List o f Contributors xix Constantino Arias: Havanas Pre-Revolution Photographer 60 Constitution of 1940 62 A Cuban Adjustment Act 66 Afro-Cuban Spirituality in the Art of Manuel Cuban Counterpoint: Tobacco and Sugar Mendive 1 (Fernando Ortiz) 69 La Anunciación (Antonia Eiriz) 2 Cuban Embargo 74 Aponte Rebellion: 1811-1812 4 Cuban Missile Crisis: October 1962 77 The Art of René Portocarrero 7 The Cuban Revolution of 1959 81 Autobiography o f a Slave (Juan Francisco Cuban Singers in the United States 86 Manzano) 9 Cuban Thought and Cultural Identity 90 Azúcar y Población en las Antillas Cuban Thought and Cultural Identity: (Ramiro Guerra) 12 The Various Ways of (Not) Being Cuban 90 Cuban Thought and Cultural Identity: B Costumbres in the Art and Literature of the 19th Century 93 Baracoa 17 Cuban Thought and Cultural Identity: Bayamo 20 Costumbres in the Republican Period 96 Bay of Pigs Invasion: 1961 23 Cuban Thought and Cultural Identity: Costumbres in the Revolutionary Period 99 C Cuban Thought and Cultural Identity: Internet Blogging 105 Car Culture 29 Cuban Thought and Cultural Identity: Cecilia Valdés (Cirilo Villaverde) 32 The Internet Experience in Cuba 107 Che Guevara and the New Man 34 Cuban Thought and Cultural Identity: Populism, Che Guevara, Social and Political Thought 39 Nationalism, and Cubania 109 Cienfuegos 42 Cuban Thought and Cultural Identity: Quinceañeras 116 Classical Composers: Alejandro Garcia Caturla 46 Cuban Thought and Cultural Identity: Radical Classical Composers: Amadeo Roldán 48 Catholicism and Social Justice 120 Classical Composers: Leo Brouwer 50 Cuban Thought and Cultural Identity: Socialist Classical Composers: Tania León 53 Thought 123 Cocina Cubana: Nitza Villapol 54 Cuentos Negros de Cuba (Lydia Cabrera) 129 TABLE OF CONTENTS

D Education: Literacy Campaign of1961 257 Education: Schools in the Countryside 260 De Donde Son los Cantantes (Severo Sarduy) 133 Education: Cuban Schools in Miami 262 Día de Reyes en la Habana (Víctor Patricio de Elpidio Valdes: A Revolutionary Cartoon Landaluze) 136 Hero 265 Diálogo Agreement 138 Enrique Jorrin and the Cha-Cha-Cha 268 Diasporas 143 Esculturas Rupestres and Other Works by Ana Diasporas: Introduction 143 Mendieta 270 Diasporas: 19th Century 145 Esteban Salas: An Eighteenth-Century Composer 274 Diasporas: 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s 147 Diasporas: Afro-Cubans in the Diaspora 152 F Diasporas: Waves of Immigration since 1959 155 Diasporas: Cubans Abroad, Post-1959 160 Faith 277 Diasporas: The Politics of Exile in the Early Faith: Catholicism 277 1960s 164 Faith: Afro-Cuban Religions and Diasporas: Immigrant Exile Politics 166 Revolution 284 Diasporas: Political Action Committees and Lobby Faith: Abakuá Society 287 Groups 171 Faith: Arará 292 Diasporas: Exiles in the Cuban Popular Faith: Regla de Ocha and Ifá 294 Imagination 174 Faith: Reglas de Palo Congo 304 Dirty Havana Trilogy (Pedro Juan Gutiérrez) 178 Faith: Spiritism 308 Dreaming in Cuban (Cristina Garcia) 180 Faith: Vodou 310 Dreaming of an Island (María Magdalena Campos-Pons) 182 Faith: Protestantism in Cuba 312 Faith: Rastafari 314 E Faith: Judaism 316 Fefu and Her Friends (María Irene Fornés) 318 Ecology and Environment 187 Film 320 Ecology and Environment: Colonial Period 187 Film: Early History to1930 320 Ecology and Environment: Republican Period 194 Film: 1931-1959322 Ecology and Environment: Revolutionary Film: 1959-1989326 Period 199 Film: 1989-2010330 Economy 206 Film: Cuban Cinema of the Diaspora 334 Economy: Colonial Period 206 The Films of Jorge Molina and Eduardo del Economy: Republican Period 212 Llano 336 Economy: Revolutionary Period 222 Florida 338 Economy: Special Period 232 Food 343 Education 241 Food: Colonial Period 343 Education: Colonial Period 241 Food: Republican Period 346 Education: Republican Period 244 Food: Revolutionary Period 353 Education: Revolutionary Period: Stages of Food: Ritual Foods and Afro-Cuban Religious Educational Reform 248 Traditions 362 Education: Revolutionary Period: Philosophy 254 Food: Food Shortages and Gender 365 Havana: History of Urbanization, Housing, and G Public Services 464

Gallo Amarillo (Mariano Rodríguez) 369 Havana: Urban and Social History in the Twentieth Century 469 Gender 371 Health and Health Care 472 Gender: Colonial Period to 1920 372 Health and Health Care: Introduction 473 Gender: The Women’s Suffrage Movement in Cuba 376 Health and Health Care: Pre-1959 474 Gender: The Role of Women in the Struggle Against Health and Health Care: Revolutionary Batista 379 Period 478 Gender: Social Justice in the Revolutionary Health and Health Care: HIV/AIDS 485 Period 384 Health and Health Care: Medical Diplomacy Gender: Feminism and Masculinity in the and International Medical Education 488 Revolutionary Period 392 History Will Absolve Me (Fidel Castro) 493 Gender: Trends in Women’s Writing after the Revolution 395 Holguin 497 Gender: Women Behind the Camera 397 Gender: Gender Roles in Union City: A Case I Study 401 Indagación del Choteo (Jorge Mañach) 501 La Gitana Tropical and the Artistic Influence of Isla de Pinos 504 Victor Manuel 404 La Isla en Peso (Virgilio Piñera) 507 Gloria and Emilio Estefan: Latin Music’s Power Couple 406 Gómez, Guillén, Giral: Three Underappreciated J Filmmakers 409 José Martí: Exile in New York 513 Governance and Contestation 413 José Marti: Political Essays 518 Governance and Contestation: Colonial Period 414 José Marti: Writings for and about Children 522 Governance and Contestation: The Republic: La Jungla and the Artistic Development 1902-1952418 of Wifredo Lam 523 Governance and Contestation: Insurrection, 1952-1959423 K Governance and Contestation: The Cuban Kid Chocolate 529 Revolution 430 The Kingdom o f this World (Alejo Carpentier) 530 “La Guantanamera” 439 Guantánamo 441 Guerrillero Heroico (Alberto Korda) 445 L Language 535 H Language: Abakuá in Cuba and its Influence on Spanish Usage 535 Havana 449 Language: Lucumi 537 Havana: Architectural Development and City Planning 449 Language: Spanish 539 Havana: Atlantic Center of Shipping, Commerce, Life on the Hyphen (Gustavo Pérez Firmat) 544 and Building 455 Literature 546 Havana: El Morro and La Cabaña 458 Literature: Nationalist and Reformist Literature, Havana: Havana as Cultural Center 461 Pre-1850 547

CUBA BLE OF CONTENTS

Literature: Fiction in the Republican Period 551 Music: Nueva Trova (New Song): Music o f the Cuban Revolution 664 Literature: Fiction in the Revolutionary Period 555 Music: Afro-Cuban Religious Influence on Cuban Literature: Fiction in the Special Period 559 Popular Music 668 Literature: Children’s Literature in Cuba since Music: Ritual Music 672 1959 566 Music: Afro-Cuban Jazz 677 Literature: Nonfiction in the Colonial Period 569 Music: Cuban Rock 681 Literature: Nonfiction in the Republican Period 571 Music: Hip Hop 683 Literature: Nonfiction in the Revolutionary The Music of Ernesto Lecuona 688 Period 574 Literature: Nonfiction in the Special Period 579 N Literature: Poetry in the Colonial Period 581 New York City 691 Literature: Poetry in the Republican Period 584 Literature: Poetry in the Revolutionary Period 588 O Literature: Poetry in the Special Period 590 Literature: Publishing in Cuba during the Operation Pedro Pan 697 Republican Period 595 The Orígenes Group and Journal 700 Literature: Testimonial Literature 598 Lucía (Humberto Solás) 603 P

Palo Monte and Ancestral Spirits: The Art of José M Bedia 705 Paradiso (José Lezama Lima) 707 Machado Dictatorship Falls: August 1933 607 Performing Arts 710 The “Mambo King”: Dámaso Pérez Prado 611 Performing Arts: Cuban Forms o f Popular The Mamho Kings Play Songs o fLove (Oscar Dance 711 Hijuelos) 613 Performing Arts: Dance: Ballet 713 Mario Carrefio: His Art and World 615 Performing Arts: Dance: Folkloric Dance 716 Matanzas 618 Performing Arts: Dance: Modern Dance 717 Mauricio’s Diary (Manolo Pérez) 622 Performing Arts: Opera 719 Memories o f Underdevelopment (Tomás Gutiérrez Performing Arts: Theater: Colonial Period 722 Alea) 624 Performing Arts: Theater: Republican Period 723 Miami 626 Performing Arts: Theater: Revolutionary M ilk o f Amnesia (Carmelita Tropicana/Alina Period 727 Troyano) 631 Performing Arts: Bufo Theater 730 Misa Cubana (Cuban Mass, José María Vitier) 633 Performing Arts: Performance Art 732 El Monte (Lydia Cabrera) 635 Peruvian Embassy Crisis and the Mariel Boatlift: Mr. Rhythm: Benny Moré 638 1980 735 Music 641 Platt Amendment 738 Music: Early History 641 Playwrights of the Revolution: Abelardo Estorino and Music: 19th Century 643 Eugenio Hernández Espinosa 742 Music: 1900-1945 648 The Poetry o f José Kozer 744 Music: 1945-1958 653 The Poetry of Nicolás Guillén 747 Music: Music since 1959 659 Political Perspectives on Prisoners in Cuba 750 The Politics and Death of Eduardo Chibás 752 Sexuality: Jinetera in the Special Period 876 Popular Festivities and Celebrations in Cuba 757 Sexuality: Diaspora and Sexuality 878 Popular Songs of the 1920s 759 Sexuality: Gay and Lesbian Representation in Cuban Art, Film, and Literature 879 QrR Sexuality: The Mulata Figure in the Cuban “Queen of Salsa”: Celia Cruz 763 Imaginary 882 Race 766 Sexuality: The UMAP Camps 885 Race: Introduction 766 Son Innovations: Arsenio Rodriguez 887 Race: Slavery in Cuba 768 Spains “Discovery” of Cuba:1492 890 Race: Free People of Color in Cuba 778 Spanish-American-Cuban War: 1898 893 Race: Racial Issues during the Transition to Sports 905 Independence 780 Sports: Colonial Period 905 Race: Afro-Cubania in the Republic, 1907 Sports: Republican Period 906 to 1959 785 Sports: Revolutionary Period 910 Race: Race Relations after the Revolution 791 Sports: Baseball Before 1959 915 Race: The Chinese in Cuba 797 Sports: Baseball After 1959 917 Racial Uprising and Massacre: 1912 799 Sports: Boxing Before1959 920 Radio 803 Sports: Boxing After1959 922 Radio: Beginnings and Development 803 Sports: Soccer in the Cuban Republic 925 Radio: Commercial and Cultural Programming in Cuba 808 The Still Lifes of Amelia Peláez 928 Radio: Cuban Radio in South Florida 810 Strawberry and Chocolate (Tomás Gutiérrez Alea and Radio: Soap Operas 814 Juan Carlos Tabío) 931 Rafter Crisis: 1994 817 Sugar 934 El Rapto de las Mulatas and the Artistic Development Sugar: Colonial Period 934 of Carlos Enriquez 821 Sugar: Republican Period 947 The Ration System in Cuba 823 Sugar: Revolutionary Period 953 Raúl Corrales: Photographer o f the Revolution 828 Sugar: Representation in Cuban Relocation of the Audiencia to Cuba, Culture 960 1799-1801831 The Sugarmill (Manuel Moreno “Rita de Cuba”: Rita Montaner 835 Fraginals) 965 Suite Habana (Fernando Pérez) 968 S El Super (León Ichaso) 969 Sab (Gertrudis Gómez de Avellaneda) 839 T Santa Claras Leoncio Vidal Park 843 Santiago de Cuba 848 Television 973 Science and Technology in Cuba 852 Television: Beginnings and Development 973 La Sentencia (Belkis Ayón) 861 Television: Television since1959 975 Sexuality 865 Television: Russian Cartoons 979 Sexuality: Colonial Period 866 Television: Soap Operas 981 Sexuality: Republican Period 868 Ten Years’ War: 1868-1878 983 Sexuality: Revolutionary Period 872 Three Trapped Tigers (Guillermo Cabrera Infante) 987

CUBA TABLE OF CONTENTS

Tobacco 991 w-z Tobacco: in Art and Culture 992 Tobacco: Art ofTobacco Labels 996 The Works of Tania Bruguera 1053 Tobacco: Cultivation: Botany 1001 The World and Cuba 1055 Tobacco: Cultivation: Chemistry 1003 The World and Cuba: Cuba and Spain in the Colonial Period 1055 Trinidad 1007 The World and Cuba: Cuba and Spain in the Post- El Triunfo de la Rumba (Eduardo Abela) 1010 Colonial Period 1058 The World and Cuba: Cuba and the United u-v States 1063

Ultimos Días de una Casa (Dulce María Loynaz) 1013 The World and Cuba: U.S. Culture in Cuba 1067 Valle de Vifiales 1015 The World and Cuba: Cuba and Africa 1073 Varadero 1019 The World and Cuba: Cuba and Socialist Countries 1077 Versos Sencillos (José Martí) 1022 The World and Cuba: Cuban Revolution and Latin La Virgen de la Caridad del Cobre 1026 America 1081 Visual Arts 1030 The World and Cuba: Cuban Revolution and the Visual Arts: Republican Period 1030 New Left 1087 Visual Arts: Revolutionary Period 1033 The World and Cuba: Ideological Struggle in the Visual Arts: Special Period 1038 United Nations 1091 Visual Arts: Photography 1044 Thematic Outline 1095

Visual Arts: Poster Art 1049 Index 1099