unsuccessful attempts in Table 3 ancillary GIS data to improve mapping to 97% for producer’s, and 35% to 100% used coarse resolution imagery over small results (Abbott et al. 1999, Ticehurst et al. for user’s accuracies (Table 2). The most scales, and this was stated as a primary 2003). Both found a significant improve- successful mapping attempts from the cause for failed mapping. ment in mapping results over the standard producer’s point of view were for Olea classification methods, with Abbott et al. europaea ssp. europaea (Crossman and Ko- Methods – extracting weed data (1999) achieving accuracies of 6% to 11% chergen 2002) and Rubus fruticosis (Fra- Weed mapping from remotely sensed over standard supervised classification. zier 1998). The most successful mapping data generally falls into two categories: attempts from the user’s point of view digital (computer assisted techniques), Assessment of mapping success were Acacia longifolia var. sophorae (Race and manual (photo interpretation). Dig- ‘Success’ of weed mapping using remote and Rollings 1992), Genista monspessulana ital techniques are further categorised into sensing may in simple terms be defined (Crossman and Kochergen 2002) and Ru- image enhancements, unsupervised clas- as the degree to which results fit the in- bus fruticosis (Frazier 1998). Unsuccessful sification and supervised classification. tended purpose. However, a number of attempts did not quantify accuracy. At- Image enhancements adjust the informa- quantitative methods exist for assessing tributed causes for failed attempts (other tion displayed from images in a way that mapping accuracy using remote sensing than spatial resolution) included spectral highlights particular features. Unsuper- (Congalton 1991). These include overall, similarity to other species, time of year vised and supervised classifications are producer’s and user’s accuracies, which (phenological stage of species not distinct methods of categorising individual pixels are all calculated from an ‘error matrix’ from surrounds), and obstruction by over- into groups based on spectral similarity, comparing mapping results to ‘true’ land storey species (Table 3). and can give quantitative estimates of per cover on the ground (Congalton 1991). In summary, it appears that remote land cover category. Unsupervised class is Overall accuracy indicates mapping suc- sensing has been used with some success a more automated procedure with limited cess across all land cover categories. Pro- in mapping a number of environmental input from the analysis until after it has ducer’s accuracy, stated in terms of weed weeds in Australia. A review of current ap- been run. Supervised classification on the detection, refers to the percentage of weed plications indicates that species with larger other hand allows the analyst to ‘train’ the presence on the ground accurately identi- growth forms and environments where the processing algorithm to identify land fea- fied as weed on the image. User’s accuracy target species is present in the canopy are tures of interest. then refers to the percentage of weed pres- more suited to mapping using the applied The methods used to extract weed data ence shown in the classified map which is techniques. Almost all applications to date in Australian remote sensing examples actually weed on the ground. Quantative have used traditional imagery types such cover all of the above mapping categories, assessment of mapping results is impor- as aerial photography or medium resolu- with many trialling more than one meth- tant, as it gives the end user an indication tion satellite imagery, mainly applied over od. There were slightly more examples of reliability of results. local to sub-regional scales. Most studies of the less interactive methods of image Only in 11 of the reviewed studies was applied some form of digital processing enhancement and unsupervised classifi- mapping accuracy quantitatively assessed, to extract weed data, with manual tech- cation than the more involved supervised and only seven of those reported using an niques only practical at very small scales. classifications, the later however being error matrix. Three did not estimate map- The lack of quantitative assessment and generally more successful. Two studies ping accuracy at all, the remaining studies consistency in accuracy reporting makes successfully used manual techniques (Fra- using visual or qualitative means. Most comparison between studies difficult; zier 1998, Brown and Carter 1998), both studies however gave some indication of however, an obvious cause of unsuccess- of which coincided with relatively small ‘success’ for the stated purpose. ful mapping was use of imagery with a

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 59 Table 4. Comparison of study conditions, method requirements and choice of imagery used for mapping and monitoring Acacia longifolia var. sophorae in south-west Victoria Part A: Regional Mapping Part B: Local monitoring Use of data Assessment of weed extent and distribution, Change detection, rate of spread, pattern of environmental correlates, predictive spread, proximal causes in invasion process modelling Extent 360 000 ha 1281 ha Vegetation type Various – including woodland, forest, Invaded grassland

Study conditions heathland, grassland Method requirements Low cost/unit area, ability to detect Archival data (preferably pre-dating invasion in multiple environments, minimal in 1960s), detail (detect individuals) preprocessing Selected imagery Landsat ETM satellite imagery Conventional aerial photography (colour, black and white) Imagery resolution 30 m 2 m Cost of imagery $950 $255.00 <$0.01 per ha $0.19 per ha (approx.) Benefits of imagery chosen Large spatial coverage, cost effective, High spatial resolution, can detect individual minimal pre-processing plants, long historical archive

Choice of imagery Limitations of imagery chosen Coarse spatial resolution, cannot measure Low spectral resolution, expensive over large density or individual plants, small areas, considerable pre-processing, limited to infestations not detected non-treed environments Success 81% (User’s 82%, Producer’s 71%) Not quantitatively assessed yet, however preliminary results are good. Some issues

Results with edge pixels and image alignment spatial or spectral resolution inappropriate conditions. The larger area and range of and producer’s accuracy at 82%. The ac- for detecting target weed patches. Other environments in Part A meant imagery curacy assessment for Study 2 is still in stated reasons for unsuccessful mapping was required with minimal cost per unit progress, however a visual assessment of also related to imagery limitations, such area, minimal pre-processing, and the results indicates that A. longifolia is read- as inability to detect small or understorey ability to detect A. longifolia across a range ily distinguished from its background and species. It is concluded that mapping suc- of environments. The characteristics of change detection is possible (although is- cess lies in part in matching of appropriate Landsat ETM 7 made it suitable for this sues with misclassifications around some imagery to study conditions. The follow- purpose (Table 4). The common limitation edges and tree shadows are still being ad- ing case study uses a working example to of relatively coarse spatial resolution of dressed). demonstrate the choices made in matching this imagery was not an issue in this case Whilst Landsat 7 was suitable for Part imagery to study conditions in practice. as the aim was to map broad distribution A and aerial photography for Part B, the patterns. reverse was not the case. Landsat 7 was Case study: Mapping and The need to detect temporal patterns not suitable for Part B, as the Landsat TM monitoring Acacia longifolia var. of weed spread and attribute proximal series was only launched in the 1980s and sophorae in south-west Victoria causes in Part B mean archival data was therefore did not provide the archival im- This case study is set in south-west Victo- required over regular intervals, preferably agery required. The coarser resolution was ria and focuses on the species Acacia longi- with at least one image pre-dating the ini- also unsuitable for detecting small scale folia var. sophorae. A. longifolia var. sopho- tial invasion (1960s), and sufficient detail changes. Likewise, aerial photographs rae is an Australian native dune coloniser to detect individual plants. Conventional were not suitable for Part A due to exces- that has become invasive in a number of aerial photographs were selected in this sive cost, increased data pre-processing, vegetation types in the study area, outside case, as these represent the only available and limited spectral resolution for detect- its previous range. It is considered a seri- imagery dating prior to the 1960s. Seven ing A. longifolia over different vegetation ous environmental weed in much of the images were available for the study area types. region. A. longifolia lends itself to remote over the past 55 years, including one from This case study confirms the impor- mapping due to its large size (up to 30m 1947. With a scanned resolution of ap- tance of matching imagery to study con- in diameter), tendency to form large pure proximately 1 m, the aerial photos gave ditions, however also identifies that in stands, and distinctive bright green foliage the detail required to detect individual practice, cost, time and availability of data compared to surrounding species. plants. Whilst aerial photos have low are necessary considerations. The case study consisted of two distinct spectral resolution, the open nature of the components. Firstly the mapping of cur- study area and growth form of the invad- Implications and future rent regional distribution of A. longifolia ing species meant plants were readily dis- applications (Part A), and secondly an analysis of his- tinguishable. Remote sensing in environmental weed torical spread of A. longifolia at a localised Both components were considered suc- mapping scale (Part B). cessful in their outcomes. Overall accuracy Provided that spectral discrimination is Table 4 indicates the different study of Part A was estimated at 81%, and al- possible, the primary determinant of suc- conditions of Part A and B; resulting data lowed a regional scale assessment of weed cessful weed mapping using remote sens- requirements; and choice of imagery and extent and distribution (Emeny et al. 2005). ing is appropriate matching of method imagery characteristics to match these The user’s accuracy was estimated at 71% to species and study environment. Two

60 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 primary considerations are spectral and Queensland (Lawes personal communica- testing remote sensing methods for future spatial resolution. Spectral resolution tion). use in monitoring, some with very good must include areas of the spectrum in In practice, choice of method in species success. However, for these methods to be which the weed species is distinctive from mapping studies must also consider cost useful in practice, repeatability and con- other species. Generally, higher spectral and data availability, as demonstrated in sistency over time also needs to be estab- resolution is better in exploratory studies the case study. Feasibility explains the cur- lished (Emeny et al. 2005). Bulman (2000) as it increases this likelihood. Spatial reso- rent absence of high resolution, large ex- was the first to attempt repeat mapping lution needs to be greater than the mini- tent studies shown in Figure 1, as overall on Paterson’s curse, however was unsuc- mum weed patch size which is hoped to cost increase with both resolution and ex- cessful. Emeny et al. (2005) showed the re- be mapped; hence, higher spatial resolu- tent. Cost still forces imagery users to com- peatability of Landsat for mapping Acacia tion is also usually more suitable for single promise on either spatial resolution or ex- longifolia var. sophorae, however at a dif- species mapping. tent. Figure 1 suggests that compromising ferent scale to the previous study by Race In previous decades, it was not always both may lead to failed mapping attempts. and Rollings (1992). Testing of remote possible to match imagery characteristics Current costs of hyperspectral satellite im- sensing methods for monitoring must be to study aims and conditions due to tech- agery start at US$20 000 for an area cover- done with that purpose in mind. Success- nological limitations. Imagery was limited ing just 20 km by 40 km, compared just ful attempts at monitoring historical weed to either aerial photography, with fine spa- US$250 for current Landsat ETM data cov- spread indicates that consistent mapping tial resolution but low spectral resolution, ering 185 km by 185 km (Lass et al. 2005), is possible over time; however such ret- or satellite imagery such as the Landsat se- suggesting a likely reason for its limited rospective studies have the disadvantage ries, which had higher spectral resolution use in Australia to date. It appears that the of not being able to quantitatively assess but relatively low spatial resolution. This current limitation to weed mapping using mapping accuracy, making it difficult greatly restricted mapping options to the remote sensing in Australia is no longer to assess method consistency. Examples few species that could be detected using technology capabilities, but cost. from the US using hyperspectral imagery limited spectral bands, or species forming The application of remote sensing to to monitor weed control strategies (e.g. large and distinctive infestations. Most of weeds in Victorian conditions has been Glenn et al. 2005, Lass et al.2005) indicate the existing mapping examples in Aus- somewhat limited to date. Only six of the that this may be the future for remote sens- tralia still fall into these two categories, reviewed studies were conducted in Victo- ing in weed monitoring. making use of either high resolution aerial ria, although nine of the species in Table 2 photos or coarser resolution satellite im- are environmental weeds in this state. Put Conclusion agery, which explains the relatively small in context, this represents only nine out Remote sensing can be a successful weed number of species successfully mapped of the 584 species listed as environmental mapping tool provided it is done in a way to date. weeds by Carr et al. 1992. Whilst remote that carefully considers the species, envi- Imagery has been released in the last sensing will probably never be suited to all ronment, method and available resources. five years which combines the benefits of these species, potential avenues are far To date, only a small number of species of both high spatial and spectral resolu- from exhausted. Interestingly, a number have been mapped in this manner in Aus- tion. These include high resolution mul- of Victorian weeds which have not been tralia due to the previous limitation of re- tispectral satellite imagery (e.g. IKONOS, mapped in Australia using remote sensing mote sensing technologies not matching Quickbird), and hyperspectral airborne have been successfully mapped overseas study requirements. Recent developments and satellite imagery (e.g. Hymap, Hy- e.g. gorse (Shepherd and Lee 2002), water in technology have removed many of perion). None of the reviewed Australian hyacinth (Everitt et al. 1999). As costs for these limitations. However, cost will prob- studies have made use of the new high higher resolution imagery comes down, ably continue to restrict operational use of resolution multispectral imagery, and only we are likely to see more of the 584 spe- remote sensing for environmental weed two made use of hyperspectral data (Bul- cies successfully mapped using remote mapping into the immediate future. man 2000, Ticehurst et al. 2003). Overseas sensing. In the mean time, a number of The use of remote sensing as an opera- studies using new high resolution mul- alternative geospatial technologies (GPS, tional tool for weed monitoring in Australia tispectral and hyperspectral imagery for GIS) are being used operationally to map is still some way off; however, method as- weed mapping have achieved extremely and monitor species currently not suitable sessments here and operational examples high mapping accuracies, many above for remote sensing e.g. spiny rush (Weaver from overseas are promising, particularly 90% (e.g. Underwood et al. 2003, Everitt 2002), bridal creeper (Siderov and Ains- using hyperspectral and high resolution and Yang 2004, Glenn et al. 2005, Lass et worth 2004), English broom (Allan per- imagery. There remain many opportuni- al. 2005), and in some cases, at very low sonal communication). ties for further research in Australia and weed densities (e.g. Lass et al. 2002). There testing of research results in practice. is considerable scope in weed applications Remote sensing in environmental weed for this type of imagery in Australia. At the monitoring Acknowledgements time of writing, at least two studies such Use of remote sensing in weed monitoring The two projects presented in the case studies are already in progress. A collabo- requires all of the same considerations as study were undertaken as an honours rative project between the Department of per mapping, will the added challenges project and part of an ongoing PhD project, Agriculture Western Australia, the Tropical of ensuring methods can be applied re- both of which have been undertaken Weed Management Branch of CSIRO En- peatedly and consistently with time, ad- through Deakin University and funded by tomology in Brisbane, and SpecTerra Pty ditional setup costs, and choice of spatial the Australian Research Council and Parks Ltd of Perth (led by A/Prof Metternicht and temporal scales which adequately Victoria. Thank you to all of those who personal communication), is testing new detect levels of change of interest to man- responded to the first author’s request on high resolution satellite and airborne sen- agement. the ‘Enviroweeds’ email list and provided sors for routine mapping and monitoring No examples currently exist of op- information and suggestions for use in of Echium plantagineum (Paterson’s curse) erational use of remote sensing for weed this paper: Jackie Watts, Stephen Johnson, and mesquite. Another project using high monitoring in Australia. This is not sur- Andreas Glanzing, Justin Williams, Blair resolution IKONOS imagery is currently prising, due to the relatively low level of Grace, Nigel Ainsworth, Lynise Wearne, being tested for mapping of Acacia nilotica research on methods to date. Many of the Moya Calvert, Mary Greenwood, Iggy infestations on the Mitchell Grasslands in reviewed mapping studies had the aim of Honan, Brian Sindel, Neville Crossman,

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 61 Jeff Smith, Moya Calvert, Michelle Good- Crossman, N.D. and Kochergen, J. (2002). weed mapping – is it possible? Pro- ing, Tony Faithfull, Shaun Kolomeitz, Cali Mapping environmental weeds in the ceedings Geospatial Information and Salzmann, Linda Thomas, Soren Morten- Mount Lofty Ranges, South Australia, Agriculture conference – information son, Wayne Vogler, Neil Tucker, Rieks van using high resolution infrared aerial for better production and environmen- Klinken and Singarayer Florentine. Special photography. Proceedings of the 13th tal management (Incorporating preci- thanks to Moya Calvert of the QLD Dept. Australian Weeds Conference, eds H. sion agriculture in Australasia 5th An- of Natural Resources and Mines for sup- Spafford Jacob, J. Dodd and J.H. Moore nual Symposium, Everleigh, Sydney. plying multiple references, Peter Cuneo pp. 579-82. (Plant Protection Society of McIntyre, D., Menges, C.H. and Ahmad, of the Botanic Gardens Trust Sydney for WA, Perth). W. (2002). Mapping Mimosa pigra on the allowing us to include work in progress in Dewey, S.A. and Anderson, K.A. (2004). Mary River floodplain using TopSAR, the review. Many thanks also to: Cathy Al- Distinct roles of surveys, inventories, Landsat ETM+ and MASTER data. 3rd len, Todd Robinson, Kris Siderov, Graciela and monitoring in adaptive weed man- International Symposium on the Man- Metternicht and Roger Lawes for informa- agement. Weed Technology 18, 1449-52. agement of Mimosa pigra. tion provided. Emeny, J. (2004). Local-scale GIS develop- Pitt, J.L. and Miller, I.L. (1988). A review of ment: a strategic planning tool at the survey techniques for the detection of References grass-roots level. Proceedings of the En- weeds with particular reference to Mi- Abbott, B., Grice, A.C. and Bastin, G.N. vironet Conference, pp. 33-43. mosa pigra L. in Australia and Thailand. (1999). Low-level aerial photography Emeny, J., Duff, G., Simmons, D. and Wal- Plant Protection Quarterly 3, 149-55. can detect infestations of the invasive lis, A. (2005). Investigating the distribu- Race, G.J. and Rollings, N. (1992). Mapping woody vine Cryptostegia grandiflora in tion of Acacia longifolia var. sophorae in Acacia sophorae using remotely sensed northern Australia. Proceedings of the south-west Victoria using satellite re- data – an integrated land management 6th International Rangelands Congress, mote sensing and GIS. Plant Protection approach. Proceedings of the 6th Aus- pp. 602-3. Quarterly (in press) tralasian Remote Sensing Conference’, Backholer, J.R. (2000). Mapping the future Everitt, J.H., Yang, C., Escobar, D.E., Web- pp. 2.2-2.8. (Committee of the 6th Aus- – PMIS and beyond. Plant Protection ster, C.F., Lonard, R.I. and Davis, M.R. tralasian Remote Sensing Conference, Quarterly 15, 132. (1999). Using remote sensing and spatial Wellington, New Zealand). Bennett, L.T. and Ogleby, C. (1994). Map- information technologies to detect and Robinson, T.P. and Metternicht, G. (2005). ping changes in the structure of the map two aquatic macrophytes. Journal of Multi-temporal spatial modelling of vegetation on the Yanakie Isthmus (Wil- Aquatic Plant Management 37, 71-80. noxious weed distribution using his- son’s Promontory National Park) using Fitzpatrick, B.T., Hill, G.J.E. and Kelly, G.D. torical remote sensing imagery. 12th In- multi-temporal and multi-source image (1988). Mapping Mimosa pigra using ternational Cartographic Conference. analysis and GIS. Proceedings of the 7th Landsat Thematic Mapper data. Pro- Shepherd, J.D. and Lee, W.G. (2002). Satel- Australasian Remote Sensing Confer- ceedings of the 9th Asian Conference lite mapping of gorse at regional scales. ence, pp. 583-90. on Remote Sensing, pp. D-4-1-D-4-2. New Zealand Plant Protection 55, 95-8. Brown, J.R. and Carter, J. (1998). Spatial Frazier, P. (1998). Mapping blackberry Siderov, K. and Ainsworth, N. (2004). Inva- and temporal patterns of exotic shrub thickets in the Kosciusko National Park sion of bridal creeper (Asparagus aspara- invasion in an Australian tropical grass- using airborne video data. Plant Protec- goides) in a remnant vegetation patch: land. Landscape Ecology 13, 93-102. tion Quarterly 13, 145-148. methodology and initial results. Pro- Bulman, D. (2000). Is the application of Glenn, N.F., Mundt, J.T., Weber, K.T., ceedings of the 14th Australian Weeds remote sensing to weed mapping just Prather, T.S., Lass, L.W.P. and Pettingill, Conference, Charles Sturt University, ‘S-pie in the sky’? Plant Protection Quar- J. (2005). Hyperspectral data process- Wagga Wagga, eds B.M. Sindel and S.B. terly 15, 127-32. ing for repeat detection of small infesta- Johnson. (Weed Society of New South Carr, G.W., Yugovic, J.V. and Robinson, tions of leafy spurge. Remote Sensing of Wales, Sydney). K.E. (1992). ‘Environmental weed in- Environment 95, 399-412. Ticehurst, C., Phinn, S.R., Held, A. and Ed- vasions in Victoria: Conservation and Grice, A.C. (2004). Weeds and the monitor- monds, T. (2003). Mapping an invasive management implications’, p. 5. (De- ing of biodiversity in Australian range- weed (pond apple) in the wet tropics partment of Conservation and Environ- lands. Austral Ecology 29, 51-58. using multi and hyperspectral image ment and Ecological Horticulture Pty Kastanis, L.E. and Cranfield, L.C. (1992). data. Spatial Sciences Institute Confer- Ltd., Melbourne). The use of remotely sensed data to ence. Catt, P. and Thirarongnarong, K. (1992). identify and map rubber vine (Crypto- Ullah, E., Field, R.P., McLaren, D.A. and An evaluation of remote sensing tech- stegia grandiflora) in northern Australia. Peterson, J.A. (1989b). Use of airborne niques for the detection, mapping, and Proceedings of 6th Australasian Remote thematic mapper (ATM) to map the dis- monitoring of invasive plant species in Sensing Conference, pp. 410-412. tribution of blackberry (Rubus fruticosus coastal wetlands: A case study of para Lass, L.W., Prather, T.S., Glenn, N.F., We- agg.) (Rosaceae) in the Strzelecki Rang- grass (Brachiaria mutica). Proceedings ber, K.T., Mundt, J.T. and Pettingill, J. es, south Gippsland, Victoria. Plant Pro- of the 6th Australasian Remote Sensing (2005). Symposium: A review of remote tection Quarterly 4, 149-54. Conference, pp. 200-203. sensing of invasive weeds and example Ullah, E., Shepherd, R.C.H., Baxter, J.T. and Congalton, R. (1991). A review of assess- of the early detection of spotted knap- Peterson, J.A. (1989a). Mapping flowering the accuracy of classifications of weed (Centaurea maculosa) and babys- ing Paterson’s curse (Echium plantagi- remotely sensed data. Remote Sensing of breath (Gypsophila paniculata) with a neum) around Lake Hume, north east- Environment 37, 35-46. hyperspectral sensor. Weed Science 53, ern Victoria, using Landsat TM data. Cooksey, D. (2002). ‘Montana noxious 242-51. Plant Protection Quarterly 4, 155-7. weed survey and mapping system’. Lass, L.W., Thill, D.C., Shafii, B. and Underwood, E., Ustin, S.L. and DiPietro, (Montana State University, USA). Prather, T.S. (2002). Detecting spotted D. (2003). Mapping non-native plants Crossman, N.D. and Bass, D.A. (2002). knapweed (Centaurea maculosa) with using hyperspectral imagery. Remote ‘Mapping environmental weeds on hyperspectral remote sensing technol- Sensing of Environment 86, 150-61. the western slopes of the Mount Lofty ogy. Weed Technology 16, 426-32. Weaver, J. (2002). Spiny rush control in Al- Ranges.’ (Flinders University, City of McGowen, I., Frazier, P. and Orchard, P. tona Coastal Park. (Friends of Altona Mitcham). (2001). Remote sensing for broadscale Coastal Park).

62 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 prevention of flowering and seed set are of highest priority. The role of monitoring in weed management: a case The integrated English broom control program in the Alpine National Park study from the Victorian Alps uses chemical control, biological control and physical removal and involves work- Cathy AllanA, Kelly RaymondB and Lynise WearneB ing with other agencies and landholders. A Parks Victoria, PO Box 206, Omeo, Victoria 3898 Chemical control programs have been in B Parks Victoria, Level 10, 535 Bourke Street, Melbourne, Victoria 3000 place in the Alpine National Park for approximately fifteen years and are the primary management tool. Physical removal can be used in sensitive sites and where populations are small, while biological Summary Parks Victoria is incorporat- Parks Victoria’s weed protocol includes control will be important for long-term ing robust scientific monitoring into weed both mapping and monitoring techniques. management. Since 1996, three biological and pest management programs through Mapping weeds provides information on control insects (broom twig-mining moth the use of standard monitoring and map- the extent of weed populations, which can Leucoptera spartifoliella, broom bud psyllid ping protocols. These protocols are being be used to direct management programs. Arytainilla spartiophila, broom seed-feed- trialled in a number of parks to quantify While weed mapping is not aimed at de- ing beetle Bruchidius villosus) have been re- changes in pest and weed abundance tecting changes in the abundance of popu- leased in the park. However, all sites were (through monitoring) and distribution lations over time, it can help detect chang- destroyed by wildfires in early 2003. New (through mapping). The weed monitoring es in distribution over time, if undertaken releases are underway and additional bio- protocols are also being used in an adap- at an appropriate scale. By monitoring logical control agents are being tested for tive experimental management (AEM) changes in weed abundance at the site release. program for English broom (Cytisus sco- level using the techniques recommended The current management strategy aims parius) in the Alpine National Park. Eng- in the monitoring protocols, the effective- to contain English broom within desig- lish broom is managed intensively and on- ness of management programs can be de- nated areas to prevent further spread, and going monitoring has been implemented termined. These methods, which are cur- progressive control programs are in place to improve understanding of the efficien- rently being trialled in a number of parks, in sites of high biodiversity value and in cy, effectiveness and environmental out- can also be adapted to record abundance catchment headwaters. The only feasible comes of various best-practice herbicide and composition of native species. option for immediate management of applications. Preliminary results indicate Park managers generally have a very dense broom infestations is the use of her- the benefit of controlling English broom good knowledge and understanding of bicides with high volume spraying. When in the initial stages with substantial re- best-practice weed management tech- used in combination with fire, which pro- ductions in broom abundance after initial niques. However, for many weed con- motes mass germination of English Broom treatment with selective and non-selective trol programs there is uncertainty about seeds, this can result in effective control, herbicides in April 2004. However the re- the effectiveness and cost-efficiency of but few studies have assessed what grows moval of English broom using herbicides various control techniques: eg for vari- back after such intensive weed control. may not necessarily result in the return of ous best-practice treatments, how do the Herbicide application usually occurs dur- the native flora. Ongoing results from this costs compare, what level of reduction in ing late spring/early summer when broom experiment will guide the future use of se- weed abundance should we expect, and is actively growing and flowering. Parks lected herbicides to control English broom what grows on a site once the weed has Victoria commonly uses two herbicides populations and restore vegetation com- been removed? Parks Victoria is establish- in the Alpine National Park to control munities after wildfires. As this program ing adaptive experimental management broom: a woody-weed specific herbicide is ‘adaptive’ in its nature, there is poten- (AEM) programs to address such ques- (300 g L-1 triclopyr with 100 g L-1 piclo- tial to incorporate use of fire, physical or tions. ram), and a non-selective herbicide (360 mechanical removal, and establishment of g L-1 glyphosate) considered safer to use biological control into the experiment. Case Study – English broom control near waterways. However, the environ- and monitoring in the Alpine mental effects of both these herbicides are Introduction National Park, Victoria poorly understood. This has prompted the Role of monitoring in weed management Introduction establishment of an adaptive experimental Natural resource monitoring (i.e. deter- English broom is a highly invasive woody management (AEM) approach to manag- mining the status and trends in the condi- weed which forms dense thickets and can ing English broom with herbicides after tion of selected park resources) is a major out-compete native species (Hosking et al. wildfires (Allan et al. 2004). The project component of park stewardship. Without 1996, DNRE 1998). The dense canopy and aims to quantify the cost-efficiency of dif- monitoring, how do public land manag- continuous input of litter as a result of the ferent herbicide treatments, the effective- ers know if their management actions are establishment of broom are thought to be ness of control under different scenarios making a difference and if management largely responsible for the loss of native and the environmental outcomes of these objectives are being met? Parks Victoria species richness (Waterhouse 1988, Foga- treatments. This paper outlines some pre- has developed a series of protocols for rty and Facelli 1999, Wearne and Morgan liminary findings of the project. monitoring weeds and pests using sci- 2004). English broom can also fix nitrogen, entifically robust techniques. Monitoring which may result in substantial changes Materials and methods enables Parks Victoria to evaluate per- to the surrounding ecosystem (Fogarty AEM experimental design formance, identify emerging threats and and Facelli 1999). Seed density in the soil Three replicates of seven one-hectare plots increase understanding of the ecosystems beneath mature broom infestations can were established and permanently marked being managed. Establishing monitoring be in excess of 65 000 seeds m-2 and seed in the Omeo Valley, Alpine National Park, standards ensures that park management can remain viable (if stored dry) for up to in April 2004 (Table 1). Sites with water- decisions are made with the best available 80 years (DNRE 1998). Control programs ways were allocated to non-treatment information. must aim to deplete the soil seed bank, so plots or spraying with the non-selective

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 63 but waterway-friendly herbicide (360 g Table 1. The current experimental design incorporates three herbicide L‑1 glyphosate). Remaining sites were ran- treatments, implemented at two different times and applied at two different domly allocated to treatments, which also frequencies (N = 3) included the selective herbicide triclopyr applied at the rate of either 300 g L-1 with Herbicide Timing of initial treatment Frequency of treatment 100 g L-1 picloram or at 600 g L-1. Herbi- Non-selective herbicide Autumn Annual -1 cides were applied with no marker dyes or (360gL glyphosate) Spring/ summer Annual surfactants and treatments were initiated in either autumn or spring/summer, when Selective herbicide 1 Autumn Irregular -1 post-fire regrowth was approximately 15 (300 gL triclopyr with -1 Annual and 24 months old, respectively. 100 gL picloram) Spring/ summer Annual Plots were monitored prior to spraying of autumn treatment plots in late April Selective herbicide 2 Spring/ summer Annual 2004. All plots were then remeasured in (600 gL-1 triclopyr) October 2004 and the spring/summer Control (no herbicide) – – treatment plots were sprayed in January 2005. Thus before and after measurements have only been undertaken on autumn treatment plots. Autumn annual plots have 500 since been treated again in April 2005. The next plot measurements will occur in Oc- 450 Herbicide tober 2005, after which comparisons will be made between initial autumn versus 400 Labour spring/summer treatments. 350 Evaluating efficiency Daily record sheets were completed by 300 weed spraying contractors. These included details of start and finish time, quan- 250 tity of herbicide used, herbicide rate, and weather conditions. From these, summaries of time spent spraying and quantity 200 of herbicide were used to assess costs per one-hectare plot. Mean costs were then 150

calculated for each treatment. Mean cost per hectare ($) 100 Evaluating effectiveness Parks Victoria’s pest plant monitoring pro- 50 tocols recommend cover by line intercept as a standard method for assessing abun- 0 dance of shrubs such as English broom. Non- Selective Non- Selective Selective This technique was used to assess the cover of broom before and after spraying. selective 1 T1 selective 1 T2 2 T2 Within each plot, seven permanent 20 m T1 T2 transects were established and the percent cover of English broom plants along each Figure 1. Mean costs per hectare of herbicide and labour for treating English transect is measured each sampling time. broom at two stages of regrowth after January 2003 wildfires: T1 April The level of dieback due to the effects of -1 -1 herbicide for each patch of broom along 2004, T2 October 2004. Selective herbicide 1: 300 gL triclopyr with 100 gL -1 the transects was assessed in October 2004, picloram, selective herbicide 2: 600 gL triclopyr (no April 2004 treatment), after the autumn treatment, using the fol- non-selective herbicide: 360gL-1 glyphosate lowing scorch categories: 0 = no dieback, 1 = <25% dieback, 2 = 25–75% dieback, 3 >75% dieback, and 4 = dead. Further de- Species richness was compared in October the four plots, 45 samples were collected tails of methods used are provided in Al- 2004 between sites treated with selective and sieved to assess abundance of English lan et al. (2004). and non-selective herbicides in April 2004 broom seeds. and untreated (control) sites. Evaluating environmental outcomes Interim results and discussion To set meaningful management objectives, Associated research – English broom in Evaluating efficiency and understand the environmental impacts the soil seed bank Spraying initially in April 2004 was, on of herbicides, it is important to evaluate A pilot study investigating the abun- average, almost half the cost of spraying the response of other species after removal dance of English broom seed in the soil initially in January 2005 (Figure 1). By of English broom using herbicides. Spe- was undertaken on a subset of four plots leaving the English broom stands to grow cies composition and cover, and seedling in October 2004. A 12 cm long soil corer through the 2004 spring season, the height counts in height classes for English broom was constructed using 5.1 cm internal di- and density of broom increased such that and Eucalyptus species, were measured on ameter pipe, with slits at 3 cm intervals spraying was much more costly in both fifteen permanently marked 0.75 cm2 seed- so that samples could be separated into time and the amount of herbicide required. ling plots before and after chemical con- subsamples at 0–3 cm, 3–6 cm, 6–9 cm and This highlights the importance of initiat- trol treatments on each one-hectare plot. 9–12 cm below the soil surface. On each of ing control programs early after a bushfire

64 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 event. Quantifying these costs allows us to 45 improve the accuracy of activity monitor- 40 ing and predict the potential area that can ) % m

( 35

be treated given limited resources. o y

o scorch 4 r r

o 30 b

g f scorch 3

Evaluating effectiveness e o t 25 For plots sprayed in late April 2004, a sub- r c a scorch 2 stantial reduction in cover of live English v e 20 c h c o r

scorch 1 broom occurred between April and Octo- n 15 a

s c o no scorch ber 2004 (Figure 2). Broom cover increased e

y 10 M almost two-fold on untreated plots, where- b as on treated plots total cover remained 5 the same and the majority of patches of 0 broom were killed or scorched to some de- 1 2 T T 1 2 1 2 t t T T T T gree after herbicide treatment. However, m m -t -t ive ive ive ive fewer than 50% of plants were killed in n n ct ct ct ct le le le le No No both herbicide treatments. Weed spray- Se Se -se -se ing contractors are expected to achieve an n n No No 80–90% kill rate on target species, which is usually assessed visually. The results ob- Figure 2. Abundance of English broom before (T1 April 2004) and after (T2 tained to date suggest that this unlikely to be achieved from spraying in the off-peak October 2004) initial treatment with selective and non-selective herbicides time of year (April) and management tar- applied in late April 2004. Level of scorch assessed at T2 as 0: no dieback, 1: gets should therefore be revised. <25% dieback, 2: 25–75% dieback, 3: >75% dieback, 4: dead

Evaluating environmental outcomes Native species richness was highest on un- 14 native species treated plots, indicating that in early stages 12 exotic species of English broom invasion it is most ben- total species eficial to native species to not treat English 10 broom with herbicide (Figure 3). Further, exotic species richness was higher on sites 8 treated with non-selective herbicide than on plots treated with selective herbicide 6 and untreated plots. It is anticipated that on untreated plots, English broom will 4 out compete other species, so a decline 2 in species richness will occur over time Mean number of species due to English broom’s capacity to out- 0 compete other species by forming dense Non-treatment Selective Non-selective stands at least 2m tall. This implies that active site restoration may be required if herbicide herbicide improvements in native species richness are expected after weed removal. Ongoing Figure 3. Mean species richness (±SE) in October 2004 for sites that were not monitoring data collected on these sites treated, treated with selective herbicide 1 in April 2004, or treated with non- will determine whether more intensive selective herbicide in April 2004 management measures are required (e.g. reseeding, replanting or burning). Table 2. Mean seed numbers in soil samples collected in October 2004 (N = Associated research – English broom in 180 subsamples at each depth) the soil seed bank Depth of subsample Number of samples with Mean number of broom Out of 720 samples collected, only 15 had broom seeds seeds any English broom seed present (Table 2), 0–3 cm 3 3.25 and most of these had very low seed density. Further sampling is required to ascer- 3–6 cm 6 9.33 tain whether this result was due to small 6–9 cm 4 3.50 sample sizes or whether post-fire germination has depleted soil seed reserves. 9–12 cm 2 1.50

Adapting the experimental management program targets. Results to date show that managers growth stage and composition and struc- Although only preliminary, the results ob- should not expect a 90% kill from spraying ture of the surrounding vegetation com- tained from the AEM program thus far can in the off-peak time of year (April), nor can munity. be applied to the management of English they necessarily expect to increase native Logistical and practical constraints broom. One of the most important lessons species diversity in short-term. From on- have already meant alterations have been learnt so far is get in quickly after fire to going results it may be possible to deter- made to the original design in this AEM save on herbicide and labour costs. Man- mine an ‘acceptable’ cover and top height program. The original design (outlined in agement objectives need to be reviewed so of broom where a manageable balance can Allan et al. 2004) has been reduced from that managers set realistic and achievable be reached between weed abundance and thirty to twenty one plots for two reasons:

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 65 we underestimated the resources required Fogarty, G. and Facelli, J.M. (1999). Growth to establish and carefully monitor all vari- and competition of Cytisus scoparius, an ables; and preliminary observations in- invasive shrub, and Australian native dicated that annual follow-up would be shrubs. Plant Ecology 144, 27-35. required on all plots due to the extremely Hosking, J.R., Smith, J.M.B. and Sheppard, high density of broom. A.W. (1996). The biology of Australian A number of new questions are arising weeds 28. Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link in relation to best-practice English broom subsp. scoparius. Plant Protection Quar- control after bushfires. In areas where her- terly 11, 102-8. bicides have been effective, we are now McArthur, K. (2000). Broom (Cytisus sco- faced with dense stands of dead matter parius) management strategy for the which could potentially be a fire hazard. Australian Alps National Parks (Keith In sites where herbicide control has not Turnbull Research Institute, Frankston, yet occurred, English broom is so tall that Victoria). spraying with herbicide is not practical or Waterhouse, B.M. (1988). Broom (Cyti- affordable, and other options such as slash- sus scoparius) at Barrington Tops, New ing and burning need to be considered. A South Wales. Australian Geographical workshop is proposed to be held in early Studies 26, 239-48. autumn 2006 to discuss future options to Wearne, L.J. and Morgan, J.W. (2004). test control techniques such as burning, Community-level changes in subalpine slashing, re-seeding, and interactions be- vegetation following invasion by the tween chemical control and establishing non-native shrub Cytisus scoparius. Jour- biological control agents. nal of Vegetation Science 15, 595-604. Further research will be carried out to investigate the levels of depletion in the soil seed bank on treated sites versus untreated sites, where prolific seeding is expected to occur in summer 2005–06. Presence and abundance of other species’ seeds may also be assessed through glasshouse trials. Opportunities exist to investigate soil nitrogen levels and soil moisture, both of which would have local effects on regeneration of other species after removal of English broom. This study also highlights the importance of an integrated approach to management. It is widely known that a combination of herbicide and fire treatment results in effective removal of English broom, and that physical removal results in less disturbance on vegetation communities than use of herbicide. This experimental program will allow various combinations of integrated management approaches to be tested which will add to managers’ understanding of the likely outcomes of removal of this highly invasive woody weed.

Acknowledgements Support for this project has been received gratefully from Parks Victoria staff in the Alpine District and National Parks and Conservation Research, and many individuals from DSE, DPI, High Country Landcare Network.

References Allan, C., Wright, J. and Raymond, K. (2004). An adaptive experimental management program for English broom Cytisus scoparius in Victoria. Proceed- ings 14th Australian Weeds Confer- ence. DNRE. (1998). Landcare notes – English broom. Department of Natural Re- sources and Environment (Keith Turn- bull Research Institute, Frankston, Vic- toria).

66 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 SESSION 6 Getting technical

the development of crop cultivars through conventional plant breeding. These in- Molecular genetic breeding to produce non-GM crops clude: • The development of doubled haploids Jim Kollmorgen, Rebecca Ford, Mohan Singh and Paul Taylor, to produce clonal lines for more accu- School of Agriculture and Food Systems, The University of Melbourne, rate trait screening and hence a reduc- Victoria 3010 tion in the time required to develop and validate a new variety. • Somaclonal variation to enhance geno- typic variability, to enable choice of a genotype that carries a desirable trait If the phrase ‘molecular genetic breeding’ methods are not referred to as GMOs but not formerly present in the available is taken literally it could well be argued they have certainly been subjected to ge- germplasm. that the technology it describes has been netic manipulation. • In vitro techniques to select germplasm used to produce non-GM crops ever since The molecular revolution in plant breed- with specific attributes before it is Gregor Mendel, in 1866, published his ing has provided several tools to enable grown in the field. results on inheritance of traits in garden the more efficient and faster development The methods and techniques described peas. The reason, in simple terms, is that of superior plant genotypes by traditional above can also be applied to GM varieties plant breeding is the application of genet- plant breeding methods. and will therefore facilitate their develop- ics to develop new plant genotypes. This These methods involve the use of: ment and release. involves the manipulation of both mol- • Marker Assisted Selection (MAS) In conclusion, we now have molecular ecules and genes through crossing and whereby markers specific to a trait of and other advanced tools that have the selection. interest are used to select for the pres- potential to enhance the breeding of both Conventional plant breeding focused ence of that trait without the need to non-GM and GM crops. The technolo- initially on sexual hybridisation between use field screening or wait to maturity gies have great potential to dramatically highly related species, but methods were to assess for the phenotypic expression. improve crop productivity and quality subsequently developed to enable distant- The advantages of MAS are: while the concerns around GM crops are ly related species to be mated. For exam- * Phenotypic screening for the trait is addressed and resolved. An unfortunate ple, bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) can not required. situation has developed in most countries now be crossed directly with goat grass * Markers are not affected by environ- however, in that the funding of research (Aegilops tauschii) to generate T. aestivum mental factors. into the development of GMs has been at genotypes with resistance to cereal cyst * The trait can be detected at the seed- the expense of investment in research on nematode (Heterodera avenae). Work is also ling stage. other aspects of plant breeding and the de- in progress to transfer sprouting resistance * The sampling procedure is non development of agronomic packages to opti- from Ae. tauschii to T. aestivum. structive. mise the performance of new varieties. The fundamental resource for the de- * More than a single trait can be velopment of improved crop varieties is screened for at the same time so genetic variation and thus access to genes there can be the pyramiding of genes not present in the plant of interest is vital. and thus the release of varieties with Therein lies one of the key attractions of multiple gene traits. the ‘transgenic’ approach to crop improve- * DNA fingerprinting to determine ment. Targeted genes can be transferred the most appropriate plant breeding from one plant to another without sexual methods to be used in the develop- hybridisation. ment of a new variety and to verify Non-GM crops produced by molecular true hybridity prior to germination. genetic breeding, which produce geno- * The use of markers as diagnostic types with targeted desirable traits, are of probes to specifically detect the particular interest given the controversies presence of a pathogen and thus as- around GM crops. Perhaps, however, we sist breeders in acquiring new germ- should pose the question of where ‘ac- plasm from overseas. ceptable’ conventional breeding technol- • Targeting Induced Local Lesions IN ogy passes over into the grey area of ‘un- Genomes (TILLING) a reverse genetic acceptable’ genetic modification. This is strategy that uses chemical mutagen- important given that many crop cultivars esis or selection for naturally occurring have been produced either by applying mutations (ECOTILLING) followed by mutagens to DNA to produce variation or screening for single-base changes to through the selection of beneficial soma- identify single base changes that alter clonal variants or variants derived from protein function (Till et al. 2004). in vitro culture and selection. Presently, It should also be noted that other ‘non-tra- plants produced by any of these three ditional’ technologies are being applied to

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 67 terms of plant mortality, approximately 30 days after application and wild oat panicle Verification of the factors affecting clodinafop efficacy density around anthesis. Fully automated stations collected a comprehensive set of T.S. Andrews, R.W. Medd, R. van de Ven, and D.I. Pickering, Cooperative soil and weather data at each site except Orange in 2004. Other measurements such Research Centre for Australian Weed Management, Orange Agricultural as growth stage and leaf extension rates at Institute, Orange, New South Wales 2800 the time of spraying, were also included Email: [email protected] in the analyses.

Results and discussion The correlation of numerous plant, spray and environmental variables with clodi- Background Site specific weather data around the nafop efficacy on wild oat was quanti- Medd et al. (2001) used Syngenta registra- time of spraying were generally unavail- fied. Generally, the factors found to be tion data collected prior to 1995 to identify able in the reports and so were derived for correlated with clodinafop efficacy were correlations between clodinafop (Topik®) the nearest locality using the Climate Im- consistent in both the industry and field efficacy and environmental variables at pacts and Natural Resource Systems web- generated data sets (Table 1). For exam- the time of spraying. They showed that site (www.nrm.qld.gov.au/silo/). These ple, of the factors identified by Meddet al. clodinafop efficacy on wild oat was corre- interpolated data are based on hourly in- (2001), only VOL and therefore TMAX × lated with clodinafop dose, adjuvant use, formation supplied by the Australian Bu- VOL, were not correlated with clodinafop sum of minimum temperatures from sev- reau of Meteorology and map coordinates efficacy in the data set collated from indus- en previous days (TMINPRE7), soil mois- of the experimental sites. try trials conducted from 1995 to 2003. ture deficit 10 days prior to spraying (SM- Soil moisture levels were estimated Analyses of data generated in field tri- PRE10), maximum temperature on day of with a model that utilised soil physical als showed that TMAX was correlated spraying (TMAX), spray water volume parameters (such as wilting point and with clodinafop as a quadratic effect, (VOL) and a TMAX × VOL interaction. field capacity), environmental data (daily where maximum efficacy was achieved Interestingly, the temperature by spray radiation, wind speed, rainfall, tempera- with a temperature of around 19°C Mini- volume interaction inferred that increasing ture readings) and agronomic information mum temperatures were not correlated spray water volume increased herbicide (planting date, ground cover, crop height, with clodinafop efficacy. This was clearly efficacy under adverse conditions. Those rooting depth). Some data that was miss- demonstrated at one site where excellent analyses also indicated that geographic ing from individual reports, such as crop wild oat control was achieved despite suc- location in Australia, and wild oat density planting date, were estimated using the cessive heavy frosts. Interestingly, maxi- and growth stage did not affect efficacy. methods described in Medd et al. (2001). mum daytime temperatures at that site An aim of ongoing work is to validate Other information, such as the density of were optimal. these findings with analyses of independ- wild oats and other grass weeds, was in- Adjuvant rate was not varied in the ent data collated from industry and data cluded where possible. field trials and so was not included in the generated in field trials. analyses of those results. Soil moisture Field trial data on the day of spraying (SM), rather than Industry data Trial sites were established in NSW at SMPRE10, was correlated with clodinafop Additional data were collated from 64 Breeza, Cowra, Condobolin and Temora efficacy in the field data. That may have experiments, conducted between 1995 in 2003, and Cowra, Condobolin, Orange been influenced by results from the dry and 2003 by either Novartis, Bayer Crop- and Wagga Wagga in 2004. Clodinafop was Condobolin site, where wild oat control Science or Dow AgroSciences. The result- applied to wild oat infestations from four was improved by rainfall immediately ing data set contained 174 discrete entries to nine times at each of the sites, to give a prior to spraying. of mean clodinafop efficacy. Experiments total of 46 separate applications over the Medd et al. (2001) adopted the novel were conducted on commercial wheat two years. On each occasion, the herbicide approach of analysing industry generated crops naturally infested with wild oats was applied at four dose rates and in three data and nominated a number of environ- on farms located throughout Australia’s water volumes, plus non treated controls. mental and spray factors that were cor- cropping region. Efficacy was quantitatively assessed, in related with clodinafop efficacy in their analyses. Analyses of an additional industry data set and field trial results support Table 1. A comparison of the factors correlated with clodinafop efficacy in the findings of that study. This suggests that the data could be combined and used Medd et al. (2001) and in subsequent analyses of additional data sets (refer to develop an applied, predictive model of to text for full names of abbreviated variables) clodinafop efficacy on wild oat. Factors correlated with clodinafop Factors correlated in Factors correlated in efficacy: industry trial data prior industry data field trial data References to 1995 (1995–2003) (2003–4) Medd, R.W., van de Ven, R., Pickering, D.I. Topik dose   and Nordblom, T. (2001). Determination of environment-specific dose-response  Adjuvant use relationships for clodinafop-propargyl TMAX   on Avena spp. Weed Research 41, 351-68. SMPRE10 / SM   TMINPRE7   VOL   TMAX × VOL  

68 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 In particular: booms made entirely or in part from aluminium to reduce weight Ways to improve pesticide application in Australia and enable widths of up to 48 m; booms that have recirculating lines with air actu- through new sprayer technology and adoption of ated diaphragm check valves so that the sprayer manufacturing and testing standards spray lines can be primed before spraying and also enable line cleaning; twin liquid lines to accommodate a wider range J.H. Combellack, Spray Smart Enterprises, 7 Michelle Drive, Maiden Gully, of travel speed, booms that when folded Victoria 3551 are not over 4 m in height to prevent contact with over head electric wires; devices to aid in the automatic control of boom height; larger pumps with deliveries up Abstract Even though pesticide applica- public. Such concerns have led to govern- to 320 L min-1; larger, up to 8000 L, and tion equipment has improved and spray- ment restrictions on pesticide use, for ex- better designed tanks that have better ac- ing efficiency increased, operator safety ample in the UK Local Environmental Risk cess, drain better, have less rough surfaces and reduced environmental contamina- Assessment for Pesticides (LERAP) (Anon and which are fitted with cleaning noz- tion remain a significant public concern 2001 and 2002) and the development of zles; typically two fresh water tanks one when pesticides are used. This has been standards relating to their use (e.g. EN 907; specifically for operators and the other reflected in direct government interven- 12761-1; EN 12761-2 and EN 12761-3). to rinse the tank; levers to control fluid tion by the imposition of stricter drift and It has been suggested that the devel- flow direction that are simpler to use due storage regulations in some states as well opment and adoption of these standards to better labelling; induction hoppers that as necessitating certification for users and will improve pesticide application as well are easier to clean and which typically in- resellers in many states. It is also recog- as operator, bystander and environmen- clude a drum washing facility that is ef- nised that further Government restrictions tal safety (Herbst and Ganzelmeier 2002). fective; more durable pipes that are less are under active consideration relating to This is entirely possible when application prone to product infiltration and/or deg- better advice on product labels. An alter- equipment is frequently not accurately radation; improved rate controllers which native approach to Government involve- calibrated and inappropriate droplet sizes provide more accurate speed and liquid ment is the imposition of self regulation, are used. Rider and Dickey (1980) for ex- flow measurement as well as indicating based on standards for sprayer manu- ample reported that only 40% of the users remaining product and area treated; the facture and testing of sprayers in use as were applying within 10% of the desired use of GPS to aid in spraying accuracy us- well as the development of sprayers able dose; even more alarming are the stud- ing a light bar or through autosteer; faster to vary liquid volume and spray quality ies of Cupery (1987) who found only 19% acting and improved electric shut-off and without the intervention of the operator. within the same limits. These reports flow direction valves to control liquid It is suggested that basic to such a strategy only reflect poor calibration and mixing. flow; developments in nozzle technology is the recognition, by both growers and These are exacerbated during application for example increased use of air induction buyers of produce, that pesticides must by for example boom instability which is nozzles to reduce drift while maintain- be applied as efficiently and effectively as reported to account for variations in the ing similar efficacy in most cases (Wolf currently possible. It is also argued that dose applied of up to 100% across and 30% 2002). for an acceptable strategy pesticide us- along the swathe (Maybank et al. 1974). Some recent developments that have ers need to accept the need to ensure that They concluded that if the distribution yet to be widely used but are worthy of their equipment is properly maintained. was improved the dose could be halved. consideration in Australia include: patch It is predicted that even if all of these These data are supported by those of Van treatment of weeds using either histori- changes were implemented the publics’ De Zande et al. (2004) who found that cal records or image analysis to deline- concerns are unlikely to be totally allevi- spray deposits along the sprayed track in ate spatial location and then applying ated. It is therefore argued that to achieve potatoes varied from -20 to +90% of that the herbicide using for example pulse even greater public acceptance the indus- sprayed and their results also showed the width modulation nozzles (Giles, Ander- try needs to simultaneously adopt the efficacy was related to deposit. In other son and Nilars 2002, Giles et al. 2004) or aforesaid strategy as well as adopt a more studies spray mixtures have been shown to direct injection (Christensen, Walter and pro-active transparent stance on educat- vary in lateral distribution by two to three Heisel 1999); an ultrasonic detection sys- ing the public about the advantages and fold (Richardson and Combellack 1996). A tem for detecting height and presence of disadvantages of pesticide use. similar situation exists in fruit crops where tree crops to limit spray wastage (Giles, a two fold variation is typical (Manktelow Slaughter and Upadhyaya 2002); use of Introduction et al. 2004). Therefore reported data sup- double spray nozzles i.e. two nozzles the The public continue to maintain that pes- port the notion that pesticides are applied same, or different, type and size in the ticide use is a threat to human health, inefficiently and that this is reflected as same holder (Wolf and Caldwell 2002) or through residues in food and water and higher than necessary dose rates and or the ‘double nozzle’ designed to exploit the via direct contamination of users and by- off target losses. air entrainment characteristics of a down- standers, as well as contributing to envi- This paper will consider recent changes wardly pointing coarse spraying nozzle to ronmental degradation though their ef- in sprayers to apply pesticides in Australia entrain droplets from a fine spraying noz- fects on biota within and outside the treat- the Standards used and their likely impact zle pointed at the spray sheet of the coarse ed areas (Bruhn 1999). This perception has on application efficiency and operator and nozzle (Hall et al. 1996); an improved twin been particularly the case in the EU where environmental safety. fluid nozzle able to generate fine to extra pesticides are often used in fields above coarse droplets over a wide range of flow water aquifers or close to water courses I. Recent changes in application rates(Combellack et al. 2004); a novel vari- and therefore where leaching of pesticides technology able flow fan nozzle also able to accom- into underground (Anon 1995) or surface There have been a number of structural modate a wider range in flow rate than water (Anon 1997) is very important as changes to sprayers which have led to im- conventional flat fan nozzles (Womac and it can reach the water consumed by the proved work rates, a key need, and safety. Bui 2002) the development of a wetter

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 69 that is much less drift prone (Combellack, liquid fertiliser distributors – Environ- 14. The tank must have a tight lid that al- Illingworth and Miller 2004). mental protection – Part 2: Field crop lows for pressure compensation, It can be rationalised from this that sprayers; 15. There must be an accessible safe drain- there have been, and continue to be, con- • EN 12761-3:2001 Agricultural and for- ing outlet that can be opened without a tinued improvements in sprayer design estry machinery – Sprayers and liquid tool, to apply pesticides in Australia. However fertiliser distributors – Environmental 16. The pressure indicator must be read- the adoption of new technologies and the protection – Part 3: Air assist sprayers able from the drivers position, standards used by manufacturers varies for bushes and tree crops; 17. The pressure indicator must have a enormously (Nugent 2001). For exam- • EN 13790-1:2003 Agricultural machin- diameter of 63 mm if within hand reach ple even though AS/ANZ 2153.6:1996. ery – Sprayers – Inspection of sprayers or 100 mm if beyond, Equipment for Crop Protection has been in use – Part 1: Field crop sprayers; 18. There must be no operator contamina- published as a standard for manufacture • EN 13790-2:2003 Agricultural machin- tion if the pressure indicator leaks, of sprayers it appears not to have been ery – Sprayers – Inspection of sprayers 19. A safety valve must be fitted and oper- widely adopted. in use – Part 2: Air-assisted sprayers for ate at no greater than 120% of allowed bush and tree crops. value, II. Standards for pesticide Both ISO and EU standards should be con- 20. If a fan is fitted it must be protected application that could be used sidered, and where appropriate embraced, from drawing in or discharging foreign There are three levels of standards; inter- by Australian sprayer manufacturers so matter and from access, national which are identified by an ISO as to ensure that producers are using 21. The fan drive must be able to be disen- number and which have the highest de- sprayers made to the same standards as gaged, gree of consensus; regional or country the their EU counterparts thus averting the 22. If a cab is fitted no hoses allowed in the second level of consensus (the most obvi- possibility of this being used as a restric- cab, ous regional standards are those for the tion to trade. The relevant standards will 23. If no cab the hoses have to be covered, EU which are identified by an EN number thus be reviewed. 24. Hoses have to be marked with maxi- and which are recognised by all EU mem- mum pressure, bers) or National which are recognised A. Suggested mandatory safety 25. If there is a manual sprayer control it within that country and the lowest level standards for Australian made sprayers has to be within reach of the operator, of are those defined by a manufacturer. These suggestions are based on: EN 907 26. After switching boom off the maxi- Herbst and Ganzelmeier (2002) argued Standard for ‘Agricultural and forestry mum dripping volume must not ex- that harmonisation of standards within machinery. Sprayers and liquid fertilisers ceed 2 mL timed over a 5 min period. the EU, and with global institutions, will – Safety’. The key requirements should The measuring to start 8 s after boom benefit all by overcoming trade barriers. be: closed, They further argued that standards influ- 1. Ensuring sprayer can be operated on 27. A clean water tank of at least 15 L has to ence economic development more than 8.5° slopes, be fitted that is isolated and fitted with patents. It is therefore regrettable that Aus- 2. Have a cab if the boom is in the front of a tap that does not need to be continu- tralia is not active on most of the Interna- the sprayer, ously pressed, tional committees that relate to pesticide 3. If a front mounted boom is fitted to 28. A rinsing water tank shall be provided. application. For example ISO standards a self propelled sprayer the drivers It shall not be combined with the clean have been established for: Test methods seat must be at least 1000 mm above water tank. It shall have a volume at for nozzles (ISO 5682-1); Test methods for the maximum working height of the least 10% of the main tank volume or sprayers (ISO 5682-2); Test method for boom, at least 10 times the volume of the re- flow control devices (ISO 5682-3); Anti- 4. Ensure maximum height of folded sidual which is to be diluted as speci- drip devices (ISO 6686); Nominal tank vol- boom is less than 4.0 meters, fied in the Instruction Handbook and, ume and filling hole diameter (ISO 9357); 5. Details how location of handles on 29. An instruction manual has to be sup- Data sheet for field crop sprayer – Typi- manually folding booms must be 300 plied. cal layout (ISO 10627-2); Test method for mm from nearest articulation point, air-assisted sprayers (ISO 10625); Deter- 6. Boom to have a locking device when B. Suggested basis for an Australian mination of residues (ISO 13440); Data folded in transport position, standard for Australian made sprayers sheets for air-assisted sprayers – Typical 7. Have a device to lock the boom in verti- It is suggested that the Standard should be layout (ISO 13441-1) without significant cal position, on those of EN 12761 parts 1, 2 and 3:2002 Australian involvement. Even though 8. The manual force necessary to raise the and aim to meet three objectives viz.: Australia was not officially represented in boom must not exceed 230 N, 1. Even distribution and effective deposi- the deliberations on these standards the 9. If manual boom raised by a winch it tion of spray on the target, manufacturers of sprayers, as well as those shall be self arresting and able to with- 2. Avoidance of unintentional loss of pes- who provide components and or tests stand a load at least 1.3 times the weight ticide into off target areas, and sprayers, should be aware of the stand- of the boom, 3. Improvements in the handling of spray- ards and where possible embrace the out- 10. If the boom is raised by hydraulics the ing equipment. comes. downward speed must not exceed 10 There are also a number of EU stand- mm sec-1 and must ensure a minimum B 1. Suggested guidelines on sprayer design to ards for example: height of 500 mm between boom and achieve the three objectives: • EN907:1997 Agricultural and forestry ground, 1. Sprayers and their components shall be machinery – Sprayers and liquid ferti- 11. Provide a device for chemical transfer reliable and designed so that they can liser distributors – Safety; which is no more than 1500 mm above be used properly, • EN 12761-1:2001 Agricultural and for- the ground or platform, 2. Sprayers shall be designed so that they estry machinery – Sprayers and liquid 12. Filling hole of the tank must be no more can be safely operated and switched off fertiliser distributors – Environmental than 1500 mm from the ground and/or immediately from the operators posi- protection–Part 1: General; 300 mm from the edge of the tank, tion, • EN 12761-2:2001 Agricultural and 13. The tank must be at least 5% oversize of 3. Easy and safe filling and emptying forestry machinery – Sprayers and claimed volume, shall be possible,

70 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 4. Unintentional dispersal of liquid shall out both internally and externally (Balsari B 9. Suggested contents for the be avoided, et al. 2002, Ramwell and Johnson 2004, mandatory sprayer instruction 5. Adjustment of application volume rate Holst, Neilsen and Anderson 2004) this handbook: shall be easy, accurate and reproduc- is an area which requires serious consid- Comprehensive instructions and informa- ible, eration by sprayer manufacturers in Aus- tion on all aspects of maintenance and safe 6. Adjusting and controlling the intended tralia because of the legal liability implica- use of the sprayer shall be provided. In rate required, tions.) particular the following shall be empha- 7. Means of calibration of the equipment, sised: 8. Means of adjustment and control of the B 4. Mandatory markings affixed on the 1. Issue warning that additional equip- volume rate, sprayer to include: ment or attachments for the sprayer 9. Adequate and accurate measuring sys- 1. Name and address of the manufactur- must be used in accordance with the tems, er, intended use, 10. Readability of instruments, 2. Year of construction, 2. Outline ways of filling to avoid con- 11. Instructions for adjusting the volume 3. Designation of series or type. tamination of the environment, rate. 4. Serial number if any, 3. Delineate conditions of use, e.g. maxi- (Comment: standard tests for most of these 5. Allowable circuit pressure, mum driving speed when travelling are detailed below.) 6. Allowable maximum travel speed, and spraying and any corresponding 7. Allowable maximum spraying speed, adjustment to the sprayer. B 2. Suggested sprayer design to evenly 8. Mass when empty, (Comment: sprayer speed has impor- distribute and deposit pesticides to 9. Allowable total weight, tant implications in Australia for both ensure: 10. Nominal rpm. and direction of pto, operator and environmental safety 1. Evenness of distribution along the boom 11. Nominal power in kW (for self pro- as they are driven faster than in most in the case of field crop sprayers, pelled machines), countries. An agreed maximum speed 2. Evenness in distribution in the driv- 12. Tank warning not to enter, should be agreed to by sprayer manu- ing direction in the case of field crop 13. Warning if boom height when folded is facturers for three point linkage, trailed sprayers, over 4 m, and self propelled sprayers which (Comment: it is suggested that 1 and 14. Warning on clean water tank to be filled could be different for different sized 2 should be possible using flow rate only with clean water, tanks and or booms and tractor size. data by testing nozzles within their 15. Tap alignment when filling, recirculat- Therefore they should be agreed to in approved pressure range when new ing, rinsing and spraying. consultation with tractor manufactur- and then carrying out subsequent flow (Comment: there is no mention of dura- ers.) rate comparisons. If there is not >10% bility and or size, colour or type face of 4. Outline ways of avoiding drift tak- increase in flow there should be no lettering, all need to be considered and ing into account different parameters change. A more stringent test would be included.) such as nozzles, pressure, boom height, for the sprayer manufacturer to carry wind speed, driving speed etc. out and detail CV tests, it should not be B 5. Mandatory markings on the pump (Comment: this has serious litiga- above10% when nozzles are new, and to include: tion implications and wording needs when retested if flow has not increased 1. Name and address of manufacturer, to be carefully considered by sprayer by >10% then CV should be accept- 2. Serial number, manufacturers. It is suggested that the able.) 3. Maximum pump output, sprayer manufacturer should advise 3. Evenness of mixing of the mixture, 4. Maximum pump pressure, the user to refer the pesticide manufac- (Comment: while a standard of 15% 5. Maximum pump output at maximum turers label for advice on spray qual- has been set using ISO 5682-2, this is pump pressure, ity to be used and then consult with difficult to measure and needs careful 6. Nominal and maximum rpm. the nozzle manufacturer’s handbook consideration before making manda- (Comment: there is no mention of durabil- for guidance on what nozzles to use. It tory.) ity and or size of lettering, both need to be would be advisable to stress to the user 4. Adequate deposition and distribution considered.) that drift is more important than effica- of the spray mixture on the target area, cy. A copy of the nozzle manufacturers 5. Minimising losses to non target B 6. Mandatory markings on the hoses handbook should therefore be included areas. should show: in the Instruction Handbook.) 1. The maximum allowable pressure, 5. Provide an indication of total residual, B 3. Suggested standard to ensure 2. Minimum bend. which should be less than 0.5% of nom- sprayers are easy and safe to clean by (Comment: there is no mention of durabil- inal capacity of the tank plus 2 litre m-1 ensuring: ity and or size of lettering, both need to be of boom 1. Complete emptying is possible and considered; should chemical resistance be 6. Detail instructions on emptying and changing of worn parts shall be easy advised?) cleaning, and safe. Fundamental to this is a tank (Comment: This also needs careful con- which has a smooth inner and outer B 7. Mandatory markings on, and colour sideration because of possible litigation surface. For example an Rz ≤100 µm, see of, nozzle tips, so that they can be: when sprayers are used for a range of ISO 4287 (measured using ISO 4288 on 1. Identified directly for type and size products on a range of crops. It is sug- surface texture assessment) and which and or from information given in the gested that the sprayer manufacturer drains completely. instruction handbook. (Comment: or direct the user to the pesticide label for (Comment: cleaning is an activity that is nozzle manufacturers handbook.) advice on what chemical cleaners are known to be major contributor to point appropriate. The user should then be source environmental pollution (e.g. Bal- B 8. Mandatory markings on filters to asked to refer to the cleaner label for sari et al. 2002, Basford, Rose and Carter show: advice on how to use the product. The 2004) and procedures are poorly described 1. The manufacturers name or sign, mod- Instruction handbook should detail in sprayer manuals and difficult to carry el and the mesh size. how to operate the sprayer to ensure both lines and tank are cleaned.)

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 71 7. Outline methods to check the applica- more than 1500 mm from the ground 7. When fitting a spray boom ensure that tion volume rate, and or 300 mm from the edge of the its height adjustment: 8. Detail mesh size of the strainers, tank edge (ref. ISO 9357), I. Shall have a minimum boom height 9. Nominate intervals for checking the III. Tank volume to be at least 5% more range of 1.0 m (ref.4.1.3.1 EN 12761- sprayer, than nominated, 2:2001), (Comment: this should be done on IV. Strainers to have a minimum depth II. Shall be able to be adjusted to suit number of hours of use or annually?) of 60 to 250 mm depending on tank the crops to be sprayed thus if crop 10. Identify restrictions on use of special size (ref EN 12761-2:2002) and a is 1.0 m boom must be able to be crop protection products, mesh size less than 2 mm, raised to 1.5 m (ref.4.1.3.2 EN 12761- (Comment: refer the user to the pesti- V. Filling should be at a rate of at least 2:2001), cide product label for advice.) 100 L min-1 for tanks >100 L. III. Shall be able to adjust boom height 11. Outline necessary preparations for dif- continuously or in a maximum of ferent conditions of use, 2. When fitting emptying device ensure: 100 mm increments (ref.4.1.3.2 EN 12. Identify possibilities of connecting oth- I. The volume of residual shall not ex- 12761-2:2001), er equipment and the necessary pre- ceed 0.5% of the nominal tank vol- IV. Shall ensure spray is not intercepted cautions, ume plus 2 litre m-1 of boom (ref. 2.1 by the structure of the sprayer, 13. Outline procedure for checking the ISO 13440:1996), V. Shall have a boom structure that sprayer on a daily, monthly, as well as (Comment: many sprayers in Aus- aligns parallel to the ground yearly basis, tralia would not meet this stand- (ref.4.1.3.2 EN 12761-2:2001). 14. Detail the restarting procedures after ard.) winter, II. The emptying device shall allow 8. When the spray boom hits obstacles: 15. Outline methods for adjusting pres- complete emptying, i.e. no vis- I. Shall if up to 10 m be able to auto- sure, ible puddles after 5 min, when in matically move backwards to their 16. Detail adjustments to be made to the a horizontal position (ref.4.5.3 EN original position (ref.4.1.3.3 EN sprayer when various nozzles are 907:1997), 12761-2:2001) and be undamaged if used, III. It shall be possible to collect the hitting an object >0.9 from the mid 17. Detail the folding/unfolding proce- liquid from the drain exit without point to the end of the boom when dure for the boom. Warn about dangers contaminating the operator or other moving forward at 4 ± 0.2 km h-1 of overhead wires, parts of the sprayer. (ref.4.1.3.3 EN 12761-2:2001), 18. Give warning that before maintenance, II. Shall if >10 m be able to move au- particularly welding, is to be carried 3. When fitting the tank contents indica- tomatically backwards and be un- out the spray lines have to be emptied tor ensure that: damaged if hitting an object >0.9 and rinsed, I. It is visible from the drivers seat and from the mid point to the end of the 19. Outline the procedures to deal with when filling, boom when moving forward at 4 ± blocked nozzles in the field, II. Has acceptable tolerances e.g. 0.2 km h-1 or move forwards when 20. Detail precautions to be taken by op- • ± 7.5% for each graduation for up moving backwards at 2 ± 0.2 km h-1 erators against contamination for ex- to 20% of the volume, (ref.4.1.3.3 EN 12761-2:2001). ample use of protective clothing in, the • ± 5% for each graduation for vol- safe use of transfer systems at each of umes >20%. 9. When fitting filters to the sprayer: the following stages of use: The accepted tolerances shall be meas- I. Which has positive displacement • filling the tank and adding chemi- ured with a maximum error of ± 1% pump it shall have a filter on the cals with the sprayer horizontal and that suction side, • spraying other ways shall be allowable if same II. They shall have on the delivery lines • adjustments accuracy. one or more fitted central or in the • draining and cleaning lines of boom sections, • changing chemicals 4. When fitting an agitating device/sys- III. They shall have a mesh size appro- • servicing tem to the sprayer ensure that: priate to the nozzle size to be fitted, (Comment: should the sprayer manu- I. They are capable of producing a mix- IV. They must be easily accessible and facturers be responsible for this or ture that is within ± 15% throughout their inserts easily removed, should they merely advise the user to the tank. V. It shall be possible to remove the fil- read and adhere to the label?) (Comment: this would be difficult to ters when the tank is full with only 21. Issue warning that booms mounted on measure for a sprayer manufacturer the liquid in the filter and or in the the front of the tractor shall not be used and it should conform to ISO 5682-2.) suction and delivery lines leaking where there is no cab, out (ref.4.1.4 EN 12761-2:2001). 22. Warn against entering the tank as it is 5. When fitting hoses and lines ensure: prohibited, I. That they have a bending radius that 10. When fitting nozzles: 23. Emphasise the need to ensure that no will be within the limits specified by I. It shall be possible to fix nozzles in other person is standing near the ma- hose manufacturer, set positions to ensure the spray is chine, particularly near a fan, II. That they have no bends which correctly directed. 24. Detail the procedures to be used when could affect liquid flow, II. Dripping from nozzles post an 8 parking the machine. s elapse shall not exceed 2 mL per 6. When fitting a spray boom ensure: nozzle after 5 min when the spray B 10. Suggested specific design require- I. That it shall have maximum section is turned off, to achieve this dia- ments for Field crop sprayers. These widths of 4.5 m for booms ≤24 m and phragm check valves shall be fitted have been based on: EN 12761-2 Part 2. 6 m if >24 m (ref.4.1.3.1 EN 12761- (ref.4.1.5 EN 12761-2:2001), 1. When filling 2:2001), III. On booms over 10 m the end noz- I. A design that avoids any return from II. That it shall be possible to use any zles shall be protected from contact- the main tank to the filling supply, one section when required (ref.4.1.3.1 ing the ground (ref.4.1.5 EN 12761- II. Filling hole of the tank must be no EN 12761-2:2001). 2:2001),

72 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 IV. The flow rate from an individual application volume rate of ± 6% of residue after cleaning is less than nozzle shall not deviate by more the mean or a 3% coefficient of vari- 0.01% of the drums volume (ref. than 5% from the data in the flow ation (ref. 5.3 ISO 5682-3:1996), Annex. A EN 12761-2:2002 also con- rate tables (ref. ISO 5682-1). VII. Have a maximum pressure drop sider Balsari 2004). between where the gauge is located 11. When fitting measuring systems: and when taken at the nozzle (in- B 11. Suggested requirements for the I. The relevant dials shall be clearly cluding the check valve) not exceed- manufacture of Air- assisted sprayers visible from the vehicle seat, ing 10%, for bush and tree crops based on: EN II. Each measuring system shall be ac- VIII. Provide a measuring jug with 12761 2003 Part 3. curate to within a maximum of ± 5% a capacity of at least one litre and These proposed requirement standards of the true value. an accuracy of ± 2.5% with the should be encouraged: III. The pressure gauges shall be within sprayer. 1. When filling: ± 20 kPa for 100 to 800 kPa working I. There shall be a design that avoids pressure gauges; ± 50 kPa for 800 to 14. That spray distribution shall: any return from the main tank to the 2000 kPa gauges and ± 100 kPa for I. Have a transverse coefficient of vari- filling supply, working pressure gauges over 2000 ation volume distribution, measured II. There shall be a filling hole on the kPa (ref.4.6 EN 907:1997). using a 100 mm wide patternator, not tank that is no more than 1500 mm IV. The pressure gauge shall be clearly exceeding 8% at one boom height from the ground or more than 300 readable and the needle stable. specified by the manufacturer of the mm from the edge of the tank edge V. The scale on the pressure gauge shall nozzles (ref. ISO 5682-2:1996), (ref. ISO 9357), be every 20 kPa for working pres- II. Have for other boom heights speci- III. The tank volume shall be at least 5% sures <500 kPa; 100 kPa for working fied by the nozzle manufacturer a more than nominated, pressures between 500 and 2000 kPa coefficient of variation not exceed- IV. There shall be strainers that have a and every 200 kPa for pressures over ing 10% (ref. ISO 5682-2:1996; 5682- minimum depth of 60 to 250 mm de- 2000 kPa. (ref. EN 4.6 907:1997). 3:1996), pending on tank size (ref EN 12761- III. For nozzles with overlapping pat- 2:2002) and a mesh size less than 2 12. If supplying a test adapter it shall: terns determine the CV only on mm, I. Enable the pressure gauge to be test- those parts of the boom where there V. Filling should be at a rate of at least ed using a ¼” female thread connec- is total overlap, 100 L min-1 if tank >100 L, tor, VI. If chemical induction bowl is fitted it II. Be possible to connect a flowmeter 15. That the flow rate for each nozzle shall have a filter with a maximum between the pump and pressure shall: mesh size of 20 mm. regulator without damaging any I. Not vary by more than 10% from hoses or removing the couplers that stated by the nozzle manufac- 2. When emptying: from the hoses. Suitable ¾”, 1” or 2” turer, I. The volume of residual shall not adapters shall be provided by the II. If of the same type across the boom exceed 4% of the nominal tank vol- manufacturer. not vary by more than 5% from the ume for a tank volume of <400 litres; mean flow rate for all nozzles when 3% if tank volume between 400 and 13. That adjustment of application volume tested at 250 kPa (ref.7.1 ISO 5682- 1000 litres and 2% if the tank volume rate shall: 1:1996), is more than 1000 litres (ref. 2.1 ISO I. Have a maximum tolerance for all III. Be measured with an accuracy of 13440:1996), measurements of ± 2.5%, ± 2.5% of the true value at 250 kPa II. The emptying device shall allow II. Have pressure adjustment devices (ref.7.1 ISO 5682-1:1996). complete emptying, i.e. no vis- that maintain a constant working ible puddles after 5 min, when in pressure at constant pump rpm. 16. That to reduce spray drift the nozzles a horizontal position (ref.4.5.3 ISO After switching the boom or its sec- fitted shall have: 907:1997), tions on and off the working pres- I. A 10% volumetric droplet diameter III. It shall be possible to collect the sure shall return to its original val- not smaller than that for a 11002 flat liquid from the drain exit without ue ± 7.5% even if the pressure has fan nozzle delivering 720 mL min-1 contaminating the operator or other been changed (ref. 4.2.1 En 12761- at a pressure of 250 kPa (ref.7.5 ISO parts of the sprayer, 2:2002), 5682-1:1996;5682-1:1996). IV. The tank outlet shall be guarded III. Have volume per hectare adjustment against accidental opening systems able to adapt to changes 17. A rinsing water tank will be fitted that: such as switching off nozzles, boom I. Shall not be combined with the clean 3. When fitting tank contents indicator sections or to reflect travel speed to water tank for the operators use ensure that: within ± 10% within 7 s (ref. 5.3 ISO (ref.4.11 EN:907), I. It is visible from the drivers seat and 5682-3:1996), II. Shall have a volume of at least 10% of when filling (ref ISO 9357), IV. During repeated adjustments of the the nominal tank volume or at least II. It conforms to accepted tolerances same volume rate have coefficient 10 times the volume of residual after which are: of variation from seven readings draining (ref. 2.2 ISO 13440:1996), • ± 7.5% for each graduation for up not exceeding 3% (ref. 5.3 ISO 5682- III. Shall be designed so that they can to 20% of the volume, 3:1996), be connected to clean the pipes even • ± 5% for each graduation for vol- V. If spraying at a constant ground and when the tank is filled, umes >20%. pto speed have a maximum devia- IV. Shall also be connected so as to en- (N.B. The accepted tolerances shall tion from the mean rate that does able dilution of the residual. be measured with a maximum error not exceed 5% (ref. 5.3 ISO 5682- of ± 1% with the sprayer horizon- 3:1996), 18. Drum cleaning device when fitted tal.) VI. Have a maximum acceptable vari- shall: III. If other ways are used they have the ation in measured flow rate or I. Be designed so that the volume of same accuracy,

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 73 4. When fitting agitators or other devic- be every 20 kPa for working pres- VIII. A measuring jug with a capacity es to the tank for mixing ensure that sures <500 kPa, 100 kPa for working of at least one litre and an accuracy they: pressures between 500 and 2000 kPa of ± 2.5% shall be supplied with the I. Produce a mixture that is within ± and every 200 kPa for pressures over sprayer. 15% (ref. ISO 5682-2). 2000 kPa. 13. When measuring liquid output from 5. When fitting hoses and lines ensure: 9. When fitting nozzles ensure that: nozzles they shall not vary by: I. Bending radius will be within the I. It shall be possible to measure the I. More than 10% from that stated by limits specified by hose manufac- flow rate for each individual noz- the nozzle manufacturer for each turer zle, nozzle, II. There will be no bends which could II. If multi-head nozzles are used this II. More than 10% from the mean flow affect liquid flow applies to each multi-head nozzle. rate for all nozzles, III. Pressure lines will be equipped with III. More than 50 ± 5% for left and right quick acting shut off valves 10. When fitting adjustment of liquid and hand sides, air-flow devices: IV. More than ± 2.5% of the true value 6. When fitting filters ensure that: I. It shall be possible to switch off the for the testing device. I. Sprayers with positive displacement blower(s) independently from other pumps shall have a filter on the suc- driven parts, 14. When measuring distribution of air tion side, II. It shall be possible to independently I. The real output of the fan shall not II. On the delivery lines there shall be turn off the spray from each side, deviate more than 10% from the central filter(s) or filters in the lines III. It shall be possible for one person to nominal output, of boom sections, adjust the liquid and air-jets to spray II. It shall be possible to adjust the III. The mesh size of the filter shall be different crops and crop heights in a sprayer so that the maximum air ve- appropriate to the nozzle size fit- reproducible way by means of mark- locity is the same for both right and ted, ings, locking systems or the like, left hand sides (ref. ISO 9898:1999). IV. Blockages will be indicated to the IV. It shall be possible to switch each operator by for example positioning nozzle off and to adjust the direction 15. When fitting a rinsing water tank it of the central pressure filters and of their spray independently, shall: pressure gauge, V. In the case of multi-head nozzles I. Not be combined with the clean wa- V. Filters shall be easily accessible and this requirement applies to each ter tank for the operator (ref. 4.11 EN their inserts easily removed, multi-head nozzle. 907:1997), VI. It shall be possible to remove the fil- II. Have a volume of at least 10% of the ter when the tank is full with only 11. When fitting an adjustment of applica- nominal tank volume or at least 10 the liquid in the filter and or in the tion volume rate device: times the volume of residual after suction and delivery lines leaking I. The maximum tolerance for all draining (ref. 2.2 ISO 13440:1996), out. measurements shall be ± 2.5%, III. Be designed so that it can be con- II. Pressure adjustment devices shall nected to clean the pipes even when 7. When fitting nozzles ensure that: maintain a constant working pres- the tank is filled, I. It shall be possible to fix nozzles in sure at constant pump rpm. After IV. Be connected so as to enable dilution set positions to ensure the spray is switching the boom or its sections of the residual. correctly directed, on and off the working pressure II. When the spray is turned off drip- shall return to its original value ± 16. If a drum cleaning device is fitted it ping from nozzles post an 8 s elapse 7.5% even if the pressure has been shall: shall not exceed 2 mL per nozzle af- changed, I. Be designed so that the volume of ter 5 min., to achieve this diaphragm III. Volume per hectare adjustment sys- residue after cleaning is less than check valves shall be fitted, tems shall be able to adapt to changes 0.01% of the drums volume (ref. III. The flow rate from an individual such as switching off nozzles, boom Annex. A EN 12761-2:2002 also con- nozzle shall not deviate by more sections or to reflect travel speed to sider Balsari 2004). than 5% from the data in the flow within ± 10% within 7 s (ref.5.1 & 5.2 rate tables (ref. ISO 5682-1), ISO 5682-3), The above standards relate to the manufac- IV. Swivel nuts shall conform to ISO IV. During repeated adjustments of the ture of new sprayers. Of equal importance 14710. same volume rate the coefficient of are standards that can be used to assess variation from seven readings shall the efficiency of sprayers in use. The EU 8. When fitting measuring systems ensure not exceed 3% (ref. 5.3 ISO 5682- has developed two such standards one for: that: 3:1996), ‘Field crop sprayers (EN 13790-1:2003)’ I. The relevant dials shall be clearly V. If spraying at a constant ground and and one for ‘Air-assisted sprayers for bush visible from the vehicle seat, pto speed the maximum deviation and tree crops (EN 13790-2:2003)’. These II. Each measuring system shall be ac- from the mean rate shall not exceed have been used as the basis for a voluntary curate to within a maximum of ± 5% 5% (ref. 5.3 ISO 5682-3:1996), ‘National Sprayer Testing Scheme’ in the of the true value, VI. The maximum acceptable variation UK and a mandatory scheme in Belgium III. Pressure gauges shall be within ± in measured flow rate or applica- (Braekman and Sonck 2004). 20 kPa for 100 to 800 kPa working tion volume rate shall be ± 6% of the EN 13790 lists three arguments for in- pressure gauges; ± 50 kPa for 800 to mean or a 3% coefficient of variation spection: 2000 kPa gauges and ± 100 kPa for (ref. 5.3 ISO 5682-3:1996), i. Operator safety, working pressure gauges over 2000 VII. The maximum pressure drop ii. Less potential risk of environmental kPa (ref 4.6 EN 907:1996), between where the gauge is located contamination, IV. The pressure gauge shall be clearly and when taken at the nozzle (in- iii. Good control of pests with the mini- readable and the needle stable, cluding the check valve) shall not mum input of product. V. The scale on the pressure gauge shall exceed 10%, Inspection can be done on a mandatory or,

74 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 as is suggested for Australia, on a voluntary 5. Spray liquid tank • Hoses shall be fitted so that there will basis. For this to be acceptable there would • There shall be no leaks from the tank be no sharp bends and have no visible have to be an organisation that would be or its cover when closed. Verify by: In- abrasion. Verify by: Inspection acceptable to the clients (e.g. sprayer and spection component manufacturers; users; produce • There shall be a strainer in good con- 8. Filtering purchasers; pesticide manufacturers; gov- dition in the filling hole which meets • There shall be at least one filter on the ernment and public) willing to be respon- length in relation to tank size (ref 4.1.1.2 pressure side of the pump and if a possible for implementing and managing EN 12761-2:2002). Verify by: Inspec- itive displacement pump one also on the scheme. The said organisation would tion the suction side. Verify by: Inspection also have to indicate who is authorised to • There shall be a grating in the induction • The filters shall be in sound condition carry out the inspections, write standards, hopper if fitted. Verify by: Inspection and the mesh size appropriate to the train inspectors and suggest time intervals • Pressure compensation for the tank nozzles used. Verify by: Inspection and between inspections etc. The basis for a shall be ensured. Verify by: Inspection function test standard for such a scheme is outlined be- • There shall be a clearly readable liquid • If an isolation device is fitted it shall be low separately for crop sprayers and bush level indicator for the tank which is possible, with the tank filled, to clean and tree crop sprayers. visible from the drivers seat. Verify by: the filters without any spray liquid Inspection leaking out except that which may be C 1. Suggested inspection procedure for: • It shall be possible to collect the emp- present in the filter casing and suction Field crop sprayers in use tied spray liquid simply, reliably, with- lines. Verify by: Inspection It is suggested that and Australian Inspec- out tools and without spillage. Verify • Filters shall be replaceable. Verify by: tion of Sprayers in use Standard should by: Function test. Inspection be based on the EU standard EN 13790- • If there is a non-return valve on the wa- 1:2003: ter filling device it shall work reliably. 9. Spray Boom Verify by: Inspection and function test, • The boom shall be stable in all direc- 1. Preparation of the sprayer: The owner to • If an induction hopper is fitted it shall tions and not worn in the joints or bent. carefully clean the sprayer inside and out function reliably. Verify by: Function Verify by: Inspection including filters and filter inserts. Visible test • Both sides will be of the same length, faults to be rectified by the owner before • If a drum cleaner is fitted it shall work verify by: Inspection, the inspection. An initial overview assess- reliably. Verify by: Function test • If fitted with beak away device it shall ment should be made to decide whether return to its original position when to proceed. 6. Measuring systems and controls simulated to come into contact with an • All devices for measuring, switching obstacle. Verify by: Inspection and func- 2. Power transmission parts: on and off and to adjust pressure and tion test (ref 4.1.3.3 EN 12761-2:2002), • Shaft, universal joints and locking sys- or flow rate shall work accurately and • The boom shall be securely locked tems no excessive wear and operate reliably and there shall be no leakages. when in the transport position. Verify correctly, Verify by: Inspection and function test by: Inspection and function test, • Guard for soundness and functional- • Switching on and off of nozzles shall • The nozzle spacing and orientation ity, be possible simultaneously. Verify by: shall be uniform along the boom, ex- • Restraining device to prevent shaft ro- Inspection and function test cept for special end boom nozzles. Ver- tating shall work reliably. • The scale of the pressure gauge shall ify by: Inspection and measurement, Verify above by: Inspection and function be clear and suitable for the pressure • When stationary on a level surface the test range used. Verify by: Inspection, distance from the bottom of the nozzle • The scale on the pressure gauges shall to the ground shall not vary by more 3. Pump be marked at least every 20 kPa for than 100 mm or 1% of the half working • Either the pump must be suitable for working pressures <500 kPa; 100 kPa width. Verify by: Inspection and meas- purpose and deliver at least 90% its for working pressures 500 to 2000 kPa urement, original flow. Verify by: Inspection and 200 kPa for working pressures over • Regardless of the operating height of and function test (Ref. 5.2.1 EN 1390- 2000 kPa (refs 4.6 EN 907:1997; 5.2.2.1 the boom the liquid will not be sprayed 1:2003). EN 13790-1:2003). Verify by: Inspec- onto any part of the sprayer, verify by: • or the pump shall deliver sufficient tion, Inspection and function test, flow to attain maximum pressure with • The minimum diameter of the pressure • On booms >10 m a device shall be fitted largest nozzles whilst maintaining gauge case shall be 63 mm if within to prevent nozzle damage if the boom adequate agitation (ref. 4.3 EN 1390- arms reach otherwise 100 mm. Verify hits the ground. Verify by: Inspection, 1:2003). Verify by: measurement (Ref. by: Inspection. • It shall be possible to shut on and off 5.2.1 EN 1390-1:2003). • The accuracy of the pressure gauge individual boom sections. Verify by: • There shall be no visible pulsations shall be ± 20 kPa for working pressures Inspection and function test, caused by the pump. Verify by: Inspec- between 100 to 200 kPa; for pressures • Boom height adjustment shall work re- tion and function test >200 kPa it shall measure with an ac- liably and conform to safety standards. • Pump safety valve if fitted shall work curacy of ± 10% of the real value. The Verify by: Inspection and function test reliably, verify by: Inspection and func- pointer shall remain stable. Verify by: (ref 4.4.4 EN 907:1997), tion test Inspection and function test (Ref. 5.2.3 • Devices for damping boom movement • There shall be no Leaks from pump. EN 1390-1:2003) and slope compensation shall work re- Verify by: Inspection liably. Verify by: Inspection and func- 7. Pipes and hoses tion test, 4 Agitation • There shall be no leakages from pipes • When measured at the inlet of the boom • Visible recirculation shall be achieved or hoses when tested up to the maxi- sections the pressure shall not vary by when operating normally with the tank mum working pressure. Verify by: In- more than 10% when the sections are half filled. Verify by: Inspection spection and function test. closed one by one. Verify by: Function test (ref 5.2.7 EN 13790-1:2003).

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 75 10. Nozzles 2. Power transmission parts and blower: • If there is a non-return valve on the wa- • All nozzles shall be identical (type, size, • Shaft, universal joints and locking sys- ter filling device it shall work reliably. material and origin) all along the boom tems. Verify by: Inspection, Verify by: Inspection and function test, except for special end nozzles. Verify • Guard for soundness and functionality. • If an induction hopper is fitted it shall by: Inspection. Verify by: Inspection, function reliably. Verify by: Function • Anti drip devices and nozzle filters • Restraining device shall work reliably. test, shall also be identical. Verify by: In- Verify by: Inspection and function test. • If a drum cleaner is fitted it shall work spection, reliably. Verify by: Function test. • After turning off the nozzles they shall 3. Blower not drip more than 2 mL in 5 s after • The blower (fan, blades and air deflec- 7. Measuring systems and controls the spray jet has collapsed. Verify by: tors) shall be in good condition and • All devices for measuring, switching Inspection and function test (ref 4.1.5 mounted in a functional manner. Verify on and off and to adjust pressure and EN 12761-2:2002). by: Inspection and function, or flow rate shall work accurately and • All parts shall be free of mechanical reliably and there shall be no leakages. 11. Transverse distribution deformation, wear, tear, corrosion and Switching on and off of nozzles shall be • The transverse distribution within the vibrations. Verify by: Inspection and possible simultaneously. Verify by: In- total overlapped area shall be uniform function, spection and function test (ref. 5.3 ISO thus not exceed a coefficient of variation • The guard shall be present and have 5682-3:1996), of more than 10% when an approved no faults in its mesh. Verify by: Inspec- • All devices for adjusting pressure shall 100 mm patternator (ref ISO 5682.2) is tion. maintain a constant working pressure used (ref 5.2.4 EN 13790-1:2003). Verify with a tolerance of ± 10% at a constant by: Inspection and function test. (Com- 4. Pump rotational speed and reach the same ment: this function test should be op- • Either the pump must be suitable for working pressure after the equipment tional in Australia?) purpose and deliver at least 90% its has been switched on and off again. • The volume of liquid collected in each original flow. Verify by: Inspection Verify by: Inspection and function test, groove on the patternator will not de- and function test (Ref. 5.2.1 EN 1390- • Switching on and off of all nozzles si- viate more than ± 20% (ref 5.2.4 EN 1:2003), multaneously shall be possible. Verify 13790-1:2003). Verify by: Inspection and • Or the pump shall deliver sufficient by: Inspection and function test (ref. 5.3 function test (Comment: a function test flow to attain maximum pressure with ISO 5682-3:1996), should be optional in Australia?) largest nozzles whilst maintaining ade- • The scale of the pressure gauge shall • The flow rate of each nozzle of the same quate agitation (ref. 4.3 EN 1390-2:2003). be clear and suitable for the pressure type used on the boom shall not deviate Verify by: inspection and measurement range used. Verify by: Inspection, by more than 5% from the mean flow (Ref. 5.2.1 EN 1390-2:2003), • The scale on the pressure gauge shall rate of all the nozzles on the boom and • There shall be no visible pulsations be marked at least every 20 kPa for shall not show an increase >10% com- caused by the pump. Verify by: Inspec- working pressures <500 kPa; 100 kPa pared to the mean of the nozzles when tion and function test, for working pressures 500 to 2000 kPa new when tested at 250 kPa. Verify by: • Pump safety valve if fitted shall work and 200 kPa for working pressures over Inspection and function test (ref. 7.1 reliably. Verify by: Inspection and func- 2000 kPa (refs 4.6 EN 907:1997; 5.2.2.1 ISO 5682-1:1996) (Comment: this test tion test, EN 13790-1:2003).Verify by: Inspec- should indicate whether distribution is • There shall be no leaks from pump. tion, sound and could be used rather than Verify by: Inspection. • The minimum diameter of the pressure patternation tests? However as nozzle gauge case shall be 63 mm. Verify by: wear increases CV, nozzles should be 5. Agitation Inspection, changed if flow increases by more than • Visible recirculation shall be achieved • The accuracy of the pressure gauge 10% compared to when new) when operating normally with the tank shall be ± 20 kPa for working pressures • The pressure drop between the measur- half filled. Verify by: Inspection. between 100 to 200 kPa; for pressures ing point for pressure on the sprayer >200 kPa it shall measure with an ac- and the end of each boom section shall 6. Spray liquid tank curacy of ± 10% of the real value. The not exceed 10% of the pressure shown • The tank shall have smooth inner sur- pointer shall remain stable when oper- on the pressure gauge. Verify by: In- faces and shall have no leaks from the ating. Verify by: Inspection and func- spection and function test (ref 5.2.6 EN tank or its cover when closed. Verify by: tion test (Ref. 4.6 EN 907:1996; 5.2.2.1 13790-1:2003) Inspection, EN 1390-2:2003), • There shall be a strainer in good condi- • All other measuring devices, especially tion in the filling hole that conforms to flow meters (used for controlling rate/ C 2. Testing procedure for “Air-assisted length for the tank size. Verify by: In- hectare) shall measure within a maxi- sprayers for bush and tree crops” spection (ref. 4.1.1.2 EN 12761-3:2001), mum error of 5% of the real value. Ver- based on EN 13790-2:2003. • There shall be a grating in the induction ify by: Function test (ref. 5.3 ISO 5682- The following shall be checked by inspec- hopper if fitted. Verify by: Inspection, 3:1996; 5.2.3 EN 13790-2:2003). tion: • Pressure compensation for the tank shall be ensured. Verify by: Inspection, 8. Pipes and hoses 1. Preparation of the sprayer • There shall be a clearly readable liquid • There shall be no leakages from pipes The owner to carefully clean the sprayer level indicator for the tank which is or hoses when tested up to the maxi- inside and out including filters and filter visible from the drivers seat. Verify by: mum working pressure. Verify by: In- inserts. Visible faults to be rectified by the Inspection, spection and function test, owner before the inspection. An initial • It shall be possible to collect the emp- • Hoses shall be fitted so that there will overview assessment should be made to tied spray liquid simply, reliably, with- be no sharp bends and have no visible decide whether to proceed. out tools and without spillage. Verify abrasion. Verify by: Inspection, by: Function test, • Hoses shall not be located in the spray plume. Verify by: Inspection.

76 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 9. Filtering 11. Blower/fan output requirements. Adoption of ‘new’ sprayer • There shall be at least one filter on the • The fan shall rotate at the speed speci- designs and application technologies have pressure side of the pump and if a posi- fied by the manufacturer. Verify by: led to improvements in efficiency but also tive displacement pump is fitted one Function test, complexity. Even so there are some ‘new’ also on the suction side. Verify by: In- • If the fan can be switched off separately technologies which have yet to be used, spection, from the pump the clutch shall work. and which may well be of benefit, but will • The filters shall be in sound condition, Verify by: Function test, add to the complication. It is rationalised and the mesh size appropriate to the • Adjustable air deflectors on the blades that because spraying typically takes up nozzles used. Verify by: Inspection, and outlets shall function properly. less than 10% of the year’s activity for an • If an isolation device is fitted it shall be Verify by: Inspection and function test, operator the majority of applicators are not possible, with the tank filled, to clean • The spray shall not impinge on other in a position to understand all of the inter- the filters without any spray liquid parts of the sprayer so as to cause drip- acting complexities involved. Therefore a leaking out except that which may be ping. Verify by: Inspection and func- change in accountability from the operator present in the filter casing and suction tion test, to the sprayer or pesticide manufacturer lines. Verify by: Inspection, • Air velocity shall be measured with the or ways to reduce the complication must • Filters shall be replaceable. Verify by: fan operating at maximum recommend- to be found. It is suggested that the design Inspection. ed rpm at three points, top middle and of a sprayer that is able to vary flow and bottom, on each side of the air outlet spray quality in real time, to reflect chang- 10. Nozzles to compare output with that claimed. es in adjacent hazard or weather, without • The nozzles shall be suitable to apply Verify by: Inspection and function test. the intervention of the operator to be best the products to be used on the crops to option. The technology exists for this to be sprayed. Verify by: Inspection, 12. Test Facilities and measurements be done. • The nozzles they shall not drip more • Pump capacity measurement should Another area of identified concern is the than 2 mL in 5 s after the spray jet comply with 5.2.1 EN 13790-1:2003; lack of standards governing the manufac- has collapsed. Verify by: Inspection 5.2.1 EN 13790-:2003, ture of sprayers as well as its functionality and function test (ref 4.1.5 EN 12761- • Verification of pressure gauges should when in use. Standards are important in 2:2002), comply with 5.2.2.2 and 5.2.2.1 EN minimising operator and environmental • The nozzle type and size shall be the 13790-1:2003, hazard. This is an area of considerable same on the left and right hand sides, • Flow meters for controlling volume interest in Europe, admittedly driven by except when only one side is used or per hectare rate should shall not give the purchasers of food and consumers of where different nozzles are used to an error over 1.5% (ref 5.2.3 EN 13790- water. It is therefore surmised that if food compensate for asymmetrical blower 1:2003), is grown in Australia with sprayers that capacity. Verify by: Inspection, • Transverse uniformity if to be measured do not conform to standards similar to • It shall be possible to switch off each should use a patternator that conforms those in Europe this may well be used as a nozzle separately. This would apply to 5.2.4 EN 13790-1:2003, reason to limit their importation. Further also to multi head nozzles. Verify by: • Patternators should conform to 4.10.1 if the standards for sprayers were imple- Inspection and function test, EN 13790:2003, mented it could be argued that food pur- • It shall be possible to adjust the position • The measuring error for nozzle flow chasers in Australia should not be satisfied of the nozzles in a reproducible man- rate shall not exceed 2.5% (ref 5.2.5 EN with product from other countries unless ner. Verify by: Inspection and function 13790-1:2003), sprayed with sprayers governed by simi- test. • Measurement of flow rate of nozzles lar standards. It is recognised that some fitted on the boom shall be made in sprayer manufacturers comply with ISO 11. Distribution and nozzle output accordance with clause 8 ISO 5682- 9002 which guarantees quality control of • Each nozzle shall generate a uniform 2:1997, components during the manufacture, de- shape and a spray of similar droplet • Measurement of nozzle flow can also livery and aftercare of a sprayer but it does size range. Verify by: Inspection and be made removed from the boom on not address the issue of operator or envi- function, attests bench, ronmental safety. The Europeans have de- • test using blower off for hydraulic noz- • Measurement of pressure drop shall be veloped and implemented standards that zles and blower on for air shear nozzles. made using a standard test gauge, address their concerns about environmen- Verify by: Inspection and function, • Measurement of pressure variation tal and user risk. AS/ANZ 2153.6:1996. • The flow rate of each nozzle of the same when sections are closed should be Equipment for crop protection. has been type used shall not deviate by more done in accordance with the procedure published as a standard for manufacture than 15% from the nominal output nor in 5.2.7 EN 13790-1:2003 or 5.2.5 EN of sprayers but appears not to have been show an increase >10% compared to 13790-2:2003. implemented. The suggested standards the mean from all of the nozzles and herein aim to update the latter as well as the difference between the left and 13. Other test facilities required: Tachom- promote a testing procedure for sprayers right hand sides shall be a maximum eter (P.T.O.), measuring tape, stop watch, in use that should be suitable for Australia of 10%. Verify by: Inspection and func- measuring cylinder 2 litre with 20 mL divi- and yet comply with EU requirements. tion test (ref. 7.1 ISO 5682-1:1996; 5.2.5 sions or a flow meter, air pressure gauge The main beneficiaries of the suggested EN 13790-2:2003), for pulsation damper on pump. pro-active strategy will be the produce • The pressure drop between the measur- buyers, consumers and public. ing point for pressure on the sprayer Conclusions and the end of each boom section shall In most developed nations senior admin- References not exceed 15% of the pressure shown istrators continue to accept the assump- Anon. (1995). FOCUS modelling work- on the pressure gauge. Verify by: In- tion that pesticides are a threat to human group leaching models and EU registra- spection and function test (ref 5.2.5 EN health. These concerns are reflected as tion guidance document 4952/VI/95, 13790-2:2003). direct government intervention, imposi- Commission of the European Commu- tion of stricter registration and application nities, Directorate-General for Agricul- ture VI B II-1, Brussels, 123 pp.

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 77 Anon. (1997). FOCUS modelling work- characteristics of a double chamber Van De Zande, J.M., Michielsen, J.M.G.P., group surface water models and EU twin fluid nozzle.In Aspects of Applied Stallinga, H., Meier, R. and Schiepers, registration of plant protection prod- Biology 71; International advances in A.M. (2004). Effect of sprayer boom ucts. Guidance document 6476/VI/96, pesticide application 2004; Pub. Assoc. movement on spray deposition and bi- Commission of the European Commu- Applied Biologists, 537-42. ological efficacy. In Aspects of Applied nities, Directorate-General for Agricul- Cupery, W.E. (1987). Application accuracy. Biology 71; International advances in ture VI B II-1, Brussels, 217 pp. In Methods of applying herbicides, eds pesticide application 2004; Pub. Assoc. Anon. (2001). Local environment risk as- C.G. McWhorter and M.R. Gebhardt, Applied Biologists, 91-98. sessment for pesticides (LERAP), hori- pp. 63-83 (Champaign: Weed Science Wolf, T.M. (2002). Optimising herbicide zontal boom sprayers. 8 pp., DEFRA Society of America, Ill.). performance-biological consequences Publications, ADMAIL 6000, London. Giles, D.K., Slaughter, D.C. and Upad- of using-low drift nozzles. In Aspects Anon. (2002). Local environment risk as- hyaya, S.K. (2002). Biological target of Applied Biology 66; International sessment for pesticides (LERAP), 8 pp., sensing and sprayer control. In Aspects advances in pesticide application 2002; Broadcast Air-Assisted Sprayers.12 pp., of Applied Biology 66; International Pub. Assoc. Applied Biologists, 99-106. DEFRA Publications, ADMAIL 6000, advances in pesticide application 2002; Wolf, T.M. and Caldwell, T.M. (2002). London. Pub. Assoc. Applied Biologists, 129-38. Evaluation of double spray nozzle de- Balsari, P. (2004). A new international Giles, D.K., Anderson, P.G. and Nilars, M. posits on vertical targets. In Aspects of standard proposal for assessing the ef- (2002). Flow control and spray cloud Applied Biology 66; International ad- ficiency of sprayer hoppers. In Aspects dynamics from hydraulic nozzles. vances in pesticide application 2002; of Applied Biology 71; International Trans. ASAE 45 (3) 539-46. Pub. Assoc. Applied Biologists. advances in pesticide application 2004; Giles, D.K., Slaughter, D.C., Downey, D., Womac, A.R. and Bui, Q.D. (2002). Design Pub. Assoc. Applied Biologists, 1-7. Brevis-Acuna, J.C. and Lanini, W.T. and tests of a variable-flow fan nozzle. Balsari, P., Marucco, P., Tamognone, M., (2004). Application design for machine Trans. ASAE. 45 (2) 287-95. Ganzelmeier, H. and Wehmann, H.J. vision guided selective spraying of (2002). Cleaning of sprayers: New weeds in high value crops. In Aspects European test standard proposal and of Applied Biology 71; International first test results In Aspects of Applied advances in pesticide application 2004; Biology 66; International advances in Pub. Assoc. Applied Biologists, 75-82. pesticide application 2002; Pub. Assoc. Hall, F.R., Downwer, R.A., Wolf, T.M. Applied Biologists, 9-16. and Chapple, A.C. (1996). The ‘Double Basford, W.D., Rose, S.C. and Carter, Nozzle’ – A new way of reducing drift A.D. (2004). On-farm bioremediation and improving dose transfer? Pesticide (biobed) systems to limit point source Formulations and Application Systems: pesticide pollution from sprayer mix- 16th Volume, ASTM STP 1312, eds Hop- ing and washdown areas. In Aspects kinson, Colins and Goss. American So- of Applied Biology 71; International ciety for Testing Materials. advances in pesticide application 2004; Herbst, A. and Ganzelmeier, H. (2002). In- Pub. Assoc. Applied Biologists, 27-34. ternational standards and their impact Braekman, P and Sonck, B. (2004). Accredi- on pesticide application. In Aspects of tation according to EN45004 as a guar- Applied Biology 66; International ad- antee for a correct, reliable and objec- vances in pesticide application 2002; tive mandatory inspection of sprayers Pub. Assoc. Applied Biologists 1-8. in Flanders, Belgium. In Aspects of Ap- Holst, C.D., Neilsen, C. and Andersen, P.G. plied Biology 71; International advanc- (2002). Developments with the internal es in pesticide application 2004; Pub. and external cleaning of sprayers in the Assoc. Applied Biologists, 27-34. field use.In Aspects of Applied Biology Bruhn, C.M. (1999). Public communication 66; International advances in pesticide on the food chain, the foundation of glo- application 2002; Pub. Assoc. Applied bal progress. Proc. The 1999 Brighton Biologists, 395-400. Conference – Weeds Vol. 1, 3-12. Manktelow, D.W., Gurnsey, S.J. and Mac- Christensen, S., Walter, A.M. and Heisel, Gregor, A.M. (2004). Deposit variability T. (1999). The patch treatment of weeds. and prediction in fruit crops: What use The 1999 Brighton Conference Weeds, are label rates anyway? In Aspects of Vol. 2, 591-600. Applied Biology 71; International ad- Combellack, J.H., Illingworth, J and Miller, vances in pesticide application 2004; P (2004). SST 0107/03 A wetting agent Pub. Assoc. Applied Biologists, 91-98. that unexpectedly reduces drift. Proc. Maybank, J., Yoshida, K. and Grover, R. 7th International Symposium Adju- (1974). Droplet size spectra, drift po- vants for Agrochemicals Cape Town tential and ground deposition pattern 2004, pp. 99-104. of herbicide sprays. Canadian Journal of Combellack, J.H., Miller, P.C.H., Tuck, Plant Science 54, 541-6. C.R. and Christian, C.B. (2002) Some Nugent, T. (2001). ‘Spraying solutions’, performance characteristics of a novel (Kondinon Group, WA). twin fluid nozzle.In Aspects of Applied Ramwell, C.T. and Johnson, P.D. (2002). Biology 66; International advances in Pesticide residues on agricultural pesticide application 2002; Pub. Assoc. sprayers. In Aspects of Applied Biology Applied Biologists, 237-244. 66; International advances in pesticide Combellack, J.H., Tuck, C.R., Miller, P.C.H. application 2002; Pub. Assoc. Applied and Christian, C.B. (2004). Performance Biologists, 387-94.

78 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 SESSION 7 Successful monitoring (concurrent)

and combinations of these (e.g. Smyth and Sheppard 2002). Weed biological control impact assessment in Each methodology has certain advantages and disadvantages. For example Victoria: notes on current activities during the interval between before and after biological control, effects of other Tom Morley, Department of Primary Industries, PO Box 48, Frankston, factors may accrue. These effects may be Victoria 3199 overlooked or difficult or impossible to resolve from the biological control effects. On the other hand, pesticidal exclusion methods enable studies in which it is possible and practical to compare indicators Summary Notes are presented on weed The impact of biological control on of fitness of weed populations with and biological control impact assessment ac- weed populations can be evaluated in a without biological control agents while tivities currently in progress in Victoria. variety of ways. These include comparing adequately controlling extraneous vari- weed infestations before and after biologi- ables that in other methodologies may Introduction cal control, contemporaneous compari- occur uncontrollably in association with Biological control impact assessment is a sons of weed infestations at sites with and temporal or spatial separation of treat- necessary component of weed biological sites without biological control agents, as- ment and control observations. control programs (Delfosse 2004, Roush sessments of correlations between agent There are several weeds in Victoria for 2003). Such activities help to determine numbers and parameters indicative of which studies to investigate the impacts weed biological control success or failure, weed population dynamics (e.g. Swirepik of biological control are in progress. These value of investments to end users, fund- and Smyth 2003, Smyth et al. 2004), experi- notes briefly outline some of these stud- ing agencies and other stakeholders, can be ments to manipulate biological control ies and give preliminary assessments of used to persuade funding agencies to make agent attack levels by physical exclusion biological control impacts based on obser- further investments and help to improve or containment or pesticidal exclusion vations and interpretations of researchers the science of weed biological control. methods (e.g. Adair and Holtkamp 1999) involved.

Bridal creeper Asparagus asparagoides L. Site/s: One site at Warrandyte State Park and one within the Point Nepean National Park at Rye. The trial is part of a national project, with sites also set up in SA, WA and NSW. Situation: Bushland. Agent/s: Bridal creeper rust Puccinia myrsiphylli. Basis of assessment method: Comparisons before and after colonisation by rust. Indicators of impacts: Bridal creeper biomass, fruiting, height of growth and ground cover, vegetation composition, photo point. DPI1 project staff: Greg Lefoe and Raelene Kwong, Sarah Holland Clift2. Collaborators: CSIRO Entomology. Biological control impacts: • The rust is causing significant reductions in the bridal creeper above ground biomass and fruit production. • At Warrandyte, the biomass was reduced by an average of 76% and seed production by 94% over a three year period (Kwong and Holland Clift 2004).

Site/s: Basic monitoring at many sites across Victoria. Situation: Bushland, roadsides, citrus orchards, shelterbelts. Agent/s: Bridal creeper rust P. myrsiphylli and/or bridal creeper leaf hopper Zygina sp. Basis of assessment method: Comparisons before and after colonisation by rust and or leaf hopper. Indicators of impacts: Photo point, estimation of damage and defoliation. DPI Project Staff: Greg Lefoe and Sarah Holland Clift. Collaborators: Community stakeholders. Biological control impacts: • At high population levels, the leaf hoppers can cause severe defoliation and reduce fruit and seed production (Batchelor and Woodburn 2002, Holland Clift and Kwong 2004).

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 79 Spear thistle, Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten. Site/s: Marysville, North East Victoria; Wilkin, and Strathdownie, South West Victoria. Agent/s: Spear thistle gall fly, Urophora stylata (Fabricius). Basis of assessment method: Comparison of attacked and unattacked plants. Indicators of impacts: Numbers of capitula attacked, reduction in seed production. DPI Project Staff:3 Jean Louis Sagliocco and Tom Morley. Collaborators: CSIRO Entomology. Biological control impacts: • Gall flies reduced seed production by up to 46% at Marysville in 2002, but this level is not sufficient to affect thistle populations (Sagliocco and Hinksman 2002). • Attack rates of capitula by the fly fluctuate widely from year to year.

English broom, Cytisus scoparius Site/s: Basic monitoring at many sites. Agent/s: Twig miner, Leucoptera spartifoliella (Hubner). Basis of assessment method: ‘Before and after’ agent colonisation comparisons. Indicators of impacts: Photo points, plant biomass. DPI Project Staff: Jean Louis Sagliocco. Collaborators: CSIRO Entomology, Landcare research New Zealand. Biological control impacts: • Impact trials to commence in 2005.

Paterson’s curse Echium plantagineum L. Site/s: Balmattum Hills, North East Victoria. Situation: Pasture grazed by sheep for wool and fat lamb production. Agent/s: Paterson’s curse crown weevil Mogulones larvatus (Schultz). Paterson’s curse flea beetle Longitarsus echii (Koch). Basis of assessment method: Insecticidal exclusion. Indicators of impacts: Pasture composition, Paterson’s curse plant density, biomass and seed bank. DPI project staff: Tom Morley and Julio Bonilla. Biological control impacts: • Both agents improve pasture composition by suppressing Paterson’s curse growth such that Paterson’s curse plant density and biomass are reduced and clover (Trifolium spp.) and grass proportions of the pasture are increased. • Paterson’s curse soil seed bank has declined since 1997 in associated with colonisation and population increases of biological control agents. • The crown weevil’s ability to cause these changes diminishes as grazing intensity increases.

Site/s: Six sites in North East Victoria, one in South West Victoria. Agent/s: Paterson’s curse crown weevil Mogulones larvatus (Schultz) and or Paterson’s curse flea beetle Longitarsus echii (Koch). Basis of assessment method: i) Correlation of Paterson’s curse plant density and agent prevalence. ii) ‘Before and after’ agent colonisation comparisons. Indicators of impacts: i) Paterson’s curse plant density and agent prevalence. ii) Soil seed bank. DPI Project Staff: Kerry Roberts. Collaborators: CSIRO Entomology, Department of Primary Industries NSW, South Australian Research and Development Institute and the Department of Agriculture Western Australia. Biological control impacts: • Based on assessments of sites across South Eastern Australia increases in the prevalence of the crown weevil over the last decade are positively correlated with an increase in Paterson’s curse plant mortality (Swirepik and Smyth 2003). • Flea beetle appears to be responsible for substantial decreases in Paterson’s curse plant density.

Horehound Marrubium vulgare L. Site/s: Wyperfeld National Park, North West Victoria. Agent/s: Horehound clearwing moth Chamaesphecia mysiniformis Boisduval. Basis of assessment method: Detailed studies on plant and insect densities. Indicators of impacts: Weed density, insect dispersal.

80 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 DPI Project Staff: Jean Louis Sagliocco and John Weiss. Biological control impacts: • Steady increase of insect frequency, documented insect dispersal, documented reduction in weed density and weed population age structure (Sagliocco and Weiss 2004).

Blackberry, weedy Rubus L. spp. Site/s: Central Gippsland; Murrindindi; Tallangatta. Situation: Large infestations of R. anglocandicans A. Newton and R. leucostachys in pasture. Agent/s: Blackberry rust Phragmidium violaceum (C.F. Shcultz)Wint. Basis of assessment method: Fungicidal exclusion. Indicators of impacts: Foliage cover, cane cover, luxuriance (using point quadrats), cane length, cane mass, crown mass, cover and luxuriance of associated vegetation. DPI Project Staff: Robin Adair, Franz Mahr, Aline Bruzzese, Julio Bonilla. Biological control impacts: • Significant differences in blackberry growth detected after one season. • Foliage cover, stem cover, cane mass and luxuriance are reduced when blackberry rust is present at high levels on host plants, although not all indicators were significant at all sites. • Impact effects are apparent across a climatic gradient in Victoria. • Rust intensity can vary from season to season. • The project will monitor rust impact over at least 3 seasons.

Ragwort, Senecio jacobaea L. Site/s: Foster North, South Gippsland. Situation: Verges, vehicular track, Pinus radiata D.Don plantation, altitude 265 m. Agent/s: Ragwort plume moth Platyptilia isodactyla (Zeller). Basis of assessment method: Insecticidal exclusion. Indicators of impacts: Seed production inference, plant size, plant survival, plant density. DPI project staff: Tom Morley and Julio Bonilla. Biological control impacts: • Ragwort seed production, plant size and survival appear to be being suppressed by P. isodactyla in this study. • No difference in ragwort plant density between P. isodactyla-infested and insecticidally treated plots has been observed.

Site/s: Mt Tassie, South Gippsland. Situation: Undisturbed open space between silviculture plots, altitude 700 m. Agent/s: Ragwort crown boring moth Cochylis atricapitana (Stephens). Ragwort flea beetle Longitarsus flavicornis (Stephens). Basis of assessment method: Insecticidal exclusion. Indicators of impacts: Seed production inference, plant size, plant survival. DPI project staff: Tom Morley and Julio Bonilla. Biological control impacts: • Ragwort seed production, plant size and survival appear to be being suppressed by the combined impact of the crown boring moth and flea beetle in this study.

Site/s: Callignee South, South Gippsland. Situation: Pasture grazed by cattle for beef production, altitude 500 m. Agent/s: Ragwort crown boring moth Cochylis atricapitana (Stephens). Basis of assessment method: Insecticidal exclusion. Indicators of impacts: Pasture composition, seed production inference. DPI project staff: Tom Morley and Julio Bonilla. Biological control impacts: • It has not yet been possible to detect any effect of the crown boring moth on ragwort plant density in this study. • It is not certain whether this is due to absence of significant impact by the moth in this situation or the fact that the insecticidal exclusion method is only partially effective.

Gorse, Ulex europaeus L. Site/s: Basic monitoring at many sites across Victoria.

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 81 Agent/s: Gorse spider mite Tetranychus lintearius Dufour, Gorse thrips Sericothrips staphylinus Haliday. Basis of assessment method: ‘Before and after’ agent colonisation comparisons. Indicators of impacts: Gorse biomass seed production. DPI Project Staff: Kylie MacGregor, Raelene Kwong. Collaborators: Tasmanian Institute for Agricultural Research. Biological control impacts: • Tasmanian studies have found that gorse spider mite can reduce foliage dry weight of infested branches by 37% over a 2.5 year period (Jamie Davies unpublished). • An integrated control experiment in Tasmania indicated that a combination of gorse thrips, ryegrass competition and simulated grazing resulted in a gorse seedling mortality of 93% (Ireson et al. in press). • No comparable data are available for Victoria.

Docks (Rumex L. spp.), spear thistle and (Tasmanian Weeds Society, Devonport, (2004). The population and impact gorse are all weeds in Victoria on which Tasmania). of Longitarsus echii Kock (Coleoptera: biological control agents are established Kwong, R.M., and Holland Clift, S. (2004). Chrysomelidae) a root feeding beetle but about which knowledge of biological Biological control of bridal creeper, As- on Echium plantagineum L. under field control impacts is insufficient to reliably paragus asparagoides (L.) W.Wight, in grazing conditions. Proceedings of the judge if any benefits are accruing (e.g. citrus orchards. Proceedings of the 14th 14th Australian Weeds Conference, eds Morley et al. 2004). Stakeholders in the Australian Weeds Conference, eds B.M B.M. Sindel and S.B. Johnson, pp. 349- management of weeds such as these and Sindel and S.B. Johnson, pp. 329-332. 52. (Weeds Society of New South Wales, the Victorian community at large could (Weed Society of New South Wales, Sydney). benefit from further investment in study Sydney). Swirepik, A.E. and Smyth, M.J. (2003) and publication of the biological control Morley, T.B., Faulkner, S. and Faithfull, I.G. Evaluating biological control at the re- impacts on them. (2004). Establishment and dispersal of gional scale. In Improving the selection. dock moth Pyropteron doryliformis (Och- testing and evaluation of weed biologi- Acknowledgements senheimer) (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) in cal control agents, eds H. Spafford Jacob Thanks to Raelene Kwong, Jean-Louis Victoria. Proceedings of the 14th Aus- and D.T. Briese, pp. 61-7. (CRC for Aus- Sagliocco and Robin Adair for helping to tralian Weeds Conference, eds B.M. Sin- tralian Weed Management, Adelaide, compile these notes. del and S.B. Johnson, pp. 381-4. (Weed Australia). Society of New South Wales, Sydney). References Roush, R. ( 2003). Putting more science into Footnotes Adair, R.J. and Holtkamp, R.H. (1999). the art of biological control. In Improv- 1 Department of Primary Industries, Vic- Development of a pesticide exclusion ing the selection, testing and evaluation toria. technique for assessing the impact of of weed biological control agents, eds 2 Not currently involved in bridal creep- biological control agents for Chrysanthe- H. Spafford Jacob and T.D. Briese, pp. er research. moides monilifera. Biocontrol Science and v-vi. (CRC for Australian Weed Man- 3 No Victorian researcher are currently Technology 9, 383-90. agement, Adelaide). involved in this project. Batchelor, K.L. and Woodburn, T.L. (2002). Sagliocco, J.-L., Hinksman, M., Kwong, Population development and impact of R.M. and Bruzzese, A. (2002). Impact as- the bridal creeper leafhopper Zygina sp. sessment study of the gall fly, Urophora in Western Australia. Proceedings of stylata on spear thistle, Cirsium vulgare, the 13th Australian Weeds Conference, in Victoria 2001–2002. DPI Frankston eds H. Spafford Jacob, J. Dodd and J.H. Annual Report to Meat and Livestock Moore, pp.381-384. (Plant Protection Australia and Australian Wool Innova- Society of Western Australia, Perth). tion Pty Ltd. Delfosse, E.S. (2004). Introduction. In Bio- Sagliocco, J.-L., Weiss, J. (2004). Importa- logical control of invasive plants in the tion, establishment and preliminary United States’, eds Eric M. Coombs, impact assessment of Chamaesphecia Janet K. Clark, Gary L. Piper and Al- mysiniformis (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) for fred F. Cofrancesco Jr. pp. 1-11. (Oregon the biological control of horehound in State University Press. Corvalis). Australia. Proceedings of the 14th Aus- Holland Clift, S. and Kwong, R.M. (2004). tralian Weeds Conference, eds B.M. Community involvement in biological Sindel and S.B. Johnson, pp. 380-390. control: towards the development of an (Weed Society of New South Wales, improved evaluation model. Proceed- Sydney). ings of the 14th Australian Weeds Con- Smyth, M. and Sheppard, A. (2002). Lon- ference, eds B.M Sindel and S.B. John- gitarsus echii and its impact on Echium son, pp. 631-5. (Weed Society of New plantagineum (Paterson’s curse): the South Wales, Sydney). insect for the Mediterranean rainfall Ireson, J.E., Davies, J.T., Kwong, R.M., range of the weed? Proceedings of the Holloway, R.J. and Chatterton, W.S. 13th Australian Weeds Conference, eds (in press). Biological control of gorse, H. Spafford Jacob, J. Dodd and J.H. Ulex europaeus L. in Australia: Where Moore, pp. 422-5. (Plant Protection So- to next? Proceedings of the Tasmani- ciety of Western Australia, Perth). an Weed Science Society Conference, Smyth M., Sheppard, A. and Huwer R.

82 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 been invaded (Figure 1) (ARMCANZ et al. 2001). Willows may therefore spread Taking the wind out of willows: a national focus to far more widely, posing a serious threat to willow management in Australia the riparian interface throughout southern Australia. Willows can either spread sexu- ally (via seed) or vegetatively (via twigs or Sarah Holland Clift, Department of Primary Industries – Frankston, branches) or by both of these means. The PO Box 48, Frankston, Victoria 3199 seeds germinate on bare, wet sediments, Email: Sarah [email protected] while branches, attached or detached, root mainly on wet ground or in shallow water. To help prevent the further spread of Summary Willows are among Australia’s • stop further spread of willows willows, the Australian Quarantine and most serious riparian and wetland weeds • manage the existing areas of willows Inspection Service (AQIS) has restricted and are listed as one of twenty Weeds of • gain community support in managing additional importation into Australia. Wil- National Significance (WoNS). Victoria has the willow problem lows (except Salix babylonica, S. × reichardtii the country’s largest number of natural- Some of the major challenges to achieving and S. × calodendron) are also not legally ised taxa and the most extensive invasions. these three goals include preventing fur- allowed to be sold, propagated or know- The National Willows Program is working ther trade and planting; identifying and ingly distributed in any State or Territory to coordinate willow management across preventing the spread of key taxa; effective except Victoria and the Northern Territory. Australia by facilitating progress against on-ground management including map- In Victoria, the legislative status of wil- the National Willows Strategic Plan. The ping, control, follow up and replacement lows is currently being assessed. major goals of this Plan are to halt the with indigenous vegetation; the develop- Although willows are listed collectively spread of willows, effectively manage cur- ment and integration of biological control as ‘one’ of the 20 WoNS, there are at least rent infestations and increase community methods; and regulation of industries and 32 known naturalised willow taxa and 45 support for management. This paper out- people utilising willow taxa (e.g. the nurs- taxa have been sold through the nursery lines some of the major challenges facing ery and cricket bat industries). trade in Australia. At least 22 of these taxa willow managers in Australia and how a This paper explores these challenges are present within Victoria and 33 avail- national program can contribute to meet- and how a national program can contrib- able through Victorian nurseries (ARM- ing these challenges. It also provides some ute to meeting such challenges. It also pro- CANZ et al. 2001). case studies highlighting the significance vides some case studies highlighting the The continued sale and planting of wil- of the problem and the benefits of success- national significance of the problem and lows poses a major challenge to our abil- ful management. the benefits of successful management. ity to halt their spread and thus protect Keywords Willows, Salix, impacts, our waterways from further impacts. Even integrated weed management, Weeds of Stopping the spread of willows within states where the sale of most wil- National Significance (WoNS) Although willows already infest thou- lows is illegal, prohibited taxa continue sands of kilometres of watercourses to be sold, sometimes under the label of a Introduction throughout south-eastern Australia, only permitted taxon (e.g. Salix matsudana ‘tor- Originally from Europe, Asia and North a fraction of their potential habitat has tuosa’ sold as Salix babylonica in Tasmania, and South America, willows were introduced to Australia for a range of purposes, including basket making, cricket bat production, stream stabilisation, ornaments and shelter. Planting began soon after European settlement and was most extensive from the 1950s to 1970s to help control stream and gully erosion and for use as windbreaks. During this time, willows became a familiar icon of the Australian landscape. Willows (Salix spp.) are now among the most serious riparian and wetland weeds in temperate Australia. In 1999, willows (except S. babylonica, S. × calodendron and S. × reichardtii) were listed as one of Aus- tralia’s 20 Weeds of National Significance (WoNS), due to their highly invasive nature and impacts on stream and wetland hydrology and biodiversity. The WoNS program provides a focus on weeds for which a nationally coordinated action program would bring greatest benefits. To help guide national coordination, the Na- tional Willows Strategic Plan (2001) (pdf version available on www.weeds.org) was published in 2001, with the vision to ‘stop willows destroying our waterways and wetlands’. The Plan aims to deliver three Figure 1. Present (dark areas) and potential distribution (grey areas) of primary outcomes: willows in Australia (ARMCANZ et al. 2001)

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 83 Andrew Crane personal communication). it had been originally planted there 30 and 50 km of mature willows controlled In addition, willows have a remarkable years earlier. In addition, Cremer (2003) (Mandar Services Pty Ltd. 2005). Contin- ability to form hybrids, making accurate observed that S. cinerea (grey sallow or ued follow up over a number of years is identification difficult (Cremer 1995). Al- wild pussy willow) seed can travel by air now required to ensure that all plants are most all willow taxa are capable of hybrid- or water for tens of kilometres. removed. ising with one or more other taxa (mostly Such mobility provides these two seed- Such case studies demonstrate the clear within the same subgenus) if they flower ing willows with the ability to move into need for accurate identification and con- simultaneously and fertile male and fe- streams and wetlands and other unex- trol of the most invasive taxa, including male plants grow near enough for polli- pected environments. S. cinerea has proven early detection of and response to the es- nation to occur (Cremer 2001). While some to be extremely adaptable, invading just tablishment of seedlings and new stems. resulting hybrids may not flourish, some about any boggy and intermittently moist have proved to be more invasive and there sites, anywhere from sea level to above Manage the existing areas is potential for strains to develop that are the alpine tree line (Cremer 2003). For ex- Effective and strategic management of even better adapted to local conditions ample, the first known population of S. willows is not a simple issue and needs to within Australia (Cremer 2001). Even the cinerea seedlings to occur in Tasmania was occur over many years as part of a broader iconic weeping willow (Salix babylonica), recently discovered along a road cutting program of riparian management and re- one of three taxa excluded from the WoNS near Hobart (Matthew Baker personal habilitation (ARMCANZ et al. 2001). Total listing, has the potential to hybridise with communication). Areas where vegetative eradication of willows is clearly not feasi- other willow taxa (e.g. S. matsudana x× alba willows are being removed could also eas- ble, due to the extent and number of infes- and S. fragilis), with some of the resulting ily be colonised by seeding willows if not tations (Groves and Panetta 2002). There hybrids apparently more invasive than adequately managed and rehabilitated. is therefore a need to establish clearly de- their parents (Cremer 2001). Infestations of seeding willows therefore fined priorities for control of populations An interesting example of willow hy- urgently need to be identified and incor- that focus on geographic areas and willow bridisation is the Kilmarnock Willow, porated into a national control strategy. taxa. However, further information is still which comprises a weeping pussy willow The spread of S. cinerea can be slow, as required on the extent, rate and pattern scion grafted onto an upright pussy wil- specific conditions are required for suc- of spread and impacts of certain willows low rootstock. One such plant recently dis- cessful seed germination. However, while (e.g. seeding willows), in order to best covered in Tasmania comprised a female spread may appear restricted for many prioritise which areas and taxa to target. weeping scion grafted onto an upright years, a catastrophic explosion may oc- Gaining such information is hindered by male plant (Baker and Conod 2003). The cur at any time given the right conditions. difficulty in identifying different species, upright male section had begun to sucker Sites most likely to be invaded by S. cinerea varieties and hybrids and by the inaccessi- and catkin formation occurred simultane- are areas where bare, wet ground exists bility of some areas due to difficult terrain ously on both sections of the plant. Seed for a month following seed shed (around or ownership consideration. Willow man- collected from this plant was sown and October/November) (Cremer 2001). Such agement also needs to be approached with successfully germinated (Baker and Con- conditions conducive to a population ex- the recognition of limited resources and od 2003). Seed from this plant may be the plosion of S. cinerea occurred at Winge- within the constraints of funding bodies source of the recently discovered northern carribee Swamp in southern New South and funding periods. Identification and infestation of wild pussy willows in Tas- Wales in August 1998 (Cremer 2001). strategic planning, mapping and control mania, found just 20 km to the west, but Heavy rains resulted in canyons of ex- of the most invasive willows are therefore further research is needed to confirm this posed bare wet peat which were invaded the highest priorities in the national plan (Baker and Conod 2003). A similar or iden- by 100 000 S. cinerea seedlings in Novem- (ARMCANZ et al. 2001). tical product is for sale at some nurseries ber 1998 and a further 1 000 000 seedlings Numerous willow projects have been in Victoria, traded as Celtic Cascade®, Salix in November 1999. undertaken at local and regional scales caprea ‘Pendula’, or Kilmarnock Willow. At Another more recent example has oc- across Victoria and Australia. While local one nursery it is advertised as ‘the plant curred in Victoria’s Alpine National Park. management efforts are important, broad- you just can’t kill’. Major bushfires in early 2003 resulted in ening the area of control to encompass ad- The buying and planting of all wil- significant stands of native vegetation be- joining areas and catchments that are con- lows, including the three taxa not listed as ing burnt. Subsequently, S. cinerea seedlings tributing propagation material would be WoNS, should always be approached with readily established in newly exposed moss of most benefit. In this case, partnerships caution, given the ease with which they beds. These beds form the initial collection between affected land managers, such as can hybridise and the potential for other- and filtering point of a substantial part of that described for the Alpine National wise less invasive taxa to become more ag- Victoria’s water catchment. Invasion of Park project, is the only way to achieve gressive and unpredictable once hybridi- S. cinerea therefore not only threatens the the desired outcome. Otherwise, there is a sation has occurred. It is therefore critical value of the National Park but threatens high chance of reinvasion by willows, and to ensure that compatible male and female water quality throughout the catchment. control efforts and funding may therefore plants are kept well away from each other It has been suggested that this may neces- be wasted. In addition, a staged control ef- to prevent the formation of viable seed. sitate increased government spending on fort over many years is required, to allow The ability of willows to spread by seed water quality infrastructure improvement the river to gradually adjust to the remov- highlights the national significance of the to compensate for the loss of these alpine al of willows. Willow control funds need willow problem. Whereas vegetatively re- moss beds (Parke 2005). A rapid response to be managed to ensure monitoring and producing willows are generally confined program was established to control new follow-up control occurs in treated areas to streams and are dispersed downstream, seedlings and their parent plants through in subsequent years, even if this means re- the great mobility of some seeding wil- partnership between Parks Victoria, North moving fewer willows in the short term. lows requires that effective control be co- East Catchment Management Authority, Mechanical and chemical control meth- ordinated across regions and states. For Mt Hotham and Falls Creek Alpine Resort ods for willows have been developed over example, Cremer (2003) observed that the Management Boards, Southern Hydro Pty many years. There are now a number of seed of S. nigra (black willow) had spread Ltd. and 4WD Victoria. In one year of con- methods to choose from, with the best op- up to 50–100 km in every direction from a trol effort so far, it is estimated that more tion dependent on the location, taxa and site near Tumut in New South Wales since than 50 000 seedlings have been removed extent of the willow infestation. Given the

84 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 complex nature of rivers and the need to Gain community support Several angling groups have become understand geomorphological, hydrologi- Engendering support for the willow involved with removal programs in order cal and ecological concepts when removing problem poses a major challenge to wil- to create more favourable habitats for fish. willows, willow control along rivers gener- low management in Australia due to the For example, $165 000 in funds collected ally requires expert advice from a number utilitarian and cultural values of willows. from angling licences in Victoria is being of specialists. Removal of mature willows However, in order to prevent further dedicated to willow removal along the generally also requires the help of an expe- spread and effectively manage current in- banks of the Goulburn River near Thorn- rienced contractor, due to the operational festations of problem willows, community ton in order to improve trout fisheries. The hazards associated with their removal. support is desperately needed. New South Wales Council of Freshwater A national best management and case It is only over the last 20 years or so Anglers has developed a ‘Willow Eradica- studies guide for willows is currently that the problems with willows have been tion Policy’ for use in lobbying landhold- being compiled to assist managers in broadly recognised, and now the same ers, local councils and State government. adopting best practices in different envi- trusts and boards that originally advo- Numerous other groups are also working ronments and situations. It will contain cated their use often conduct extensive towards managing the problem in Aus- detailed information on biology, impacts willow removal operations (ARMCANZ tralia. In Victoria, this includes numer- and identification, options for manage- et al. 2001). Given this relatively dramatic ous Landcare groups, Catchment Man- ment in various situations, relevant case shift in waterway management, it is not agement Authorities, local governments, studies, management protocols, national surprising that people still advocate the State Government departments and local data sheets, mapping guidelines and ad- planting of willows and/or resist their re- landholders. vice for funding applications. The guide moval. After all, why should such a useful Gaining such community support can is expected to be available free of charge and beautiful tree so suddenly become a lead to early identification of potentially in July 2006. target for those wishing to rehabilitate the threatening adult or seedling willows. This The recent arrival of the willow sawfly environment? is critical to our ability to most effectively (Nematus oligospilus), and other potential The reason for such a profound shift in manage willows with the limited resources organisms associated with willows, may perspective has been the mounting evi- available. For example, S. cinerea and other shape future best management practice dence of the impacts that willows cause to seeding willows may be growing in dams, for willows. The willow sawfly was first both aquatic and riparian environments wetlands, drainage lines and any other found in Australia in Canberra in March and their ability to so readily and aggres- place that happens to remain moist for the 2004, and was already present in such high sively colonise new areas. Despite having month following seed shed. Without the densities that, even if desired, eradication been previously planted along waterways support and active participation of land- was not feasible. The sawfly is now well to combat bank instability, willows actu- owners, it is extremely difficult to detect established in the ACT and surrounding ally form multitudes of stems that obstruct such plants out of sight of nearby roads. areas and there have also been reports of and divert floods and subsequently erode A network of people who are able to its presence along the south coast of New riverbanks, particularly along small, nar- identify, look out for and report on new South Wales, the Adelaide Hills of South row rivers (Cremer 1999). Being decidu- outbreaks would be of great benefit to Australia and in Keilor in Victoria (Eligio ous, willows produce dense shade cover our ability to stop the spread of, and most Bruzzese personal communication). during summer, drop all of their leaves effectively manage, current infestations. The arrival of the sawfly has already in autumn and remain bare for the win- General community awareness of willow created some controversy, with specula- ter, compared with native evergreens that taxa has so far focussed on the most wide- tion that it was deliberately introduced. provide a constant, less dense shade cov- spread willows in the context of large- It is not known, however, how this insect er and drop their leaves gradually year scale removal programs. For example, arrived in Australia – it has not been de- round. The dense summer shade cover crack willow (Salix fragilis) is widespread liberately introduced as part of any official of willows combined with their impen- throughout Tasmania and Victoria and is biological control program. The sawfly has etrable root system greatly inhibits both widely recognised as an invasive plant, been present in New Zealand since 1997 terrestrial and aquatic plant growth. In while other taxa are still highly valued. and is now common across the country, contrast to native trees, willows drop all In southern New South Wales, there is having dispersed at a rate of approxi- of their leaves at once in autumn and the greater awareness of the black willow (Sa- mately 300 km per year. In New Zealand, leaves break down more rapidly (Hladyz lix nigra), because a targeted eradication the sawfly appears to be specific to certain 2001). Such extreme variation in leaf cover and awareness campaign has taken place. willow taxa (Charles et al. 1999). and the pulse of nutrients entering the wa- By working together and addressing wil- The potential severity and the dynam- ter can alter the temperature and oxygen lows from a national perspective we can ics of sawfly outbreaks in Australia are content and subsequently cause changes learn from the lessons of different states as yet largely unknown. However, it has to the primary production of algae (Lest- and regions and act on them before they already been observed on several willow er et al. 1994) and to aquatic food webs become a problem. taxa, including S. fragilis, S. matsudana and (Glova and Sagar 1994, Read and Barmuta S. babylonica. By as early as January this 1999). Conclusion year, the sawfly had almost completely de- A common misconception has been Willows pose a significant challenge to the foliated S. alba vitellina and S. fragilis trees that willows provide good faunal habitat. conservation and rehabilitation of many at a site near Canberra Airport, while hav- Research has demonstrated that willows of Australia’s temperate rivers and wet- ing minimal affect on nearby S. babylonica cause significant reductions in terrestrial lands. The number of different taxa and weeping willow (Lynton Bond personal and in-stream insects (Read and Barmuta their ability to rapidly disperse and to hy- communication). Work is currently being 1999, Yeates and Barmuta 1999, Greenwood bridise complicates our ability to manage undertaken nationally to assess the distri- et al. 2004), platypus (Graeme Rooney per- them, as does their utilitarian and cultural bution and status of the sawfly and other sonal communication) and birds (Holland value. To most effectively manage willows organisms associated with willows in Aus- 2002) when compared with native trees across Australia, a national management tralia, with a view to understanding their and shrubs. In addition, Holland (2002) focus is clearly required. For example, the impacts and facilitating the development found that willow-lined reaches did not great mobility of some seeding willows of a broader range of willow management provide much better habitat for terrestrial requires that effective control is coordi- options than is currently available. birds than did cleared reaches. nated across regions and States, as local

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 85 control will otherwise only be temporary. CSIRO Publications. www.ffp.csiro.au/ A national approach will help facilitate in- publicat/articles/willows. formation sharing amongst regions and Cremer, K.W. (2003). Introduced willows States to more effectively manage infesta- can become invasive pests in Australia. tions and prevent spread into new areas. Biodiversity 4 (4), 17-24. For a nationally coordinated effort to be a Glova, G.J. and Sagar, P.M. (1994). Com- success, all landholders, Landcare groups, parison of fish and macroinvertebrate Catchment Management Authorities and standing stock in relation to riparian public land managers need to work to- willows (Salix spp.) in three New Zea- gether to reduce the impacts of willows land streams. New Zealand Journal of Ma- and improve and protect the health of our rine and Freshwater Research 28, 255-66. waterways for the future. Greenwood, H., O’Dowd, D.J. and Lake, P.S. (2004). Willow (Salix × rubens) inva- Acknowledgements sion of the riparian zone: impacts on The National WoNS Coordinator for Wil- terrestrial arthropod abundance and lows is funded by the Department of the diversity. Diversity and Distributions 10, Environment and Heritage and hosted by 485-92. Department of Primary Industries, Victo- Holland (2002). Impacts of willows on ria. I would like to thank Matthew Baker riparian bird assemblages along the and Brooke Ryan for providing case stud- Tarago River, West Gippsland, Victoria. ies, Graeme Rooney and Andrew Crane Honours thesis, Monash University, for providing personal communications Australia. and Ian Faithfull, John Weiss, Bob Wilson Hladyz, S. (2001). Invasion of the riparian and Andrew Crane for their review of this zone by basket willow (Salix × rubens paper. Schrank): impacts on leaf litter decom- position. Honours thesis, Monash Uni- Dedication versity, Australia. Australian willow expert Kurt Cremer re- Lester, P.J., Mitchell, S.F. and Scott, D. cently passed away. Kurt was the original (1994). Effects of riparian willow trees champion of the willow cause, pushing (Salix fragilis) on macroinvertebrate willows into the national spotlight and densities in two small Central Otago, leading the way in willow research in Aus- New Zealand, streams. New Zealand tralia. Anyone who has ever been involved Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research with willows will know Kurt’s name and 28, 267-76. many knew him personally. His dedica- Mandar Services Pty Ltd (2005). Parks tion to willow research and assisting peo- Victoria Bogong Management Unit wil- ple in the management of willows across lows project final report to North East Australia was impressive. Kurt has left a Catchment Management Authority. great legacy, and will be greatly missed. Prepared by Bob Jones, pp. 1-12. Parke, G. (2005). Bogong willows extrac- References tion. Trackwatch. Summer 30th Anniver- Agriculture and Resource Management sary Ball Edition, pp. 5-6 (Four Wheel Council of Australia and New Zealand Drive Victoria). (ARMCANZ), Australian and New Read, M.G. and Barmuta, L.A. (1999). Zealand Environment and Conserva- Comparison of benthic communities tion Council (ANZECC) and Forestry adjacent to riparian native eucalypt and Ministers (FM), (2001). ‘Weeds of Na- introduce willow vegetation. Freshwater tional Significance Willow (Salix taxa, Biology 42, 359-74. excluding S. babylonica, S. × calodendron Yeates, L.V. and Barmuta, L.A. (1999). The and S. × reichardtii) Strategic Plan’ (Na- effects of willow and eucalypt leaves on tional Weeds Strategy Executive Com- feeding preference and growth of some mittee, Launceston). (pdf version at Australian aquatic macroinvertebrates. weeds.org.au). Australian Journal of Ecology 24, 593-8. Baker, M.L. and Conod, N. (2003). Wild pussy willows loose in Tasmania. Tas- weeds 21, 4-6. Charles, J.G, Allan, D.J., Froud, K.J. and Fung, L.E. (1999). A guide to willow sawfly in New Zealand. Horticulture and Food Research Institute of New Zealand. www.hortnet.co.nz/publications/guides/willow_sawfly/wsaw- fly.htm. Cremer, K.W. (1995). Willow identification for river management in Australia. CSIRO Forestry, Technical Paper 3. 22 pp. Cremer, K.W. (2001). ‘Wild pussy willow’ Salix cinerea – priorities for eradication.

86 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 leaflets, kits and equipment, to undertake their respective roles. Nursery Site Coordi- Using community-based networks for the distribution nators (Tier 2) were trained through one- on-one contact with the Project Officer on of biological control agents for Paterson’s curse in how to select suitable nursery sites based Victoria on regional weed management priorities, and how to educate landholders about the role of biocontrol in integrated weed man- Kerry L. Roberts and Raelene M. Kwong, Department of Primary Industries, agement. PO Box 48, Frankston, Victoria 3199 Nursery Site Managers (Tier 3) attended workshops and field days where hands-on training was provided on how to release the agents, look after the nursery sites and monitor agent survival and spread. Summary The biological control of Pa- Materials and methods terson’s curse program in Australia has Production of agents Redistribution pioneered ways to fast track the release Most of the insects used for the initial re- At the heart of the strategy was an annual and spread of biocontrol agents through- leases in Victoria were reared at the insec- series of Redistribution Field Days. These out temperate Australia. By setting up ex- tary facilities at Department of Primary were conducted in spring, at sites where tensive networks involving Landcare and Industries (DPI) – Frankston using meth- the agents were present in such large num- farmer groups, Local Government, Pest ods similar to those described by Swirepik bers that thousands could be collected Plant officers and hundreds of individual et al. (2003). Occasionally, top-up colonies without risk of affecting the viability of landowners, biocontrol agents have been were received from other cooperators if the population. Landholders and other in- released over a much wider area and in a insufficient numbers were reared, and terested parties wishing to make a release shorter amount of time than would have similarly, DPI provided colonies to other would participate in a field day by helping been possible without such involvement. states when necessary. to collect the agents using sweep nets or This paper uses the Victorian program to Between 1995 to 1997 the focus of the beating trays and mouth-aspiration devis- highlight the important role that commu- Victorian program was on the mass rear- es called pooters. The participants would nity-based distribution networks can play ing and release of the crown weevil, Mo- then return to their own properties with in speeding up the success of biological gulones larvatus which proved relatively the insects they collected for release. control. easy to rear and were released in numbers Keywords Biological control, Pater- of 100 adults per site. Monitoring son’s curse, Echium plantagineum, commu- In 1996 two further agents, the taproot Evaluating the progress of biocontrol nity groups. flea beetle, Longitarsus echii and the root agents was conducted at three levels as weevil, M. geographicus were added to the described by Swirepik et al. (2003). Level Introduction release program. The root weevil proved Three monitoring provided information Paterson’s curse has been the subject of a difficult rear in large numbers resulting in on the establishment and spread of agents biological control program since the 1970s, only a few releases being conducted each at all release sites. Nursery Site Manag- during which time a total of six insect spe- year. Releases of the pollen beetle, Meligeth- ers were encouraged to monitor their re- cies have been imported from Europe es planiusculus commenced in 1998. Anoth- lease sites and feed this information back and released across temperate Australia er agent, the stem boring beetle, Phytoecia to the Project Officer. Level Two monitor- (Swirepik et al. 2003). With a suite of bio- coerulescens was also approved for release ing was conducted at sites where agents control agents available, coupled with the in Australia, but proved to be a less dam- had become established and provided enthusiastic demand for biocontrol by aging agent. This insect was only released data on the population densities of the the community, an excellent opportunity at one site and was not incorporated into biocontrol agent and of Paterson’s curse. existed to develop a network of commu- the mass-release program. This information was used to determine nity groups to assist in distributing these when nursery sites were ready for redis- agents as efficiently as possible. Community distribution network tribution. Level One monitoring was initi- In 1995, a national collaborative pro- The formation of the community distri- ated at a long-term study site near Euroa gram was initiated involving research bution network followed the three tiered in north-east Victoria and was designed agencies from New South Wales, the Aus- model as described by Kwong (2003). Tier to determine the impact of the biocontrol tralian Capital Territory, Victoria, South 1 represented the state coordination role, agents on Paterson’s curse populations Australia and Western Australia. which was provided by the Paterson’s (see Morley in this publication). Only Over the past 10 years, this program curse Project Officer. Tier 2, referred to Level Three monitoring was conducted as has proven to be a highly successful model as Nursery Site Coordinators, consisted part of the community network program, in demonstrating effective collaboration of extension staff such as DPI Catchment while Level One and Level Two monitor- between research agencies in the develop- Management Officers and community ing was conducted by DPI weed scientists ment of a national, community-based net- group facilitators. Their role was to plan (Morley 2004). work for the distribution of biological con- and coordinate the implementation of trol agents (Swirepik and Smyth 2002). biocontrol at a regional scale. The Nurs- Results This paper focuses on the Victorian ex- ery Site Managers (Tier 3) represented the Involving Landcare and other community perience, with particular emphasis on the end-users, such as individual landholders groups in the redistribution process has development of the community network and community groups. Their role in the led to a dramatic increase in the amount and its achievements in the release, moni- program was to release biological control of releases being conducted (Table 1). All toring and redistribution of biocontrol at a local level and to feed back informa- crown weevil releases prior to 1998 were agents for Paterson’s curse. tion on the progress of agent releases up conducted using laboratory-reared agents through the network. with 100 adults per release in autumn. The network participants required train- Crown weevil redistribution resulted in ing and resources, such as information 124 new sites being established in just

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 87 Table 1. Number of releases of Paterson’s curse agents made in Victoria. Year Crown weevil Crown weevil Flea beetle Flea beetle Pollen beetle Pollen beetle Root weevil redistribution redistribution redistribution 1993 2 1994 8 1995 40 1996 58 2 2 1997 42 9 1998 10 6 2 2 1999 10 1 9 1 2000 10 7 6 5 2001 28 6 4 1 2002 40 23 16 1 2003 56 30 22 4 2004 2 34 21 3 Total 170 126 31 87 21 59 19 three years using 1000 adult weevils per The root weevil proved to be the most dif- References release during spring. The larger number ficult agent to establish, with the agent be- Kwong, R. (2003). Biological control of of weevils used in spring releases coming recovered at only two (22%) of the nine weeds in Victoria. Proceedings of the pared to autumn releases was necessary sites monitored. First Biennial Conference – Develop- to compensate for natural attrition of ments in Weed Management, Bendigo, weevils over summer ahead of the weevil Discussion Victoria, pp. 37-40. egg laying season the following autumn. Only time will tell if the level of training Morley, T.B. and Bonilla, J.C. (2004). An in- This amount of releases would be impos- provided to groups will be enough for re- secticide exclusion method for studying sible to conduct using laboratory-reared distribution to continue without assistance biological control impacts on ragwort agents because of the enormous resources from DPI in the future. However some (Scenecio jacobaea L.) and Paterson’s it would require. groups have already begun conducting curse (Echium plantagineum L.) Pro- Similarly, by holding flea beetle redistri- redistribution on their own, while many ceedings of the 14th Australian Weeds bution field days over a number of years, others are in the process of planning. Conference, eds B.M. Sindel and S.B. nearly three times as many releases of this Continued redistribution from sites that Johnson, p. 380. (Weed Science Society agent were made compared to using labo- are currently established is expected to of New South Wales, Sydney). ratory-reared insects. continue as the managers and groups that Swirepik, A. and Smyth, M. (2002). Bio- The pollen beetle was initially released maintain the sites are very knowledgeable logical control of broad-leafed pasture at 21 sites over a four-year period, how- and experienced on what, when and how weeds (Paterson’s curse, Onopordum ever the number of releases tripled over to go about the process. and nodding thistles) What have we the following three years from beetle col- The real test of the training will be in achieved and where to from here? Pro- lections made at a nursery site on the DPI five to ten year’s time when sites become ceedings of the 13th Australian Weeds Frankston grounds. ready for redistribution for the first time. Conference, eds H. Spafford Jacob, J. Over the past three years, releases have Will the Landcare groups and farmers re- Dodd and J.H. Moore, pp. 373-6. (Plant been strategically made across the range member what they have been taught and Protection Society of WA, Perth). of Paterson’s curse in Victoria. We have will the enthusiasm they have today still Swirepik, A.E, Smyth, M.J. and Briese, D.T. attempted to ensure that most Landcare be there in five years? (2003). Delivering pasture weed bio- areas have at least one or two agents estab- logical control through community net- lished in the region. In the future it will be Acknowledgements works in temperate Australia. Proceed- up to the groups themselves to coordinate This project has been jointly funded by ings of the XI International Symposium and conduct redistribution to continue Meat and Livestock Australia (MLA), Aus- on Biological Control of Weeds, eds J.M. the spread of the agents. The current net- tralian Wool Innovation (AWI) and the De- Cullen, D.T. Briese, D.J. Kriticos, W.M. work now involves 56 Landcare groups, partment of Sustainability and Environ- Lonsdale, L. Moring, and J.K. Scott, pp. 79 Catchment Management Officers and ment. State collaborators include DPI Vic- 451-6. (CSIRO Entomology, Canberra). Landcare Facilitators as well as represent- toria, Agriculture WA, CSIRO, SARDI and atives from Parks Victoria, Goulburn Mur- DPI NSW. Thank you to all the Landcare ray Water, Local councils and Parklands groups, Catchment Management Offic- Albury Wodonga. ers, Landcare Facilitators, Parks Victoria, Level Three monitoring of agent es- Goulburn Murray Water, local councils tablishment was conducted at a total of and to Parklands Albury Wodonga who 262 sites between 1993 and 2005. Of the have undertaken vital roles in implement- 200 crown weevil sites, recoveries of the ing and sustaining the Paterson’s curse insect were recorded at 51% of sites. The biocontrol distribution network. Thanks flea beetle was recovered at 40% of the 29 to Tom Morley for his valuable input. sites monitored and the pollen beetle established at 46% of the 24 monitored sites.

88 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 mental Weed Guidelines (Figure 1). This region is the focus of a major on-ground, Regional priority-setting for weed management on multiple tenure weed project involving collaboration between public land manag- public land in Victoria ers and has recently undergone land-use evaluation by the Victorian Environmen- Stephen PlattA, Robin AdairB, Matt WhiteC and Steve SinclairC tal Assessment Council (VEAC 2004). The A Department of Sustainability and Environment, PO Box 500, East Melbourne, case study encompasses the VEAC Study Victoria 3002 Area that includes 159 000 ha of public B Primary Industries Research Victoria, PO Box 48, Frankston, Victoria 3199 land. This area presented opportunities C Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research, PO Box 137, Heidelberg, to work collaboratively with a number of major stakeholders in developing a cross- Victoria 3084 tenure approach to a large management unit. State government funding, through the Weeds of Public Land Initiative, has provided the opportunity for the planning Summary Steps for developing regional lines and Procedures for the Management process to be fully tested in its field appli- weed management plans for public land of Environmental Weeds on Public Land cation through on-ground treatments. in Victoria are proposed in relation to a in Victoria’ (Environmental Weeds Work- Public land in the Otway region is of cross-tenure, cross-agency priority-setting ing Group, in prep.) and further explained highly variable terrain. Streams dissect framework. These are examined in relation in McArthur and Platt (in press). a mountain range running parallel to a to the setting of priorities for weed man- This paper explains how the broad rugged coastline. Habitats include cool agement in the Otway region of Victoria. principles in the guidelines are being fur- temperate rainforest, tall open forests of Summaries of assets and risks to assets are ther developed through a case study ap- mountain ash Eucalyptus regnans on upper presented and their implications for weed proach so that they can inform day-to-day slopes, tall open-forests and open-forests management priorities considered. Diffi- operations on public land. dominated by a mixture of eucalypt spe- culties arising in the collation and analysis The Interim Environmental Weed cies on the mid-lower slopes, open forest of data are examined and potential solu- Guidelines propose that two key ideas and woodland with heathy understorey in tions proposed. The approach can possibly should guide decision-making. Firstly, the foothills, wet and dry heathlands, and be extended to develop weed priorities at land managers should aim to prevent coastal scrub (Westbrooke et al. 1990, DCE a statewide level for Victoria and would be any new and emerging weeds (including 1991). In total, 39 Ecological Vegetation applicable to other jurisdictions. sleeper1 weeds) from establishing. This is Classes are recognised in the Angahook- Keywords Weed management, biodi- given the highest priority. Secondly, they Otway region (VEAC 2003). A wide range versity assets, environmental weed, public propose that for established weeds (those of significant biodiversity assets occur in land management, native vegetation for which eradication is impractical) the the region including a large number of rare approach should be to protect the most and threatened plants (e.g. tall astelia) and Introduction important assets first. Thus, a practical animals (e.g. Otway black snail, Otway All landholders, whether managing a decision-support framework needs to stonefly). There are around 1500 plant spe- farm, a lifestyle property or public land help public land managers with organ- cies in the study area with 120 classified as need to make decisions about how to ising their surveillance and response to threatened (VEAC 2003). At least 370 non- most effectively allocate their resources, new and emerging weeds. It also needs to indigenous plant species are naturalised in including time and finances. Public land in identify where the most important assets the Angahook-Otway region, with many Victoria occupies around 8.5 million hec- are located and what weeds are threaten- presenting a serious threat to biodiversity, tares and contains a vast array of assets ing them. Once this is understood, specific social and economic assets. potentially affected by weeds, including aims can be identified and management In this study, 16 progressive steps that some 3140 native vascular plant species responses planned, allowing an evalua- rationalise weed management operations and 770 native vertebrate animal species. tion process to determine whether project are outlined. Though the steps build on Therefore, public land managers are faced objectives have been achieved. each other, some can be undertaken si- with particularly complex planning and The Angahook-Otway region of Victo- multaneously. As the project has recently resource allocation decisions. In Victo- ria was selected for a case study to evaluate commenced, only the early steps have ria, over 540 exotic plant taxa have been the principles advocated in the Environ- been described in detail. The remainder identified (Carr et al. 1992) and are readily apparent on public land. To a casual Colac observer, an exotic deciduous tree beside Anglesea the road in a national park or extensive stand of weeds on a disturbed site may Lorne be alarming. But does a particular weed occurrence in native vegetation matter? How can we judge? Are resources spent Apollo Bay on dealing with this issue at the expense of more important issues relating to the threat posed by weeds? To assist public land managers and others consider how the threat of weeds affects the values they aim to protect, a new decision-support framework is being developed, which includes a monitoring and evaluation component. The framework is documented in ‘Interim Guide- Figure 1. Study area

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 89 are untried and will be attempted as the project progresses. The steps are broadly modelled on that used by Tolhurst (2000).

Proposed steps Step 1 Refer to documents containing broad natural resource management objectives for the region and identify broad ecological objectives. These are included in Victoria’s Na- tive Vegetation Management Framework, Victoria’s Biodiversity Strategy, Regional Catchment Strategies, Park/Forest Man- agement Plans and Weed Action Plans. The Otway region falls within the ju- risdiction of the Corangamite Catchment Management Authority (CCMA). The CCMA Regional Catchment Strategy (CCMA 2003) aims include: healthy rivers and streams, lakes and wetlands; healthy estuaries, coasts and marine systems; achieving a net gain in quantity and quality of native vegetation across the entire Figure 2. Map of ranked biodiversity values across the Otway study area landscape; improved conservation status of all vegetation communities and native flora species; improved conservation status of all native fauna species; cohesive, innovative communities, that value and protect natural resources and participate Value 1 in planning for the future. These objectives accord with those of Victoria’s Biodiver- sity Strategy (NRE 1997). The Victorian Environment Assessment Council (VEAC Value 2 2004) recommends, in regard to its Anga- hook-Otway Investigation, that the setting of priorities for control of pest species Value 3 would be further facilitated by regional approaches where land managers act collaboratively. The Victorian Coastal Strate- gy (VCC 2002) aims to improve the condi- Values tion of coastal biological diversity, protect weighted coastal habitats and associated native flora and fauna and improve the integration of Model of catchment and coastal management. biodiversity Step 2 assets Identify a landscape management unit based on appropriate criteria that deter- Figure 3. Schematic representation of how geographic information is mine an ecologically appropriate scale of combined to produce a model of biodiversity assets management. In this case, the Otway region of Vic- toria has been chosen for the reasons outlined above. However, there is a need to range of data ‘layers’ has been combined stage and logging history. further develop planning units based on in this model of biodiversity assets (Figure Expert opinion was used to rate EVCs functionally-connected ecosystems. These 3) and includes: according to their susceptibility to weed then become the Land Management Units • primary data from Ecological Vegeta- invasion (see Step 8). This information of the area under investigation. Ecological tion Class (EVC) mapping including is being augmented with additional de- Vegetation Class groups are being devel- the assigned Biological Conservation rived data with a view to mitigating prob- oped for other applications (e.g. ecological Status of those units lems associated with spatial precision, fire management) and may prove a suit- • a density surface of rare plants records incomplete coverage and uneven flora able unit. (scaled to landscape at km2 units) and fauna survey intensities. The various • habitat models of threatened fauna inputs have been converted to 20-metre Step 3 based on site records and expert input pixel raster format within the geographic Collate and map biodiversity assets. • spatial data including hydrology and information system (GIS). Expertise has Spatial data relevant to biodiversity as- tree density. been engaged to weight disparate data. sets within the Otway region have been • other disturbance data relevant to con- The resultant surface is to be further clas- collated to create a map reflecting biodi- dition including land use, road densi- sified and modified with input from rel- versity values ranked from highest to low- ty, landscape context (fragmentation), evant stakeholders and other local experts est conservation significance (Figure 2). A State Forest Resource Inventory growth within a workshop setting.

90 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 Step 4 along the coastal fringe and a central band weeds at the landscape management unit Collate and map social and economic as- running NE-SW covering a diverse range scale highlighted the need for more de- sets of significant value, likely to be at risk of land use types. tailed weed distribution data. from environmental weeds. Government database records are being While existing databases provide a Geospatial datasets for these values on augmented by spatial weed occurrence general overview of weed records in the public land in a format useful for identify- knowledge held by community organisa- region, they are insufficiently detailed to ing those assets at risk from weeds are yet tions and individuals in the study region, provide large-scale mapping data required to be developed. Therefore, it is proposed following a targeted request for informa- for effective management decisions. In the that an expert panel of stakeholders will tion. Significant weed species likely to oc- Otway case study, additional survey input collate the information for the Otway case cur in the Otway region, but absent from using rapid vegetation survey techniques study. government databases were the focus of will improve the credibility status of ex- this survey (Appendix 1), together with isting databases, particularly for new and Step 5 any weed records from defined areas of emerging weeds in areas of high biodiver- Identify potential sources of introduc- biodiversity importance. This process is sity importance. tion and pathways of weed spread. This currently underway and its value is yet to step can be undertaken concurrently with be evaluated. Step 8 Steps 2–4. Datasets could not be used to accurately To the extent possible, identify the relative At the present time, analysis of data on determine the abundance status of weed risk/threat that each species/group poses weed sources and a model of weed spread/ species in the study area, as weed case to environmental assets. invasion within the study area is unavail- numbers were biased by collection his- Weed species were ranked using a se- able and beyond the scope of this project. tories. The noxious biennial herb Senecio ries of weighted criteria to produce classes However, data on the coincidence of po- jacobaea had the highest number of records of weeds grouped according to their threat tential new and emerging weeds, such as (1285 cases), but is a weed of agriculture or to native vegetation integrity in the region. known weed hotspots, towns, roads, rub- disturbed native vegetation in the region, This system was modified from White and bish tips, ornamental and trial plantations, and has limited ecological impact. In con- Carr (2001), where weeds of the alpine re- can be collated. This information will then trast, a widely distributed and abundant gion at Falls Creek were ranked. Weighting contribute to the surveillance component weed Hypocheris radicata had relatively criteria listed according to importance are: of the management plan. The Weed Alert few records (419 cases). Local knowledge invasiveness (establishes in native vegeta- Rapid Response Plan Victoria (DPI 2005) and further survey input are required to tion or not), ecological impact (high, me- deals in detail with the issue of new and accurately ascertain the abundance status dium, low); distribution currently occu- emerging weeds. Complementary activi- of key environmental weeds in the study pied (extensive, moderate, limited); range ties in the WARR Plan include establishing area, and particularly in areas of high bio- of ecological vegetation classes suscepti- and maintaining a network of ‘weed spot- diversity importance. Rapid vegetation ble to invasion (high, medium, low); and ters’ and rapid response teams to manage survey techniques that initially focus on rate of dispersal (rapid, moderate, slow). emergency weed issues. areas with a high probability of weed oc- The ranking system allocated scores be- currence are recommended. tween 1 and 81. Weeds with the higher Step 6 ecological impact received lower scores Using available data, collate and map Step 7 than those with negligible ecological im- weed distribution records. Classify weeds Supplement and verify weed occurrence pacts. Weeds were grouped into classes as new and emerging/sleeper or estab- and distribution with field surveys, espe- of (I) high impact weeds (score 1–10), (ii) lished. cially at and in the vicinity of priority bio- weeds of importance (scores 11–30) (iii) A census of the exotic plant flora and diversity assets. weeds of concern (scores 31–50) (iv) mi- their distribution is the basis for develop- Weed management decisions should be nor weeds (scores 51–70) (v) weeds of least ment of weed management priorities and made using data that accurately reflect ac- significance (scores 71–81) (Appendix its application within a framework of pro- tual status of weed occurrence and abun- 2). tection of biodiversity assets. In Victoria, dance in landscape management units. De- The remaining proposed steps are yet four main databases are available for ex- cisions based on poor data-sets are likely to be undertaken in the Otway case study. amining weed records: to fail in meeting ecological outcomes. In Thus, there is no indication of their cur- • Flora Information Systems (FIS), the the Otway case study, the adequacy of as- rent status. centralised database of the Department sessing weed occurrence using the State’s of Sustainability and Environment principal databases was determined by Step 9 (DSE); undertaking weed surveys in five areas On the basis of the known assets and • Environmental Information System of high biodiversity importance. The ar- perceived weed threats, set the more spe- (EIS), the management database used eas surveyed were Parker River (Otway cific ecological management objectives (eg. by Parks Victoria; National Park), Carlisle heathlands (Ot- ‘to conserve the grassy woodlands against • Integrated Pest Management System way National Park), Tomahawk Creek Na- the threat of (name high impact weeds)’) (IPMS), used by Department of Prima- ture Reserve, Bald Hills-Angahook forest for the management unit. ry Industries principally for noxious (Otway National Park), and Carpendeit weed data; and Nature Reserve. In all cases, new records Step 10 • State Forests Resource Inventory (SFRI), of weeds with potential moderate to high Prioritise sites according to the framework a natural resource database used by ecological impact and high ranking scores described above and identify areas on the DSE for forest stewardship planning. were located. Nearly all records were in ground that are candidates for manage- In the Otway region, close to 371 species2 the early invasion stages, and therefore ment of the threat of weeds. Pay particular of exotic plants are known from 7991 cas- likely to have been missed in previous attention to sources of new and emerging es, approximately 17% of Victoria’s exotic data collection or survey exercises. While weeds and opportunities for co-ordinating flora (75% of records used were located in few new weed species to the study area activities between private and public land the FIS making it the main source of data). were located in the five survey areas of (largely covered by the Good Neighbour Distribution records covered most of the biodiversity importance, the presence of Program (NRE 2002). region, but were concentrated in areas unrecorded, significant environmental

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 91 Step 11 established weeds. The areas derived from frameworks available to guide decision- Assess the practicality of achieving the the GIS model have been checked against making where assets must be compared required ecological objective. This should the expectations of local stakeholders and across classes. For example, guidance also consider issues such as the causes of generally correspond with their views. when a land manager must decide wheth- vegetation decline, the feasibility of weed Using geographic information systems to er resources be put toward conservation management, the community interest, ca- support decision-making has a number of of an area of native vegetation versus an pacity and commitment to contribute to advantages including the ability to deal recreational asset, such as a picnic area. A the project and the likelihood of re-inva- with spatially complex data, objectivity, system that ranks all assets in an unbiased sion. a capacity to provide transparency (the way would be beneficial in making such process is open to scrutiny), and adjust- decisions. The ecosystem services concept, Step 12 able weightings. which attempts to allocate economic value Define specific site objectives of environ- The model developed for ranking as- to a wide range of services provided by mental weed management (compare with sets (Steps 3 and 4) attempts to represent a nature (and thus a common currency for the ecological management objectives) and range of values humans place on the natu- comparing assets) may be valuable in re- performance indicators based on Specific, ral world. These values are not fixed at- solving this issue in the future. Whilst this Measurable, Achievable, Relevant and tributes. In developing the model, values issue is beyond the scope of the current Time-framed (SMART) principles (Platt have been captured through existing proc- project, by providing data-rich mapping 2002) and record these in the site plan. For esses, such as the value given to threatened products, land managers utilising the re- example, an ecological objective at the site species. Values are also being captured sults of this case study will be in a position level might be ‘to maintain natural proc- through discussions with stakeholders to interrogate the various attributes that esses within the grassland ecosystem lead- and the community over the weightings confer priority on a place. ing to a minimum of three viable popula- given to the various inputs used in devel- During the development of the Interim tions of Diuris fragrantissima by reducing oping the model and in understanding Guidelines it became apparent that pre- the threat from *Nassella neesiana and *Vul- the criteria they use to allocate value. The vention of new and emerging weeds re- pia bromoides by January 2010’. map produced as a result of the model is quires a weed-led approach. That is, for highly sensitive to the weightings given new and emerging weeds it is necessary Step 13 to particular components. For example, for the land manager to go to where the Document the results of the above steps whether the conservation status of the weed is and apply treatments. Whereas, and incorporate in appropriate plans (eg. vegetation type is given equal or higher/ for established weeds, the focus is on Park/Forest Management plans, Weed lower weight than the threatened species managing weeds at a particular location Action Plans). surface. The environment in which the (a site-led approach). From the perspec- model is built enables an iterative process tive of management activity, this is an im- Step 14 that can be run again as further informa- portant distinction. Typically, most weed Design a management process that will tion becomes available or as community management tends to focus on the weed, deal with the causes of risks at priority values change. Thus the process should be rather than the assets or values at risk sites. seen as dynamic and facilitating exchange from weeds and thereby risks losing the of views about values and their expression purpose of the activity. Focussing on the Step 15 in the landscape. prevention aspect of a weed led approach Undertake the management actions, re- Though progress has been made, prob- means that not all weed occurrences need cording biodiversity asset condition be- lems with the adequacy of datasets have to draw attention during surveillance ac- fore, during, and after treatment according arisen. Whilst in Victoria valuable data- tivities, just the subset of new and emerg- to monitoring and evaluation procedures. sets for identifying biodiversity assets are ing weeds. These procedures should be designed to available, similar datasets for assessing A major benefit of an asset-based ap- accommodate the needs of adaptive man- social and economic assets at risk from proach to the threat posed by estab- agement of landscape management units weeds have not yet been identified. Deci- lished weeds is that the places identified and target a range of environmental assets sion-making processes based on data are as a priority for management action are but particularly the key assets identified as heavily reliant on the quality and repre- also sites of biodiversity importance and important. sentativeness of the data. Though support- likely to correspond with other natural ed by some of the leading information sys- resource management activity. This helps Step 16 tems in the country, data limitations have to facilitate an integrated approach to a Evaluate the results against the specific already become obvious. Whilst around site whereby a number of threats can be management objectives. Return to Step 3 371 species of weeds are recorded on gov- addressed simultaneously in order to and if necessary update and repeat. ernment databases for the Otway case maintain functionality of the ecosystem. study area, a further 66 species expected to Focussing on the asset rather than the suite Discussion occur in the Otways are not recorded. Tar- of established weeds provides a clear fo- This paper describes a project that aims geted surveys indicate many unrecorded cus for the land manager when dealing to develop an operations plan for pub- weeds occur in areas of high biodiversity with established weeds. lic land managers that is independent of importance. Processes for increasing the This process does not presuppose the land tenure and based on a set of accepted flow of weed data are under discussion. appropriate management approaches but management principles for reducing the The issues associated with data availabil- rather enables management to be focussed threat of weeds. In achieving this, large ity and adequacy need to be addressed in on addressing a particular threat. The man- and complex information about the val- the future management of the threat of agement tools applied need to be based on ues on public land needs to be considered. weeds in the Otway region. addressing the causes of weed invasion. Progress to date has shown that there is Whilst it has been possible to rank bio- For example, reducing potential sources great potential to use GIS-based models diversity assets relative to each other, it of weed spread into native vegetation may to help plan for both prevention of new is less clear what advice can be offered to involve closing a walking track. Reduc- and emerging weeds and to identify key land managers having to make choices ing soil disturbance (potentially leading areas containing important assets that can across environmental, social and econom- to weed invasion) might involve chang- be protected against the threat posed by ic asset classes. There are currently no ing procedures for road making. Use of

92 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 chemical herbicides should be considered Though yet to be fully tested and as- NRE (1997). Victoria’s biodiversity—di- in the wider context of the management sessed, the approach being used in the rections in management. Department objectives and tools available. Otway case study promises to deliver a of Natural Resources and Environment, A Regional Working Group assisting transparent and thorough new approach Melbourne. the project, comprising representatives to dealing with weed threats that enables NRE (2002). Victorian Pest Management: a of the major public land stakeholders, resources to be better targeted. It will also framework for action – public land pest has proven invaluable in validating and provide an opportunity to determine with management strategy. Department of fine-tuning the methodology, in assigning greater precision whether management Natural Resources and Environment, weightings and assisting in networking actions are achieving desired outcomes. Melbourne. with the wider community. Platt, S.J. (2002). How to plan wildlife The Interim Guidelines place a strong Acknowledgements landscapes: A guide for community emphasis on achieving outcomes for the The authors wish to thank members of the organisations. Department of Natu- protection or improvement in quality Otway Weed Project Regional Working ral Resources and Environment, Mel- of biodiversity assets. A prerequisite for Group and Environmental Weeds Work- bourne. identifying meaningful outcomes is to set ing Group for their contributions to dis- Tolhurst, K. (2000). Guidelines for ecologi- clear objectives. The steps described above cussions relevant to this paper. Dr Robert cal burning in foothill forests of Victo- aim to provide the information required Begg provided helpful comments on the ria: Mt Cole Case Study. Forest Science for an explicit statement of objectives. For draft manuscript. Funding for this project Centre, University of Melbourne, Mel- example, once the values at a particular is provided by the Victorian Government’s bourne. site are known and the specific risks iden- ‘Weeds and Pests on Public Land Initia- VCC (2002). Victorian Coastal Strategy tified then the objective is around protect- tive’. 2002. Victorian Coastal Council, Mel- ing those particular values. We also acknowledge the contributions bourne. Protocols for monitoring biodiversity of John Weiss and David Cheal to this VEAC (2003). Angahook-Otway inves- and weed occurrences at sites are reason- project including data extraction, ranking tigation – discussion paper. Victorian ably well understood and documented. weed ‘seriousness’ and EVC susceptibility. Environmental Assessment Council, However, our understanding of what is Melbourne. happening at a landscape scale requires References VEAC (2004). Angahook-Otway inves- further development. The Otway case Adair, R.J. and Groves, R.H., (1998). Im- tigation, final report. Victorian Envi- study aims to develop a set of indicators pact of environmental weeds on biodi- ronmental Assessment Council, Mel- applicable at the broad level of under- versity: a review and development of a bourne. standing. For example, by asking whether methodology. Environment Australia, Westbrooke, M., Wilson, B. and Laidlaw, S. the threat from weeds is increasing or de- Canberra. (1990). The Otways – flora, fauna, con- creasing at a land management unit scale. CALM (1999). Environmental Weed Strat- servation, management. Deakin Uni- This will be done at a later stage of the egy for Western Australia. Department versity, Geelong. project. Greater understanding of the actu- of Conservation and Land Manage- White, M.D. and Carr, G.W.C. (2001). Falls al, rather than assumed, impact of weeds ment, Western Australia. Creek Alpine Resort Weed Strategy. Re- on biodiversity assets is also urgently re- Carr, G.W., Yugovic, J.V. and Robinson, K.E. port for the Falls Creek Resort Manage- quired (Adair and Groves 1998). (1992). Environmental weed invasions ment. Ecology Australia Pty, Ltd, un- The processes articulated above are rel- in Victoria—conservation and manage- published report. evant to other bioregions in Victoria. The ment implications. Department of Con- project aims ultimately to broaden its anal- servation and Environment, Victoria Footnotes ysis, based on the experiences gained in and Ecological Horticulture Pty Ltd. 1 Sleeper weeds are exotic plants that the Otway case study, to assist in identify- CCMA (2003). Corangamite Regional have naturalised in a region but have ing weed management priorities on public Catchment Strategy 2003-2008. Coran- not yet rapidly increased in population land at the statewide level. gamite Catchment Management Au- size. Interstate and internationally, weed thority, Colac. 2 Some species were listed as an aggre- invasions are regarded as one of the key DCE (1991). Proposed Forest Management gate e.g. Avena spp., therefore the total threats to natural ecosystems on pub- Plan for the Otway Forest Management number of species in the study area is lic lands (Holzner et al. 1983, Lake and Area. Department of Conservation and slightly higher than that quoted. Lieshman 2004). In line with the approach Environment, Melbourne. proposed in the Interim Guidelines, pre- DPI (2005). Weed Alert Rapid Response vention is seen to be the most effective Plan Victoria: a surveillance and re- approach. However, in many jurisdic- sponse plan for potential, new and tions, the emphasis is on a weed-led ap- emerging weeds in Victoria 2004–2005. proach to all weed occurrences without Department of Primary Industries, a complimentary asset-based approach Melbourne. as described in this paper. Public educa- Holzner, W. Werger, M.G.A. and Ikasima, tion and coalitions of stakeholders aim- J. (eds.) (1983). ‘Man’s impact on veg- ing to prevent weeds from public lands etation’, (Dr W. Junk, The Hague). affecting private lands are also common. Lake, J.C. and Leishman, M.R., (2004). However, there are few cases of a strategic Invasion success of invasive plants in approach to environmental weeds on pub- natural ecosystems: the role of distur- lic land. In Western Australia, an environ- bance plant attributes and freedom mental weed strategy has been prepared from herbivores. Biological Conservation that recognises weed-led and site-led 117, 215-26. approaches but stops short of explicitly McArthur, K. and Platt, S.J. (2005). New defining the steps for achieving this in a initiatives for weed management on practical, operational, framework (CALM public land in Victoria. Plant Protection 1999). Quarterly (in press).

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 93 Appendix 1. Plants ‘known to be invasive’ with high to moderate ecological impacts, but not recorded in databases for the Angahook-Otway region

Scientific name Common name Scientific name Common name Acacia cyclops Western coastal wattle Ilex aquifolium English holly Acacia prominens Gosford wattle Iris pseudacorus Yellow flag iris Acer negundo Box-elder maple Leersia oryzoides Rice cut-grass Acer pseudoplatanus Sycamore maple Lotus creticus Lotus Achnatherum caudatum Espartillo Myriophyllum aquaticum Parrot’s feather Alternanthera philoxeroides Alligator weed Nassella charruana Uruguayan needle-grass Anredera cordifolia Madiera vine Nassella hyalina Cane needle-grass Asparagus asparagoides Bridal creeper Nassella leucotricha Texas needle-grass Berberis darwinii Darwin’s barberry Oenothera glazioviana Reddish evening primrose Buddleja davidii Butterfly bush Olea europaea Olive Cabomba caroliniana Cabomba Opuntia spp. Prickly pears Calluna vulgaris Heather (N.B. no records for Orobanche ramosa Broomrape Victoria but occurs in Tasmania) Pennisetum alopecuroides Swamp foxtail-grass Cestrum elegans Elegant poison-berry Pennisetum macrourum African feather-grass Cestrum parqui Green poison-berry Phalaris minor Lesser canary-grass Chrysanthemoides monilifera Boneseed Physalis viscosa Sticky ground-cherry subsp. rotundata Pittosporum bicolor x undulatum Hybrid pittosporum Clematis vitalba Traveller’s joy Prunus laurocerasus Cherry laurel Coprosma robusta Karamu Prunus spinosa Blackthorn Cortaderia jubata Pink pampas-grass Puccinellia fasciculata Borrer’s saltmarsh-grass Cotoneaster spp. Cotoneaster Pyracantha angustifolia Orange firethorn Cuscuta campestris Field dodder Rhamnus alaternus Italian buckthorn Cytisus multiflorus White Spanish broom Sagittaria brevirostrata Arrowhead Disa bracteata South African orchid Sagittaria platyphylla Sagittaria Echium vulgare Viper’s bugloss Salpichroa origanifolia Pampas lily-of-the-valley Eragrostis curvula African love-grass Salvinia molesta Salvinia Erica arborea Tree heath Senecio angulatus Climbing groundsel Fallopia japonica Japanese knotweed Solanum pseudocapsicum Madiera winter-cherry Galenia pubescens var. pubescens Galenia Sorbus aucuparia Rowan Gladiolus tristis Evening-flower gladiolus Sparaxis bulbifera Harlequin flower Gladiolus undulatus Wild gladiolus Spartina anglica Common cord-grass Glyceria maxima Reed sweet-grass Spartina × townsendii Townsend’s cord-grass Gymnocoronis spilanthoides Senegal tea Thinopyrum junceiforme Sea wheat-grass Hypericum tetrapterum St Peter’s wort Typha latifolia Lesser reed-mace 14 July 2005

94 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 Appendix 2. Ranking of environmental weeds recorded from the Angahook-Otways study area – sorted by score

Species 4 Polygala myrtifolia var. H 6,7,8,9 E L M 8 2 6 5 3 myrtifolia Salix spp. H 1,2,3,6,7,8,9 E L M 8 Acacia sophorae H 1,2,4,6,7,8,9 E L S 9 Alstroemeria aurea H 7,9 E L S 9 Impact attributes Ranking score Habitat range 1,6,7,8,9, 10

Rate of dispersal Cupressus macrocarpa H E L S 9 Ecological impact

Potential distribution Lamium galeobdolon H 6,7,8,9 E L S 9 argentatum HIGH IMPACT WEEDS subsp. Pennisetum clandestinum Asparagus scandens H 6,7,8,9 E H R 1 H E L S 9 Pinus nigra Cotoneaster pannosus H E H R 1 H E L S 9 Pinus pinaster 6,7,8,9,10 Hedera helix H 6,7,8,9 E H R 1 H E L S 9 Populus alba Lonicera japonica H E H R 1 H E L S 9 Spartium junceum 3,4,5,6,7,8,9 Sollya heterophylla H E H R 1 H E L S 9 Rubus fruticosus agg. 4,6,7,8,9 Acacia longifolia H 1,2,4,6,7,8,9 E H M 2 H M H R 10 Chamaecytisus palmensis H 2,6,7,8,9 E H M 2 WEEDS OF IMPORTANCE Fraxinus spp. H E H M 2 Ehrharta erecta H 8,9 M H M 11 Passiflora tarminiana H 6,7,8,9 E H M 2 Ehrharta longiflora H 8.9 M H M 11 Pittosporum undulatum H 6,7,8,9,10 E H M 2 Holcus lanatus H 1,6,7,8,9 M M M 14 Acacia elata H 1,2,7 E H S 3 Myosotis discolor, M. laxa H 1,6,7,8,9 M M M 14 Allium triquetrum H 1,2,6,8 E H S 3 subsp. caespitose, M. sylvatica Genista linifolia H E H S 3 Lycium ferocissimum H 1,6,7,8,9 M L R 16 Genista monspessulana H 1,6,7,8,9 E H S 3 Nassella neesiana H M L R 16 Vinca major H 4,6,7,8,9 E H S 3 Nassella trichotoma H 1,8,9 M L R 16 Chrysanthemoides H 1,4,5,6,7,9 E M R 4 monilifera subsp. Parapholis incurva H 6,7,8,9 M L M 17 monilifera Dactylis glomerata H 1,3,6,7,8,9 M L S 18 Coprosma repens H 1,4,6,7,8,9 E M R 4 Stenotaphrum secundatum H 6,7,8,9 M L S 18 Cortaderia selloana H 1,6,7,8,9 E M R 4 Anthoxanthum odoratum H 1,4,6,7,8,9,10 L H M 20 Leycesteria formosa H 1,6,7,8,9 E M R 4 Phalaris aquatica H L M M 23 Agrostis gigantea H E M M 5 Ammophila arenaria H 4,5,6,7,8,9 L L M 26 Callistachys lanceolata H E M M 5 Prunus cerasifera M E H R 28 Cytisus scoparius H 1,2,6,7,8,9 E M M 5 Acacia baileyana M 2,6,7 E H S 30 Dipogon lignosus H 2,4,6,7,8,9 E M M 5 Acacia decurrens M 2,6,7 E M S 30 Leptospermum laevigatum 1, 6,7,8,9 H E M M 5 WEEDS OF CONCERN Calystegia silvatica H 1,6,7,8,9 E M S 6 Sambucus nigra M E M R 31 Crocosmia × crocosmiiflora H 1,6,8,9 E M S 6 Freesia alba × F. leichtlinii M E M M 32 Erica lusitanica H 1,6,7,8,9 E M S 6 Ixia polystachya M E M M 32 Leucanthemum maximum H E M S 6 Sparaxis tricolor M E M M 32 Leucanthemum vulgare H 6,7,8,9 E M S 6 Acacia saligna M 2, 6, 7 E M S 33 Pinus radiata H 6,7,8,9,10 E M S 6 Agapanthus praecox M 1,6,7, E M S 33 Tradescantia fluminensis H 1,4,6,7,8,9 E M S 6 subsp. orientalis Ulex europaeus H 1,2,4,6,7,8,9 E M S 6 Erica baccans M E M S 33 Watsonia meriana var. H 1,4,6,7,8,9 E M S 6 Erica quadrangularis M E M S 33 bulbillifera Melaleuca armillaris M 9 E M S 33 Watsonia versfeldii H E M S 6 Echium plantagineum M 9 E L R 34 Fuchsia magellanica H 6,7,8,9 E L R 7 Chenopodium murale M E L M 35 Nassella tenuissima H E L R 7 Gladiolus undulatus M E L M 35 Zantedeschia aethiopica H 6,7,8,9 E L R 7 Selaginella kraussiana M 9 E L M 35 Delairea odorata H 1,6,7.8,9 E H M 8

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 95 Cynodon dactylon var. M M M M 41 Hakea sericea M E L S 56 dactylon Melaleuca hypericifolia M E L S 56 Euryops abrotanifolius M E M M 41 Mentha pulegium, M. spp. M 7,8,9 E L S 56 Oenothera glazioviana M M M M 41 Nymphaea spp. M 7 E L S 56 Oxalis incarnata M 8,9 M M M 41 Paraserianthes lophantha M 6,7,8,9 E L S 56 Oxalis pes-caprae M 8,9 M M M 41 Psoralea pinnata M 6,7,8,9 E L S 56 Rosa rubiginosa M 6,?9 M M M 41 Euphorbia terracina L E M S 60 Vicia hirsute, V. sativa, M 2,6,7,8,9 M M M 41 Navarretia squarrosa L E M S 60 V. sativa subsp. nigra, V. tetrasperma, Orobanche minor L E M S 60 Trifolium repens var. repens M 2,9 M M S 42 Phleum pratense L E M S 60 Crataegus monogyna M 1,2,4,6,7,8,9 M L R 43 Ranunculus parviflorus L E M S 60 Juncus acutus subsp. M 3,4,6,7,8,9 M L R 43 Solanum douglasii L E M S 60 acutus Carthamus lanatus L E L R 61 1,4,9 Asphodelus fistulosus M M L M 44 Cichorium intybus L E L R 61 Bromus catharticus 1,6,7,8,9 M M L M 44 Cirsium arvense L E L R 61 Bromus diandrus 1,6,7,8,9 M M L M 44 Ligustrum vulgare L 6,7,8,9 E L R 61 Euphorbia paralias 4,5 M M L M 44 Asparagus officinalis L E L M 62 Galenia pubescens var. M M L M 44 Carex divulsa L E L M 62 pubescens Danthonia decumbens L E L M 62 Gazania linearis M 9 M L M 44 Eragrostis cilianensis L E L M 62 Juncus articulatus M 3,4,6,7,8,9 M L M 44 Euphorbia lathyris L E L M 62 Oxalis purpurea M 8,9 M L M 44 Hirschfeldia incana L E L M 62 Rorippa palustris M M L M 44 Linum trigynum L E L M 62 Carpobrotus aequilaterus M 9 M L S 45 Onopordum acanthium L E L M 62 Carpobrotus edulis M 9 M L S 45 Physalis alkekengi L E L M 62 Ranunculus repens M 6,7,8,9 M L S 45 Physalis peruviana L 7,8,9 E L M 62 Vulpia bromoides, V. ciliata, M L H M 47 V. fasciculata, V. myuros, V. Ranunculus trilobus L E L M 62 myuros Xanthium spinosum L E L M 62 7,8,9 Plantago australis, P. M L M R 49 Acetosa sagittata L 7, E L S 63 coronopus, P. lanceolata P. major Agonis flexuosa, A. L E L S 63 juniperina, A. parviceps Brassica × juncea, B. rapa, M 9 L L M 50 B. tournefortii Aloe spp. L E L S 63 Paspalum dilatatum M L M M 50 Amaryllis belladonna L E L S 63 MINOR WEEDS Aponogeton distachyos L 7 E L S 63 Briza maxima M 1,?9 L M S 51 Astartea heteranthera L E L S 63 Arctotheca calendula M 4,6.9 L L R 52 Berkheya rigida L E L S 63 Lagurus ovatus M 6,7,8,9 L L R 52 Chamaemelum nobile L E L S 63 Cyperus eragrostis, C. M 9 L L M 53 Chamaesyce maculata L E L S 63 congestus Crassula tetragona subsp. L E L S 63 Hordeum leporinum, H. M L L M 53 robusta marinum Elytrigia repens L E L S 63 6,7,8,9 Lolium perenne M L L M 53 Erigeron karvinskianus L E L S 63 Lolium rigidum, L. M L L M 53 Glyceria declinata L E L S 63 temulentum Hakea laurina L E L S 63 Paspalum distichum M 7,8,9 L L M 53 Hypericum calycinum L E L S 63 Agrostis capillaries, A. M 6,7,8,9 E L S 56 castellana Isolepis sepulcralis L E L S 63 Agrostis stolonifera M 6,7,8,9 E L S 56 Madia sativa L E L S 63 Crassula natans var. minus M E L S 56 Melissa officinalis L E L S 63 Egeria densa M E L S 56 Moraea flaccida L E L S 63 Elodea canadensis M E L S 56 Papaver dubium L E L S 63

96 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 Pelargonium quercifolium L E L S 63 Trifolium arvense, T. L 2,9 L H M 74 campestre, T. cernuum, T. Phalaris arundinacea L E L S 63 dubium, T. glomeratum, T. Pittosporum tenuifolium L E L S 63 subterraneum T. obliterum Ranunculus L E L S 63 Verbena bonariensis L L H M 74 ophioglossifolius Cynosurus cristatus , C. L L M R 76 Solanum lycopersicum L E L S 63 echinatus Soleirolia soleirolii L E L S 63 Dittrichia graveolens L L M R 76 Viola odorata L E L S 63 Galium murale L ?9 L M R 76 Conium maculatum L 9 M H M 65 Gamochaeta purpurea L L M R 76 Fumaria capreolata L M M M 68 Helminthotheca echioides L L M R 76 Lotus uliginosus L ?M M M 68 Lactuca sativa L L M R 76 Malva parviflora L M M M 68 Leontodon taraxacoides L ?9 L M R 76 subsp. taraxacoides WEEDS OF LEAST SIGNIFICANCE Polycarpon tetraphyllum L L M R 76 Briza minor ?9 L M L M 71 Rumex conglomerates, R. L L M R 76 Diplotaxis muralis L M L M 71 crispus, Ehrharta calycina M 8,9 M L M 71 Sagina apetala, S. L L M R 76 procumbens Eleusine indica, E. L M L M 71 tristachya Taraxacum officinalespp. L L M R 76 agg. Euphorbia peplus L L M M 71 Aira spp. L ?9 L M M 77 Holcus annuus L M L M 71 Bromus hordeaceus subsp. L L M M 77 Juncus microcephalus, L ?9 M L M 71 hordeaceus J. bulbosus, J. fontanesii ?9 subsp. fontanesii Centaurium spp. L L M M 77 Cerastium spp. L L M M 77 Sherardia arvensis L M L M 71 Modiola caroliniana L L M M 77 Sporobolus africanus L M L M 71 Parentucellia latifolia, P. L L M M 77 Veronica arvensis, Veronica L M L M 71 viscosa persica Polygonum aviculare L L M M 77 Atriplex prostrata L M L S 72 Polypogon monspeliensis L ?9 L M M 77 Bellis perennis L ?10 M L S 72 Polypogon viridis L L M M 77 Ciclospermum L ?9 M L S 72 leptophyllum Raphanus raphanistrum L L M M 77 Setaria parviflora Digitalis purpurea, D. L M L S 72 L L M M 77 sanguinalis Sisymbrium orientale L L M M 77 Malus pumila L 6 M L S 72 Acetosella vulgaris L ?9 L L R 79 Anagallis arvensis L ?9 L H R 73 Aster subulatus L L L R 79 Aphanes arvensis L L H R 73 Avena spp. L 1 L L R 79 Cirsium vulgare L 9 L H R 73 Cakile edentula, maritima L L L R 79 Conyza spp. L L H R 73 Callitriche stagnalis L L L R 79 Cardamine hirsuta Cotula bipinnata L L H R 73 L L L R 79 Carduus pycnocephalus, C. L 9 L L R 79 Hypochoeris glabra, H. L 6,7,8,9 L H R 73 tenuiflorus radicata Crepis capillaries, C. L L L R 79 Poa annua L L H R 73 vesicaria Poa infirma L L H R 73 Cyperus tenellus L L L R 79 Senecio vulgaris L L H R 73 Galium aparine L ?9 L L R 79 Solanum americanum L L H R 73 Juncus capitatus L L L R 79 Solanum nigrum L L H R 73 Senecio elegans L L L R 79 Soliva sessilis L L H R 73 Senecio jacobaea L L L R 79 Sonchus asper, S. oleraceus L L H R 73 Silybum marianum L L L R 79 Stellaria media L L H R 73 Alopecurus spp. L 7,9 L L M 80 Romulea rosea L L H M 74 Amsinckia spp. L L L M 80

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 97 Avellinia michelii L L L M 80 FURTHER ASSESSMENT REQUIRED6 Catapodium rigidum L L L M 80 Brachythecium albicans FAR Cicendia filiformis, C. L L L M 80 Equisetum sp. FAR quadrangularis Pilea cadierei DR Epilobium ciliatum L L L M 80 Plectranthus ciliatus FAR Foeniculum vulgare L L L M 80 Plectranthus graveolens FAR Geranium dissectum, G. 9 L L L M 80 Plectranthus oertendahlii FAR molle, G. yeoi Rostraria cristata DR Hypericum androsaemum L 6,7,8,9 L L M 80 Solanum marginatum DR Hypericum perforatum L L L M 80 1 Within the Angahook-Otway study Area. H= High impact Lepidium didymum L L L M 80 species. Species with the ability to cause acute disruption to Lotus corniculatus L L L M 80 ecological processes, dominate vegetation strata, cause se- Lotus subbiflorus L L L M 80 vere loss of biodiversity. Rates of biomass accumulation are generally high. Multiple cases of invasion with high impact Marrubium vulgare L 6,7,8,9 L L M 80 consequence known or documented. Medicago spp. L 9 L L M 80 M= Medium impact species. Species with the ability invade native vegetation with low levels of disturbance, cause loss Melilotus indicus L 9 L L M 80 of biodiversity. Moderate to high rates of biomass accumu- Minuartia mediterranea L L L M 80 lation. Cases of invasion known or the potential to cause Moenchia erecta L L L M 80 biodiversity losses considered sufficient to require suppression. L= low impact species. Species naturalised in native Petrorhagia dubia L L L M 80 vegetation, but causing minimal disruption to ecological Ranunculus muricatus L L L S 80 processes, losses to biodiversity or their presence is of an Silene gallica, S. gallica, S. ?9 transient nature. L L L M 80 2 nocturna Impact attributes are listed as: 1. Changed fire regime, 2. Changed nutrient conditions, 3. Changed hydrologi- Sisyrinchium iridifolium L ?9 L L M 80 cal patterns, 4. Changed soil erosion patterns, 5. Changed Spergula arvensis, S. rubra L L L R 80 geomorphological processes, 6. Changed biomass distribution, 7. Changed light distribution, 8. Loss of biodiversity, Urtica urens L L L M 80 9. Substantial reduces regeneration opportunities of native Vellereophyton dealbatum L L L M 80 plants, 10. alleopathic effects. 3 Verbascum thapsus subsp. L L L M 80 Area of potential habitat within the study area that could be thapsus occupied. E=extensive, M=moderate, L=limited 4 Range of habitat types that can be occupied – an expression Achillea millefolium L 9 L L S 81 of the number of susceptible EVC’s within the study area. Arrhenatherum elatius var. L 1,3,6,7,8,9 L L S 81 H=high, M=medium, L=low bulbosum 5 Rate of dispersal. R=rapid, M=moderate, S=slow. 6 Convolvulus arvensis L 6,7,9 L L S 81 FAR = further assessment required, DR = doubtful record. Dipsacus fullonum L L L S 81 Erodium cicutarium , E. L 6,8,9 L L S 81 botrys, E. malacoides Festuca arundinacea L 9 L L S 81 Festuca rubra L L L S 81 Lotus angustissimus L L L S 81 Mimulus moschatus L L L S 81 Ornithopus pinnatus L L L S 81 Reseda luteola L L L S 81 Tropaeolum majus L L L S 81

98 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 from local government and state government organisations with three vehicles be- Machinery hygiene – what is on our vehicles? longing to private contractors. All the vehicles are exposed in their daily business Michael Moerkerk, Department of Primary Industries Horsham, Private Bag to weed propagules, some of them are put 260, Horsham, Victoria 3401 into high-risk situations on a frequent basis (i.e. spray units and, slashers for CNG control). Details for of material collected from each vehicle or machine, weights of Summary Recent assessment of mate- as part of their assessment against na- material collected and assessed and the rial for weed contamination, manually tional competencies. This generated over number of species identified for each vehi- removed from vehicles during training in 100 individual samples from 35 items of cle are listed in Table 1. The noxious weeds weed movement, machinery inspection machinery or passenger vehicles. Samples and weeds of national significance are also and cleaning workshops has identified were collected and stored in zip-lock plas- listed. over 130 contaminant species. Fourteen tic bags. Over 130 species have been identified species were declared noxious weeds in Visual assessment was made on all from the samples assessed. The highest Victoria and six have regionally prohibited samples for seed contamination and number of species on one vehicle was 38. status. One weed of national significance where possible seeds were identified to No vehicles were contaminant and species was identified on two separate vehicles. species. All samples were tested for ger- free. Almost 40 families are represented Of the 18 utilities/4wd vehicles assessed minants. Many of the samples, due to in the flora observed on the vehicles and an average of 617g of dry material was their volume, required sub sampling for Table 2 lists the families represented. The removed and 44% were carrying noxious economical germination assessment. Ap- most frequent family observed was Poace- weeds or Weeds of National Significance. proximately 380 mL (one punnet 12.1 × ae followed by Asteraceae and Fabaceae. Two vehicles were carrying multiple nox- 6.7 × 4.7 cm) of loose sample was spread The top 15 weed species identified on ious species. thinly over half of a 30 × 27 cm trays con- vehicles and machinery are presented in taining three litres of commercial sterile, Table 3 along with the noxious weeds de- Introduction potting mix. Two samples were placed on tected. 39% of passenger vehicles and 29% The Victorian pest management frame- each tray and were separated by a ridge of of machinery carried noxious weeds, while work identifies that risk of introduction potting mix to stop seed/soil movement 11% of all vehicles carried multiple noxious and spread of pests needs to be commu- from one sample to the adjoining sample. weed species. The sample size is possibly nicated to the community so attitudes and Trays were watered overhead and placed too small to draw any conclusions regard- behaviour are modified (DNRE 2002). It is in an un-heated glasshouse and watered ing the type of propagule that is likely to well known amongst weed professionals as required. be carried on particular vehicles or plant that vehicles can disperse an array of weed Germinated plants were assessed ap- and machinery. It is more likely that the species. Wace (1977) in his survey of car proximately fortnightly and identified as situation the vehicles are exposed to deter- wash facilities in Canberra identified over early as possible in their lifecycle. Due to mines the species they will pick up. 259 species or taxonomic entities that are time constraints species emerging were potentially dispersed by vehicles. Gath- recorded but numbers of individuals of Conclusion ering some hard data on the actual con- each species were not. Germination as- Vehicles play an important role in the po- taminants on each vehicle and comparing sessments continued for at least 12 weeks tential spread of weeds. Passenger 4wd between vehicle types can be an expensive and for some samples up to 26 weeks. At vehicles used by local government and and time-consuming activity. the time of writing this paper samples col- government business that are exposed to Workshops have been developed, lected after March 2005 were still being weed propagules pose a significant risk that are aimed at increasing participants assessed. in spreading weed species of concern. The awareness of their obligations under the Results have been recorded for the movement of plant and machinery will Victorian Catchment and Land Protection location of the sample on each vehicle, also spread weeds. Thorough cleaning Act 1994 in particular to the movement weight of sample taken and sub-sample of vehicles will significantly reduce this and dispersal of noxious weeds and how assessed. Samples were not necessarily weed spread risk. they can implement practices to help them taken from all locations on all vehicles and meet their obligations (Lardner et al. 2004). total weights of samples are not necessar- References These workshops have been conducted for ily all the material that could be removed Department of Natural Resources and 12 local or state government organisations off the vehicle. Hence results are likely to Environment (DNRE) (2002). Victorian both within Victoria and South Australia be an underestimate of the species present Pest Management. A framework for ac- since July 2004. as germination conditions generally fa- tion. The State of Victoria. These workshops provided a unique voured winter germinators and not spe- Faithfull, I. (2004). Declared noxious weeds. opportunity to assess contaminants cies likely to germinate in the summer. As Landcare Notes LC0252. Department of cleaned from a variety of equipment for a result of the sub sampling some species Sustainability and Environment. weed contamination. Assessment of much may have been missed in the assessment. Lardner, S., Moerkerk, M., Jochinke, D. of the material is still on-going. and Wachsmann, N. (2004). Weed Results movement, machinery inspection and Materials and methods Results presented in this paper are a sum- cleaning workshop. Participant work- An opportunity existed for assessing mary of the samples taken from each vehi- book, Department of Primary Indus- material carried on vehicles and equip- cle. A total of 35 items of vehicles and ma- tries, Horsham. ment used as part of training courses in chinery have been cleaned and assessed Wace, N. (1977). Assessment of dispersal weed movement, machinery inspection for weed contamination. This consisted of; of plant species – the car-borne flora of and cleaning run by DPI over the last 18 utilities and 4wd vehicles, five tractors Canberra. In Exotic species in Australia 12 months. A manual clean down and and slasher units, three out-front mowers, – their establishment and success, ed. D. collection of samples from vehicles was three graders, three backhoes and three Anderson. Proceedings of the Ecological required to be performed by participants trucks and trailers. The utilities are mainly Society of Australia Volume 10, 167-86.

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 99 Table 1. Weeds species identified from vehicle inspections Vehicle type Date Location Weight (g) or volume (L ) Number Noxious weeds species identified collected of material of species removed assessed detected Passenger vehicles 4wd wagon* 23/5/05 Koroit 67 53 8 4wd tray* 11/5/05 Horsham 448 220 10 4wd ute* 19/4/05 Naracoorte 942 204 13 4wd ute* 10/5/05 Horsham 160 74 5 Pennisetum macrourum African feather grass 4wd ute* 20/4/05 Roseworthy 768 160 5 4wd ute* 4/5/05 Bendigo 59 59 13 4wd wagon* 4/5/05 Bendigo 2698 304 13 4wd tray slip-on* 19/4/05 Naracoorte 556 98 17 4wd ute* 20/4/05 Roseworthy 206 90 5 Cenchrus longispinus spiny burr grass 4wd spray unit* 21/4/05 Pt Augusta 824 236 36 Xanthium spinosum Bathurst burr, Tribulus terrestris caltrop, Marrubium vulgare horehound, Cirsium vulgare spear thistle, Centaurea calcitrapa star thistle, Dittrichia graveolens stink wort 4wd ute spray* 23/5/05 Koroit 902 134 15 Ulex europaeus gorse, C. vulgare spear thistle, Silybum marianum variegated thistle 4wd ute* 21/4/05 Pt Augusta 746 100 4 D. graveolens stink wort 2wd ute* 20/4/05 Roseworthy 2 2 3 T. terrestris caltrop 4wd ute* 10/5/05 Horsham 382 172 15 4wd ute 20/7/04 Bacchus Marsh 0.2 L 0.2 L 11 4wd ute 21/7/04 Bacchus Marsh 0.2 L 0.2 L 10 4wd ute* 21/4/05 Pt Augusta 42 42 4 4wd ute* 9/6/05 Hume 810 188 24 Nassella neesiana Chilean needle grass Machinery (plant) Backhoe 21/7/04 Bacchus Marsh 57.6 L 1.5 L 38 Juncus acutus spiny rush Backhoe* 3/5/05 Bendigo 129 L 413 17 Backhoe* 4/5/05 Bendigo 40 40 5 Wing mower* 8/6/05 Hume 1066 118 7 Tractor and slasher* 8/6/05 Hume 1116 340 19 Foeniculum vulgare fennel, Oxalis pes-caprae oxalis Tractor and slasher* 8/6/05 Hume 178 48 26 N. neesiana Chilean needle grass Tractor and slasher* 4/5/05 Bendigo 182 48 21 T. terrestris caltrop Tractor and slasher* 23/5/05 Koroit 222 86 13 Out front mower 20/7/04 Bacchus Marsh 12 L 0.4 L 17 Out front mower 21/7/04 Bacchus Marsh 5.7 L 0.4 L 20 Out front mower* 8/6/05 Hume 652 80 10 Grader* 23/5/05 Koroit 494 262 14 Grader 20/7/04 Bacchus Marsh 11.9 L 3.8 L 32 O. pes-caprae oxalis, Conium maculatum hemlock Grader* 9/6/05 Hume 2086 790 0 Truck semi* 11/5/05 Horsham 2713 296 6 Truck tipper* 4/5/05 Bendigo 1980 86 6 Trailer* 4/5/05 Bendigo 52 26 13 * Samples still under assessment at time of writing this paper

100 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 Table 2. Families and number of species identified in samples from vehicles and machinery Family Species identified Family Amaranthaceae 2 Aizoaceae 1 Apiaceae 3 Anacardiaceae 1 Asteraceae 14 Boraginaceae 1 Brassicaceae 9 Cucurbitaceae 1 Caryophyllaceae 5 Euphorbiacaea 1 Chenopodiaceae 3 Gentinaceae 1 Crassulaceae 2 Geraniaceae 1 Cyperaceae 3 Liliaceae 1 Fabaceae 11 Lythraceae 1 Juncaceae 3 Meliaceae 1 Lamiaceae 3 Mimosaceae 1 Malvaceae 2 Oleaceae 1 Myrtaceae 3 Onogaraceae 1 Oxalidaceae 2 Pinaceae 1 Plantaginaceae 2 Primulaceae 1 Poaceae 38 Ranunculaceae 1 Polygonaceae 3 Thymelaceae 1 Rosaceae 2 Verbenaceae 1 Rubiaceae 2 Zygophyllaceae 1 Solanaceae 2

Table 3. Number of vehicles and machines contaminated by species Species Number of contaminated Species Number of contaminated Noxious weed or WoNS* vehicles vehicles Number of units Total Passenger Plant Total Passenger Plant (35) (18) (17) (18) (17) Tribulus terrestris caltrop 3 2 1 Vulpia sp. silver grass 16 7 9 Dittrichia graveolens stink wort 2 2 0 Phalaris sp. 15 7 8 Cirsium vulgare spear thistle 2 2 0 Lolium sp ryegrass 15 7 8 Oxalis pes-capre soursob 2 0 2 Juncus bufonius toad rush 15 7 8 Nassella nessiana 2 1 1 Plantago coronopus 14 4 10 Chilean needle grass* buckshorn plantain Pennisetum macrourum 1 1 Polygonum sp. wire weed 14 4 10 African feather grass Xanthium spinosum 1 1 Rumex sp. dock 13 4 9 Bathurst burr Foeniculum vulgare fennel 1 0 1 Crassula sp. 12 6 6 Cenchrus spp. spiny burr grass 1 1 Medicago sp. 12 5 7 Centaurea calcitrapa star thistle 1 1 Poa annua winter grass 12 4 8 Juncus acutus spiny rush 1 0 1 Trifolium sp. clover 11 6 5 Silybum marianum 1 1 Bromus catharticus 10 4 6 variegated thistle prairie grass Conium maculatum hemlock 1 0 1 Plantago lanceolata ribwort 10 2 8 Ulex europaeus gorse 1 1 0 Sonchus oleraceous sow thistle 10 5 5 Marribum vulgare horehound 1 1 0 Hordeum spp. barley grass 10 6 3

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 101 SESSION 8 Getting technical (concurrent)

most selective and effective herbicide for controlling serrated tussock (Campbell The National Serrated Tussock Survey – impacts and Vere 1995). Species such as phalaris, cocksfoot and kangaroo grass have some and implications of its resistance to the herbicide tolerance to flupropanate (Campbell 1979, Campbell et el. 1979, Campbell and Rid- flupropanate in Australia ings 1988) while its residual action in the

A,C B,C B A soil can prevent serrated tussock regrow- D.A. McLaren , S. Ramasamy , A.C. Lawrie , G. Pritchard and T.A. ing for three to five years (Campbell and A,C Morfe Vere 1995). Flupropanate resistance has A Department of Primary Industries, Frankston Centre, PO Box 48, been identified in a population of serrated Frankston,Victoria 3199 tussock in Victoria (Noble 2002). Serrated B RMIT University, Bundoora West Campus, PO Box 71, Bundoora, Victoria tussock plants suspected of being resistant 3083 to flupropanate were grown in a pot trial C CRC for Australian Weed Management and treated with a range of flupropanate rates. The resistant serrated tussock survived application rates as high as 8L ha-1 which is four times the recommended rate Abstract A population of serrated tus- (Thorp and Lynch, 2000) that has been es- used for controlling this species (Noble sock at Diggers Rest just north-west of timated to conservatively cost Victoria $5 2002). Similarly, Petri dish dose response Melbourne has been identified as being million per year (Nicholson et al. 1997) and trials undertaken on serrated tussock resistant to the herbicide flupropanate. the economy of New South Wales $40.3 seeds have shown that the flupropanate This has prompted a national mail sur- million per year (Jones and Vere 1998). dose required to reduce the germination vey of 5000 land managers impacted by In 1977 it occupied 680 000 ha (Campbell of seeds from resistant plants by 50 % serrated tussock across Australia. Survey 1977) and now occupies more than 870 000 was approximately 10 times higher than results have shown that serrated tussock ha in New South Wales with an estimat- for susceptible seeds (Graeme Pritchard, has spread widely throughout Victoria, ed 2 000 000 ha at risk of infestation (Ian Victorian Department of Primary Indus- NSW, ACT and Tasmania with 15 out of McGowan, NSW Department of Primary tries, personal communication) This has 399 respondents reporting resistance and Industries, personal communication). In prompted a national survey to try and de- requiring further investigation. The sur- Victoria, serrated tussock was first col- termine whether serrated tussock resist- vey has also shown that serrated tussock lected at Broadmeadows (15 km NNW of ance to flupropanate is wide spread and is costing each land manager between Melbourne) in 1954 where it occupied 4 ha to raise resistance awareness and promote $15 000 and $20 000 annually in control (Parsons 1973). By 1979 it had spread to oc- integrated management of serrated tus- and lost production costs. This emphasises cupy approximately 30 000 ha (Lane et al. sock. the importance of promoting integrated 1980) and by 1998 it occupied in excess of management of serrated tussock. 130 000 ha (McLaren et al. 1998). Serrated Materials and methods Keywords Survey, serrated tussock, tussock is also found in Tasmania where In November 2004, a tick-box question- Nassella trichotoma, economic impact, herit is currently spread in scattered popula- naire was sent out to land managers in Vic- bicide resistance, flupropanate tions over an area of approximately 1000 toria, NSW, ACT and Tasmania. In Victoria ha (Christian Gonninon, Tasmanian De- and Tasmania, questionnaires were sent Introduction partment of Primary Industries Water and out directly to landholders that had been Serrated tussock (Nassella trichotoma Trin. Environment, personal communication). recorded with serrated tussock on the land & Rupr Barkworth) is a perennial, drought The potential distribution of serrated tus- they managed. This also included a mail- resistant tussock grass species that is na- sock based on its current infestations in ing list of 1130 within the Melton Shire in tive to the pampas grasslands of Argen- Australia has been estimated at 32 million Victoria. The Melton Shire was targeted tina, Uruguay, Chile and Peru (Parodi ha with substantial areas of New South because the property identified with ser- 1930, Rosengurtt et al. 1970) and Bolivia Wales, Victoria and Tasmania at risk of in- rated tussock resistant to flupropanate (Walsh and Entwisle 1994). Serrated tus- vasion (McLaren et al. 1998). Serrated tus- was located within this Shire. A further sock is a proclaimed noxious weed in the sock is being increasingly recognised as a 931 questionnaires were mailed directly Australian Capital Territory, New South serious environmental weed and the asso- to land managers recorded with serrated Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tas- ciated native vegetation being invaded by tussock on the Victorian Department of mania. It has been described as causing a serrated tussock is described in McLaren Sustainability and Environment’s Inte- greater reduction in pasture carrying ca- et al. 1998. grated Pest Management System (IPMS). pacity than any other weed in Australia Despite years of research, there are still Twenty questionnaires were sent out to with heavily infested paddocks in NSW limited control options for managing ser- Victorian park rangers, 10 to VicRoads carrying only 0.5 dry sheep equivalent rated tussock in Australia (Michalk et al. and 30 directly to Victorian spray con- (dse) per hectare compared to 7 to 15 dse 1999). The only registered herbicides for tractors. In Tasmania, 275 questionnaires on improved pasture without the weed control of serrated tussock in pastures are were mailed out directly to land managers (Parsons and Cuthbertson 1992). Serrated flupropanate, glyphosate, and 2,2-DPA. recorded with serrated tussock. In New tussock is a Weed of National Significance Flupropanate is widely regarded as the South Wales 338 questionnaires were sent

102 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 directly to NSW Landcare groups within Table 1. Serrated tussock infestations categorised by State, land use and serrated tussock infested locations while density reported from survey the remaining 2265 questionnaires were sent to NSW and ACT Weeds Inspectors Serrated tussock infestation density (ha) for distribution to land managers in their State Land use types Dense Medium Scattered Rare Total districts. The questionnaires were targeted to regions thought likely to be infested by NSW Pasture 878 1 078 17 909 19 735 39 600 serrated tussock. A total of 5000 question- Native 1 099 4 303 16 798 10 855 33 055 naires were sent out (2125 to Victoria, 2450 to NSW, 150 to ACT and 275 to Tasma- Other 143 12 3 910 5 375 9 439 nia). A colour CRC for Australian Weed Total 2 120 5 393 38 617 35 965 82 094 Management Fact sheet entitled ‘Under- standing the mechanisms behind herbi- VIC Pasture 37 371 2 353 2 754 5 515 cide resistance’ was also sent out with the questionnaires to help land managers un- Native 6 195 939 816 1 956 derstand what herbicide resistance is and Other 99 70 225 247 642 how it can be prevented. Each question- naire included a prepaid return envelope Total 142 636 3 517 3 817 8 113 to aid land managers. TAS Pasture 30 31 121 39 221 Respondents were requested to provide information on the extent of land they man- Native 1 2 64 28 95 age and the coverage of serrated tussock Other 0 0 5 0 5 infestation on their land. The infestations were categorised either as ‘Dense – mono- Total 31 33 190 67 321 culture or close to monoculture – very few ACT Pasture 190 25 2 130 1 067 3 412 native/other species present’, ‘Medium – roughly equal proportions of serrated Native 370 1 030 5 976 537 7 913 tussock to other native/pasture/crop species present’, ‘Scattered – native/pasture/ Other 0 0 45 150 195 crop species in much greater abundance Total 560 1 055 8 151 1 754 11 520 than serrated tussock’, ‘Rare – single or very few serrated tussock plants present’ Total Australia 2 853 7 117 50 475 41 603 102 048 or ‘Absent’. They were also asked to classify what proportion of these infestations occurred on pasture land, native vegeta- 11 520 ha in the ACT and 321 ha in Tasma- affected. As expected, NSW, the state tion or other (roadside, cropping, forestry nia (Table 1). with the most significant serrated tussock etc). Respondents were also asked to indi- The most significant serrated tus- infestations are spending the most money cate the costs as ‘Material costs’, ‘Labour sock infestations reported occur in NSW on serrated tussock control ($691 759 per costs’, ‘Time (days/year) cost’ and ‘Other where the majority of dense and medium year and $7745 per respondent). However, costs’, to control serrated tussock infesta- infestations were reported on native veg- land managers from the ACT are spend- tions in ‘pasture’, ‘native vegetation’ and etation with more scattered and rare in- ing on average $9405 per respondent per ‘other’ land classes. Questions were asked festations reported on pasture land (Ta- year on serrated tussock control which is about chemical control including what ble 1). Similarly, in the ACT respondents more than double that reported for Victo- herbicides they used for serrated tussock, reported greater areas of dense, medium ria ($3862 per respondent per year) and the number of times they used these her- and scattered serrated tussock infesta- Tasmania ($2130 per respondent per year). bicides and the year they first used these tions in native vegetation than pasture. Labour was recorded as the greatest cost herbicides. They were also asked whether However, in Victoria and Tasmania more component in all land use types except they had noticed serrated tussock on the serrated tussock was reported in pasture in native vegetation in the ACT where land they managed that had not died after than in native vegetation. These results $43 450 was spent on materials compared two or more applications of a serrated tus- may also reflect that all the Victorian and to $13 640 estimated for labour. The annual sock herbicide and whether they thought Tasmanian land managers received ques- total production losses caused by serrated this could have been due to resistance. tionnaires through direct mail. However, tussock is listed in Table 3. In total, pro- in NSW and the ACT, questionnaires were duction losses were estimated at $662 820 Results sent via weeds officers, environmental of- while the average losses per respondent Distribution and type of infestation ficers and agronomists for distribution to was approximately $13 000 per year. In A response rate of approximately 8% land managers. In some cases these pro- total, serrated tussock was estimated to (399) was obtained while approximately fessionals reported on an entire district or be costing the respondents approximately 250 questionnaires were returned address region. In Victoria, the ‘Other’ category $1.8 million in management costs and lost unknown. The respondents reported on recorded the largest area of dense serrated production or about $15–20,000 per year a total area of approximately 0.42 million tussock. However, this was reported by per respondent. ha consisting of pasture, native vegetation a single landowner who did not provide and other (roadsides, cropping, etc) across contact details. Herbicide resistance Australia. The respondents reported ser- Table 4 shows the number of respondents rated tussock infestations totalling ap- Economic impact using flupropanate and glyphosate and proximately 102 048 ha comprising 48 747 Table 2 lists the annual costs of serrated average years/times used for control of ha on pasture, 43 019 ha in native vegeta- tussock control expressed as materi- serrated tussock compared by State. Al- tion and 10 281 ha on other areas (road- als, labour and other (other costs of ser- most twice as many respondents were sides, cropping etc). Of this total, some rated tussock not included in materials reported using flupropanate to glypho- 82 094 ha was in NSW, 8113 ha in Victoria, and labour) listed for land use and State sate in NSW and vice versa for Victoria.

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 103 Table 2. The annual costs of serrated tussock control reported from survey Flupropanate has been used on average more than ten years/times by respondents Annual total cost to control serrated tussock Average per from NSW and the ACT. Glyphosate has by State ($ y-1) respondent been used more frequently than flupro- Land use ($ y-1) panate in Victoria and Tasmania (Table State types Materials Labour Other Total 4). The number of respondents reporting NSW Pasture 165 714 177 110 23 970 366 794 2 134 herbicide resistance is shown in Table 5. Serrated tussock resistance to flupropana- Native 50 180 116 172 87 570 253 922 3 199 te was identified by nine land managers Other 15 347 41 286 14 410 71 043 2 412 and resistance to glyphosate by six land managers (Figure 1). All the Victorian flu- Total 231 241 334 568 125 950 691 759 7 745 propanate resistance reports were from properties in the Diggers Rest, Sydenham, VIC Pasture 53 609 76 478 26 460 156 547 1 010 Bulla locality just north of Melbourne. Native 16 142 50 898 17 600 84 640 918 Discussion Other 9 275 43 800 8 425 61 500 1 934 This survey has confirmed the massive Total 79 026 171 176 52 485 302 687 3 862 impacts this weed is having on Austral- ian agriculture with average annual ser- TAS Pasture 2 050 5 390 3 350 10 790 715 rated tussock costs ranging from $15 000 to $20 000 per year per respondent. This Native 2 325 4 650 2 500 9 475 1 415 survey has also identified nine (2%) prop- Other 0 0 0 0 – erties reporting serrated tussock suspected of being resistant to flupropanate. A proc- Total 4 375 10 040 5 850 20 265 2 130 ess of contacting these land managers and ACT Pasture 21 550 30 760 40 300 92 610 5 438 obtaining serrated tussock samples for testing resistance is underway. Similarly, Native 43 450 13 640 17 800 74 890 3 755 six land managers have also expressed Other 110 500 100 710 212 concern that glyphosate is not killing serrated tussock and that this could be due Total 65 110 44 900 58 200 168 210 9 405 to resistance. The Victorian Department of Primary Industries has been working in Total Australia 379 752 560 684 242 485 1 182 921 collaboration with the Melton Shire Coun- cil to ensure that all serrated tussock on

-1 and surrounding the property confirmed Table 3. Annual total production loss by State ($ y ) with resistant serrated tussock is controlled. In addition, RMIT University in col- State No. of replies Total $ Average per respondent $ laboration with the Victorian Department of Primary Industries have commenced a NSW 31 478 600 15 439 PhD project investigating the heritability and mechanisms causing resistance to flu- VIC 15 91 740 6 116 propanate by serrated tussock. It is critical that land managers do not rely solely TAS 1 1 000 1 000 on one herbicide type to control serrated tussock. Land managers need to consid- ACT 4 91 480 22 870 er mechanical control, cropping, pasture rehabilitation, grazing management and Australia 51 662 820 12 996 a strategic use of herbicides to try and reduce the likelihood of resistance. This

Table 4. Herbicides used to control serrated tussock (number of Table 5. Survey respondents respondents) and average years/times used reporting resistance

Flupropanate Glyphosate Flupropanate Glyphosate No. reporting No. reporting Total State resistance? resistance? State – Ave years/times used – Ave years/times used No. reporting NSW 2 1 NSW 96 – 10.7 68 – 7.6 164 VIC 6 A 5 VIC 57 – 5.1 120 – 5.6 177 TAS 0 0 TAS 7 – 1.4 4 – 6.0 11 ACT 1 0 ACT 10 – 10.9 11 – 3.8 21 Australia 9 6 Australia 168 – 8.0 203 – 6.3 373 A Includes one property confirmed with resistance

104 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 Respondent locations

Resistant status no resistance glyphosate resistance? flupropanate resistance?

Figure 1. Distribution of survey respondents reporting resistance in serrated tussock in 2005 survey reinforces the need to practice in- Nassella trichotoma (Nees) Arech. In The control in central western Victoria. Un- tegrated weed management to control ser- biology of Australian weeds, Volume 1, published report prepared for the Vic- rated tussock. eds R.H. Groves, R.C.H. Shepherd and torian serrated tussock working group. R.G. Richardson, pp. 189-202. (R.G and Noble, S. (2002). An investigation into the Acknowledgements F.J. Richardson, Melbourne). herbicide resistance of serrated tussock. The authors would also like to acknowl- Campbell, M.H. and Ridings, H.I. (1988). Honours thesis, RMIT University, De- edge the support provided by the Com- Tolerance of grazed and ungrazed Pha- partment of Applied Biology and Bio- monwealth Government through the Nat- laris aquatica to glyphosate, tetrapion technology, pp. 1-84. ural Heritage Trust for this manuscript. The and 2,2-DPA. Australian Journal of Ex- Parodi, L.R. (1930). Ensayo fitogeograph- authors would also like to thank Michael perimental Agriculture 28, 747-51. ico sobre el partido de Pergamino. Re- Michelmore from NSW Agriculture for Campbell, M.H., Gilmour, A.R. and Vere, visita de la Facultad de Agronomia y providing names and addresses of NSW D.T. (1979). Effect of time and rate of ap- Veterinaria. Entrega 1 VII: 65-289. Weeds inspectors in serrated tussock local- plication of herbicides on serrated tus- Parsons, W.T. (1973). ‘Noxious weeds of ities in NSW. We would also like to thank sock (Nassella trichotoma) and improved Victoria’. (Inkata Press, Melbourne). Christian Gonninon from the Tasmanian pasture species 2. Flupropanate. Aus- Parsons, W.T. and Cuthbertson, E.G. Department of Primary Industries, Water tralian Journal of Experimental Agricul- (1992). ‘Noxious weeds of Australia’ and Environment and Alan Brennan from ture and Animal Husbandry 19, 479-80. (Inkata Press, Melbourne). the Shire of Melton in Victoria for supply- Jones, R.E. and Vere, D.T. (1998). The Rosengurtt, B., Arrillaga De Maffei, B.R. ing databases of land managers in serrated economics of serrated tussock in New and Izaguirre De Artucio, P. (1970). tussock localities. We would also like to South Wales. Plant Protection Quarterly Gramineas Uruguayas Universidad de thank the NSW and ACT Weeds inspec- 13(2), 70-6. la Republica. Departmento de publica- tors who delivered the questionnaires to Michalk, D., Kemp, D., Campbell, M. and ciones, coleccion ciencias 5. Montevi- farmers and land managers. McLaren, D.A. (1999). Control of ser- deo. rated tussock – problems in developing Thorp, J.R. and Lynch, R. (2000) The deter- References IWM systems. Proceedings of the 12th mination of weeds of national signifi- Campbell, M.H. (1979). Selective removal Australian Weeds Conference, eds A.C. cance. National Weeds Strategy Execu- of Nassella trichotoma from a Phalaris Bishop, M. Boersma and C.D. Barnes, tive Committee, Launceston. aquatica pasture. Proceedings 7th Asian pp. 20-4. (Tasmanian Weed Society, Ho- Walsh, N.G. and Entwisle, T.J. (1994). Pacific Weed Sciences Society Confer- bart). F‘lora of Victoria, Volume 2. Ferns and ence, Sydney, pp. 129-30. Nicholson, C., Patterson, A. and Miller, allied plants, conifers and monocotyle- Campbell, M.H. and Vere, D.T. (1995). L. (1997). The cost of serrated tussock dons’. (Inkata Press, Melbourne).

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 105 methods and tools used vary considerably across the program and range from use Applying field-based information tools to weed of local knowledge, to electronically automated processes. management – an examination of field information • Local knowledge—What the team members knows about his or her work issues in DPIS Landscape Protection Program and local area. This extends to where infestations are, ownership history, Naomi Wilson, Department of Primary Industries, Benalla, Victoria 3672 works history and the results of previous contacts. Local knowledge obviously grows over time and in many cases, the longer a person has worked an area, the more likely they are to rely Introduction The primary weed management infor- on local knowledge as their primary in- Information is one of the main assets of the mation tool in Landscape Protection is formation tool. There are many obvious Department of Primary Industries Land- the Integrated Pest Management System issues with the reliability of this type of scape Protection program – the way in (IPMS). Use and user perception of IPMS information tool and it should always which it uses information is a major deter- is highly variable. While a few staff apply be supported by a reliable electronic or minant of how successful the program will IPMS with a level of success, many feel that hardcopy resource. However, there are be in managing the pest plant problem in IPMS is not a tool that effectively meets some distinct advantages – the human Victoria. Business-specific information is their day-to-day needs – a tool designed brain is after all a powerful database one of the main factors that influences how to meet business management, not opera- – though these are limited to the indi- Landscape Protection field staff behave in tional information needs. Regardless of vidual holding the knowledge. their day-to-day business context. It im- the validity of these perceptions, the very • Land holder file—Hardcopy files that pacts on how they meet challenges and real fact remains that developers have to record the contacts and the outcomes of solve problems, how they interact with date been unsuccessful in effectively meet- contacts with each land holder in a work clients, investors and each other, make ing field staff information needs. area. These are formed and maintained decisions, take action and respond to the The most common complaint in relation purely by the choice of the individual primary needs of the program. In turn, it to IPMS is the limited ability for staff to ex- staff member and are not a standard is the information that field staff collect tract useable information. IPMS contains a tool. There are no standard formats, that informs the program leaders’ deci- variety of standard reports readily avail- contents or storage protocols. They sion making processes and communicates able to all registered users. In addition to can be a useful tool recording a level of success to investors. It is this information this, a team of support officers across the detail not contained in other standard that determines the future direction of the state is available to provide customised in- databases such as IPMS. However they Landscape Protection program. formation products such as queries and re- do perpetuate all the issues associated In this light, it seems obvious that the ports using InfoMaker. Yet these negative with a purely hardcopy system. Landscape Protection program needs to perceptions remain reflected in comments • Paper based forms—Work Plan Agree- ensure that it provides its field staff with such as ‘its like an information black hole’, ments record the actions agreed to and the best information tools it practically ‘I put information in, but I can’t get it back required of the land holder and consti- can. In doing this it must ensure that it out in a form that I can use’ and ‘IPMS tute a request made by DPI to the land doesn’t simply design more ways to hold doesn’t help me do my job’. holder. Data entry forms are used as its information, but instead focuses on de- Assuming that the reports in IPMS do a field tool to capture the mandatory veloping a suite of innovative customised provide the type of information field staff information required by IPMS. tools that meet specific information needs. require, the Landscape Protection pro- • IPMS—The primary database of the Rather than tools that simply contribute gram needs to look at why their informa- Landscape Protection program which from outside the process, it must employ tion needs still aren’t being satisfactorily records information on assessments, tools that become an integral part of the met. If it is not the reports themselves – the infestations, properties, land holders, process itself. Any tool developed for use information they contain – is it the format contacts, treatments and the like. IPMS by Landscape Protection field staff must and delivery mechanism that is proving can provide information of previous be designed with their needs as the pri- inadequate? contacts in the form of a reassessment mary focus. And most importantly, these report. tools must represent value to field staff Current information practices • Spatial databases and related tools – they must represent something that con- So what are the basic information needs Spatial data and associated tools are tributes to their work and enables them to of field staff and how are they currently themselves the subject of great vari- perform at a level that realises their true meeting their own information needs as ability in terms of sophistication and potential. well as the data capture requirements of functionality and the means in which One way in which this can be achieved program leaders? There are three main they are applied. IPMS itself records is through providing information tools types of information currently being uti- some spatial information in the form of filed staff actually do their work rather lised in Landscape Protection – spatial, points describing the location of each than limiting them to office bound or low photographic and textual. All of these play infestation. In addition to this, DPI has value hard copy field based systems. Field a role at various stages in the core Land- access to a wide array of corporate spa- based information tools have the potential scape Protection education, extension and tial data. Some tools include ArcView, to unlock some significant gains for the compliance processes. Throughout these MapShare (an intranet based map serv- Landscape Protection program in not only processes there is a constant two-way ex- ice based on ESRIs ArcIMS), mobile GIS increased efficiency, but also improve- change of information taking place (Table (primarily ArcPad), and various GPS ments in the quality of the work the pro- 1). tools. gram does and the value it represents to Data supports and informs program Because of the number of contrasting in- investors, the community and other stake- decisions, is used to measure, and is re- formation sources available to field staff, holders in the weeds issue in Victoria. corded throughout the entire process. The it is obvious that there is no one standard

106 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 Table 1. Flow of information supporting the education, extension and compliance processes Process Information type  Information source or tool Initial Contact Project area  Spatial databaseA Properties (and numbers)  Spatial database Property owner details  Ratepayer database General contact details  Land holder file (local hardcopy) Initial Previous assessment information  IPMS Assessment (if applicable) Land holder file Local knowledge Infestation location, size,  Spatial tool (automated or manual) dimensions etc  IPMS  Spatial database Other property, contact and  IPMS infestation details Treatment details  IPMS and Work Plan Agreement form (WPA. Stored locally on hardcopy file)  Spatial database Extension packages  Various (Landcare notes, Ag Notes, PIRVic data etc) Infestation photograph  Stored locally. Digital photos linked to (but not stored in) IPMS General contact details  Land holder file Follow-up Initial assessment details  IPMS Assessment Land holder file WPA Treatment status/inspection  IPMS details Land holder file WPA Compliance Non-compliant land holder  Land Management Notice (LMN) form and register requiring further action Brief (court action) evidence  All utilised sources  Hard copy file for defence team Court result  Court action register A Text in italics denotes a non-standard source that is applied in addition to standard source where resources are available. In the case of spatial data, where electronic systems are unavailable, manual and variable processes apply

process for capturing and utilising pro- the broad data capture process that many gram information. This is due to a number staff use which essentially involves the of factors: capture of filed data using a hard copy • Previous regional structure did not ef- form and then transposing this informa- fectively promote statewide data cap- tion into IPMS at a later stage (Figure 1). ture and use standards or processes; Of course there are a multitude of vari- • Differing levels of operational staff ations within this process including the skill, ability and propensity to adapt type of form used, the source of spatial new technologies; coordinates, the means of measuring the • New techniques employed by a few infestation and the means of entering the early adopters, but ability to dissemi- data onto the system. nate these beyond immediate working teams was difficult; Issues and risks associated with • A culture of negativity towards elec- current information practices tronic based technology due to previ- Data quality ous experience with ineffective infor- Current information capture and use prac- mation systems; tices present some significant risk in terms • Focus of current information systems of data quality and reliability. Data quality being on storage of information rather (as described by the Australian Bureau of than meeting workflow needs has led Statistics, 2005) refers to: to field staff members developing their • Relevance – the degree to which the own processes. data meets (or is relevant to) the needs Figure 1. The broad data capture We can however make an estimation of of the user. process

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 107 • Accuracy – the degree to which the in- • Use of coordinate systems that are not of operational staff to obtain a complete formation correctly describes the item compatible with IPMS (specifically picture of the environment in which they it was intended to measure (and is since the introduction of GDA94 re- operate. perhaps one of the most immediately placing AGD66) apparent and significant concerns relat- • Incorrect set up of GPS Process inconsistency ing to Landscape Protection data proc- • Data entry error Process inconsistency can impact on the esses). • Incomplete coordinates (ie four digit quality and reliability of field captured in- • Timeliness – the lapse in time between easting instead of six) formation. This error as a result of incon- the data being recorded at its source sistency can have an accumulative effect and it becoming available, in this in- Timeliness—The delay between data when then applying analysis processes stance within IPMS. being captured in the field and it being to this data. Difference in data capture • Accessibility – how readily available entered onto IPMS can in some cases be techniques and processes must be con- the data is to the user or the degree of quite significant. Data captured using the sidered when combining two data items. difficulty facing the user in accessing hard copy IPMS data form are not always Two items, which appear to be the same, the data entered onto the system immediately. In may not in fact be equal depending on the • Interpretability – refers to the provision some cases, especially when the team process applied. A simple example is that of associated data (metadata) that sup- member relies on a data entry officer to of an area statement – using a variety of ports the understanding of the primary process the form, this delay can be signifi- methods to measure the size of an infesta- dataset cant. The issue here is not the efficiency of tion may result in a variety of answers. So • Coherence – the compatibility of the the entry process, rather the ‘rainy day’ if one team member is measuring all in- main dataset with other related data- mentality that is applied. Many field offic- festations using one method and another sets. ers do not submit forms as they fill them team member is using a different method, out, instead they wait to accumulate a those two sets of data cannot be reliably Relevance—The information which is number of forms before sending them to compared. supplied to field staff must be relevant to be entered. In extreme cases, some team their needs and applicable in the day-to- members wait for up to a year! This results Points vs polygons day processes they participate in. With- in significant gaps in the dataset. Infestations, which are two dimensional, out readily available relevant data field having a breadth and a width, are cur- staff will either operate under their own Accessibility—Accessibility of data in a rently recorded as points rather than pol- assumptions or seek alternate sources of useable format is perhaps one of the most ygons. While recording these as points is information that are potentially less reli- common complaints of operational staff. easier and faster than polygons, the poten- able. This is a significant issue and one that im- tial to apply effective spatial analysis proc- In this area, we have tended to focus on pacts negatively on field staff propensity ess to the data is significantly reduced. the relevance of information to program to participate in the data capture process. We cannot spatially measure changes in decision making and accountability, rather The ‘what’s in it for me’ factor plays a infestations over time, or carry out effec- than on supporting operational process significant role here. Collecting data that tive spread predictions at a local level. We with effective information tools. they feel is of no use to them reduces their cannot apply effective spatial analysis to propensity to capture the data or to ensure determine the connectivity of infestations Accuracy—Accuracy is a major concern that the data they do capture is of a reason- in the landscape, how they interact with in relation to Landscape Protection infor- able quality. each other or how they might impact on mation. Some of the main issues relate to uninfested areas. completeness of records and the correct- Interpretability—While interpretability Figure 2 demonstrates the limitations ness of the information contained within generally related to an external party be- of recording point data and then applying the records. For example it was discovered ing able to understand a dataset, in this spatial analysis. A 50 hectare infestation during a recent audit that a significant case it applies equally to field staff collect- close to a sub-catchment boundary is re- portion of one team members infestation ing the data. Data capture protocols that corded using a point. A data analyst wants records were listed against the incorrect have been previously developed did not to use this point data to determine risks to species. The source of this error was a fail- sufficiently communicate to field staff the a significant asset within the catchment. In ing in the data capture process - in this definition of mandatory fields and the type order to polygonise the point record, the case the person making the observation of data required in each. This has resulted analyst buffers the point so that a circular did not enter the records onto the system, in some variability in the main dataset that polygon of 50 hectares is generated. They rather the records were entered by a third have an impact on the overall quality of then apply another analysis technique to party. the data. determine the risk to assets in the catch- A major area of concern in terms of ac- In addition to this, the current data cap- ment and based on the data, this process curacy is the correctness of spatial coor- ture process does not apply any control determines that the asset is not at risk from dinates entered into IPMS. A significant other than identifying fields that must be this infestation (A). number of IPMS records cannot be includ- captured to counter this issue. As long as What the analyst doesn’t know is that ed in spatial data analysis because they something is entered into a mandatory the coordinates used to generate the point are too inaccurate. In some cases, records field, it will be accepted by the system. were not taken from the centre of the infes- are positioned in other states or even the This has resulted in some mandatory fields tation and the infestation was more oblong ocean. While these are alarming, of greater containing meaningless information. in shape rather than circular. It’s actual concern are those records that are not posi- extent placed it over the sub-catchment tioned correctly but are not obvious to the Coherence—Compatibility of Landscape boundary, meaning it in fact does pose a data analyst. Protection with other datasets is probably threat to the asset lower in the adjacent These errors come about because of a an issue at the system level more so than sub-catchment (B). number of factors: the data level. The ability to combine IPMS • Incorrect reading of maps coordinates data with other related data captured by Loss of workflow efficiency • Use of inappropriate scale maps (re- other DPI programs is a significant limita- Current information systems do not effec- sulting in an error of up to 1 km) tion of the data that impacts on the ability tively support workflow processes where

108 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 (A) (B)

Figure 2. Demonstration of the limitations of point data over polygon data in data analysis. (A) Point data that has been buffered in order to generate polygon data for analysis purposes does not effectively estimate (B) the true risk the infestation poses on the asset in the adjacent sub-catchment

in the field where staff do their work. As limitation in effectively managing the outlined earlier, field staff compile infor- threat. At best, our IPMS records commu- mation in the office, collect new data in the nicate mitigation effort – our assessments field and then return to the office to enter – not the actual pest plant extent as we it into a database. In addition to this, there only record those areas that we have both is no automated process for entering the inspected and that are infested. We do not data into the system. This is a costly proc- attempt to record all infestations, nor do ess results in double handling of data, in- we appropriately record those areas that creasing opportunity for error in the data. have been inspected and found to be free Field staff also collect IPMS data, com- from infestation. plete a WPA form with land holders and in some instances, record these interactions Age of infestations in land holder files. These three tasks over- We record the date of the inspection rather Figure 3. Field based staff using lap in terms of their purpose and the data than the approximate date the infestation ArcPad to digitise directly on screen captured and applied. first appeared. This has lead to a tendency to assume new infestation records repre- Third party data entry sent new and emerging infestations rather Protection field staff could record reas- Data entry officers provide support to op- than simply an assessment of an infesta- sessments, updating existing IPMS data erational staff by entering the contents of tion previously unrecorded – an incorrect or add new assessments. data capture forms onto IPMS. Apart from and dangerous assumption. ArcPad Application Builder allows sys- lost efficiency issues, this process increases tems management staff to develop data error in the data as it is open to interpreta- Considerations for Field-base Data capture forms (Figure 4) that both assist in tion error, such as that in the earlier exam- Module data entry, but also contribute to data in- ple of the infestations recorded against the Data capture applications tegrity. Using the form, you can control the wrong species. In this case, the field staff ArcPad—ArcPad is an ESRI mobile GIS way the data is captured and formatted: member did not write the species name on application that was developed in Mel- • Mandatory fields ensure all required the form. The data entry officer assumed bourne by RIA, an ESRI business partner. data is captured. that the records related to the same spe- Of course there are many mobile GIS ap- • Drop down boxes allow the user to cies that all other field staff members were plications on the market, but given that select pre-defined values rather than working on. Had the field staff member DPI’s ITS group support ESRI applications having to manually enter them. In ad- entered the data himself, he would have as standard operating environment (SOE) dition to this, these lists can be tailored known that this was not the case and software and ArcPad is compatible with to individual users needs. (hopefully) entered the correct species. GIS tools already utilised in our day-to- • Radio buttons and tick boxes stream- In addition to this, the data entry officer day operation, it seems logical to prefer line data entry for binary type data en- often returns incomplete, ambiguous or this specific application. try. unreadable data forms to the field staff for ArcPad allows field staff to take GIS • Scale-ramp bars for estimating a value clarification. This obviously extends the data into the field, update existing in- along a continuous scale. process and increases costs and the time formation and collect new data. Spatial • Calendar selection tools ensure easy between the data be collected and it being data can be displayed, queried and ed- and accurate date formatting. entered onto the system. ited, while customised data forms allow ArcPad Application builder is not lim- for easy collection and update of textual ited to these standard functions, but also Known extent of pest plant problem information. Spatial data is captured ei- allows for additional functionality to be Our current data capture methods do ther by digitising directly on screen (Fig- programmed into both the forms and the not effectively capture the true extent ure 3) or through receiving GPS sourced application itself to provide specialist op- of the pest plant problem – a significant coordinates. Using ArcPad, Landscape eration. For example, we could create a

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 109 Figure 5. HP iPAQ Pocket PC

Figure 4. An example of a data entry form connected to a polygon spatial dataset function that automatically populates compatible with ArcPad and conversely Figure 6. Tablet PCs can move fields based on other spatial data layers. In convert field captured data to an IPMS between normal laptop mode to the case of the IPMS fields of shire, parish, compatible format. If IPMS were the tool pentop tablet mode CMA, LandCare group and the various used to capture data in the field, these allotment details, all of this information is processes would not be required. already captured and store in spatial da- It would not (assuming Mobile IPMS tasets. This data could be automatically would essentially mirror the current appli- populated in a record using a basic drill cation) however be able to operate in isola- Digital Workplan Agreement forms—The down function that queries these spatial tion and capture the valuable spatial data information captured using the electronic data layers. Other functionality develop- allowed for in ArcPad. Instead, it would data capture form can also be used to au- ments might include: need to either be developed with a spa- tomatically populate an electronic WPA • Automatic population of easting and tial component built in (an expensive ex- form. This form can then be printed and northing fields using the centroid coor- ercise) or alternatively connect to ArcPad signed by the land holder during the as- dinates for the spatial data capture component of sessment and does not require operational • Automatic population of area field us- the process. The essential difference here staff to duplicate information. ing an area calculation function. is that the textual data otherwise captured • Ability to copy data from another exist- using the data form in ArcPad would in- Mobile hardware ing record stead be captured using IPMS, with a link Pocket PC—Pocket PCs are an inexpen- • Automatic population of contact and then created between the IPMS data and sive mobile platform that can run a variety property details based on existing IPMS the spatial ArcPad data. of Windows CE compatible applications. data. This type of development would truly A standard pocket PC can be expanded Not only does ArcPad have the potential represent a whole of system solution to to accommodate greater disk space, in- to improve data capture processes in the current Landscape Protection filed-based crease battery life and can also connect to ways outlined above, but it also represents data issues. It would obviously require a variety of accessories such as Compact a vehicle that provides digitisation of poly- major developmental changes in the Flask GPS, mobile printers and scanning gon and line data in addition to the already current IPMS database, but in doing so, devices. supported point format in IPMS. When would exponentially increase the flexibil- Pocket PCs are light weight and easy used in conjunction with a GPS, it would ity of IPMS, creating a system that more to handle. However, the drawback to this essentially eliminate error in spatial data accurately supports the workflow proc- technology when applied to field data resulting from the recording of inaccurate esses of our operational team. capture processes is its sensitivity. Pocket coordinates. These two features in them- PCs are not very rugged and can be subject selves represent a significant advantage Data transfer—Applying either of the to damage during daily tasks. The small for Landscape Protection by addressing above solutions requires an effective data screen too, while facilitating handheld op- two significant spatial data issues. transfer process between the field module erations, can be a disadvantage in that only and the central database. New data and a small segment of a map or data form can Mobile IPMS—An alternative to build- updated records must be incorporated be displayed at one time. ing ArcPad forms is to develop a mobile into the main database while applying Several organisations have attempted IPMS application. This mobile application rigorous data quality assurance processes to increase the ruggedness of this type would essentially be a scaled down ver- and avoiding edit conflicts. Data transfer of unit. An example of this are the Trim- sion of the main IPMS database that in- processes should be as automated as pos- ble units which can be dropped on hard cluded simple data capture functionality sible and require as little input from users surfaces, exposed to harsh environmental and allowed access to current IPMS data. as possible. conditions and can even be submerged Put simply, it would allow staff to take In its current format, IPMS does not in water without damage (Trimble, nd). IPMS into the field with them, eliminat- allow for the uploading of new records, Of course, these units are more expensive ing the need for intermediate data capture only uploading edits to existing records. than the less rugged versions. tools and the data conversion processes However, this difficulty can be circum- that would be required if a different such navigated through the development of an Tablet PC—Tablet PCs (Figure 6) are lap- as ArcPad platform were used. upload module already scoped by IPMS tops with a twist. They can operate as a In using ArcPad forms to capture IPMS developers. Obviously the form this mod- normal laptop but can also convert to tab- data, systems management staff first ule would take would depend on the field let mode allowing the user to utilise pen- need to convert IPMS data into a format data capture solution chosen. top functionality. These PCs, unlike Pocket

110 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 PCs, operate in the standard Windows en- Applications supporting Field can eliminate a great majority of our vironment (Compaq Computers Australia, Based Information spatial data issues. This would improve nd). The advantages here are significant The important thing to remember when significantly our currently highly lim- offering normal computer functionality attempting to address field-based data ited ability to apply spatial analysis and the ability to operate ArcPad in the capture issues is that it is not just the field techniques to our data, providing us same way as a Pocket PC, but without the component of the system that should be with the ability to glean a greater un- size limitations. Like Pocket PCs, Tablet considered. Issues such as those outlined derstanding of the issues, our impact PCs can also connect to a variety of add-on above have come about as a result of on the pest problem and inform future hardware components. Their processing whole of system shortcomings, rather than program decisions. power, disk capacity and battery life are the failing of just one component of the • Provides field staff with informa- also superior. process. In addition to this, no component tion where they do their work—This This additional functionality comes at of any system operates in isolation of the system would increase the amount of a greater cost (around four times that of other system components – they all im- information used to support decision the Pocket PC option) but have the poten- pact upon and are impacted upon by each making processes our field staff can tial to represent some significant savings. other. In addressing field data capture is- take with them in the field. There is potential for field staff to use this sues we need to also consider the central • Reduced administration time—Less PC as their main computer, allowing them database, access to spatial information and time in the office entering data into a to carry all of their data with them both a means to effectively and seamlessly con- means more time for core high value in the office (or to multiple offices) and nect all these components (Figure 8). We field work. into the field. If built with DPIs SOE, field must review current data models to ensure • Reduce the reliance on data entry offic- officers would not need a desktop pc and they are robust enough to support field ers—There are a number of savings to a mobile pc, simply using the Tablet PC data capture, workflow process and ad- be gained by reducing reliance on data for both. dress data quality issues. entry officers including more efficient processes and reduced interpretation Add-on hardware Benefits of field-based information error, salary costs and triple handling Mobile PCs, as mentioned above, can systems of data. come with a variety of add-on hardware There are many advantages to the Land- • Eliminate double handling of data— accessories. These include: scape Protection program in adopting this By collecting data electronically in the • Compact Flash GPS—A low grade GPS technology. Some of these include: field, staff do not then need to rehandle that connects to the PC via a compact • Improved IPMS data quality—This the data to enter it into the system. flash slot. This type of GPS produces system would address many of the data and accuracy on average of 5–20 m de- quality issues currently facing IPMS pending on the various factors impact- including accuracy and completeness, ing on signal quality. timeliness and accessibility issues. The • Correctable GPS—By attaching a high- system would enforce the capture of er quality GPS receiver and applying mandatory fields at their physical correction processes, you can improve source, apply formatting and textual the accuracy of GPS coordinates down controls to improve the uniformity of to about 1 m (Trimble, nd). This level data while automated upload process- of accuracy is really only required in es significantly reduces the time delay a small number of situations and for between data collection and entry into the most part, the less accurate receiver IPMS. would suffice. • Increase in spatial data quality—By • Portable printer—Portable printers providing field staff with the appro- can be attached to both Pocket PCs and priate tools to capture spatial data we Figure 7. Leica Rangefinder Tablet PCs for instant hardcopy documents anywhere. This technology is currently being utilised by Melbourne City parking officers who electronically record parking infringements using an iPAQ and then print an instant ticket (personal observation)! • Digital camera—Digital photographs can be taken for instant evidence and stored on the mobile device using a compact flash digital camera. These photos can also be automatically linked to IPMS data. • Rangefinder—Rangefinders (Figure 7) can be used to accurately measure distances when measurement with GPS in not possible. The data from rangefinders can be utilised by GIS applications including ArcPad to record features in the landscape (Johnny Appleseed GPS, nd).

Figure 8. Pest plant management system incorporating a central database connected to an intranet map service and field data capture module

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 111 • Electronic WPAs—Generating these Technical electronically from data already cap- As discussed earlier, the adoption of tured in the process reduces data han- this kind of technology requires changes dling and also provides a mechanism throughout the entire process. In order for to electronically store agreements en- the adoption of this kind of technology to tered into with land holders. be successful, we must consider the entire system including: Where to form here – • A comprehensive assessment of IPMS implementation considerations and Landscape Protection data mod- Human els; Perhaps the primary considerations in the • Development of an effective and robust implementation of a system such as this data transfer module; are the ones relating to the people who will • Development of data management operate the system. Even the ‘best’ system processes; is only as effective as the people that use • Linking of IPMS to a MapShare engine it and this includes their propensity to to improve spatial data ; adopt the system. We may put massive • Mobile PCs as standard SOE hardware effort into design a leading field informa- by ITS; tion tool, only to find our adoption rate is • ITS support for development of field so low that the system fails. In furthering based tools. the development of field information tools With careful planning, we can significantly we must: improve weed management in Victoria. • Effectively engage operational staff throughout ALL stages of develop- References ment—Without an effective engage- Australian Bureau of Statistics (2005). ment process, any system that is de- Information Paper: Quality of Aus- veloped is almost guaranteed not to tralian Balance of Payments statis- effectively meet the needs of its users. tics. Chapter 1. Data quality concepts, Our field team are not a homogene- www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/[email protected]/ ous group – they have differing needs, 66f306f503e529a5ca25697e0017661f/ abilities and thought processes. The edab7f1ef2b0e7e3ca25697e0018fd39!O consultative process needs to take this penDocument, last modified 18 March into account engaging staff across the 2005 (accessed 29 April 2005). entire spectrum. Compaq Computers Australia (nd). Com- • Understand the work processes cur- paq Tablet PC, http://www.compaq. rently employed—Ensure that the com.au/products/tabletpc/ (accessed processes this system follow best rep- 6 May 2005). resent the processes as they are actually Johnny Appleseed GPS (nd). Leica Laser applied in practice. Rangefinders, www.ja-gps.com.au/lei- • Maximise the impact of early adop- ca_rangefinder.html (accessed 6 May ters—Initial adoption of this system 2005). will be amongst a keen few. These early Trimble (nd). Trimble Recon Handheld, adaptors are generally those who can www.trimble.com/recon_mgis_hand- see the value in the system and there- held.shtml (accessed 6 May 2005). fore tolerate the initial difficulties of development. Broader adoption of this technology will spread outwards from this group. As fellow team members begin to see and understand the benefits gained from the system, they too will take on the technology. However, if we do not target purely early adopters and instead insist that less interested parties take part, we are increasing the chance that the system will not succeed. • Apply a staged process—Adoption of technology is not an over night process. Use of technology within an organisation is an evolutionary, or maturing process, taking small steps. • Maintain a balanced focus on operational staff information needs—By meeting these needs we have a better chance of meeting broader program management needs. We cannot make effective program decisions if the information tools used to capture base program data are not designed to meet the needs of those using them.

112 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 applied, tillage must occur in-crop after the herbicide. Inter-row cultivation relies upon dis- Robotic weeding in grain crops turbance very close to each side of a drill row. A high proportion of the field ought Malcolm Taylor, Robocrop Australia Pty Ltd., RMB 1553A, Cobram, to be disturbed during the operation, as Victoria 3644 weeds surviving in the crop row (intra- row) can compete with the crop and set seed. Manual systems tend to be slow and tiring, although skilled operators can commonly till to within 3 cm of a crop row. Many old hands will tell you there is noth- the agricultural chemical industry and Attempts to use GPS navigation for ing new in agriculture. I hope to persuade machinery manufacturers during this pe- inter-row cultivation in Australia have you otherwise in this paper, despite many riod. Strong financial incentives to advo- been disappointing due to a lack of reli- elements of ‘re-discovery’ that will un- cates (i.e. herbicide and machinery sales) ability and accuracy. Whilst finding utility fold. and regular use of ‘product champions’ to in wide-spaced crops (85–100 cm) where Sowing of crops in rows was adopted spread the word been a consistent feature high precision is not essential, autosteer some 300 years ago when Jethro Tull in- of no-tillage agriculture. Growers have options for tractors currently on offer in vented his horse drawn seed drill and hoe also identified many agronomic, biologi- Australia appear unlikely to meet expecta- to enable inter-row tillage. For the next 250 cal, logistical and economic benefits with tions for inter-row cultivation of narrowly- years, weed management in grain crops no-till systems and their adoption has spaced (<50 cm) winter crops. relied in the main upon cleanly tilled been exponential across southern crop- Given that GPS technology is unable to seedbeds and manual guidance of hand ping systems. Some critical problems are recognise any crop, one is left to ask; why pushed or horse pulled inter-row cultiva- now emerging however that threaten the communicate with six satellites orbiting tors. Today, the vast majority of Australian practical and financial continuation of no- the globe when you can obtain a visual fix winter grain crops are grown in rows, yet till systems. on your crop immediately in front of the inter-row tillage is conspicuously absent. Herbicide resistance is common in a implement ? In the relentless quest for economies of number of crop weeds to almost all chemi- Computerised vision guidance for in- scale, equipment and crop size became cal groups suited to their management and ter-row tillage has been in development too large to permit tillage using manual threatens their viability as on-going tools for at least 17 years. These devices use guidance; especially at the high levels of of crop agronomy. Resistance is evolving video cameras and image analysis soft- precision required for crop rows spaced in most intense cropping systems with ware to guide toolbars mounted behind less than 50 cm apart. many attempts at prevention or delay fail- linkage tractors. Commercial systems first Prior to the advent of selective herbi- ing. In Australia, regular use of herbicides appeared in Europe in 2001; with initial cides, crop losses due to weed competi- alone for annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) adoption in the sugar beet and vegetable tion were often substantial. Grain grow- control has led to thousands of hectares industries. Adoption to date by cereal ers regularly resorted to strategies to infested with this weed, for which no se- growers has been limited to organic pro- deplete weed seedbanks, including long lective herbicide remains effective. ducers. fallowing, haycutting and delayed seed- Glyphosate resistance is expected to Silsoe Research Institute and Garford ing which often entailed negative impacts increase exponentially in no-till systems. Farm Machinery in Britain have developed upon soil structure, fertility and crop Adoption of disc seeding equipment is the ROBOCROP vision guidance system. yield. likely to exacerbate glyphosate resistance To date over 60 units have been sold and During the 40 years after World War 2, as the opportunity to kill weeds surviving successfully used in cereals, canola, sugar remarkable innovations in organic chem- pre-sowing glyphosate is lost when no-till beet, cotton, soybeans, field peas, carrots, istry produced a proliferation of new her- discs are substituted for the full seedbed parsnips, leeks, brassicas, field beans and bicides with differing modes of action and disturbance offered by tyned implements. pumpkins. This device won a silver medal crop selectivity. Herbicide development Internationally, glyphosate resistance at the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- has, by and large stalled however, with no has been reported in seven species to date; land Show in 2003. new herbicide groups presented to Aus- particularly in the USA with fields grow- Robocrop uses a colour video camera tralian grain farmers in the past twenty ing glyphosate-tolerant crops such as cot- to scan ahead of the tillage bar. Images are years. Research endeavours with herbi- ton and soybean. analysed twenty times per second to de- cides are declining as a result of fewer A common factor in the development termine a fix on the crop rows. Signals are prospects, patent maturation leading to in- of herbicide resistance is a lack of tillage relayed back to electro-hydraulic valves tense generic competition and widespread after application of the herbicide. Tillage that control a sideshift used to position the company mergers. Consequences in the enables any surviving (resistant) individu- tillage bar in relation to the crop rows. No marketplace are the triumph of image over als to be killed prior to them setting seed, satellite signals are used, just a real-time substance, as advertising agencies attempt preventing the irreversible drift towards video image of the crop ahead. Multiple to become the drivers of change, rather dominance of the weed population by her- rows and discontinuity of the row are not than the technical attributes of the prod- bicide resistant biotypes. a problem. Robocrop will follow curves, ucts. This is often achieved by re-badging Tillage kills by physically breaking thus it will correct for GPS errors incurred of the same active ingredients to create an roots and enabling subsequent desiccation during sowing or follow contours (in dry- illusion of innovation. and/or burial of the weed. For tillage to land crops). Cultivators up to 12 m wide Pre-sowing tillage for seedbed prepara- be effective in preventing herbicide resist- for any crop row configuration are avail- tion has been progressively discarded over ance, it must be timed to act against the able. the past 30 years in southern cropping same cohort of weeds as were affected by Parallelograms are fitted across the bar systems of Australia by the substitution of the herbicide. For example, if glyphosate to enable accurate depth control, thus pre- herbicides for cultivation. is applied prior to seeding a crop, tillage venting root damage or excessive mois- No-tillage agriculture has benefited must occur after the glyphosate is ap- ture loss from cultivating too deeply. Even from major and patient investments by plied or, if a selective in-crop herbicide is soil flow also occurs when knives are

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 113 suspended off parallelograms, so clear- Table 1 ances can be minimised and intra-row Guidance method Speed Standard deviation weeds can often be buried. Burial of weeds -1 within the row can occur at an earlier stage Manual guidance 6.5 km h 14 mm with a higher probability of suppression Robocrop guidance 6.5 km h-1 9 mm or kill. This is assisted by the high speed Robocrop guidance 11 km h-1 10 mm of operation, enabling more acres to be covered when the crop, the weeds and the Source: An experimental study of lateral positional accuracy achieved during inter- weather demand it. row cultivation, Home et al. 2002 Proc. 5th EWRC Workshop on Physical Weed Control, Robocrop cultivators are designed for Pisa, Italy. very shallow tillage, thus draft requirements are low, tractor horsepower needs are minimised and fuel conserved. Row clearances can be diminished, leading to a in keeping the tractor near the tramlines, tillage and herbicides for a more durable higher percentage of the field subjected to matching of the Robocrop tynes to those of outcome than current weed management a terminal dose of ‘cold steel’. the drill and following the same direction practices offer. Testing of Robocrop at Silsoe Research of travel as the seed drill (unless the drill For further information contact Mal- Institute in Britain has documented the in- is fully symmetrical). colm Taylor at Robocrop Australia Pty creased accuracy of vision guidance over Crop growth stage influenced tillage Ltd. on 03 58 722 892, email: malcolmc. manual tractor operators, as demonstrated speed and vigour, as young crops are sus- [email protected]. in Table 1. ceptible to burial. Skilled operators manually guiding Narrow row spacings (e.g. <250 mm) hoes cannot maintain peak performance substantially reduced the proportion of consistently as the operation involves in- tilled to untilled ground and limited for- tense concentration. By contrast Robocrop ward speeds to below 8 km h-1 in order to guidance will operate day and night with prevent crop burial. Optimum row spac- the same consistency. With lower devia- ings to facilitate inter-row tillage of winter tion from the crop rows, hoe blade clear- cereals crop appeared to be in the range of ances can be reduced. 300–350 mm. Inter-row tillage is a slow operation Australian testing compared to contemporary work rates for A commercial scale evaluation of a ROB- crop spraying. Forward speeds are likely OCROP precision guided hoe was under- to be 8–12 km h-1 and swath width must taken in south eastern Australia in the 2004 match that of the seed drill (i.e. typically winter cropping season. Collaborators 6–18 m wide), thus giving spot work rates included the inventors (Silsoe Research of approximately 7–22 ha h-1. Fertilisation Institute) the manufacturers (Garford and inter-row tillage operations could be Farm Machinery), an Australian contract combined to assist in justifying the costs R&D company (Agropraisals) and several of operation. grower groups with funding support gen- Guidance of hooded sprayers in wide- erously provided by the Grains Research spaced crops using the Robocrop guidance and Development Corporation and in- system would be feasible, although un- kind support from Case IH. likely to present some of the advantages Potential advantages of the system to on offer by introducing precision guided Australian grain growers were perceived inter-row tillage into winter-cropping sys- to include: low capital cost, low input tems. costs (on-going herbicide inputs reduced Adaptation of Robocrop technology to or eliminated) and alternative ‘mode or suit some major Australian imperatives of action’ for weed control in a manner com- low till seedbeds and stubble retention are plementary to current strategies for man- the current goals in on-going endeavours aging herbicide resistance. to capture the value of robotic weeding After airfreighting, assembly and com- for local grain producers. The Grains Re- missioning, the Robocrop precision guid- search and Development Corporation is ed hoe was demonstrated at seven sites; currently investing in a program to de- across southern New South Wales and velop tillage bars capable of seeding crops northern Victoria in winter cereals, lupins, into undisturbed seedbeds with retained faba beans and canola at row spacings of stubbles, then subsequently tilling the crop 225–670 mm. inter-rows with high speed and accuracy. The Robocrop precision tillage hoe This ‘Seed’nWeed’ equipment will present proved to be a robust and functional de- opportunities to defer tillage until a crop vice capable of accurately tilling in level is established to protect soil from erosion, cultivated seedbeds. Tracking of the Rob- to restrict traffic across the field to prevent ocrop guidance system worked effectively compaction, to place fertilisers more accu- in all circumstances (including under trac- rately and efficiently than can be currently tor lights at night). All crop stages, spac- achieved and to restrict placement of selec- ings and weed densities were tracked tive herbicides to the crop row only; result- without any apparent difficulty. ing in major savings in herbicide inputs. Tillage accuracy depends upon tractor Now that the technology has arrived, our linkage stability, the skill of the operator challenge is to integrate precision guided

114 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 back into the holding tank to be reused. The tray or trailer mounted polyurethane Weed spread prevention wash down trial tank has a capacity of 300 L and is driven by a top mounted five horsepower petrol Byron Crowe, Department of Primary Industries, PO Box 103, Geelong, pump. The water pressure rate was lowered to conserve water and enable the op- Victoria 3220 erator more time to clean down machinery. The containment matt is constructed from an industrial strength vinyl with bunted walls containing memory foam. The memory foam allows a vehicle to move over the Summary Weed prevention measures are landscapes as one of their most impor- bunted wall and then immediately assume the most effective way of protecting assets tant duties. The Weed Spread Prevention its shape. To recycle the water a twelve- from weed invasion. Educating the com- Wash Down Trial is a part of the Victorian volt marine pump, which has 100 litres munity and industry on issues associated Governments’ ‘Tackling Weeds on Private per minute flow rate, removed water from with high-risk activities such as movement Land Initiative’. The aim of the initiative the mat back to the unit through a vortex of machinery will save time and money in is to have key stakeholders accepting and filter. The vortex filter is designed to cap- the long term. The precautionary approach acting on their weed management respon- ture vegetable matter and large suspended is a concept being widely employed to sibilities in a collaborative manner in new solids. guide future environmental planning and innovative ways to reflect the goals processes and funding decisions. of the Victorian Pest Management Frame- Trial sites The Weed Spread Prevention Wash work (VPMF). The Trial involved three Five sites were selected for their infesta- Down Trial aims to raise awareness and major stakeholders the Department of tions of Chilean needle grass and serrated increase the capacity of Local Government Sustainability and Environment, Depart- tussock in each of the participating Local in improved machinery hygiene to pre- ment of Primary Industries and the mu- Government municipalities. The sites oc- vent the spread of weeds. The trial was nicipalities of Surf Coast, Golden Plains curred on roadside verge and were four conducted over a period of twelve months and Moorabool. metres in width and fifty metres long. A and involved three municipalities. The Why conduct a wash down Trial? Seeds Global Positioning System marked the equipment selected for the trial consisted and other viable plant parts can hitch a ride corners of each site and a star picket was of a portable wash down unit and a con- on machinery and contaminate previously placed as a visual marker. To measure the tainment mat, designed to wash tractor ‘weed-free’ areas. The trial concentrated weed density at each of the fifteen loca- slashers used to cut roadside vegetation on tractor slashers, typical local govern- tions a flora survey was undertaken using while also recycling the water used back ment equipment. Slashing is done for a metre square quadrant. into the unit. many reasons; it aims to reduce biomass In each of the three municipalities, five and fire risk, improves driver safety by im- Logbooks trial sites were selected and surveyed for proving roadside visibility, and it reduces Machinery wash down logbooks were weed species. The sites were slashed and or prevents the flowering of weed species developed by the Department of Primary vegetative samples taken to determine the thus reducing their spread into neighbour- Industries and then provided to each of viability and amount of weed seeds from ing properties. However, a previous study the participating municipalities. The ma- each of the fifteen trial sites. has also shown slashing actively disperses chinery checklist in the log book leads the The preliminary findings from both weed seeds scattering them around the machinery operator through a systematic weed seed counts and viability study slasher deck during the performance of search for contamination points on the found large amounts of viable weed seeds the slashing process and carrying them tractor slasher. The logbook also captures are collected by the process of slashing. further afield if the machinery is not kept information on the use of the equipment, Surveys of the municipalities involved clean (Erakovic et al. 2003). It is therefore how the inspection and clean process showed an increase in understanding of essential that machinery operators inspect was undertaken and other factors such as both the responsibilities concerning weed and thoroughly wash down machinery weather. hygiene principals as well as the rate of before it enters a clean area. use of machinery hygiene principles and This funding opportunity has allowed Field samples practices. Local Government to build internal ca- Samples were taken between October and pacity by improving hygiene controls on December 2004, during the municipalities’ Introduction equipment, which have the potential to roadside slashing program. Two types of Many of the alien plant species introduced spread weeds through their daily activi- samples were taken – dry and wet. The into Australia have become weeds and ties. dry sample was collected prior to the wash have invaded a wide range of environ- The final aim of the project is to inves- down process and sourced from the chaff ments. These invasive plants are reducing tigate the amount and type of weed seed on top of the slasher. The wet sample came yields in crops and pastures and changing taken from the slashers at the trial sites. from the contents of the mat after the clean- the natural environment (Castles 1992). In Once this has been achieved the viability ing process had been undertaken. Each the recent past, the rate and risk associ- of the weed seeds found will be tested to sample was labelled with site information ated with alien species introductions have determine the value of the wash down then packed and couriered to the LaTrobe increased enormously because human process and the threat that slashing pro- University Department of Botany. population growth and human activities poses in the spread of weeds. altering the environment have escalated Weed seed counts and chemical testing rapidly (Pimental et al. 2000). Materials and methods To perform the seed counts and identify Prevention of weed spread is a key Wash down equipment the weed seeds contained within the sam- consideration for cost effective control The selected equipment for the trial is ple all other matter was removed includ- in resource management. The Federal portable, has the ability to contain the wa- ing mud and chaff. Due to Chilean needle and Victorian Governments have identi- ter and vegetable matter washed from the grass’ larger seed size this weed species fied in their policies the protection of our tractor and slasher and recycle the water was used as a representative species to

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 115 determine the amount of weed seed. A Conclusion grab sample of Chilean needle grass seed Preliminary results of the weed seed was then taken and treated with tetrazo- counts and chemical testing study showed lium chloride to determine seed viability. that the process of slashing roadside vegetation has the potential to spread viable Evaluation weed seed to other locations. The project evaluation consisted of semi- For clean down equipment to be adopt- structured interviews and questionnaires. ed by Local Government field operators The semi-structured interviews were con- of tractor slashers, it needs to be able to be ducted with Environmental Officers and operated by a single person and the proc- the questionnaires were targeted at the ess of cleaning performed quickly. The Field Operators from each of the three understanding by the participants of the municipalities. principles and practices concerning machinery hygiene increased over the course Discussion of the Trial. Although each of the Local Government It is apparent that the provision of Municipalities had unlimited use of the appropriate training is a corner stone to equipment for a twelve-month period the increase the capacity of field staff in the use of the equipment outside the trial sites practice of effective clean down. Also, the was minimal. The weight of the equipment prudent purchasing of the equipment used provided a barrier to its use as the machin- in the Trial (clean down unit and mat) will ery operator predominantly works alone. benefit other departments with its contin- This presented issues with Occupational ued use. Health and Safety policies. The Environ- mental Officers were targeted to be advo- References cates of the project. All were supportive Castles, I. (1992). Australia’s environment: and cooperative throughout the life of the issues and facts. Australian Bureau of project. However, as the field staff were Statistics. (Commonwealth of Austral- part of a different business within local ia, Sydney). government the amount of influence the Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Officers had was limited. A Environment (2002). Victorian pest training program was to be implemented management: framework for action. for the field staff involved with the project, (Department of Natural Resources and however, it was discovered that the mu- Environment, Melbourne). nicipalities had already organised their Erakovic, Lj., Subic, A., Abu-Hijleh, B. and own weed spread prevention training. McLaren, D. (2003). Modelling and sim- Consequently the Weed Spread Preven- ulation of Chilean needle grass spread tion wash down trial dovetailed into this during slashing. Under Control No. 23 process by providing training in the use Department of Primary Industries. of the equipment. All participants in the Pimental, D., Lach, L., Zuniga, R. and Mor- trial commented on the amount of plant rison, D. (2000). Environmental and material obtained at the trial sites due to economic cost associated with non-in- the cleaning process. It was a clear exam- digenous species in the United States. ple of how effective machinery hygiene BioScience 50(10), 53-65. procedures can be. Through the implementation of the VPMF the move toward preventative weed management is being recognised as a sound investment by Government. Conse- quently the DPI compliance program has purchased two units to enable adequate clean down of equipment used to perform compliance entry in the administration of the Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994. The benefits of the equipment for managing Phytophthora dieback were recognised by Parks Victoria who also purchased a unit. Comments from local government staff regarding improvements to the design of the pump were incorporated by Parks Victoria making the unit effective in the removal of water from the mat. Some of the benefits of using this equipment in the management of Phytophthora dieback included low water pressure, ability to recycle chemical and the use of recycled water in remote locations.

116 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 be involved as integral participants in the operation. One person would remain at Himalayan honeysuckle control at Mt Buffalo the vehicle to monitor chemical and fuel levels and the hose that would regularly become tangled if left alone. Two would be Darin Lynch, Parks Victoria, Bright, Victoria 3741 spaced at intervals along the hose to assist with pulling it through the vegetation, and the fourth person would operate the spray gun. Communication between team mem- Himalayan honeysuckle (Leycesteria for- although considerable, were unfortunate- bers was via departmental radios. mosa) is a native of western China, India, ly not tackling the root of the problem. The safety of staff in these situations Nepal and Burma, and was imported to By the 1990s it was apparent that the was a constant consideration. There was Australia as a garden species. It is a de- plant had established itself in significant a high potential for slipping and tripping, ciduous multi-stemmed shrub to 3 (rarely infestations that would require a more snake and insect bite, and with protective to 4) m high, with erect hollow stems and concentrated effort. A formal control strat- overalls on, heat exhaustion could occur ovate leaves. Fruit are ovoid and fleshy egy was developed that formed the basis quickly. (Australian Weeds Committee 2005). A for planning and consolidated a more stra- Despite being able to spray plants up fact that makes them highly attractive tegic approach, from this control lines and to 400 m into the bush, there remained to parrots and smaller forest birds, foxes priority areas for works were identified. significant infestations just out of reach, and browsing animals such as wallaby In the mid-nineties the park purchased some of these being very dense. This and deer, all are believed to be vectors of a 4WD mounted self retracting dual-reel meant that there was a source from which spread. spray unit, which together with a more seed could be spread each year. These ar- It is a highly invasive weed capable of conventional trailer type unit combined eas were treated to some degree by using out-competing Australian natives to the to enable staff to tackle infestations deeper 7 litre pump-up spray bottles that could point of completely altering the floristics in the bush. Remote work was undertaken be carried deep into the bush, the basal of a forest understorey if left uncontrolled. using hand-pulling and gas gun chemi- bark method being applied (glyphosate Established infestations are known in a cal applicators. Metsulfuron-methyl and mix) to each plant. The sheer number of considerable area of the foothill forest of glyphosate achieving excellent results. plants, small chemical carrying capac- Mount Buffalo National Park on sections Significant funding compared to previ- ity and inherently slow control technique of the eastern boundary. Efforts to control ous years allowed a targeted annual con- meant that the infestations out of reach of the species have been carried out for many trol program. By 2002 an annual budget of the high volume spray were never effec- years to varying degrees of effect. $20 000 was standard. Rather than using tively treated. Observations of Rangers stationed at internal staff, the program now used the In early January 2003, what started Mt Buffalo in the 1970s were that the plant services of short-term casual employees as two small fires ignited from lightning was seen at certain sites on roadsides on chosen for their fitness and weed control strikes combined to change the approach the lower section of the mountain. These experience. The 4–5 person team were to Himalayan honeysuckle control at Mt plants were hand pulled and not consid- dedicated to the program, having no in- Buffalo. The Alpine Fires that burnt an es- ered a major threat at the time. Its occur- volvement in any other park maintenance timated 1.19 million hectares of public land rence on roadsides suggests it was trans- duties. in North East Victoria and Gippsland had ported in the gravel used to surface the Control works focused on the Eurobin, at their conclusion burnt approximately roads of the area. Once established on the Kangaroo and Buffalo creek catchments, 90% of Mt Buffalo National Park. roadsides however, it is now presumed especially the Eurobin which remains to- All but a very small percentage of ma- that infestations rapidly spread deeper day as the most heavily infested. There ture infestations were consumed in the fire. into the surrounding forest. are a number of reasons for this. The first And inspections post-fire showed that all During the mid-1980s concern began to being the favourable habitat provided by plants that were burnt showed no signs of increase regarding the extent and impact the forest type and moist gullies, the sec- recovery. This was an exciting time. Sites Himalayan honeysuckle was having on ond being the very steep and rough terrain that were heavily infested and had proven the foot hills of the Park. As a result an which makes going extremely difficult difficult to access and treat were now de- extensive survey was undertaken by Steve and slow, and has hindered control ef- void of honeysuckle. In one fowl swoop, Millington (Ranger) in 1988. He walked forts. Hence the requirement for the spray for a brief period, the whole of Mt Buffalo much of the eastern side of Mt Buffalo to team to possess a high fitness level. And excepting a few small pockets were free of determine the extent and concentration the third which is perhaps the least sup- Himalayan honeysuckle. of infestations. Maps were made of these ported by substantial evidence is that the As months after the fire passed, further infestations and identified three catch- area harbours a significant Sambar deer inspection revealed germination from seed ments in which Himalayan honeysuckle population. It is proven that Sambar eat bank. In drainage lines germination was was present: the Eurobin, Kangaroo and the fruit of Himalayan honeysuckle and crop-like. Heavy rain following the fires Buffalo Creeks. These catchments are spread seed in their faeces (Eyles 2003), had washed large quantities of soil into concentrated in an area to the north and but the degree to which infestation spread creeks and the middle of gullies, carrying north-west of Eurobin Falls covering ap- can be attributed to them is unknown. with it the seed that had accumulated over proximately 700 hectares. At that stage High volume spraying with metsul- many years. Seedlings could be found on the extremity of the infestation appeared furon-methyl from the vehicle mounted the flanks of gullies and on ridges, but too to be no higher than 900 m in elevation, unit off the tourist road at the top of the much less extent. with infestations being thickest in the base catchments, and from the bottom on the With these findings the opportunity of drainage lines, becoming scattered on park boundary was successful in push- was seized to embark on a large scale con- gully flanks. ing the extremities of the infestations in- trol program in the summer of 2003/2004. Control programs gained momentum wards. By joining hoses spraying could be The Victorian Government – Bushfire Re- using park and forestry staff, with hand achieved up to 400 m from the vehicle. At covery Program that provided for the re- pulling, and high volume spraying being this length, combined with the steep and pair and replacement of assets, research undertaken off roadsides. These efforts rough terrain, all team members would and protection of natural and cultural

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 117 values, and support of neighbouring com- Instead efforts were concentrated on Point presentation, The University of munities ensured that the program was gaining a better picture of the overall in- Melbourne. well funded. $75 000 was committed to the festation. Surveying and mapping was project in its first year. completed for all previously known sites The fire had provided a window of op- and also far wider into areas that had not portunity. Areas that were once almost previously been specifically searched to impossible to walk through due to fallen identify honeysuckle, but possessed fa- timber and a thick shrub layer were now vourable habitat. Where feasible control accessed with far less effort. As well, the works were also undertaken. The results juvenile state of the infestations meant that revealed the presence of the plant over a plants were easier to treat with less volume wider area than was recorded. This infor- of herbicide. Those infestations that had mation was invaluable for the planning been out of reach to high volume spray- of the following year’s program, and will ing, yet were too large to treat properly continue to be vital for managers into the with small volume pump-up spray bottles future. could now be targeted. There would also The second year of the Bushfire Re- be a timeframe of two growing seasons covery Program saw a similar amount of where these plants would not produce vi- money dedicated to the project, and in the able seed. 2004/2005 summer control works were Rather than using casual staff, the again let to contract. project went to tender and was imple- Areas that had seen control works the mented using a pest plant management previous year were revisited, especially contractor. Gullies with semi-permanent wet gullies that were targeted again as a and permanent water were targeted as a priority. Works were undertaken in areas priority due to the high density of plants, that had been left the previous year to due and the fact that if not treated at the seed- to native vegetation regrowth, however ling stage and left to grow there would in most circumstances searching for and have been a requirement to use greater identifying honeysuckle was still very te- quantities of chemical. Highly undesirable dious. These areas will continue to pose in an aquatic environment with sensitive a problem until such time that the hon- riparian native vegetation. By focusing eysuckle has grown to a point where it is on these areas at this stage of the plants easily found. Control methods used were growth, many infestations were removed the same as those in 2003/2004. by hand-pulling and through cautious use Surveying and mapping continued, of the ‘water friendly’ form of glyphosate with results showing that in the majority at a 2% rate. of cases the severity of infestations had Chemical was applied to foliage using been significantly reduced by the previous 7 litre pump-up spray bottles, with a team year’s efforts. In one of only a few sites of 4–5 people moving down gullies from remaining with a mature infestation, the their origin. The team would be spaced Gorge area was visited. This area of the at a distance to ensure as best as possi- park is famous for its series of magnificent ble that all plants were treated. In areas cliff faces, the longest of which is a 300 where infestations were well away from m vertical drop. An abseiling guide was vehicle access and relatively high quanti- engaged to enable park staff to gain access ties of chemical was necessary, a hose with to the plants that hung precariously from a tap at the end would be dragged in to the cliff walls. a centralised point. At the nearest point By the conclusion of the two year post- on a road, the hose at the other end was fire program a great deal was learnt about connected to a vehicle mounted tank con- Himalayan honeysuckle at Mt Buffalo. taining the chemical mix. This meant that Much more is known about the spread crew members would not have to walk and severity of the infestation across the out to the vehicle each time they needed park, and results of control works were to re-fill. High volume spraying methods very promising. However it is true that were not used. if the importance of managing this pest In general, areas away from gullies on plant is not seen as an ongoing priority the the flanks and ridges were left untreated. infestation may return to its former sever- In many locations regrowth by primary ity. The next few years will ultimately tell colonisers was phenomenal, with brack- whether the widespread fire of 2003 has en in particular rapidly forming a dense been of benefit or hindrance to the control blanket obscuring the smaller honeysuck- of this species at Mt Buffalo. le seedlings. This meant that control efforts were unfeasible with search efforts References to locate each plant too difficult and time Australian Weeds Committee (2005). consuming. Nevertheless it was recog- Weeds Australia – weed identifica- nised that these sites would require at- tion – Himalayan honeysuckle. www. tention. And it was decided that they be weeds.org.au. left until the following season when the Eyles, Dan (2003). Is Sambar deer (Cervus honeysuckle had grown and was easier to unicolour) a vector of Himalayan Hon- find. eysuckle (Leycesteria formosa). Power

118 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 POSTER SUMMARIES

Smyth, M. and Sheppard, A. (2002). Lon- gitarsus echii and its impact on Echium An insecticidal exclusion method for studying plantagineum (Paterson’s curse): the insect for the Mediterranean rainfall range biological control impacts on ragwort (Senecio of the weed? Proceedings of the 13th jacobaea L.) and Paterson’s curse (Echium Australian Weeds Conference, eds H. Spafford Jacob, J. Dodd and J.H. Moore, plantagineum L.) pp. 341-5. (Plant Protection Society of Western Australia, Perth). Thomas B. Morley and Julio C. Bonilla, Department of Primary Industries Swirepik, A. and Smyth, M. (2003). Evalu- Frankston, PO Box 48, Frankston, Victoria 3199 ating biological control at the regional scale. In ‘Improving the selection, testing and evaluation of weed biological control agents’, eds H. Spafford Jacob and D.T. Briese, pp. 61-7. (CRC for Aus- The impact of biological control on weed Holtkamp 1999), or combinations of tralian Weed Management, Adelaide, populations can be evaluated in a variety these (e.g. Smyth and Sheppard 2002). Australia). of ways. These include: This poster briefly outlines the insecti- • comparing weed infestations before cidal exclusion method we use for eval- This summary is of a poster that was origi- and after biological control, uating the effect of biological control on nally presented at 14th Australian Weeds • contemporaneous comparisons of Senecio jacobaea L. (ragwort) Echium plan- Conference as: weed infestations at sites with and sites tagineum L. (Paterson’s curse) in Victoria Morley, T.B. and Bonilla J.C. (2004). without biological control agents, and presents some information considered An insecticidal exclusion method for • assessments of correlations between for insecticide selection. studying biological control impacts agent numbers and parameters indica- on ragwort (Senecio jacobaea L.) and tive of weed population dynamics (e.g. References Paterson’s curse (Echium plantagineum Swirepik and Smyth 2003), Adair, R.J. and Holtkamp, R.H. (1999). L.). Proceedings of the 14th Australian and Development of a pesticide exclusion Weeds Conference, eds B.M. Sindel and • experiments to manipulate biological technique for assessing the impact of S.B. Johnson, p. 380. (Weed Society of control agent attack levels by physical biological control agents for Chrysanthe- New South Wales, Sydney). exclusion or containment or pesticid- moides monilifera. Biocontrol Science and al exclusion methods (e.g. Adair and Technology 9, 383-90.

Establishment and dispersal of dock moth Pyropteron doryliformis (Ochsenheimer) (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) in Victoria

Thomas B. MorleyA, Steven FaulknerB and Ian G. FaithfullA A Department of Primary Industries Frankston, PO Box 48, Frankston, Victoria 3199 B Cooperative Research Centre for Australian Weed Management, University of Melbourne, Dookie Campus, Victoria 3647

A biological control agent for docks (Rumex This is a summary of research that was species) has been found in large popula- originally presented as a poster at and arti- tions in parts of northern Victoria, where cle in the proceedings of the 14th Austral- it is dispersing widely and probably hav- ian Weeds Conference as: ing a substantial impact. The Moroccan Morley, T.B., Faulkner, S. and Faithfull clearwing moth or dock moth (Pyropteron I.G. (2004). Establishment and disper- doryliformis (Ochsenheimer) was released sal of dock moth Pyropteron doryliformis in Victoria from 1991 to 1999. Most of these (Ochsenheimer) (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) releases were undertaken by inserting ‘egg in Victoria. Proceedings of the 14th Aus- sticks’ (toothpicks with moth eggs glued tralian Weeds Conference, eds B.M. Sin- onto them) into the cut stalks of dock del and S.B. Johnson, pp. 381-4. (Weed plants. The most successful dock moth Society of New South Wales, Sydney). populations in Victoria occur on Rumex crispus in northern regions of the state.

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 119 stration trials conducted in Victoria over the summer of 2004/5. Gallery 750DF Herbicide tankmixes are safe to trees These results are consistent with those and vines with effective residual weed control seen in vine work previously reported (Wells, 2004). Use of isoxaben in tank- Gregory S. Wells, Gregg Baynon, Nicholas Koch and Peter Nott, mixture gave improved weed control and for longer than where either oryzalin or Dow AgroSciences Aust. Pty Ltd., PO Box 838, Sunbury, Victoria 3429 pendimethalin were used alone. Other demonstration trials (unreported) done by Dow AgroSciences show similar findings. Summary Wells (2004) reported that This paper refers to small plot trial Dow AgroSciences had conducted 15 tri- work completed from 1990 to 2004, but Discussion als between 1990 and 2004 to determine also reports on unreplicated demonstra- Many growers use knockdown herbicides the efficacy of tankmixes of isoxaben at tion trials showing efficacy and crop safety for treatment of weeds under vine or 281.25–562.5 g ai ha-1 with either pendime- of isoxaben tankmixes. tree crops. However, this practice is time thalin or oryzalin at their label rates. Seven consuming, is often at a time when other trials showed tankmixes of isoxaben pro- Materials and methods operations in orchards may be more criti- vided better control of broadleaf weeds Six large scale demonstration trials were cal and may result in significant injury to than either of the commercial standards, conducted in the Yarra and Goulburn crops due to the non-selective nature of pendimethalin at 2970–3960 g ai ha-1 or Valleys of Victoria in summer of 2004/5. some treatments. oryzalin at 2250–3400 g ai ha-1. Farmers applied treatments with either Use of isoxaben alone for susceptible Dow AgroSciences completed commer- tractor or four wheel motorbike mounted weeds, or in tankmixes with oryzalin or cial demonstrations of isoxaben in tree and boom sprayers fitted with flat fan noz- pendimethalin when significant grass vine crops prior to registration. Six of these zles designed to apply 225–500 L ha-1 to- weed pressure is expected, has the poten- trials are reported in this paper. (A total of tal spray volume. Treatments were timed tial to avoid these issues. 19 trials were conducted, but results are just prior to a major rainfall event, so that This practice has been tested and dem- only available for six at the time of writ- herbicides were incorporated by rainfall. onstrated in replicated small plot trial ing). In three trials, standard treatments were work since 1990 and non-replicated dem- Two trials were conducted in apples compared to Isoxaben tankmixes. In the onstration trials across southern Australia and four in grapevines. They showed 562.5 other three, Isoxaben alone was compared in 2004/5. This use is pending registration g ai ha-1 isoxaben applied in tankmix was to a standard. In all trials standard treat- (August, 2005). safe to apples or vines and gave extended ments were generally applied at label rec- residual broadleaf weed control. ommended rates. Treatments are shown Acknowledgements in table 1. Treatments were applied in a The senior author wishes to acknowledge Introduction band about 1 m wide either side of vine Gregg Baynon, Peter Nott and Nick Koch Isoxaben has been registered in the USA or tree rows. for conduct and assessment of demonstra- and Europe for control of broadleaf weeds Crop injury was monitored periodically tion trials. in vines and tree crops for over 10 years. after treatment and weed control was as- It is highly selective to crops, broad-spec- sessed as weeds germinated after rain. A References trum on weeds with diverse mode-of- percent scale was used for assessment, Wells, G.S. (2004). Isoxaben tankmixes action sites (Group K), immobile in soil where 100 = complete weed control. Con- provide safe, effective residual weed and moderately persistent and has a high trol was compared to the untreated inter- control in vines. Proceedings of the 14th safety margin for use by operators and ap- row as a reference. Australian Weeds Conference, eds B.M. plicators. These factors together make it a Sindel and S.B. Johnson, p 283 (Weed good candidate for safe, effective, residual Results Society of New South Wales, Sydney). weed control. Table 1 shows the results of the demon-

Table 1. Residual weed control with Isoxaben applied alone or tankmixed in apples and grapevines, Victoria 2004/5 Site Harcourt, Vic Seville, Vic Dixon’s Ck., Vic Shepparton, Vic Nagambie, Vic Milawa, Vic Crop Apples Apples Vines Vines Vines Vines Weeds 1 2 3 4 5 6 Days post-treatment 120 DAA 231 DAA 92 DAA 257 DAA 321 DAA 287 DAA Treatment and rate (g ai ha-1) Standard or 70 75 70 0 0 0 comparison treatment Isoxaben 562.5 100 100 100 Isoxaben 562.5 90 98 +Oryzalin 3400 Isoxaben 562.5 + 100 Simazine 2380 Standard or Oryzalin 3400 Oryzalin 3400 Isoxaben 562.5 + Oryzalin 3400 Pendimethalin Simazine 1500 comparison treatment Paraquat/Diquat 3300 1 Amaranths, Plantain, Subclover, wild radish, dandelion and fat hen. 2 Capeweed, catsear, dandelion, fat hen, plantain and red flowered mallow. 3 Plantain, subclover, wild radish and wireweed. 4 Capeweed, fat hen, milk thistle, storksbill, wild radish and subclover. 5 Capeweed, wild radish, Indian hedge mustard, blackberry nightshade, milk thistle and fat hen. 6 Capeweed, fat hen and wild radish.

120 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 sprayer with spray volume 176 L ha-1. In the glasshouse trial, application was done Spraytopping as a management tool to reduce seed using a track-spray-unit with a spray volume 100 L ha-1. Germination tests for production in Chilean needle grass infestations cleistogene and panicle seeds were done for 50 seeds from each plot per pot (or Shiv GaurA, David McLarenA,B and Kym ButlerC maximum available if less than 50 seeds) A Department of Primary Industries Frankston, PO Box 48, Frankston, Victoria in a germination cabinet at 25/15°C (al- 3199 ternating 12 h light/dark). Panicle seeds B CRC for Australian Weed Management germination was tested four months while C Department of Primary Industries, Werribee, Victoria 3030 cleistogene seed germination was tested five months after panicle seed harvest. A random 100 panicle seeds per plot or pot were examined for filled seeds (squeezing the seeds with tweezers) and expressed as filled seeds ha-1. The germinable seeds ha-1 Summary Two field and one glasshouse Chilean needle grass has very versatile was computed by multiplying the percent trial were established at Inverleigh and reproductive system. Beside aerial inflo- seed germination and filled seeds ha-1 data DPI, Frankston, Victoria, respectively to rescences, it also produces cleistogenes on for each plot. evaluate the effect of sub-lethal rates of the stem nodes (Connor et al. 1993). Pani- Treatments in each experiment were glyphosate and 2,2-DPA on panicle and cle seeds mature and fall off in mid to late set in a randomised block design with cleistogene seeds production of Chilean summer followed by stem seeds and these four replications except the first field ex- needle grass. One field trial was conduct- then form the bulk of the soil seedbank. periment (three replications). Except the ed during each spring of 2003 and 2004 on The stem seeds are concealed under leaf glasshouse trial (from mid December to established tussocks and the glasshouse sheaths and each stem node has the poten- end January) the panicles were harvested trial was done in spring 2004 using young tial to produce a few seeds on and above in mid December. Stem and basal cleis- tussocks raised from seedlings. Results in the ground nodes. Basal cleistogenes come togenes for the pot trial were assessed in the first field experiment indicated that ap- up in singles seeds at the very base of the April. plication of glyphosate at 510 g ha-1 from 3 stem on the first node beneath the soil September to 13 October prevented pani- surface. The newly formed basal seeds are First field experiment cle seed development and produced the light dull yellow colour and are still held A field trial was established in spring 2003 minimum number of filled and germina- under the leaf sheath. As they mature, they at the Hamilton Highway, Inverleigh, Vic- ble panicle seeds. 2,2-DPA proved to be become brown and thin and are released toria. The site was selected in July 2003 ineffective. The second field experiment in the soil as the leaf sheath ruptures. and grazing was excluded until the end showed that application of glyphosate at Gardener et al. (2003) observed poten- of the trial. The treatments comprised a ≥135 g ha-1 on 18 and 27 October prevented tial panicle seed production of 22 203 seed six herbicide (glyphosate at 0.1275, 0.255 production of filled and germinable pani- m-2 depending upon the number of flow- and 0.510 kg ha-1; 2,2-DPA at 2.22 and 3.7 cle seeds. However, this level of control ering heads per unit area. This dual mode kg ha-1; no herbicide placebo) by five times could be achieved at 1 October only with of seed production diminishes the pros- of application (3 September, 22 Septem- glyphosate at ≥270 g ha-1. The glasshouse pect of quick success of control/eradica- ber, 3 October, 13 October and 27 October) trial showed that glyphosate at 216 and tion measures. Spraytopping (sub-lethal factorial. Chilean needle grass tussocks 270 g ha-1 applied in October prevented herbicide application) has been widely were vegetative at the first two dates (3 the production of filled and germinable employed as a tool in different cropping September and October) and reproductive panicle seeds. Increasing glyphosate rates systems to reduce infestations of grasses, on 13 October (flag-leaf swelling) and 27 decreased stem and panicle seed germina- for the prevention of diseases and to en- October (panicle emergence). tion linearly but did not influence basal hance feed quality (Leys et al. 1991, Hill et In each plot panicles were harvested seed germination. Glyphosate at ≥270 g ha-1 al. 1996, Gatford et al. 1999). from a centrally placed quadrat (50 × during November proved to be most effec- This study was undertaken to evalu- 50 cm). The panicle seeds were cleaned, tive in controlling stem seeds. ate optimum time of application during sorted and weighed. A sub-sample of one spring season for different glyphosate and hundred panicle seeds was drawn from Introduction 2,2-DPA rates that may preclude panicle each plot, weighed and results scaled to Chilean needle grass (Nassella neesiana and cleistogene seed development. total number of seeds ha-1. Appropriately (Trin. & Rupr.) Barkworth) is a perennial transformed data was analysed as a six exogenous stipoid grass that produces Materials and methods herbicide by four times of application (ex- both panicle and cleistogene seeds. N. nee- Three experiments were conducted, two cluding 22 September as rain fell just after siana is widespread in pastures and natural in the field and one in a glasshouse. The application) factorial, but with a residual ecosystems on the Northern Tablelands of field trial sites were in Phalaris based pas- error constructed from a randomised block New South Wales and in southern Victoria. ture that was heavily infested with Chil- analysis with all 6 × 5 = 30 treatments. It grows through the winter but provides a ean needle grass. The glasshouse trial lower feed value than Dactylis glomerate L., was done on tussocks raised from panicle Second field experiment which is considered as a moderate pasture seeds. The field soil was loamy, whereas, This experiment was designed as a five grass when compared for protein, energy in the glasshouse steam-sterilised potting herbicide treatment (glyphosate at 0, 135, and digestibility (C. Grech personal com- mix (1:1 sand:pine bark) in 15 cm pots was 270, 405, 540 g ha-1) by three application munication). Under heavy infestations, used. In field trials no fertiliser was added, time (1, 18, and 28 October 2004) factorial, pasture productivity decreases as much however, in the glasshouse trial Nutricote at the Roxby Estate, Inverleigh, Victoria. as 60% and causes significant reduction in Black (16N, 1.4P, 8.3K) was applied at 6 g The tussocks were vegetative at 1 October, stock-carrying capacity during the sum- pot-1 in the beginning of the spring season. spiky stems at 18 October and full panicle mer season (Anon. 2001, Gardener et al. Herbicides in field trials were applied to 6 emergence at 28 October. The experimental 2003). × 3 m plots with a hand held Azo-Dutch site had old Chilean needle grass tussocks.

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 121 The mature plants had 25–40 cm high tus- The total number of stem seeds was scaled Results socks with dead centres and green leaves to 100 stems per pot. The clumps were dug Effect of herbicides growing from the margin. To get uniform out from the pots and assessed for basal Glyphosate was the more effective herbi- growth in early spring, the tussocks were seeds. In each pot, 20 mature stems bases cide in reducing the germinable and filled slashed in the winter season. The slash- were searched for basal seeds and scaled seeds and percent seed germination. The ing and prolonged dry weather promoted to 100 stems per pot. highest rate of glyphosate (0.510 kg ha-1) young tillers with thin stems. For each measurement, response curves had the maximum impact, resulting in the One hundred panicles (or maximum to glyphosate application rate were con- minimum number of germinable, filled available if less than 100 panicles) were structed for different application dates us- seeds and percent seed germination (Table harvested separately from the experimen- ing generalised linear models, and then 1). 2,2-DPA was much less effective even at tal area (excluding 50 and 100 cm width back transforming to the original scale high rate. There was no evidence (P >0.1) and length, respectively, on both sides of (GenStat Committee 2005). Brief details that these herbicide effects differed with the plot). The panicle seeds were cleaned, are presented in Figures 1 to 6. application time. and sorted for each plot to estimate the ancillary characters viz. filled seeds, germinable seeds, seed germinations etc. Table 1. Effect of herbicides applied at four times in spring on panicle Measurements were analysed using general linear model analysis with effects germinable seed, filled seed and seed germination for blocks and five specific combinations Herbicide Rate Germinable seed Filled seed ha-1 Seed of treatment (Table 3). There was no evi- (kg ha-1) ha-1 (× 106) (× 106) germination (%) dence of effects between individual treat- Glyphosate 0.1275 1.3 (0.80)A 4.0 (1.28) 23 (29) ment combinations within these group- ings (P >0.1). Analyses were restricted to Glyphosate 0.255 0.1 (0.71) 0.4 (1.19) 7 (16) treatment combinations that had variable Glyphosate 0.510 0.0 (0.70) 0.0 (1.18) 0.4 (4) data (not all zeros), and the residual error was constructed from deviations from all 2,2-DPA 2.22 8.8 (1.14) 19.0 (1.53) 47 (43) treatments present in the analysis (GenStat 2,2-DPA 3.70 5.5 (1.12) 4.0 (1.44) 27 (31) Committee 2005). Untreated – 11.7 (1.22) 35.0 (1.70) 39 (39) Glasshouse experiment LSD (P = 0.05) (0.16) (0.12) (12.0) This was a five-glyphosate rate (0, 135, A -1 Transformed data in parenthesis: log10 (germinable seed + 5), log10 (filled seed + 15), 216, 270, and 405 g ha ) by five times of and % seed germination (angular) application (first week of July, August, September, October, and November 2004) factorial, within a glasshouse at Frank- ston, Victoria. Chilean needle grass seed- Table 2. Effect of herbicides and application times on total panicle seed lings were raised from previous season’s production ha-1 (× 106) panicle seeds. Four-week-old seedlings Herbicide Rate Times of application were placed in jiffy pots and transplanted (kg ha-1) into 15 cm pots in April 2004. The tussocks 3 Sep 3 Oct 13 Oct 27 Oct were vegetative till October but were pro- Glyphosate 0.1275 21 (1.4)A 9 (1.1) 13 (1.2) 6 (1.0) ducing full panicle seeds in November. The mature panicles were harvested regu- Glyphosate 0.255 2 (0.8) 1 (0.7) 2 (0.7) 4 (0.9) larly from mid December to end of Janu- Glyphosate 0.510 0 (0.6) 0 (0.6) 0 (0.6) 2 (0.8) ary and the seeds were cleaned and sorted 2,2-DPA 2.22 42 (1.7) 18 (1.3) 14 (1.3) 29 (1.5) for assessment. Watering was withdrawn at the end of February to terminate the ex- 2,2-DPA 3.7 2 (0.8) 41 (1.7) 15 (1.3) 21 (1.4) periment. Untreated – 39 (1.6) 50 (1.7) 41 (1.7) 66 (1.8) All the mature stems in each treatment LSD (P = 0.05) (0.38) were chopped off 1–2 cm above the soil A surface and dissected for stem cleistogenes. Transformed data in parenthesis: log10 (panicle seed + 4)

Table 3. Glyphosate rates and time of application effect on Chilean needle grass panicle seed production Variates Mean sed Oct 1 Oct 1 Oct 18 Oct 28 Untreated at 135 g ha-1 at ≥270 g ha-1 at ≥135 g ha-1 at ≥135 g ha-1 X v/s X v/s (X) (Y) (X) (X) (X) X Column Y Column Germinable seeds per 100 913 124 0 0 0 – 129.3A panicles (B) Seeds per 100 panicles (C) 1572 1015 1104 332 750 79.1–111.5 122.9–143.2 Filled seeds % (B) 81 24 0 0 0 – 6.5A Germination % (B) 70 46 – – – – 6.4A A Only applicable for treatments with a value greater than 0 B In these rows LSDs are obtained by multiplying sed by 2.262 C LSD is obtained by multiplying sed by 2.030

122 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 In the glasshouse trial, all the herbicide 1.0 rates (135, 216, 270 and 405 g ha-1) killed the plants during the July application; but did not prevent panicle seeds developing 0.8 July during the November application (Figure 1). In August, September and October ap- Aug-Sept-Oct 0.6 plications, the number of plants producing Aug-Sept-Oct curve panicle seeds decreased with increasing glyphosate rates. For those plants produc- November 0.4 ing panicle seeds, the response of both germinable and total panicle seeds to glyphosate treatments was similar, and at all the Probability of panicle seed 0.2 application times these seeds decreased with increased rates (Figure 2 and 3). 0.0 Cleistogene development and 0 100 200 300 400 500 germination Basal seeds exhibited a higher percent Glyphosate g ha-1 germination compared to panicle and stem seeds and they were unaffected by Figure 1. The effect of glyphosate rates and time of application on panicle glyphosate treatment at any rate. How- seeds occurrence. The probability of panicle seed occurrence is adjusted for ever, panicle and stem seeds decreased block and date on logistic transformed scale. Responses fitted using logistic with increasing glyphosate rates (Figure regression with Bernoulli errors 4). Lower rates of glyphosate (135 and 216 -1 800 g ha ) had less impact on stem cleistogene August development during the August and Sep- tember applications compared to higher September -1 rates (270 and 405 g ha ). During the Oc- 600 October tober application all glyphosate rates ex- November cept 135 g ha-1 gave same level of control. However, in the November application 400 glyphosate at ≥135 g ha-1 stopped stem

seed development (Figure 5). The lowest Panicle seed rate of glyphosate (135 g ha-1) was found to be ineffective in preventing basal seed 200 development but higher rates (≥ 216 g ha-1) showed similar levels of basal seed control (Figure 6). 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 Herbicides and application time interactions Glyphosate g ha-1 Medium and high rates of glyphosate Figure 2. The effect of glyphosate rates and time of application on number (0.255 and 0.510 kg ha-1) produced the of panicle seeds per pot, for those pots where panicle seeds were present. minimum number of panicle seeds at all times of application (from 3 September to The number of panicle seeds is adjusted for block. Responses fitted using 27 October) along with the high rate of 2,2- general linear regression DPA (3.7 kg ha-1) at 3 September. The highest rate of glyphosate proved to be most 700 effective in preventing the panicle seeds when applied any time from 3 September to 13 October (Table 2). 500 August Glyphosate at the lowest rate (135 g ha‑1) at 1 October was less effective compared to September ‑1 higher rates (270, 405, 540 g ha ). Effects of October the different glyphosate rates varied with 300 time of application; on 18 and 28 October November the lowest rate was sufficient to prevent the occurrence of filled and germinable 100 seeds (Table 3), however, this level of con- Germinable panicle seeds trol was observed on 1 October only with higher rates (≥270 g ha-1). -100 Discussion 0 100 200 300 400 500 In this investigation glyphosate at higher Glyphosate g ha-1 rates (0.510 kg ha-1) was a more effective herbicide for preventing Chilean needle Figure 3. The effect of glyphosate rates and time of application on number grass panicle seed production than 2,2- of germinable panicle seeds per pot adjusted for block. The analysis is DPA, particularly when applied from 3 restricted to those pots where panicle seeds were present. Responses fitted September to 13 October. This effectiveness using general linear regression

Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 123 100 of glyphosate may be attributed to the non-selective and translocated action, which quickly disables the plant from per- 80 forming physiological processes needed Basal seed for seed development and results in un- filled seeds or complete loss of panicles. 60 Stem seed However, 2,2-DPA even at higher rates Panicle seed (3.7 kg ha-1) did not match the lowest rate -1 40 of glyphosate (0.1275 kg ha ). The poor

Germination rate performance of 2,2-DPA may be attributed to slow action as it is absorbed through 20 the roots and Chilean needle grass plants have a very short window of activity to complete seed formation and maturation. 0 This explanation of the effect of 2,2-DPA is 0 100 200 300 400 500 supported by early September application -1 Glyphosate g ha-1 at 3.7 kg ha , where it was comparable in effect to medium glyphosate rates (0.255 Figure 4. The effect of glyphosate rates on panicle, stem and basal seed kg ha-1). germination. The germination rate is adjusted for block and date on logistic In the second field experiment, a lower transformed scale. Responses fitted using logistic regression with over rate of glyphosate was not effective in dispersed binomial errors preventing the production of germinable seeds when applied in early October, but 400 was comparable to medium and high rates in mid and late October applications. To August deal with anticipated poor tiller establishment, the old tussocks were slashed in 300 September August to ensure new growth in the early spring. Though slashing promoted new October tillers, dry weather conditions in spring November lead to thin stems. This may be the reason 200 that weak stems did not withstand non-selective and knock down action of glyphosate and gave good performance at lower Stem cleistogene 100 rates in mid and late applications. On seedling-raised tussocks in the glasshouse, it was observed that increasing rates of glyphosate decreased the oc- 0 currence of panicle seeds during August, 0 100 200 300 400 500 September and October applications (veg- Glyphosate g ha-1 etative stage) but after the panicle emergence, glyphosate cannot prevent the Figure 5. The effect of glyphosate rates and time of application on stem production of panicle seeds. High rate of cleistogene. The number of stem cleistogene adjusted for block and date on glyphosate (405 g ha-1) in the first week transformed scale. Responses using general linear regression after log(y+50) of October and November could prevent transformation the production of germinable seeds, as these application times coincide with late 50 vegetative and panicle emergence stages, respectively. This reflects that the rate was enough to arrest the physiological activity 40 of the plant. Since the basal seeds are at an advanced stage in the spring they escape the deleterious effect of glyphosate but 30 panicle and stem seeds are developing during this period thus their production and 20 germinability is influenced by glyphosate. The reason for basal seeds reduction by

Basal cleistogene medium and high rates of glyphosate to a 10 certain degree may be attributed to killing of some of the young stems in tussocks before they became reproductive. However, 0 once the stem becomes reproductive, it is 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 likely to produce basal seed (Gardener et Glyphosate g ha-1 al. 2003). The reason for reduction of stem seeds in November applications in all the Figure 6. The effect of glyphosate rates on basal cleistogene development. glyphosate rates might be stems’ death or The number of basal cleistogene adjusted for block and date on very restricted stem growth because stem transformed scale. Responses fitted using general linear regression after seeds mature mid summer when panicle log(y+10) transformation seeds mature and fall off.

124 Weed Society of Victoria Second Victorian Weed Conference ‘Smart Weed Control, Managing for Success’ 17–18 August 2005 The overall conclusion from these experiments is that application of glyphosate at rates of 250 g ha-1 between August and Ecology of the invasive weed Salvia verbenaca (wild October are likely to very substantially reduce production of viable Chilean needle sage) in the rangelands of western New South Wales grass seeds and may be a useful contribution to Chilean needle grass manage- Robyn Fisher, Martin Westbrooke and Singrayer Florentine, Centre for ment. However 2,2-DPA is ineffective for Environmental Management, University of Ballarat, PO Box 663, Ballarat, this purpose unless applied early and at Victoria 3353 high rates. For glyphosate application as a spraytopping the timing is critical.

Acknowledgements Abstract Salvia verbenaca, wild sage (La- daily. A significant difference was ob- The assistance of Julio Bonilla in estab- miaceae) is widespread in western and served between the effects of the different lishing the trials and final assessments is southern Europe. In Australia S. verbenaca light treatments (P=0.0000) and tempera- greatly acknowledged. The authors are is considered an environmental weed of- tures (P=0.0000). The highest germina- grateful to Nigel Ainsworth for his valu- ten growing on disturbed sites: tracks, tion observed for seed collected in 1996 able comments on earlier version of this roadsides and around earth tanks. Little was at 20°C under 12 h light/12 h dark article. is known about the ecology of this inva- with 100% germination occurring by the sive species in Australia, in particular, fourth day. The highest germination for References optimum temperature requirements and seed collected in 2004 was at 25°C under Anon. (2001). Chilean needle grass Nassella density of soil stored seed bank. Objec- 12 h light/12 h dark with 96% germina- neesiana. Weeds of national significance tives of this study were to determine: (i) tion occurring by the sixth day. The soil – National Strategy. seed longevity, (ii) optimum temperature seed bank study showed that the mean Connor, H.E., Edgar, E. and Bourdôt, G.W. requirements for seed germination and number of seedlings recruited per hectare (1993). Ecology and distribution of nat- (iii) density of soil seedbank. Seeds were was 6.23 ± SE 3.76. It appears that S. ver- uralised species of Stipa in New Zea- germinated under controlled conditions at benaca qualifies as an invasive. As such, it land. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural temperatures of 20, 25, 30 and 35°C under is always safer to take appropriate action Research 36, 301-7. 12 hour light/12 hour dark and 24 hour at an early phase of invasion rather than Gardener, M.R., Whalley, R.D.B. and Sin- dark conditions. Thirty-two soil samples at a late stage in the infestation. To do this, del, B.M. (2003). Ecology of Nassella nee- were collected from areas of S. verbenaca we must first undertake studies such as siana, Chilean needle grass, in pastures infestation. Soil samples were placed in this to understand the plant’s ecological on the Northern Tablelands of New trays in a heated glasshouse and watered characteristics. South Wales. I. Seed production and dispersal. Australian Journal of Agricul- tural Research 54, 613-19. GenStat Committee (2005). The guide to GenStat Release 8. Part 2: Statistics. VSN International, Oxford, UK. Hill, R.D., Missen, D.J. and Taylor, R.J. Flupropanate resistance in serrated tussock (Nassella (1996). Use of glyphosate to prevent development of reproductive tillers and trichotoma) in Victoria extend vegetative growth of bent grass (Agrostis castellana). Australian Journal of S. NobleA, G. PritchardB, S.G. CasonatoA, A.C. LawrieA,C and D.A. McLarenB Experimental Agriculture 36, 661- 4. A Biotechnology and Environmental Biology, School of Applied Sciences, Gatford, K.L., Simpson, R.J., Siever-Kelly, RMIT University, PO Box 71, Bundoora, Victoria 3083 C., Leury, B.J., Dove, H. and Ciavarella, B Department of Primary Industry Frankston, PO Box 48, Frankston, T.A. (1999). Spray-topping annual grass Victoria 3199 pasture with glyphosate to delay loss C of feeding value during summer. I. Corresponding author email: [email protected] Effects on pasture yield and nutritive value. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 50, 453-64. Leys, A.R., Cullis, B.R. and Plater, B. (1991). Field resistance to flupropanate, the only 0.37 kg ha-1, while most ‘resistant’ plants Effect of spraytopping applications of selective herbicide for serrated tussock, were alive. At 18 months with 6 kg ha-1, paraquat and glyphosate on the nutri- was suspected in 2001 at Diggers Rest, near plant height and inflorescence number in tive value and regeneration of Vulpia Melbourne, Victoria. ‘Resistant’ and ‘sus- ‘resistant’ plants were no different from (Vulpia bromoides (L.) S.F.Gray). Austral- ceptible’ plants were collected and grown those of control plants. Shoots in seed- ian Journal of Agricultural Research 42, on in a glasshouse. Seeds and re-potted lings from ‘resistant’ plants were longer 1405-15. tillers were tested with flupropanate at up than shoots in seedlings from ‘susceptible’ to 6 kg ha-1. At 15 weeks after spraying, plants in flupropanate concentrations of only ‘resistant’ tillers showed no reduction 100–1000 mg L-1. This resistance to flu- in leaf number or height per plant. At 12 propanate has potentially serious conse- months, susceptible plants were killed by quences for control.

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