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Ethnic Conflict: a Challenge to Nigeria Development

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ETHNIC CONFLICT IN NIGERIA: A CHALLENGE TO INCLUSIVE SOCIAL AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT By Toyin Cotties Adetiba (201014009) Being a Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy in Social Sciences (Development Studies) Faculty of Management and Commerce: School of Public Management and Development. University of Fort Hare, South Africa. Supervisor: Professor Aminur Rahim Date Submitted: April 2013 i Declaration I, Toyin C. Adetiba, do hereby declare that, this research study “ETHNIC CONFLICT IN NIGERIA: A CHALLENGE TO INCLUSIVE SOCIAL AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT” is my work, and has never been presented for the award of any degree in any University. All references made to the works of other persons/scholars/organizations/government institutions have been duly acknowledged. ………………… ………………… Signature Date ii Approval Page This is to certify that this research project was carried out under strict supervision and has been approved for submission to the University of Fort Hare in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Philosophy in Social Sciences Development Studies. ..................................... ………………………… Supervisor Head of Department …………………………… Dean iii Dedication This work is dedicated to: My dedicated and courageous wife who gave me her total support and a life of hope and to Blessed, Favour and Praise, who have added meaning to my life. iv Acknowledgement You cannot reposition yourself without the support, encouragement and commitment of those around you sharing a vision of who you are and where you are going (Jakes, 2007). It is only by the grace of God and through the contributions of those around me who know me and share my desire to aspire to greater heights that an endeavour of this magnitude can be achieved. Without the unflinching support of a great number of people who have contributed immensely and in various capacities in the birth of my ideas, suggestions and criticisms, this work would not have come to fruition. I am grateful to the Almighty God for understanding and guidance in this endeavour. Without Him I am nothing and can do nothing. I am indeed very grateful to my Supervisor, Professor Aminur Rahim for his contribution in the writing of this thesis. He gave me his unstinting support throughout the period of the programme. His scholarly supervision allowed me to complete what I started. His approach to supervision no doubt encouraged me to accept the challenge. I cannot forget the role played by my H.O.D, Mrs. Priscilia Monyai, all through the duration of this work. Thanks so much. The roles played by my elder brother; Dr. Adeniyi O. Adetiba, who also doubled as my father and my younger brother Mr. ‘Wale Adetiba (Prince) is wholeheartedly acknowledged with gratitude. Mention must be made of Dr. and Mrs. Harbor for their support all through the duration of the programme. They are more than just family friends. In the same vein, I am indebted to Professor Edwin Ijeoma of the Institute of Management Studies, University of Fort Hare for his encouragement. v My sincere gratitude also goes to the Govan Mbeki Research and Development Center, University of Fort Hare for their financial support, Dr. Sam E. Usadolo of Department of Communication University of Fort Hare, Miss Selani Amanda of Xerox Center, University of Fort Hare, Bisho Campus, as well as Dr. Chris Isike of the University of Zululand and Mr. Atiko Timothy and family for their genuine support. I cannot but mention Mrs. Cynthia Formson also of University of Fort Hare who took pains to edit this work. My thanks also go to my wife for her sincerity, courage, love, perseverance and for keeping the home intact and most importantly for her prayers and encouragement. To all who have positively contributed to my success even though your names are not mentioned; with a heart full of joy, I am grateful to you all. God bless you abundantly. vi Abstract The question of ethnicity has been one of the most topical subjects of study by social scientists. The controversies around this phenomenon seem to have been heated up by the high visibility of mobilized and politicized ethnic groups in most multi-ethnic states. Therefore, the extent to which ethnic nationalities are able to effectively manage the interplay of ethnic differences determines to what extent a multi-ethnic nation develops without crisis. Historically Nigeria has come a long way from multi-ethnic entity with political differences and background to the amalgamation of 1914 till the present structure of thirty-six states. Ethnicity, no doubt has contributed immensely to ethnic conflicts in Nigeria because of long standing revulsion or resentments towards ethnic groups different from one’s own or fear of domination which can as well lead ethnic groups to resort to violence as a means to protect and preserve the existing ethnic groups. Significantly ethnicity in Nigeria, is a product inequality among the various ethnic groups orchestrated by a long period of colonialism; a period which witnessed the ascendancy of three major ethnic groups to the socio-political domination of other ethnic groups and a period when the three major ethnic groups were used as a pedestal for the distribution of socio-political goods, resulting in the inability of other ethnic groups to access these socio-political goods. This situation has continued to impact negatively on the forces of national integration and cohesion in ethnically divided Nigeria. Considering the relationship between ethnicity and development; socio-political exclusion is not only ethically dangerous to development but also economically unproductive. It deprives groups and individuals of the opportunity for the necessary vii development that can be beneficial to the society. Thus, it is important to develop an integrative socio-political frame-work that explicitly recognizes the participatory role of every ethnic group in governance. Hence, there is a need for the adoption of inclusive governance to manage ethnicity in Nigeria. Notwithstanding, ethnic conflict still persists and an attempt will be made in this study to identify the reasons. Central to socio-political sustainability in Nigeria is a system that should recognize that differences are important to development and encompass notions of equality. Such a system should acknowledge the socio-political and economic power of every ethnic group and promote a system devoid of ethnocentric and exclusionary socio-political and economic policies. KEY WORDS: Ethnicity, Development, Nationality, Primordialists, Instrumentalists, Citizenship, Underdevelopment, Ethnic Conflict, Ethnic culture, Civic culture. viii List of Figures Figure 1: Map of Nigeria showing the 36 states of the federation. 6 Figure 2: Diagrammatical explanation of colonial administration in Nigeria 95 ix List of Tables Table 1: Federal House of Representatives Election Results 1959 256 Table 2: Federal House of Representatives Election Results of 1979 256 Table 3: Nigeria’s Heads of State/Government and their ethnic and geographical spread from 1960 till date 256 Table 4A: Composition of Federal Ministers by Regions 1959-1966 258 Table 4B: Compositions of Federal Ministers by Regions 1979-1983 259 Table 5A: Revenue allocation formula from 1953-1967 250 Table 5B: Revenue allocation formula from 1977-2001 259 Table 6: Secondary School output in North and Southern Nigeria 1912-2001 260 Table 7: Post primary institutions in Nigeria by zone, 2009 260 Table 8: Number of post-secondary institutions (Universities) in Nigeria, showing Federal, State, and Privates institutions in each zone, 2009 261 Table 9: Regional distributions of manufacturing activities in Nigeria, 1962-1967, 1975-1985 in percentages 261 Table 10: Ethnic representations under selected northern leaders in percentages 262 x List of Appendices Appendix 1 A: The population of Nigeria (North/South) 1952-2006 in millions 263 Appendix 1B: The population of Nigeria by geo-political zones (2006 population in millions) 263 Appendix 1C: The population of Nigeria by states (2006 population in millions) 264 Appendix 2: Number of seats allocated to each region on proportional basis in 1959 General Elections 262 xi Table of Contents Title Page i Declaration ii Approval Page iii Dedication iv Acknowledgement v Abstract vii List of Figures ix List of Tables x List of Appendices xi Chapter One 1.0 Introduction 1 1.1 Brief Historical Background of Nigeria 2 1.2 Problem Statement 13 1.3 Objective of the Study 14 1.4 Significance of the Study 16 1.5 Research Method 17 1.6 Data Collection Method 21 1.7 Sources of Data 23 1.8 Data Management and Analysis 24 1.9 Expected Findings 24 xii 1.10 Delimitation of the Study 24 1.11 Chapter Outlines 25 Chapter Two Approaches and Methods of Understanding Ethnic Conflicts 2.0 Introduction 27 2.1 Ethnicity Defined 29 2.1.1 Nationality and Ethnicity 37 2.1.2 Ethnicity through the eyes of the primordialists and Instrumentalists 42 2.1.3 Towards a theory of Social and Ethnic development 50 2.1.4 Ethnicity and Ethnic Consciousness 59 2.2 Ethnicity and Development 63 2.3 Good governance and Development 70 2.4 Human Rights, Democracy and Development 80 2.5 Conclusion 85 Chapter Three Ethnicity and Political Development in Nigeria: A Historical Backdrop on Ethnic Conflict 3.0 Introduction 87 3.1 The Dual Mandate 88 3.2 Indirect Rule 89 xiii 3.3 Ethno-Nationalism 95 3.4 Nigeria Federalism and Ethnic Conflicts 107 3.5 Partisan Nature of Electoral Politics 117 3.6 Nigeria Fiscal Policy
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