Abstract This Study Uses the Culture of the Somali People As the Lens To

Abstract

This study uses the culture of the Somali people as the lens to explore how cultural adaptation shape their future aspirations in Bangkok, Thailand. The goal of the research is to present the migration process, cultural adaptation and the future aspirations of the Somali migrants. The study analyses Somali migrants as asylum seekers, international students and labor migrants. Qualitative research was adopted throughout this study through case studies. Six migrants were interviewed in order to provide understanding of the research question. The researcher utilized pseudonyms to protect the anonymity of the respondents.

The research acknowledged that Somali migrants adapt to new cultures and traditions of which the main change is future aspirations due to the prevailing economic and legal factors in Thailand. The study found out that the migration of the Somalis is because of the instability in Somalia. Economic hardships makes smugglers take the advantage of insecurity and smuggle asylum seekers in Thailand using Malaysia as a transit country. Students and businesspersons use their resources at disposal in order to get scholarships and a work permit respectively.

The conclusion of the research suggests that economic condition and legal status of migrants contribute to gradual change in terms of gender roles, marriage, language, food, dressing, communication styles while religion was retained. Results showed an absolute absence of legal and the economic factors creating their desire to adapt other cultures and later resettle to other countries in search of more flexible livelihood. The results discovered that the Somali migrants experience isolation, therefore making them to adapt to a different culture in order to create room for more acceptance, and increase chances of resettlement for the asylum seekers. Drawn from the study, future aspirations of the Somali migrants was noted to be resettlement for the asylum seekers, relocation and integration.

Acknowledgement

I would like to express my special appreciation and thanks to my advisor Professor Supang Chantavanich, you have been a tremendous mentor for me. I would like to thank you for encouraging my research and for allowing me to grow as a research scientist. Your advice on both research has been priceless. I would also like to thank my committee members, Professor Naruemon Thabchumpon, and Mr. Jerrold W. Huguet for serving as my committee members even at hardship. I also want to thank you for letting my defense be an enjoyable moment, and for your brilliant comments and suggestions, thanks to you. I would especially like to thank my sponsors, TICA fraternity; you have been there to support me through funds that enabled me to collect data for my Master’s thesis.

A special thanks to my family. Words cannot express how grateful I am to my parents, elder brothers and elder sisters for all of the sacrifices that you have made on my behalf. Your prayer for me was what sustained me this far. I would also like to thank all of my friends who supported me in writing, and helped me to strive towards my goal.

Table of content

TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of content ...... iii List of Figures ...... vii List of tables ...... viii List of Abbreviations ...... ix CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ...... 10 1.1 Background ...... 10 1.2 Statement of Research Problem ...... 11 1.3 Conceptual Framework ...... 12 1.3.1 Migration Process Theory ...... 13 1.3.2 New Economics Theory in the Context of Displacement ...... 14 1.3.3 Cultural Adaptation and Retention ...... 15 1.3.4 Social Networks Theory ...... 16 1.3.5 Refugee Durable Solutions...... 19 1.3.5.1 Voluntary repatriation ...... 19 1.3.5.2 Resettlement ...... 20 1.3.5.3 Integration ...... 20 1.4 Research Question ...... 21 1.5 Research Objectives ...... 21 1.6 Hypothesis ...... 22 1.7 Justification ...... 22 1.8 Significance of the Research ...... 22 CHAPTER II RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...... 24 2.1 Field Research Data Collection Methods ...... 24 2.1.1 Key informants ...... 24 2.1.2 Case studies ...... 25 2.1.3 Documentary ...... 25 2.2 Research Approach ...... 25

2.3 Information Gathering and Process ...... 26 2.4 Data Analysis ...... 26 2.5 Research Scope and Limitation ...... 27 2.6 Ethical consideration ...... 28 CHAPTER III MIGRATION PROCESS OF SOMALI MIGRANTS AND CASE STUDIES ...... 30 3.1 Profile of Countries with their Nationalities in Thailand ...... 31 3.1.1 Kenya ...... 33 3.1.2 Nigeria ...... 33 3.1.3 Democratic Republic of Congo ...... 34 3.1.4 Uganda ...... 34 3.1.5 South Africa ...... 34 3.2 Somalia: Situation in Somalia and Migration Process...... 35 3.2.1 The Rise of Al-Shabaab Militia in Southern Somali ...... 38 3.2.2 Migration Process and Route ...... 39 3.2.3 Transit country ...... 40 3.2.4 Why don’t the Somalis settle in Malaysia? ...... 41 3.3 Smuggling and Trafficking Networks ...... 42 3.3.1 Condition in Destination Country ...... 42 3.4 Case Studies ...... 44 3.4.1 Khadija (Alias), an Asylum Seeker ...... 44 3.4.2 Farooq (Alias), an International Student ...... 48 3.4.3 Abdi (Alias) A Businessperson ...... 53 3.4.4 Hussein (Alias), an International Student ...... 59 3.4.5 Amina (Alias), an illegal immigrant held at the IDC ...... 62 3.4.6 Mohamed (Alias), an Asylum Seeker ...... 66 3.5 Description of the Case Studies ...... 69 3.5.1 Group 1: Asylum seekers ...... 71 3.5.2 Group 2: International Student ...... 72 3.5.3 Group 3. Labour migrant ...... 73 3.6 Legal, Economic factors of Somali Migrants ...... 74

3.6.1 Legal Factors ...... 74 3.6.2.1 Data from Interview with Asylum Access Thailand Officer ...... 76 3.8 Data from Interview with a Thai Imam ...... 80 3.9 Somali Immigrants in Thailand ...... 82 3.9.1 Immigration Act 1979 ...... 82 3.9.2 Alien Work Act 2008 ...... 82 3.9.3 UNHCR Refugee Status Determination ...... 83 3.9.4 Legal Labour Migrants ...... 84 3.9.4.1 International Students ...... 84 3.9.4.2 Asylum Seekers and Refugees ...... 85 3.9.5 Economic Conditions of Somali Migrants ...... 87 3.9.5.1 Livelihoods and Self-reliance...... 87 3.9.6 Remittances ...... 88 CHAPTER IV CULTURAL RETENTION AND ADAPTATION OF SOMALI CASE STUDIES ...... 90 4.1 Framework of Culture of Origin and Adaptation...... 90 4.1.1 Religion and Gender Roles ...... 91 4.1.2 Marriage ...... 92 4.1.3 Language ...... 92 4.1.4 Food and Dressing ...... 93 4.1.5 Communication Styles ...... 94 4.2 Cultural Retention and Adaptation ...... 95 4.3 Opportunities and Challenges in Adaptation and Retention of Culture ...... 99 4.4 Future Aspirations ...... 101 4.4.1 Aspiration Regarding Resettlement ...... 101 4.4.2 Aspiration Regarding Local Integration ...... 102 4.4.4 Aspirations in relation to culture, traditions and religion...... 104 4.4.5 Aspiration in Relation to Emancipation ...... 106 4.4.6 Aspiration Regarding Employment ...... 107 CHAPTER V CONCLUSION, DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 108 5.1 Conclusion ...... 108

5.2 Discussion...... 111 5.3 Recommendations ...... 115 5.3.1 To the Thai Government ...... 115 5.3.2 To the UNHCR ...... 116 5.3.3 To the African Union and Somali Government ...... 116 ReferenceS ...... 118 Appendices ...... 122 Appendix A: Question to Somali migrants ...... 123 Appendix B: Interview Question UNHCR and affiliated NGO ...... 125 Appendix C: Questions to the Imam ...... 127

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework visualized ...... 12 Figure 2: African Countries with Nationalities in Thailand...... 30 Figure 3 Map of Somalia showing origins of migrants and conflict zones ...... 35

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Preliminary Estimation of Number of African Migrants in Bangkok 2017 ...... 31 Table 2: Total Comparison of Case Studies of Somali Migrants ...... 69 Table 3 Culture retained and Adapted by the Somali migrants ...... 96

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AAT Asylum Access Thailand AU African Union CAT Committee Against Torture. CRC Committee on the Rights of the Child DR Congo Democratic Republic of Congo FGM Female Genital Mutilation ICU Islamic Courts Union IDP Internally displaced person ILO International Labour Organization IOM International Organization for Migration NGO Non-Governmental Organization RTG Royal Thai Government U.S United States of America UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees USD United States Dollar

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

In the beginning, migration was assumed to be a social and economic occurrence that fitted to the spheres of socio-economic history; however, in the modern age, concerns of migration has become a core debate that surround global politics (Castles & Miller, 1993). As such, Barry insists that in order to understand modern security, the military, economic, political, societal and environmental scales should be put into contemplation (Buzan, 1991). In 1991, Somalis began fleeing their country to escape a civil war that had started because of the different clans that fight to control the country. This left the country unstable, hence making the country a very hard place to live in due to economic, political and security challenges. The affected Somalis have sought refuge in different countries and an increasing number are still arriving in Bangkok. Even so, Somali migrants in Thailand exist as asylum seekers, businesspersons or international students. The Asylum seekers are the migrants fleeing religious, racial, ethnic and political persecution in Somali. In Thailand, Somali asylum seekers seek asylum under the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). As their numbers increase, numerous nonprofit and international organizations have emerged to help in easing their lives and was well as their future aspirations. Somalis’ experiences in Bangkok do not always match their cultural expectations given that organizations helping them do not always take their cultural history into consideration. This study therefore has sought to explore how cultural adaptation and retention shapes the future aspirations of the Somali migrants in Bangkok.

1.2 Statement of Research Problem

The migration process in the contemporary world has been linked to the network created by migrants in the destination and origin countries whereas few studies have connected the migration process and cultural adaptation of Somali migrants. Few studies show how cultural adaptation and future aspirations concepts are interrelated (Guild & Selm, 2005). As such, as there appears to be a vacuum in the linkage between the two concepts, this study sought to establish a nexus between migrants’ cultural adaptation and future aspirations by presenting case studies of Somali migrants in Bangkok.

The goal of this study was to shed light on questions surrounding the Somali migrants and their cultural adaptation. Firstly, the researcher explored the migration process of Somali migrants in Bangkok. Secondly, the researcher explored the cultural adaptation and retention of the Somali migrants and lastly, the study explains their future aspirations.

1.3 Conceptual Framework

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework visualized

In order for this study to explain the Somali culture in Bangkok context, the Somali migration process needed to be considered to understand how they arrive in Bangkok as their country of destination. Today, literature explains that migrants move from their countries of origin to destination countries because of factors that are primarily of economic nature. In this study, the role of migration system, new economic theory, cultural adaptation and retention, social networks and refugee durable solutions shall support the understanding of the migration process and the cultural arrangements of Somali migrants.

1.3.1 Migration Process Theory

In order to understand why the migrants move from their country of origin to the destination country, the study adopts the migration process theory. The central belief of this model asserts that social, economic and institutional sets of the destination and countries of origin affecting migration defines migration process theory as the relationship between places aided by the movement of individuals, services, information and goods where important information is conveyed back to the country of origin therefore increasing chances of migration (Mabogunje, 1970). Individuals in countries of origin and the destination countries contribute to international migration in their participation in flow of information, goods, and capital that lead to formal or informal migration flow where migrants are informed to use certain safe routes and abandon others believed to be unsafe. In this, the connection between a country of destination and origin is shown through the bonded system of international migration. Migration as a process centers on interstate relations, economy and the accord of international legal frameworks. This implies that countries experiencing migrant flows ought to fully understood each other in terms of a nation-to-nation basis, the cultural effects and the social networks. Fawcett argues that migration process affects the social, cultural and economic conditions of origin and destination country (Fawcett, 1989). Fawcett further contends that not only are the social livelihoods of the migrants affected, but the process affects and changes the life at the places of origin and destination places.

Monica Boyd contends that migration is structured in micro and macro systems (Boyd, 1989). Micro structures encircle networks, practices, culture and beliefs of the migrants while the macro structures includes economy, the laws and the world market agreed on by the countries of origin and the destination countries in order to control migration settlement. This leaves the migrant under this structure to be secure and able to live in the destination country. The informal social networks such as kinship, family, and friendship

formed by the migrants are the microstructures in this case. As asserted by Boyd, informal networks because of microstructures makes the migrant and non-immigrant in their areas of origin and destination countries in cooperative and conflicting ways. Such trends have an effect on culture hence leading to the maintenance of transnational, ethnic and cultural ties among the migrants. It is evident that migrant groups form social and economic independence such as cafes, places of worship, small businesses and become employed. This leads to a formed community in the destination countries as the migrants live for a long period hence having children schooled in the particular environment later to become transcultural identities.

1.3.2 New Economics Theory in the Context of Displacement

This theory describes how the Somali migrants are able to establish economic and social structures, thus enabling their survival in Thailand (Taylor, 1999). In most countries, economic activities and social gatherings are not encouraged for alien communities, however we see Somali migrants comprising a very small community in Bangkok. The socio-economic model allows the migrants to determine their survival in countries of destination. In support of the new economics theory, Oded Stark highlights the importance of family and household to individuals when they are making decisions to migrate, stating that families feel insecure of losing their assets and in turn want to increase income. The ability of a migrant to operate in a different labor market acts as the family’s or household’s way of protecting income. Stark maintains on family making the decision on who is to go and who is to remain, therefore sharing the travel cost and returns provided by the migrants (Stark, 1984). Stark refers to this as remittance agreed upon by the members of a particular family and not third parties. Remittances minimize risk to the non-migrants in the countries of origin and in turn, they help to support migrants in times of difficulties such as housing cost. New economic theory explains the connection between the labor market and the

household survival strategy. As supported by (Douglas S. Massey, 1993), futures markets, unemployment insurance, crop insurance markets and capital markets form part of the risks which cannot be solved by the underdeveloped countries hence leading migrants to search for stable market perfections. Migration increase the income strategy of a particular family hence expectations that migrant from a particular family migrate to a particular destination country.

As propagated by this theory, conflict in Somali renders the government incapability to offer animal and crop protection as a way of minimizing household risks. Family members agree on sending an individual to Thailand where they send clothes and shoes back home as a survival tactic and a way of making profits. Young girls are able to secure employment opportunities in different restaurants in Bangkok. Some families also decide to explore small businesses such as henna and then send remittances to their families back home. The stability of the families in the country of origin maintenance is through the close business ties between the migrant laborers through profit and direct remittances. Subsequently, new economic theory necessities in order for the livelihood of Somali people to occur. This model focuses on the significance of considering variety of reasons enabling survival of Somali in Thailand, which the researcher has adopted said model for this study.

1.3.3 Cultural Adaptation and Retention

As propagated by Castles and Miller, protection of a language is a necessity and a right considered by many settler groups where many associations come up within a specific ethnic community having culture and language as their key concern (Castles and Miller 1998). Some of the associations are involved in language protection by teaching the second-generation mother tongue and organizing festivals aimed at conducting rituals.

They note that language and culture are not only important when it comes to communication whereas common language and common culture creates unity amongst members of the same ethnic group. While to the migrants’ language and culture serve as an identity of nationality and homogeneity while to the majority it is a feature to distinguish them. On the contrary, migrants need their culture and language to develop their self- esteem and have an identity. As the authors contend, cultural maintenance helps in increasing integration to the outside world while bilingualism help in learning and overall development. Bilingualism notably does not help migrants’ voice to penetrate the broadcasting companies as some countries practicing bilingual has been confirmed not to protect the language of the migrants. However, Sweden and Australia confirmed protection of language and culture of migrants through ethnic community and cultural practices (Castles and Miller 1998).

In adaptation, Castles and Miller state that migrants should give up certain characteristics such as language, cultural and social practices. This supports in making migrants indistinguishable from other major communities where expectation is to use the dominant language and learn in the normal schools the local dominant community go. As a result, the assimilated individual’s absorption by the nation and the state fall into place. Notably, due to weak legal status in their countries of destination, migrants face socio-economic challenges as well as lack of political representation. Some migrants from less developed countries have been educated and have work experience but they encounter hostility and discrimination leading to them having very low economic input (Castels Stephen, 1998).

1.3.4 Social Networks Theory

This analytical mode draws attention on the migration plan and explains the economic and social connections within a social group. The particular route used to describe migration patterns in the contemporary society is social networks. In the countries of origin and destination, kinship, shared values or friendship are among the many ties that link migrants (Massey et al, 1993: 448). As affirmed by Boyd, social networks are understood to be interactive ties linking migrants that are characterized by entry, and employment in the country of destination (Boyd, 1989). This particular theory helps inform that a person who has migrated acts as an informative agent who gives feedback to those linked with family and households. As the scholar contends, social network creates the bond between the countries of origin and the destination countries. Dissemination of information about the travel and survival in the destination country become possible to friends and families in the country of origin thus it becomes easier for them to evade risk and reduce cost. An International Organization for Migration report showed that migrant’ travel cost, employment and accommodation informal networks could be either legal or illegal hence making the social capital necessary for migration process (International Organization for Migration., 2003). In determining the destination country, social networks act as one of the important factors to the migrants.

As proposed by network theory, the chances of employment and a decent living increases the volume of international migrants’ population. The social networks support migrants’ access to information on social security, job opportunities and places where they can live. In conclusion, a migrant’s chance of employment in the destination country rises while the chances of arrest decline. Common culture, same history and overall common values in a social network help in maintaining trust among the migrants where they consider themselves having a common threat hence leading to unity The theory upholds the importance of cultural perceptions as a result of social networks. Relating social networks to the Somali migrants in Bangkok, we can see how international migration has become success because of the close ties depicted through friends and relatives. The ability of the

Somali migrants to migrate to Thailand as the place of destination, start up a small business, find a place to stay, and even maintain the smuggling routes can be attributed to the social network who prepared and introduced them into their new location. In the case of Somali migrants in Bangkok, networks provided by migrants assist in guiding the migrant in decision-making whether to migrate to the destination country. Adequate information is available on the travel routes and the hosting of the particular groups migrating. Once they land in their destination country, they try to adjust as advised by their networks if there need be in order to fit in the new environment. De Bot and Stoessel state that a migrant may choose to follow a particular linguistic once in the destination country to balance the interest of the local community and that of their own (De Bot & Stoessel, 2002). In this regard, the social network theory explains the Somali migrants’ situation as well as how it comprises of the process and the effect of migration. Some migrants who come to Thailand like the Somali student and translators’ makes the group to comprise of formal and informal migrants.

In Thailand, the Somali migrants are not involved in the Thai society through employment, education and political participation but they maintain their close ties to their home country through religion, cultural ties, kinship and economy. In relation to such social networks, accomplishments take place within and outside the borders of Somalia and Thailand. This theory explains how the Somali migrants negotiate their identities in both Somali and Thailand as the receiving country. Given their nature of nomadism, business oriented mindset and work ethic, Somalis are able to position themselves in line with Thai society.

In conclusion, this theory contends that a migrant may get help from a friend or other close ally who might recommend him or her to a smuggler. In this case, the informant may provide the information on how to be smuggled hence becoming the coordinator, as many migrants prefer it for it reduces vulnerabilities.

1.3.5 Refugee Durable Solutions

In instances where refugee status has been determined, the refugee needs support in order to find a long-lasting solution. In this, the UNHCR has come up with durable solutions for refugees, which are voluntary repatriation, Local integration, and Resettlement. The concept of durable solutions is associated to the host country, a third country or the country of origin (Jallow, Heinbecker, & Malik, 2004).

1.3.5.1 Voluntary repatriation

Voluntary repatriation is a solution for those refugees who make the decision to go back to their country of origin. In collaboration with the country of origin and the UNHCR, education, legal aid, and family reunifications facilitation. The UNHCR promotes a free and informed decision-making environment in order to promote voluntary repatriation through dialogues with the refugees and the IDPs to understand better their aims as well as hindrances to voluntarily return.

In voluntary repatriation, the UN General Assembly has insisted that the UNHCR has the responsibility of dealing with the assistance of refugees and bear the consequences of their return. Repatriation is encouraged and practiced with peace and reconciliation. In cases of voluntary repatriation, the country of origin bears the primary responsibility to protect the repatriated refugees. Legal, material safety and physical reconciliation are among the core components of voluntary integration.

1.3.5.2 Resettlement

In events of continued conflicts, persecution and wars in the country of origin that is unfriendly for return, resettlement to another country is one of the alternatives. The UNHCR provides cultural orientation, language, and vocational training as well as access to employment. In cases where refugees face protection risks, resettlement stands to be a key tool to support refugees, hence countries end up sharing responsibility in the large number of refugees. Many countries have increased their resettlement quotas and this will result in the increase of the figure of cases submitted for resettlement. The progression in resettlement agreements is most likely due to the readiness of resettlement countries to deliberate new processing modalities.

Inadequately funded resettlement programmes often end up in legal, social, and administrative battles for the received refugees hence hindering the permanent and long lasting solutions meant to be achieved. Early planning for the refugees in their resettlement programmes ensures their viability and more consideration in allocation of resources. The UNHCR has adopted a strategy to help the new resettlement countries by helping identify gaps, capacity building and circulate the finest practices from experienced resettlement countries.

1.3.5.3 Integration

Integration conducted in the host county serves as another alternative for those refugees unable to return home country or be resettled to a third county. This is a complex system as it requires the cooperation and interaction of refugees and the local community (Jallow et al., 2004). Integration allows for refugees in the host country to contribute both socially

and economically which implies the possibility of asylum to become a citizen of the particular host country.

Particularly in circumstances where displacement is long-standing, the UNHCR will start advocating for prospects of some persons to take up local solutions in instance where those who have networks to their host communities through marriage, business and cultural bonds. Due to people’s differences, this means that different solutions ought consideration at the same time. This means that government, local communities in the host areas can work with regional bodies in order to ensure that asylum-seekers benefit from local schools, support their cultural and social life. Successful and balanced ability of refugees to get education has a very large impact when it comes to language acquisition. As such, local language can facilitate access to justice, security, employment, housing and access to healthcare for refugee families that can be achieved in cases of education access (F. Hansen, Mutabaraka, & Ubricao, 2008).

1.4 Research Question

How does cultural adaptation and cultural retention among the Somali migrants in Bangkok shape their future aspirations?

1.5 Research Objectives

(i) To explore the migration process of the Somali migrants to Thailand. (ii) To investigate legal and economic factors that support the migrants in Thailand. (iii) To identify opportunities and challenges faced by the Somali migrants in their cultural retention and adaptation.

(iv) To analyze their future aspirations in the context of culture retention and adaptation.

1.6 Hypothesis

1. The Somali community is able to maintain a cultural identity because of their similar cultural perceptions. 2. Isolation of the Somali migrants in Bangkok leads to a strong cultural identity whereas integration leads to culture adaptation.

1.7 Justification

There is inadequate focus on the linkage between cultural security and migration. Nazil Choucri asserts most of the reviewed literature analyze the two concepts on a different approach (Choucri, 2002). In today’s world, the linkage in the study of the two concepts prove important. In this field of study, Thailand seems to be awakened by the certainties of migrants and in specific the migrants’ cultural identities. Due to the threat of the undesirable realities, this paper aims to shed light on and bring solutions by investigating cultural situation of the Somali migrants in the Bangkok case study.

1.8 Significance of the Research

This study has academic and political justifications. It is hoped that the findings of this study will inform all the stakeholders concerned with the management of urban asylum seekers affairs about their cultural situation that largely act as their primary reason to

migrate. In particular, the study will be beneficial to the UNHCR, the International refugee agencies, non-governmental organizations, the Thai Government, and intellectuals who would be interested in leading further research.

CHAPTER II RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

2.1 Field Research Data Collection Methods

As the study aimed to understand Somali migrants in Bangkok, it took the researcher three months (May, June and July) to collect the data from the various respondents.

The study aim was to get an in-depth understanding; the researcher opted for a qualitative approach adopting subjective methods such as interviews and participant observations. Such a qualitative approach was valued here due to the unpredictable experiences of Somali migrants in Bangkok. As the study centered around the experiences and the situation of Somali migrants in Bangkok, a qualitative method was ideal for conducting the research. Empirical materials such as case studies, books, which constituted of both published and grey literature, newspaper articles, government documents, reports published by relevant regional and international organizations and a documentary comprised of statistics from IOM and UNHCR were also incorporated into this research.

2.1.1 Key informants

Two key informants were used in this research: an officer at the Asylum Access Thailand and an Imam at a mosque in Bangkok.

2.1.2 Case studies

In-depth interviews of two (2) international students living in Bangkok and a woman held at the Immigration Detention Centre (1), a businessperson (1), and (2) asylum seekers living in the Suburb areas of Bangkok. The case studies consist of three parts;

1) Migration process 2) Cultural adaptation and retention 3) Future Aspirations

Most semi-structured interviews used in the interviews involved open-ended questions at the time of the interview. The issue of informed consent was eminent and the research subjects had the right to know they were conducted a research on and could withdraw at any time. The researcher informed the participants that their names or any personal information would not be used anywhere in the research. The study adopted the research questions as indicated the appendices to intrigue different responses.

2.1.3 Documentary

The study used a shared document from the UNHCR about asylum and refugee in Bangkok.

2.2 Research Approach

Due to the nature of their stay, the researcher first surveyed the areas in Bangkok that Somali migrants allegedly live in. In a survey in one of Bangkok suburbs, the researcher made contact with Farooq, an international student who later introduced him to Amina, the

woman held at the detention center. On the second survey at the heart of Bangkok, Africans around Pratunum referred the researcher to a Bureau owned by a Somali person where a third respondent, Abdi, was acquired. After knowing each other for a while, Abdi introduced the researcher to a mosque in the area where after a few visits, Hussein, an international student, accepted to be one of the respondent. In a visit to a local NGO in Bangkok, one of the officers introduced the researcher to Khadija. On the same, the AAT Officer recommended a visit to a nearby mosque where they hosted refugees and asylum seekers. This led to an introduction to Mohamed who was working at a mosque.

Six in-depth case studies undertaken helped to complement essential study where each case aided in identification of migration process, cultural adaptation, retention, and the future aspirations of the Somali migrants.

2.3 Information Gathering and Process

In order to allow the researcher some elasticity to address more questions, data analysis and data collection was done concurrently to enable the study to begin to take shape. The researcher worked very close with a supervisor for guidance and support in maintaining neutrality during the interviews and accepting the participants’ values and point of view. Noting of all major points was done and compilation in the preliminary summaries after each interview.

2.4 Data Analysis

As data analysis and data collection concurrently, the researcher understood the issues raised in the study and had further opportunity to develop interviews as data collection continued. In order to understand the process and the Somali culture, key themes arising

from the data were developed. Those themes helped in categorizing the data in different groups. Marshall and Rossman explain the six stages involved organizing a qualitative data that the researcher embraced as follows:

1. Consolidation of data – The researcher read the data a number of times in order to familiarize with the key possible themes that may be arising from the study. This helped in greater understanding of the collected data in relation to the theories. 2. Thematic generation- Topics were drawn from data as explained by the interviewee in relation to the responses they gave to the specific questions. 3. Coding the data- In order to reflect a theme, a code was written alongside the passage. 4. Test emergent understandings of the data- When the study started to have an idea of what the analyzed data means, the researcher tested the theory used in the study in order to challenge the emergent understanding. 5. Search for alternative explanations of the data- The researcher shall try to seek alternative understanding of the data.

6. Write-up the data analysis (Marshall, 1999).

2.5 Research Scope and Limitation

1) Since in the study adopted the snowballing technique to acquire information, more time was required in order to gain the trust of the respondent however, the trust was not 100%. 2) In the conduct of this study, there was not adequate time and sufficient funds for the research to be conducted in the whole city so the researcher chose the specific areas understood to be hosting the Somali community. Nevertheless, these preferred study areas helped in answering the research question.

3) Language barrier was notable in conduct of the study leading to the interviewee missing some of the questions. Throughout the interviews, a translator was used hence some important message could have been lost in the process. 4) The most challenging thing was to access the asylum seekers and the labour migrants in general. Because of the fear of their legal status, the movement of refugees and asylum seekers is limited, making those individuals hard to find. Because of their situation and need to protect their businesses, certain Somali business owners in Bangkok declined requests for interviews by stating that they did not talk to journalists.

2.6 Ethical consideration

The security of the Somali community living in Bangkok is of paramount importance to the researcher as their status in Thailand as this might make them victims of arrest or indefinite detentions. With this in place, the researcher employed every measure in limiting the visibility of the Somali migrants who are illegitimate by maintaining the confidentiality and the anonymity of the informants that was important for their security. The Somali people are extremely cautious about talking to strangers such as journalist and researchers. As a result, this made some of them unwilling to be interviewed because of sensitivities regarding them being exposed. They were also reluctant to disclose more detailed information about themselves.

Throughout the research, pseudonyms were used in order to protect the respondents’ confidentiality. All the interviewee names in this research are fictitious. As agreed with the interviewees, photos were not be taken, conversations were not be recorded but hand

written form of recording data was used. The location of the Somali asylum seekers used in the case studies will remain confidential.

As an important guideline of qualitative research, confidentiality was maintained to the research participants as the researcher informed them that their data, location, address and names would not be shared.

CHAPTER III MIGRATION PROCESS OF SOMALI MIGRANTS AND CASE STUDIES Figure 2 contains a map of Africa showing countries that has their nationalities in Thailand.

Figure 2: African Countries with Nationalities in Thailand

1. Somalia 2. Kenya 3. Nigeria 4. Democratic Republic of the Congo 5. Uganda

6. South Africa

3.1 Profile of Countries with their Nationalities in Thailand

Table 1: Preliminary Estimation of Number of African Migrants in Bangkok 2017

ESTIMAT STATUS COUNTR E NO. OF International Asylum Y PEOPLE Labour migrants students seekers Kenya 400 -Experts Sponsored and -English teachers self-sponsored - -Small business holders

-Working in Embassy or The United Nations

Uganda 300 -English teachers Sponsored and -Small business self-sponsored - holders -Commercial sex workers

Democratic 200 -Small business Sponsored and Asylum Republic of holders self-sponsored seekers Congo -Gem trading

South 800 -Professionals Sponsored and Africa -English teachers self-sponsored -Technical experts -Working for a multinational company Nigeria 700 -English teachers Sponsored and -Small businesses self-sponsored - -Working for a multinational company -Exporting clothes Somalia 1500 Small business holders Sponsored and Asylum self-sponsored seekers

Sources of Estimation Somalia estimate respondent- Representative of the Asylum Access Thailand Kenya- Report by (Opiyo, Sukontasap, Mamadkul, & Brown, 2016) Congo, Nigeria, South Africa and Uganda- source -A Nigerian businessperson in Bangkok at Pratunum area. He has been living in Bangkok for over 25 years.

Because of the increasing number of Africans in Thailand, the researcher chose some of the African states believed to be contributing to a quite large number of migrants. Poverty, unending violent conflicts, environmental degradation, natural catastrophes and high population has rendered African history to be one of migration.

3.1.1 Kenya

Most Kenyans migrate to other parts of the world because of the high rate of unemployment in the country. College education being their highest level of education, this enables them to land in different states where they engage in skilled and unskilled labour. In Bangkok, Kenyans land in hundreds where a large number is involved in the teaching profession while others engage in business where they survive by sending clothes back to their home country. The middle-educated class are the people who have been able to use their resources in order to reach Thailand. Job agencies in Kenya help the teachers to secure teaching profession in Thailand at a fee while the businesspersons are able to use their resources at disposal in order to succeed in business. Other Kenyans remain after completing their studies to become teachers in Thailand.

3.1.2 Nigeria

Nigeria has the largest population in Africa and a large number of youth. Owing to a good economy, many people have become businesspersons where they are involved in exporting goods to their country. Nigerians exist by the hundreds in Thailand where they are also involved in the teaching profession. The young Nigerians have been able to become English teachers in Thailand while others engage in business. The main religions of the Nigerian people are Muslim and Christianity. However, the recent deadly terrorist group by the name of Boko Haram emerged in 2009, creating a Jihadist movement which led a rebellion against the ruling government. This has caused instability in some parts of Nigeria like in Borno state.

3.1.3 Democratic Republic of Congo

The Democratic Republic of Congo has the second largest population in Africa and is exceptionally rich in natural resources. In efforts to manage the resources and acquire power, a civil war arose where the different ethnic groups engaged in conflict over the control and their leaders took advantage of the situation and embezzled public funds and resources. Those located in the war hot spot zones fled the country and became refugee and asylum seekers mainly in the Central African Republic and other parts of the world. As of the present date, peace has not been achieved in length hence sustaining the DRC to remain in a fragile state.

3.1.4 Uganda

Ugandans flee their country because of the high unemployment rate. This has led to a series of migration of its nationals especially to the neighboring country of Kenya seeking unskilled labour jobs. Women cartels with links in Kampala and other countries are involved in the international migration of Ugandans especially women where they get them into brothel shops in Thailand. The women are transported at a fee approximately $7,000 USD, upon which they are made to believe that something bad will happen to them if they do not repay. This form of slavery has led to hundreds of Ugandan women landing in Thailand where they knowingly and unknowingly become slaves to someone.

3.1.5 South Africa

South Africa is one of the African countries that has never had a coup detat and regular elections have been held throughout the past century. The country consists of a variety of ethnic groups, cultures, religions and languages. South Africa produces thousands of skilled laborers globally, for instance teachers. Due to the oversupply of teachers and their desire to search for better lives, South African teachers migrate to other parts of the world. This is made possible by the presence of the international recruit that enable them to land a job overseas.

3.2 Somalia: Situation in Somalia and Migration Process

Figure 3 Map of Somalia showing origins of migrants and conflict zones

Somalia has been enduring civil war that has continued for over 25 years mainly at the southern part of the country. As a result, many people have been killed and displaced hence leading to a humanitarian crisis in the country. Attempts by the government to regain control of the central part of Somalia have seen clan militias opposing this through open conflict especially in the capital of Mogadishu. On the other hand, Al-Shabaab targets civilians especially in Mogadishu resulting in a high level of insecurity in the city. In Kismaiyo, the area is under control of the Al-Shabaab however, Kenyan troops together with Amisom has been deployed to secure the area, however, it has turned to be a battlefield of Kenyan troops and the militia group. As a result, the area is very insecure, causing the locals to suffer. Al-Shabaab kills any person suspected to be working for Western organizations, as they are believed to be spies. In the Al-Shabaab controlled area like in Mogadishu, Kismaiyo Beledweyne and most of South Somali, the militias attack the organizations providing assistance to the drought affected zones leaving the people desperate. Additionally, peace efforts have been made through the Transition Federal Government of Somalia with attempts to negotiate with the Moderate Islamism and other militia groups predominantly Islam dominated. The negotiations did not produce the expected results of peace. Due to the increasing threat the Al-Shabaab has on neighboring countries, this called for the AMISOM troops especially from Ethiopia and Kenya to curb the Al-Shabaab controlled areas of Somalia (AMISOM, 2014). In attempts to protect its national interest, the AMISOM troops are mainly located in the southwestern part of Somalia.

Brown insist that neighboring countries are interested in maintaining peace in Somalia. A country like Ethiopia concern also entails the historical geographical factor, refugee flows and overall insecurity. Kenya, despite hosting a large number of Somali people, has also engaged Somalia in a war in attempts to protect its national interest that the Kenyan government says is a right of self-defense against the terror activities of the Al-Shabaab in Kenyan territory. The Kenyan defense forces were sent to Somalia in the year 2011 to fight

Al-Shabaab and prevent them from further attacking Kenya, hence instabilities erupted in attempts to curb the militia group. This supports on how domestic conflicts extend and become a problem in neighboring countries. In attempts to ensure Kenya’s national security, Somali communities at the south of Somalia close to Kenyan communities have been provided with security and peace. Clans in Jubaland are protected by the Kenyan government in order to create a buffer zone where relief and food can be transported to Somalia. The military of Kenya, Ethiopia, and their affiliates led to an uncompromising elimination of Al-Shabaab, however more alternative strategies have to be put in place to eliminate and provide peace in Somalia (Ken Menkhaus, 2007). Consequently, on July 2011, the UN declared a situation of drought in Somalia where 3.7 million people were confirmed to be affected which meant nearly half of the country was affected. This was intensified by the conflict situation that made life in Somali unbearable due to prolonged drought, skyrocketing food and water prices, and poor governance that negatively affected the lives of the people. This resulted in hundreds of thousands of Somalis to leave the county in search for food, employment and security. Because of weak government and corruption, rogue travel agents are able to operate, hence offering illegal services such as human trafficking. Somalis who are able to use their disposal get the opportunity to be assisted on how to land in places like Thailand. Others who wanted to pursue future goals like international education and business have to contact their relatives and use their resources as well to arrive in Thailand as one of their destination country. Once the migrants land in Bangkok, they adapt to the life they find since their economic dependence does not allow them to have cultural independence.

Kanyangoga asserts that the East Africa region is considered to have complex patterns of migrations (Kanyangoga, 2010). The region has long been one of the hot global players for interstate conflicts and some of the longest civil unrests in the region (Assefa, Nimrod, Walker, & Sindelar, 1999). The East African region has high populations with some

unstable governments, thus in many instances leading to IDPs, labour migrants, undocumented migrants, and refugees.

In the year 1991, clan militias in Somali held a coup to overthrow the late dictator, General Mohamed Siad Barre that made the country suffer a major blow since it was left without a functional government. Somali nation in the world gains recognition to be one of the most fragile states in the world. Burbur is a Somali name meaning “catastrophe” used to describe the period between 1991-1992 when the country experienced clan-based warfare in attempts to control the country. During this period, estimate has it that 25,000 people were killed; 2 million internally displaced persons and 1.5 million people fled the country (OND, 2002). The civil war in Somalia has been persistent for 26 years, despite several undertakings to mitigate the situation, on 8th February, 2017, Prime minister Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed was elected for a four-year term as the president of the country.

3.2.1 The Rise of Al-Shabaab Militia in Southern Somali

Islam forms the main religion in Somali where it shapes culture and the life of the Somali people. Most of Somali people are Sunni Muslims and believe that Islam is an all-inclusive way of life which cannot be separated from social and political life (Pridmore & Pasha, 2004). Civil unrest in Somalia is heightened by the presence of organized religious groups like the Union of Islamic Courts and the Al-Shabaab who came up with a new religion that is revised in a way. The group has proven to be restricting individual freedom that is in return coined by severe forms of punishment if one is said to break the law. This form of Wahhabism means that nobody can escape religious justice in the particular areas they control. According to their religious groupings, the world has two groups of people. One is the Muslims that the rebel group belong to and the infidels that are set to face persecution

for their attachment to the pre-existing faith. However, unlike in the past, being a Muslim does not grant the Somali people the immunity from persecution by these extremist groups thus making it hard to examine the standards they put in order to persecute the people.

3.2.2 Migration Process and Route

Corruption has enabled migration of the Somali people that as a result has increased the existence of legal and illegal migrants from the country. The high rate of corruption by Somali people has given room for the increased number of Somali migrants accessing documents as the situation enables bribes. Even though Somalia does not top in the list of the most corrupt countries in the world, it is very close to being one of the worst (International, 2016). For the Somali community, smuggling networks, social networks and financial resources serve as the main ingredients needed to travel to Thailand (Koser, 2004). The large number of Somali who are able to migrate overseas are the groups of people who are able to use their resources at disposal in order to get into Thailand. As a result, Somali migrants are said to use smuggling networks to lead them to Malaysia as a transit country at a given charge of USD 3,000-5,000.

The language of human smuggling and human trafficking are often overridden in their usage as if one means the other. Nevertheless, a tying aspect is that both of the words enable irregular movement and the concealed migration of people. In reference to article 3(a) of the protocol to prevent, suppress, and punish trafficking in persons, especially women and children (Raymond, 2002), trafficking is defined as:

“The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments

or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation.”

In respect to the protocol to prevent, suppress, and punish trafficking in persons, especially women and children, most of the Somali men are engaged in defending their clans making women and children the largest group of people fleeing civil conflicts. The situation in Somalia provides rich ground for exploitation by travel agencies who receive USD 3,000- 5,000 as payments for transportation. The agencies trade lies to the people only for them to realize they were not agencies as they branded themselves back in Somalia but rather traffickers in reality. The only thing that they want is to dig in the pockets of the people especially women rather than their well-being. Upon negotiating with the women, who in most cases have lost their husbands, they remain unclear to them which if they did, the full consent would have been respected and then proper decisions would have followed suit (S. Hansen, 2009).There are well-coordinated smuggling network agencies believed to be operating within Somalia and Malaysia that Somali migrants pay to facilitate their migration process and for guidance on the important information they ought to know. Somalis move from Mogadishu to Djibouti - Dubai as the transit countries they use in order to access Malaysia.

3.2.3 Transit country

Malaysia acts as an important transit point for Somali migrants who plan to land in Thailand and Australia as their final destination country. As argued by Missbach, Malaysia and Indonesia were important transit pints for the Indo Chinese boat people in the 1980’s and 1990’s. This importance strategic role of the country is still used by many Muslim migrants. Somalia is among more than 60 countries particularly with high Muslim

populations, that are granted visas upon arrival by the Malaysian government in order to boost tourism. This creates an avenue for the Somali migrants who mainly land in Malaysia as tourist (Missbach & Sinanu, 2012). They later travel to Thailand by bus to some extent as a final destination and a transit country as well. With Thailand being a hub for trafficking in the South-East Asia region, the asylum seekers easily find their way in through the well- connected available smugglers. Smugglers who the Somali migrants make deals with, only bring them to Malaysia. From Malaysia, it is the responsibility of the already settled migrants to find possible smuggling agents or families that provide safe route to land in Thailand.

3.2.4 Why don’t the Somalis settle in Malaysia?

Malaysia has not enacted agreement recognizing the asylum seekers or the refugees hence not a member of the 1951 Refugee convention and its 1967 protocol. However, the UNHCR helps in providing assistance to the “smuggled” migrants whose numbers increase. Malaysia from another angle fails to give the migrants room to do small business and even chances of resettlement because of their large numbers. In turn, life for the migrants is not favorable as compared to Thailand where the migrants have chances of doing business and being resettled. As noted by Everett Lee, economic hardships are noted to be key reasons which enable the migration of refugees (Lee, 1966). The Somali community in Malaysia, in order to achieve their economic security, have the option of being smuggled to Thailand where they have chances of succeeding. Portes and Böröcz contend that a decision to migrate is also affected by the comparative advantage in preferred countries of destination hence from this angle, Somali migrants view Bangkok as a hub of opportunities despite the challenges since they can do small informal businesses, stand a good chance of resettlement and overall find their economic security is good as compared to Malaysia where life is tougher (Portes & Böröcz, 1989).

3.3 Smuggling and Trafficking Networks

According to the definition contained in Article 3 of the Protocol Against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, Supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime: a)“Smuggling of migrants” shall mean the procurement, in order to obtain, directly or indirectly, a financial or other material benefit, of the illegal entry of a person into a State Party of which the person is not a national or a permanent resident;

(b) “Illegal entry” shall mean crossing borders without complying with the necessary requirements for legal entry into the receiving State.

Smuggling is procurement in order to obtain directly or indirectly a financial or other material benefit of the illegal entry of a person into a country party of which the person is not a national or a permanent resident (Assembly, 2000). Therefore, in this study, it is a mutual financial agreement between the smuggler and the Somali migrants. Upon arrival in Malaysia, the Somali migrants contact relatives or friends for further directions and information necessary to ease their travel process. Somali nationals in Malaysia do not need visa at least for the first 14 days which is normally enough period for them to trace the smugglers and affiliated friends who later provide them with the means to transport them to Thailand, in particular Bangkok.

3.3.1 Condition in Destination Country

Somali migrants use Thailand as a country of transit in order to be resettled to other countries like Australia, Europe and the America; and as a destination country where they can conduct livelihood by doing small businesses and also working in restaurants. Thailand

like many other Asian states is not a signatory to the 1951 refugee convention nor to the 1967 protocol. This makes life seem very different from what the asylum seekers expect. Somali migrants are constantly threatened by detention and arrested if they arrive without a visa. Unlike Asian migrants who manage to obtain employment means of livelihood in Thailand, Somali migrants find it almost impossible. The immigration law of the Thai government often consider the asylum seekers and the refugees in Thailand illegal migrants therefore the UNHCR takes the responsibility in the urban areas for the Refugee status determination (Frelick & Saltsman, 2012).

(Ravenstein, 1889) affirms that the laws of migration make it that most migrants regardless of their status, often choose to travel short distances. The increasing distance means that the migrants decrease in number as well, which perfectly fit the Somali migrants who do not arrive in large numbers because of the long distance and endless processes involved. For Ravenstein, he assumes if the cost met by the migrants are high, then this would mean that assurance is less hence the volume of those determined to migrate reduce. Consequently, the Somali migrants who are able to arrive in Thailand are a group of people who are willing to risk their resources hence which means that they can afford the cost. Somalis in Bangkok use a lot of money to travel to Thailand for business or for other benefits like resettlement meaning they have some money to use at their disposal in order to land in Thailand.

In accordance with the IOM, undocumented migrants are susceptible to wide range forms of vulnerabilities at the countries of destination. Due to fear of arrest or even deportation, undocumented migrants in most cases fail to seek medical help unless it is the last best option. As a result, they end up failing to get medical assistance such as immunizations, safe childbirth and pregnancy care. Somali migrants who arrive in Thailand with no visa are equally party to such vulnerabilities such as arrest, in access to health care and most of

all living in fear. Constant arrest and huge bonds makes Somali migrants who are asylum seekers to suffer in solitude at the margins of the city.

As a middle-income country, Thailand is concurrently the origin and destination of large numbers of international migrants. It also serves as a country of transit for asylum-seekers, victims of trafficking and irregular migrants. With a dynamic economy, there is a great deal of internal migration as well, including circular and seasonal migration.

3.4 Case Studies

The following chapter presents the six case studies of the Somali Migrants that were interviewed in Bangkok from May – June 2017.

3.4.1 Khadija (Alias), an Asylum Seeker

Ms. Khadija is a young female who came from Somalia and an urban asylum seeker in Thailand. She is 19 years of age and has been living in Thailand for three years. She arrived in Bangkok in 2014. Khadija has no formal education and is an orphan who used to live with her aunt whom she described as not working but got subsistence support from her children who had were living abroad. She hails from Asheraf clan that is among the minority clans in Somalia. She said that society sees educating a girl rather than education a boy child as waste of money and resources. She stated her clan was discriminated against and face many challenges from the larger communities that has formed the Al-Shabaab. Khadija described how she fled Somali since she her life was in danger as she had refused to join the government opposing insurgent group by the name of Al-Shabaab. She said, “Al-Shabaab need women to cook for them and use them as spies. Once you refuse to abide their will, they consider you a traitor and they shall kill you”. (Khadija, 26/05/2017). She described that the insurgent group wanted to control her town of Kismaiyo that had been controlled by the Kenyan troops and the Amisom troops as well. As the Al-Shabaab was

less of soldiers, they required every young person in the area to join them for their victory. She said, “I could not wait for long as the threat was real”. Khadija’s aunt was also aware of the matter and with the help of her cousins, all her relatives abroad contributed some money to facilitate her movement. One of the relatives abroad gave the aunt a contact of an agent person whom could help Khadija flee. She said, “All he required was my passport and some money. “It cost me approximate 7,000 USD for me to get here. 6,000 USD is what I used to pay the agency and for my support, then I had an additional 1,000 dollars to cater for my bills as advised” (Khadija, 26/05/2017).

A few days before her journey started, the agency guided her on the dos and the don’ts on her way and after she arrived. She explained that she had been cautioned about carrying heavy too much luggage. Khadija was given an air ticket to Malaysia though the planes transit point was Dubai and advised not to come out of the plane until it landed in Kuala Lumpur. She was also given the contact of another person who could help her after she arrived in Malaysia. After landing, she contacted an agent who was readily waiting for her at the airport. She said that Malaysia is the base of Somali people in Thailand because she had been informed it is easy to get a Thailand visa. She insisted that the main reason she was to get a visa to Thailand. In Malaysia, Khadija got visa is on arrival for Malaysia. She was advised by the man to go to the Thai embassy for Thailand visa. “All we require is a passport and your ticket. Tourist visa is easy for us Somali from Malaysia”.

Khadija waited in Malaysia for a month in order for her document to be processed. Once she got the tourist visa, the agent helped her book a bus to Thailand where she states that they went through customs. Upon reaching in Thailand, she contacted another man who directed her to a cheap small room in Bang Na that cost them 2,000 baht. For the first few days, she bought shopping and the basic things needed to move on with her life.

Khadija stated that she had an original passport while arriving in Thailand however, it expired during her stay and that in life was a struggle since is in Bangkok illegally as per the law. Khadija stayed in her room for three days until the time she got the nerve to take a taxi to the UNHCR and register as an asylum seeker. It is at the UNHCR that she met Khatra who was a Somali woman living in Bangkok and an asylum seeker at asylum access Thailand. Khatra introduced Khadija to the asylum access Thailand. Khadija further stated that she has to be legal in order to work and her illegality denies her a chance to find a formal or informal job.

With help from her relatives, Khadija received money that she used to pay rent and bills. In addition, she knew some English words that enabled her to become assist in Somali translations at the asylum seekers Thailand. Khadija said it is not a job since she is not supposed to work but this helps her in supporting herself as she hopes for resettlement by the UNHCR. She said that the translation work help in her bill although it is not much since she has no skills. Khadija stated that her will to go to school is possible where she is now acquiring training to become an English translator through an NGO.

She explained to me that she receives 2,000 baht each month from the UNHCR however she said that the amount is not enough to cater for her needs. Khadija stated:

“In my country, the value in a person is rated according to which clan one comes from. I come from the Asheraf clan that is among the minority groups in Somali that are marginalized and discriminated against. In my clan, men determine the clan of the children in the family as it is required that children become members of the man’s clan while the women do not change their clan upon marriage. However, there is a much more marginalized clan in the whole of Somali called the “Gosha” or the Bantus of Somali. This is because they live in isolation with other clans and they do not participate in war rather live peaceful lives. This has made them to be labelled as traitors by other clans hence the enmity” (Khadija, 27/05/2017).

Khadija talked about marriage. She said that In Thailand, she has been able to overcome early marriage. Contrary, if she were in Somalia, she would have been married by now. She continued and said that she can settle with any man as long as she loves him and he should be a Muslim as well as she has the ability to choose for herself. She insisted that some cultures in Somalia are fabricated by men while religion in order to suppress women. However, she stated that even if she wants to get married, she could not because she is avoiding having a family. Khadija stated that she would not like to get married for now because family comes with responsibility and she is not ready.

Khadija showed her willingness to be eloquent in the English language. She said, “I am determined to learn the English language so that I can be able to secure employment. Right now, I am learning translate though my English is not that good? I want to be independent financially” (Khadija, 26/05/2017). She further stated that she would be willing to learn Thai language. She said that she teaches herself using the phone to learn the basics of the language as she put it, “Transport, food, law and the environment is Thai so I have learnt and still learn Thai language using my phone”

As asserted by Khadija, she said some cultures in Somali are social constructed tradition of the Somali men because they do not want women to live independent lives. She said,

“In Somalia, culture is all about the man but less concerned in the voice of the women is echoed. Female Genital Mutilation is a tradition practice that men support for their bodily desires but they make it sound religious. I was surprised when I arrived in Thailand and heard that other the women at the mosque are not mutilated, this opened my eyes and I had a chance to hear and interact with other people hence realizing the weakness of my culture” (Khadija, 02/06/2017).

Khadija said that in Bangkok, even amongst Somalis female genital mutilation is not done, as it is a recognized violation of women rights so maybe the men and elderly women fear arrest. “This is a culture that I can never allow to happen to my children in future” (Khadija, 26/05/2017).

Khadija said that what forms part of her life is religion and that she cannot make it without religion. She said that religion is important to every Muslim because they learn to share and help each other. She said that from her duties she has met many Muslim women who consider her a daughter. Khadija said in Somali, she would be wearing long hijab covering most part of my body that she termed as oversized.

“As you can see, this is a more fashionable kind of a hijab that is acceptable in the mosque here in Thailand. The way hijab is wearing here in Bangkok is different with the way I used it in Somali. However, I am a girl and I have to flow with fashion but what I am sure of is that this would be unacceptable in Somali where I can be considered by the society as a person who has lost touch with religion” (Khadija, 02/06/2017).

Khadija explained on how she strives in case of a medical attention, she said that in the hospital, the only things required for her as an asylum seeker is the UN card then the rest of the pay is as per charged. She explained that every time she felt ill she has to take care of her bill despite her being jobless.

3.4.2 Farooq (Alias), an International Student

Farooq is a 31-year-old male and an international student who is under partial scholarship in Thailand. He comes from the district of Beledweyne in the south central. In Bangkok, he lives in Pattanakhan in a single room which he shares with another Somali student.

Farooq described his home district to be suffering from the devastating consequences of war. Farooq narrated the origin of this to be because of Ethiopian troops helping the Somali Transition Federal Government in governing the area. He stated that the Al-Shabaab want to control the area as well hence both parties clashing hence resulting to insecurity. He said that the ordinary Somali felt threatened by the government forces and the militia group. Farooq continued and said that in his village they practiced agriculture whereas now it has become impossible. He stated that the Al-Shabaab requires every Somali to collaborate with them in securing Somali. He stated that in, as much Somalia have a new president, war would continue because the president is not a chosen leader of the Al-Shabaab who want to take over Somalia.

Farooq arrived in Thailand in 2013 as an international student after a family friend who lives here in Bangkok helped deliver his application forms and certificates to his current university. The friend took his transcripts to the university where he was accepted as an international student. The reason why he chose Thailand is that the university he is studying at was offering 50% scholarship. This pushed our conversation further to as how he covers the other 50% of the fees and he said that his family helps him in fee but he also does translations to reduce being a burden to the family. He stated that his brother works with an international organization and supports him in Thailand.

It took six to eight weeks for the Thai embassy to confirm his visa that he was supposed to pick in Nairobi since in Somali they do not have a Thai embassy. In Kenya, he also mentioned about a family member who lives there, hence they hosted him during the period of getting the visa. Kenya served as a strategic country of his journey through the embassy of Somali in Kenya. In his flight, he flew from Mogadishu airport, Hargesya, Djibouti, Dubai and finally to Bangkok as the final destination country. The reason for this is that

there are no direct flights from Mogadishu international airport to Bangkok hence leading to the many transit countries.

Farooq said that he has a student visa that enables him to legally live in Thailand. In addition to that, Farooq said the only document he can associate himself with is the student identity card. He stated that he has no formal job in Thailand however; he is able to get part time translating jobs through his friends. As he said, he is fluent in Arabic and the Somali language that increases his survival. He said although he does the translations, he does not have the permit to do this. He insisted that his brother largely supports his stay here in Bangkok. He pays the other 50% of his fee and gives him living allowance. Farooq said that he also receives calls from the NGOs around in Bangkok in case they need translation.

Farooq stated that in the Somali culture, women are believed to be weak, as they cannot face tough situation like men. He said, “According to our culture, we believe women become pregnant, cannot lift heavy items and on the other hand, men can do all the hard work” (Farooq, 05/05/2017). This got even interesting since I was curious to hear his explanation, he said that in the Somali community, women ought to get children and cook for the family while a man ought to be the breadwinner. this sparked the research to further investigate the position of women in the Somali culture because according to Farooq, there are specific duties and responsibilities women were marginalized according to me hence the gendered roles seems not to change.

Farooq continued and said that men do not feel underrepresented and code of conduct is very clear to both men and women. However, he was stated that it was the only women who felt underrepresented were the educated one but back in Somali, women are not

rebellious. He said, “Amongst the Somali, women and men have roles. Men are supposed to be the breadwinners and women should look after the family” (Farooq, 05/05/2017).

On matters of shaking hands, he further stated that in Thailand, he does shake hands everybody irrespective of whom greets him. Farooq affirmed that a Somali Muslim woman cannot offer a fellow Somali man her hand unless they are family. However, as he put it, “if she gives me her hand I will just accept and shake her hand though it is not in line with our culture”. He continued to how dynamic culture has become, by stating that a woman is allowed to stay without a hijab while within the family premises though because of the environment, the women are living and the influence of the social media has misled those who wear a hijab to deviate and want to show their bodies like other non-Muslims do. He said that this upholds the dignity of both men and women.

During the two days that I visited Farooq, the researcher accompanied him to a place where he normally eats his meals. It was a small street restaurant near a mosque that had a banner that was broadly written on it “halal”. Farooq took his prayers keenly and so did everybody who was at the small restaurant since during their prayers all the Muslims in the hotel went to the mosque. Farooq explained that his preference is rice and beef, he insisted although they do not have his tradition foods, they have Muslim food that is equivalently okay. Farooq said, “I only eat two times a day, I don’t want to be overweight, you know today there are many lifestyle diseases and you got to have money to get medical attention” (Farooq, 06/05/2017). He has his lunch at 11.00am and dinner at 5.00pm at the particular Muslim restaurant. This made me ask him what guides what he eats and he told me it is the Islam religion. He said that he only eats halal. He told me that in the Somali community men are not supposed to cook, this is a sign of weakness that is chore set for women. That was his support as to why he eats in a restaurant. Farooq in his house, he doesn’t cook as he described it a feminine role and also expensive. He said that eating at the restaurant was

time consuming and cheap. Farooq also said females do not wait for their men to eat with them. As soon as the food is ready, the children have to eat and sleep early for their classes tomorrow. If the wife waits for the husband, she can but out of her own will but not a must.

Farooq said that in his clan circumcision for boys is done seven days after birth once the baby has become stronger or after 7 years. The reason for male circumcision in his tradition is that it is a religious requirement and reduces chances of men being attacked by opportunist infections. He said that circumcision should be done to both men and women as per his understanding of the Koran. However, Farooq said that he was against the traditional circumcision of women, which is considered lethal. On the contrary, he supported the Muslim type circumcision as advised by prophet Mohamed. He said he only supports the Somali Muslim circumcision if it is done in the right way. Farooq stated that it is not in order for a Somali Muslim to marry uncircumcised woman as he himself has married a circumcised one.

“I use Somali language with my Somali affiliates and I use English with those who may not understand the Somali language (Farooq, 05/05/2017).

During the visit, I realized Farooq uses some Thai words when he is requesting for food. He explained to me that he has interest in learning Thai because he wants to live longer in Bangkok. Farooq explained how he married when he was 29 years old, though the woman is from a different clan; he chose for himself no one did the match. He said such practice happens in the remote areas of Somalia but can never happen in a city like Bangkok. He said Bangkok is survival and that Somalis can marry from any race as long as they are happy. Farooq explained that they had been long time social friends with the woman she married. Farooq supported by saying, “In Somali culture, a man is allowed to marry four women if at all he can equally take care of them. In addition, one can have as many children

as he can afford to take care of and there is no minimum or a maximum number that dictates it” (Farooq, 08/05/2017).

Farooq believes that in life he cannot make it without religion. “I can give up the worldly things but not my religion” he maintained that since he was born, his family taught him that religion is life, it has grown in him and with him. He further said that in their culture, short dresses are not allowed. Farooq insisted that in Bangkok, his dressing changes because of weather but he does not wear shorts. He associated shorts with male nakedness that the Koran is against. He said that he tries to do everything as advised by the Koran.

Farooq expressed his love for football and told me that he is trying hard to play football in order to get absorbed in one of the teams in Bangkok. He said that in as much as he wants to go back to Somalia, he described football as a better opportunity for him. Farooq also had hopes of getting a job with INGO internationally where he could move his wife to a safer place. Farooq stated that he is also seeking asylum from the UNHCR, as he wants to relocate to another place since Somali is not conducive as he asserted.

3.4.3 Abdi (Alias) A Businessperson

Mr. Abdi is a 42-year-old man who has been doing his business in Bangkok for six years. He lives in the central part of Bangkok. He shares one-room rental with two Somalis. His highest level of education is a bachelor degree and he is a father of six children. He said that Somalia is his home country but because of the safety reasons, his family was able to relocate to Kenya. He said, “You know corruption sometimes is good and other times is bad. I was referred to a person in Kenya whom I paid some huge amount of money in order to get citizenship for myself and my wife”. He explained that he was able to buy a Kenyan

Identity Card back in 2010. This contributed to his legality and relocation of his family in Kenya, East Leigh area. He explained that he has a Kenyan passport and a Somali passport.

Abdi said that that in Somalia life is expensive because in order to be secure, hotels are the best places to be. Not because of the food or clothing but they are perceived to be the safest places, and mainly government officials live in hotels or wealthy businesspersons. This is because of the fear of Al-Shabaab that is a ruthless group that eliminates every person whom they consider an, “enemy of Islam.” He said that the group is mainly composed of youth who operate in line with the Islamic courts union and want Somalia to be ruled by the Islamic courts. He said that in Mogadishu where he comes from, it has mainly been controlled by the insurgent groups.

According to Abdi, Somalia as a nation has been dragged into conflict by the Marehan clan who forms most parts of the government. He laid blame to this particular clan by stating that it has been responsible for war in Somali and has contributed to the underdevelopment because it favours it people and does not consider another clan. He said, “What distracts us from peace is clannism which is a traditional based conflict that is passed from generations to generations. The Marehan form the largest number of ministers, they employ their people, and mismanage public resources. This is unacceptable to other clans hence results in a conflict.” (Abdi, 14/06/2017).

Abdi affirmed that Somalia is a hub a center for big and illegal business in and out of Africa. Farah said that for many years, Somalia has been used as a distributor for small arms and crude weapons in the African states engaging in war and illegal trade to the outside world. He said that the illegal business parties acknowledge that that peace in Somali means that their illegal activities wont prevail hence supporting the opposing clans

and the insurgent groups in order to create instability which is conducive for their illegal activities.

Abdi explained that he flew from Nairobi to Bangkok on his first visit to Bangkok. At first, he used to buy clothes and send them to Somali where some would remain and others sent to Nairobi to his wife to sell. As years went on, Abdi decided to collaborate with his friend and start a small bureau in order to send money. Abdi told me that most Africans send money to their relatives through him as it was easier to understand each other.

“At first, I came on a tourist visa where I could. That is how I used to survive for three years until when we decided to try another business.” Malaysia used to be the country where Abdi would visit in order to get the re-entry visa to Thailand. In his stay in Thailand, he found a Thai friend to start his business as he said it was not easy. After the friend got a certain amount, they had agreed though it was required of him to employ two local people. He has a business certificate that enables the business to operate legally in Bangkok.

Abdi runs a small business of forex bureau and sends small bundles of clothes to his family in Somalia so that they can sell. However, when he goes out to the market to buy some clothes, a student whom he helped to come study in Bangkok assists him. Abdi’s main source of income is the small bureau because it is less competitive since not many people can afford it unlike the clothes business. After he supplements his income by buying clothes and sends them to Somalia and Kenya.

Abdi indicated that when a Somali person lands in Bangkok the first thing he does ask for is where he can find African community and after that, it will be easy to ask for other Somali people in the area. For instance, “Six years ago when I arrived in Bangkok, I asked

almost every African I found along my way about the presence of Somalis until I found one” (Abdi, 14/06/2017). When I asked him why, he said that it created a sense of belonging and whenever he met a Somali he feels at home because they have so much to share in common including the language. He said that it was also important because it would be easier for him to get information about the particular area.

On a religion perspective, Abdi said hand greetings is not allowed unless they are from the same family. Nevertheless, irrespective of that, a foreign Muslim woman cannot just give hands to men to be greeted. “I personally will not give my hand to a woman from my county. We are not allowed to touch a woman as per our religion. This is meant for close family, man to man, and a woman to another woman”. Abdi called it a taboo and in a Muslim religion one can be labelled a non-believer because of that (Abdi, 14/05/2017).

Abdi said authoritatively, “Our tradition starts right from the kitchen. What is happening is that, the more generations we get, tradition changes with time. Abdi said it is not in order for him to cook however, he sometimes prepare Somali biryani, pasta, and chapatti in his free time. He explained how he had gone at a far distance leaving a lot of food in the street only to find the Halal food. Abdi insisted that he haves two meals in a day and breakfast being the most important.

Abdi further had this to say about circumcision. “Babies are not circumcised even here when he is small in Thailand. This is because of the medical fee associated with it and the mothers feel that they might not be in a good position to cater for the hospital services required. So instead, it is done when the boys reach the age of six to eight years when they are immune. He further stated, for women, it does not happen since the law prohibits it. It is illegal this is more of a Somali practice and not a Muslim practice. There are no community pressures to do it however since other Muslim communities in Bangkok do not

embrace it. Abdi said to him, it does not matter if a woman is circumcised or not because people nowadays marry without putting much into consideration of circumcision.

On matters of gender roles, Abdi stated that his culture requires a man is supposed to provide for the family. “In today’s setting, we all work and have to help each other to survive. My wife works and I have no issue with that” (Abdi, 14/06/2017).

Abdi noted that women change dressing due to the situation in Thailand, but they still cover their hair, as it is a requirement of our religion. He pointed at a student who was seated at the extreme edge doing his assignment. Look at him, he said while pointing his traditional wear, “he is wearing a Kanzu and this is as a result of his tradition which have been passed for long generations and he still embraces it. He said that in Somali elderly men wear Kanzus in their houses. However, he said Somali culture changes in Thailand in order to fit in and when they are going back to Somali they switch again to their culture. Nevertheless, because of the dynamics of being in a metropolitan city like Bangkok, Somali women change and wear trousers, men get funny hairstyles and even some men engage in drinking alcohol. Overall, for the women they still cover their hair. He said Somali women could change in case she finds greener pasture but when going back to Somali they have to adopt the social expectations on how they conduct themselves.

Abdi said the best thing he likes about Thailand is the security that he experiences together with him being able to have a livelihood. Nevertheless, he gave a story of how he used to live with a friend five years ago. They shared the room seven people in number and the woman used to complain about the infrastructure because to her they had consumed so much space in that her baby only stayed in the house. Abdi stated the woman’s grievances to be close buildings that denied her child a ground to play unlike in Somali where they had many playgrounds within the city.

Abdi and her wife come from different clans. A friend of Abdi helped him to find woman and after he paid dowry. He was requested to strictly pay four camels and he had to bring the animal as the mother before had requested of it. Abdi said that marrying from the countryside woman animals are involved while in Mogadishu town money can be used.

Abdi stated that in Somalia, a girl is considered good to be married off after her first period which means that she is mature. He stated that the parents gladly marry her off not because they don’t like her but because they are overwhelmed.

Abdi asserted that the problem rendering war in Somalia is clannism and the tribalism. He said “look, when Somalis are in diaspora, they coexist as one but when they go back to Somali, clannism dominates and enmity takes over” (Abdi, 20/06/2017). Abdi stated that he has helped a number of people in Bangkok whom they are not from the same clan. He stated that Somali clannism end the moment they are out of the borders. In Bangkok, Abdi told me he has many friends and he has met different clans whom they spent good times. He said that clannism is a weapon of politicians in Somali where they make people do things on their favour hence spreading enmity.

Abdi noted Bangkok not to be his permanent stay as he is looking for better profits. For him, he said that he could relocate to any other country provide it is peaceful and has opportunities to allow him expand his business. Abdi have hopes of expanding his business to Canada or China in future. He supported this by saying there are many Africans in Canada and China who send money back home. Since security and economies force our movement, in looking for a country I can move and have better life than Thailand. Abdi

said Somali people are nomads in nature and that they will always be on the move be it in a peaceful or a chaotic place.

3.4.4 Hussein (Alias), an International Student

Hussein is an international student pursuing a master degree in Bangkok. Hussein landed in Bangkok in December 2015, and now he has been here for one year and six months. He is 23 years of age and comes from the clan of Garre and his hometown is Mogadishu a place he defined to be chaotic. Hussein described the home issue to be primarily led by clannism hence further creating terrorism that is a problem as well. Hussein said that the Issa clan are the main problem in his home area because they want power and they do not want to collaborate with other clans. Hussein said that Kenyan invasion of Somali in 2011 made the Al-Shabaab bitter because they fear parts of Somali territory shall be overtaken by Kenyan military. He said that he used to work before in Somalia and he sponsors himself.

Hussein stated that a friend who studies in the same school informed him about the university. Using DHL, he sent his documents to his friend who later submitted them to the university. After he was accepted, Hussein was advised to get his visa at the Thai embassy in Kenya where he waited for the process to take place for three months. After the process was done, he booked a ticket from Mogadishu, Dubai, and then landed in Bangkok. Once he reached Thailand, the friend who applied for Hussein received him and offered him accommodation. As he put it, “we the Somali people live as a community where we share houses and cook together”. Hussein said the reason of this mainly was because of security and economic benefit since it made life cheaper.

Hussein stated that the legal document keeping him here in Thailand is the student visa. He carries it whenever he walks around to minimize chances of being arrested by the police. Hussein further stated that in matters of money, he had saved enough to cater for his studies In Bangkok. Hussein further stated that in Mogadishu, friends and families contributed some amount to facilitate his education as well hence that forming part of his survival means.

Hussein narrated about a classmate who was a Somali student in Thailand and later went to Minnesota. Hussein stated the shared how they moved to Thailand when he was 9 years of age. Hussein said that he missed his had passed away a decade ago in the ongoing conflict. He had been living in Bangkok out of Somali for 10 years and could even speak Thai language. He forgot the Somali language but the only words he remembers from his father are “toos toosiyaan oo ku soo tukanayo” which means wake up, wake up and pray (Hussein, 25/06/2017). He said that the father used to wake him up at 5.00 am in the morning so that he can join them in their morning prayers. As much as he forgot the Somali language, that part of religion remained and became part of him. Hussein supported the importance of religion by stating that. “Like now if I change my religion am sure I will be disowned by my father so it is not easy for me to change the religion. I have known the Muslim religion for my entire life. He smiled; it is not possible for anything or anybody to make me doubt my religion (Hussein, 25/06/2017).

Hussein continued by stating about the language he normally uses which to him has rather changed. “In school I have to speak English and when I asked him why he said it’s because of the population. However, for the younger kids it changes, for instance the kids who spend much of their time in Thai schools means that they learn Thai language. When I’m in Somali I use Somali with other Somali people when we meet but because of survival I

have learnt a few Thai words to help me when I’m moving from one place to another and also to interact when I want to buy something in the market (Hussein, 25/06/2017).

Most of the time we cook rice and beans which are available. We have no much of a choice given our economic conditions. I only eat twice in a day and lunch is my important meal of the day. According to our tradition, Men are not allowed to cook but in Thailand, we do because we have to survive. Like here, we cook in turns the three of us; we have a duty rooster where each person cooks in his day. We normally go to the market and buy the available foods. Hussein said that on Ramadan, they had a chance to celebrate Muslim food (halal) since there is a restaurant just next to the mosque. Roles change in order to increase room for survival (Hussein, 25/06/2017).

Hussein stated that marriages happen on very rare cases in Bangkok. He said that what brings the people in Thailand is survival but getting intimate might create more problems than good. He said that as students, maybe they might get to know and date each other but marriage in Bangkok might be hard for them. He said, “Our tradition is to some extent replaced by the religion that we follow comfortably in Bangkok. Therefore, when it comes to the most important celebration I value is Ramadan, which is an Islam-based celebration. Religion forms part of my backbone since I am a Sunni Muslim. In the future I have to pass this message to my children because they ought to be prayerful and ask Allah to guide their ways” (Hussein, 26/06/2017).

Hussein said, “When I meet with a fellow Somali man, we greet and hug while men only shake hands. However, sometimes I see men and women shaking hands here, it is no longer illegal as it used to be. “Set hai” is how we greet each other for the Somalis, gradually we are changing to the western style as we are not many in Bangkok and we have to become international. Amongst the Somali, he stated that “set hai” which is a Somali tradition

greeting is becoming more and more replaced by the Islam based way of greeting which is Salaam Aleichem” (Hussein, 25/06/2017).

Hussein stated that one of his greatest determination is to become educated and add up knowledge that can help him in future. He wants to continue with further studies here in Bangkok where he plans to apply for a scholarship in the same university.

He stated that since he does not want to go back in Mogadishu, he is still reconsidering to apply as an asylum seeker since he has to make ends meet. He described life in Somali to be challenging and going back will not make things any better. “I wouldn’t want all those people to see me as a failure since they have trust in me” (Hussein, 25/06/2017).

3.4.5 Amina (Alias), an illegal immigrant held at the IDC

Amina is a 35-year-old widow of four children who is held at the Immigration Detention Center in Bangkok. She had abandoned everything when she left her hometown city of Mogadishu, at the age of 32. Amina arrived in Bangkok in the year 2014 and she hails from the clan of Gabooye that is a minor and an oppressed clan. Amina stated that many big clans are against her small clan. She said that in order for minority to succeed in Mogadishu, you have to be aligned to the majority clans. Amina stated that her and her clan faced persecution from the bigger clans and she had witnessed her clans’ members killed for no reason. Since she was living in Mogadishu the capital, she had heard about going to Thailand and she heard there were chances of resettlement. Amina paid a trafficker in Somali to help her get to Thailand. She paid a sum of 4,000 USD to facilitate her travel where she described her journey to be by plane from Mogadishu, Hergesya, Dubai and then

Kuala Lumpur where she stayed for two weeks since she had visa on arrival. Amina described that she entered Thailand without visa at the Thai-Malaysia border where she entered Thailand illegally. In Thailand, she knew no one but the trafficker provided her with some information on the area to go and the person to meet.

In 2014, she arrived in Bangkok and she has been living in Thailand for three years now. She left her family and her husband back in Somali in efforts to find safety and better lives for her family. She had to escape persecution in Somali as she stated that her family was dispersed all over because of the ongoing cultural differences that had resulted in minority clan’s persecution. After she arrived in Bangkok, Amina through the help of local NGO was able to visit the UNHCR where after a long wait she got an asylum seeker Identity card. Like many other asylum seekers and refugees in Bangkok, Amina spends most of her days doing nothing at the IDC but waiting for UNHCR to call her with a decision. Amina expressed the fear of not knowing what will be of her future is doubled up by the lack of ability to provide for herself and her children.

Amina used to live at an apartment at Rama VI where she was arrested on April of 2015 for the first time and came out on bail. As she described it, the police storm to her apartment where they arrested everybody including her children. She was taken to the court and she was required to pay 6,000 baht after which she was taken to the IDC. The JRS came in and bailed her for a sum of 50,000 baht since she had children to take care of. After three months bailed out, she was advised to go twice a month to the IDC to confirm her presence since she had been bailed out. However on august of 2015, Amina stated that one day her baby fell ill and she had to take her to the hospital and this caused her not to attend her reporting. Amina went to the IDC 7 days late caused by the illness of her child. As it is terms of the bail to report twice a month, she was arrested for breaching the agreement and this led to her second detention.

She described how she used to pay her room before was through relative and friends. Amina said that in many cases friends assisted her where she would request them to support her. She said, “When one friend or relative pays this month, another one pay the next and it becomes a cycle one month passes.”

“I would love to have a job, but I can’t have one. I spend my time at home because I’m afraid that the police will arrest me,” (Amina, 19/05/2017). Today her “sisters” whom she said that they are not blood sisters have offered her look after her children.

At the detention, she mainly relies on charitable organizations and Somali friends who visit her though not often and take to her some food or give her some money. She said occasionally like during the Muslim celebrations, Muslim people visit the Muslims detained and sometimes brings them some shopping items.

Upon asking Amina why she chose to come to Thailand and not go to any other Asian country, she said that Thailand has a cheaper visa fee as compared to other countries in South East Asia. Amina said that Thailand is a worth risking route because as she had been advised by the trafficker who approved Thailand as a faster country of resettlement hence informing her that it was faster in Thailand. She stated that she felt safe moving to Thailand because of her sister whom she described to be a friend.

Amina stated that in the IDC, they provide only Thai food which she said was much rich in starch and further said that the condition at the IDC is making her to become ill easily since she eat the food that is not balanced. She said that most of the times they are served white rice, soup and vegetables which are not in line with what she would want to eat if

she was free. Amina described that they have a shop inside the IDC where they can buy a few items but the problem is money. She said that they have a chance to buy detergents and foods like bread.

She said that last year they had a chance to get bail however, things are different now. She stated that she is today left with two options at hand that are to either repatriate back to Somali or get resettlement in another country. She said that in both ways it means that she is not going to live free in Thailand but in the jail. However, Amina prefers to be at the IDC rather than going back to Somalia.

Detained without release in sight, Amina stated that she found ways to cope. “The first three to four months was really hard. It was difficult to manage and stop thinking about my children however I got used to it. I met people who had more problems than I did” (Amina, 28/06/2017).

Amina stated that in Ramadan, they got visitors who were Muslim and various charity groups who brought them food and specified it was Halal dedicated to Muslim people. Being detained did not prevent her from fasting. She said during the month she had to pray for her detention and family so it was a very special occasion to her. Amina maintained what keeps her in the detention is hope which she fuels it through a prayer

Amina said that she has few clothes however; it is only affected when visitors come since they have to wear the T-shirts. She said that in the IDC you could wear what you want so she explained that some friends brought her a few clothes to be changing.

Amina because of her long stay at the detention has learnt Thai language. She can make a basic statement especially when asking about food and for her understanding of a normal conversation. She said this is important at the IDC as communication with the officers become easy and she can be able to express herself.

Amina stated that she is an asylum since her case is not yet accepted for her to become a refugee. She said that her case was rejected but she prefers waiting for her case to be heard again. She stated that the document that she has is the UNHCR card that states she is an asylum and when it comes to arrest, it does not count much as the Thai police do not put much consideration on it.

3.4.6 Mohamed (Alias), an Asylum Seeker

Mohammed is a 20-year-old man living in Thailand as an asylum seeker. He came from Mogadishu a place he described tor be a place full of structured violence. Mohamed comes from the clan of Gabooye and lives in Thailand all by himself since his parent had been claimed by the persecution as well. Mohamed stated that the root cause of conflict in his hometown is “Kabila” as he referred to it. 2015 may hence he has been in Thailand for two years.

Mohamed said that he paid a trafficker a sum of 3,000 USD in order to arrive in Thailand. He paid for the sum and it was enough even to cater for his travel ticket. Mohamed boarded an airplane from Somalia in the capital in Mogadishu to Malaysia where he was on arrival. He stayed for some few days in Malaysia and then he crossed the border illegally where he was smuggled at the back of a small tour car. Once he reached Thai territory, he paid the trafficker around 150 USD as he had been advised by the agent in Somali. Mohamed

boarded a bus where upon his arrival, his friend picked him from the bus station and until now, they live together. Mohamed expressed his worry since the only document he has Asylum Seeker A UNHCR card.

He described that the room where they live does not belong to anybody and that they all contribute to rent and buying of food hence cutting the cost of living. As he explained, “Somali people live in groups, whenever you see one, find another one. In his explanation he called it the Somali brotherhood that keeps them together and united in times of need.

Mohamed described that in a way he gets to work in construction sites which he described to be occasionally though not all the sites for survival. He stated that he has no brothers or sisters so he relies on himself in Thailand. He stated that he gets some stipend from the UNHCR and monthly 1,000 baht from the mosque that he heavily relies on.

Mohamed expressed his worry since the only document that he has is the asylum card from the UNHCR that he stated that it could not deter him from arrest. He said he fear walking around with it however; he said it is good to walk because even if he fails to get out of the house the police could storm into their apartment. Mohamed said that he in company of other friends he lives with who are men cook in turns. He said if it was in Somali, the girls cook but now due to the survival they have to adjust in order to keep life moving. He noted that teenage girls in Somali are not supposed to be sent to the market that is left for the young men. Mohamed insisted that today in Thailand everybody goes to the market, men, women and children.

As he was wearing shorts, Mohamed told me he cannot go with the short to Somalia, as they are not supposed to show below the knees however, in Thailand he said there is no

one to ask and the community here does not judge so harsh. Mohamed said that he could even go to the mosque in a short that is something that would have never happened in Somalia. Mohamed stated that young Somali girls within do not wear the big oversize hijab like the elder women however they wear a moderate fitting one that is not too big or too small.

He said the communication style of the Somali people is to talk on a high tone which is acceptable to themselves however other cultures consider it as noise. He stated that one of his friend was forced to relocate after the other tenants complained that he was making a lot of noise with his roommates. Mohamed said this has even led to them being advised to talk on a low tone when communicating. Mohamed said that the hand gestures were not only Somali but used internationally, he said that his Somali body signs would not be applicable to other persons apart from Somali people like snapping fingers which it to mean very fast. He said since he is in Thai he has to adapt the Thai way of politely communicating and not the Somali way. In matters of religion, Mohamed said that in the Muslim faith, it is not allowed for women to shake hands with men not only in the Somali culture. He said that a Somali Muslim cannot give you his hand for greetings nor can the man do the same because it is prohibited by religion. He stated that through the mosque around them, he is able to experience Somali music where men and women interact by dancing the Somali way. He stated that it increases chances of knowing each other that led him to stating that he would never marry a non-Somali. Mohamed said as much as he could accept the non-Somali woman, the Somali people would see him as an outcast and would not want to associate with him nor his wife

As Mohamed stated that he is an asylum seeker, he has hopes of resettlement by the UNHCR to America or Canada.

3.5 Description of the Case Studies

The case studies of this research can be classified into three groups namely: Asylum seekers, International Students and Businesspersons.

Table 2: Total Comparison of Case Studies of Somali Migrants

Case

Amina Mohamed Khadija Farooq Hussein Abdi

Profile

Age 35 20 19 31 23 42

Gender Female Male Female Male Male Male

Clan Gabooye Gabooye Asheraf Hawiye Osman Osman Mahmoud Mahmoud

Religion Sunni Sunni Sunni Sunni Sunni Sunni Muslim Muslim Muslim Muslim Muslim Muslim

Status Asylum Asylum Asylum International Internationa Labour seeker seeker seeker Student l Student Migrant

Place of Mogadishu Mogadishu( Kismaiyo Beledweyne South of Mogadishu origin (capital) capital) Mogadishu (capital)

Capital

Year of 2014 2015 2014 2013 2015 2011 Departure

Year of 2014 2015 2014 2013 2015 2011 Arrival

Legal UNHCR UNHCR UNHCR Student Visa Student Business Status Asylum Card Asylum Visa certificate card Card Work Permit

Economic Remittance Informal Translation Informal Part time Self- Condition s from translations s at a local income job at a employed relatives NGO through bureau Income Support translations. Charity from local Remittance Societal Export organizatio NGO s from Scholarship support goods i.e. n, relatives Clothes and UNHCR Remittances Shoes UNHCR monthly UNHCR

monthly stipend monthly stipend stipend

3.5.1 Group 1: Asylum seekers

All the asylum seekers used in the case studies come from conflict hot spot regions. Kismaiyo where Khadija comes from is a battlefield between the Kenyan troops and the Al-Shabaab militias that has constantly left the people homeless. The people face threat from the Kenyan army and forceful recruit by the Al-Shabaab hence concluding that the people live in fear. Mogadishu on the other hand being the capital of Somali is faced with extremism from the Al-Shabaab who carry out terror activities in efforts to outset the Federal government.

In Bangkok, the asylum seekers live a struggling life. The asylum seekers interviewed in this study were holders of Asylum seekers Identity card labeled letter “A” as the serial number. These increased chances of arrest as asylum seekers are not accepted in Thailand. Those who have UNHCR cards that have letter “R” are in a much good position for they are legal and cannot be arrested. Khadija and Mohamed have an Asylum seekers card meaning their chances of being arrested is high however they are determined to wait for their cases to be accepted. However, Amina’s case was rejected by the UNHCR and as she explained, she only has two options: wait for resettlement or be repatriated back to Somali. As she fears for her life, she prefers to wait for another interview as she appealed to object the UNHCR decision to reject her letter.

The table shows that the mainly affected people by the conflict are the small clans who cannot afford to form a rebel group. As some tribes are labelled to be traitors, for instance they do not practice pastoralism. The minority clans such as the Gabooye has to ally themselves with the majority clans for security however this is not always the case since different clans have different code of conduct.

From the three case studies, the migrants’ aspiration is to either settle in Thailand or be relocated to other English speaking countries. The asylum seekers adapt to the new way of life in Thailand as a transit country and are much more willing to take risks in order to survive. An example is where we see Mohamed and Khadija working with no formal document in order to prolong their stay in Thailand. Amina is dedicated to go through the hardships at the IDC just to get a better living for her family as she has the option of going back to Somalia but she would not trade it with freedom.

3.5.2 Group 2: International Student

The two international students came from one of the main clans in Somali however, their places of origin are characterized by conflict. Farah hails from Beledweyne that is an agricultural rich area of Southwestern part of Somali. However, due to the ongoing stand offs with the Ethiopian troops, the area is left with inadequate food hence the farmers in the area lack enough food. Insecurity due to forceful recruitment by the Al-Shabaab makes the education not possible for the young determined students. As a result, through scholarships and assistance from the friends and relatives living in Bangkok, the students are able to access sponsorship to Thai universities where they acquire skills. They are both on a student’s visa, which expires after a period of one year. However, studying to them comes with an opportunity, for instance Farah is able to earn part time through his ability to translate Arabic and Somali language as well. Hussein also because of his ability to speak Arabic is able to work at a bureau as a part time worker though they both do not have a permit.

Hussein and Farah have adopted the Thai way of dressing where they wear even shorts when they are going to class. The students cook for themselves that is a role traditionally

not belonging to men. Being in a Thai society, the students have learned the Thai language for day-to-day communication where Farah went an extra mile and learnt Arabic in Thailand that he described to be good in his pastime translations. On the contrary, the student does not want to go back to Somali, Farah has already applied for an asylum with the UNHCR while Hussein has hopes of moving to an English country through employment.

3.5.3 Group 3. Labour migrant

As a result of marginalization in Mogadishu, Abdi found a way and corrupted the Kenyan officers where he was able to attain a Kenyan ID and officially (on paper), become a Kenyan. This eased his movement from Nairobi to Bangkok where he came to seek for a livelihood. Due to his legality and enabling economic condition, Abdi has been living in Thailand for 6 years making him to have stayed the longest among the three groups.

In Bangkok, he has a Business permit and the work permit thus supporting his legal and economic condition in Thailand, depending on the demand in Nairobi and Mogadishu; He sends goods in small packs where he gets profits. Abdi is a businessperson who has been able to make his way due to the rampant corruption of Kenyan immigration officer and Thailand legal officers responsible for giving the Business and work permit.

He continually cooks for himself in Bangkok as his family is in Nairobi however the relatives live in Mogadishu. Abdi learnt Thai language and buys his wife modern cloth that are not of Somali tradition. Abdi’s future aspirations is to help the Somali students acquire sponsorships in Thailand and move to a more peaceful and profit making city.

3.6 Legal, Economic factors of Somali Migrants

3.6.1 Legal Factors

As asserted by the UNHCR, the Royal Thai Government has no specific process or legal frameworks for assessing protection needs of any urban asylum seekers. Thailand having not acceded to the 1951 Refugee Convention and has an existing Reservation concerning Article 22 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. The responsibility for individual refugee status determination (RSD) falls to UNHCR pursuant to its General Assembly mandate (UNHCR communication, 19/06/2017).

In this context, The UNHCR noted that the number of urban asylum seekers in Thailand has tripled over the course of the past three years. Despite an increase in protection staff, UNHCR’s resources are not unlimited hence a rigorous system is in place to ensure that the most vulnerable individuals are prioritized and this means that some less vulnerable cases may indeed take time for initial review, although Asylum Seeker Cards are issued very shortly after first registration with UNHCR. The UNHCR stated that prioritization is based upon individual specific needs, not on the basis of specific nationalities or “sub- groups”. It was further confirmed that he RTG does not recognize UNHCR documentation (Asylum Seeker and Refugee Cards, issued pursuant to our General Assembly mandate) and has no exemption in its Immigration Act for person seeking international protection despite having signed the Committee Against Torture. As such, the RTG reserves the right to charge any persons with illegal entry/stay in the absence of a valid visa based on some status other than “asylum seeker” or “refugee”. Persons apprehended and convicted for illegal entry/stay are normally sent to the main Immigration Detention Center (IDC) under a deportation order, following a Court procedure. Mindful of Article 3 of the CAT and the Customary International Law principle of non-refoulement as well as cost implications, such persons are not, however, normally deported. Rather, UNHCR is normally permitted

to seek solutions for such persons if determined to be refugees (UNHCR communication, 19/06/2017).

The UNHCR stated that the most common solution worldwide for refugees is voluntary return, when they can so in safety and with dignity. UNHCR also seeks, worldwide, opportunities for “local integration” in first countries of asylum. For exceptionally vulnerable cases, UNHCR has limited opportunities to access third-country government “resettlement” programmes. While many refugees have, since the 1970s, been resettled from Thailand, it is neither beneficial nor realistic in the end to expect that every urban refugee can always be resettled from Thailand. Resettlement is not, in any event, a right and globally less than 1% of refugees worldwide are able to benefit from third-country resettlement, the ultimate decision of which rests with resettlement country governments and not UNHCR (UNHCR communication, 19/06/2017).

While the UNHCR continues to seek solutions, heavy emphasis must also be places on formal and informal advocacy to promote the establishment of a credible national asylum framework or, at the very least, a temporary protection framework as an alternative to detention. The UNHCR also intervenes in individual case seeking, sometimes successfully, non-arrest or release without detention, as well as non-refoulement. The UNHCR supports improved conditions of detention, and provide life-saving medical support as well as limited subsistence allowances for the most vulnerable, etc. Unfortunately, funds are simply not available to meet the needs or demands of all. The UNHCR spend considerable effort advocating concretely with all levels of RTG on ways to accommodate Government concerns while at the same time creating space for a more formal mechanism to address the refugee issue. The situation with respect to legal framework is not, unfortunately, unique to Thailand (UNHCR communication, 19/06/2017).

In the meantime, all refugees and asylum seekers face the same risks of arrest and detention, which are on par with other “illegal aliens”, as well as the same hardships associated with being legally unable to work, etc. In these regards, UNHCR worked extensively in complementarity with other UN Agencies (e.g., UNICEF and OHCHR), National and international NGOs, community groups, churches, mosques, temples, etc. for all refugees and asylum seekers in Thailand. Thailand has also been designated as one of the target countries for the UNHCR global campaign to end detention, starting with the detention of children. UNHCR needs, in these regards, the support of the international community, key governments and NGOs to likewise advocate in a constructive manner with the RTG as well as other governments in the region for establishment of procedures and practices that ensure effective State protection for persons in need of international protection (UNHCR response to the Interview Questions, 19/07/2017).

3.6.2 Economic Condition of Somali Migrants

3.6.2.1 Data from Interview with Asylum Access Thailand Officer

Asylum Access Thailand (AAT) is an NGO that offers legal counseling and representation to refugees seeking asylum and refugee status determination proceedings conducted by the UN refugee agency in Bangkok. AAT clients originate from over 20 nationalities among which a large number are from Sri Lanka and Pakistan, Iraq, Somalia, Iran, Viet Nam, Cote d’Ivoire, and many other countries (AAT representative, 27/06/2017).

The officer said there are around 400 Somali asylum seekers and refugees in Thailand. She stated that most of them come because of the conflict whereas of late an increasing number of young people are coming. Cultural reasons are also notable factors where those understood to be against religion, minority clans, and defectors of code of conduct and against tradition settings such as early marriages form part of Somali asylum seekers. The officer stated that the reason why migrants from Somalia come to Thailand is because they believe it is faster to get resettlement, safer and in Thailand they can practice their religion without fear (AAT representative, 27/06/2017).

The representative said that they assist Somali refugees in legal consultations, interview support, appeal and interpreters. On the same, the officer noted less than 1% of refuges and asylum seekers was resettled this year. The AAT help in reminding the asylum seekers their timeline for the interview (AAT representative, 27/06/2017).

The AAT officer stated that the interview itself at the UNHCR takes a very long period to be conducted depending with the nature of the case however at the AAT, they confirm with the UNHCR to confirm whether the case will take longer than 18 months. She described that on the refugee card that there is a letter “A” or “R” which stands for refugees and asylum seekers. She said in Thailand they are presented because they have overstayed or were smuggled. She stated that the cases where they have a special request to the UNHCR is when an asylum seeker is a single mother, an accompanied person of below 18 years, severe medical attention and in cases where an asylum seekers life might be in danger (AAT representative, 27/06/2017).

In case of an economic support, the AAT assist Asylum seekers and refuges in case where they see a very bad case. The officer continued and said if a person is below the age of 18 years or if she has children and unable to pay the rent, the AAT can intervene, however it

is a short-term not long-term pay. AAT officer advises the Somali men and women to approach the institution when they want money. Some boys work as waiters in Indian restaurants or engage in Construction work however, the organization discourages this because it makes them prone to exploitation (AAT representative, 27/06/2017).

As the officer stated, today, half of the world’s migrants live in cities and towns and an increasing percentage of them is made of women and children. She stated that denial of the right to gain an income to urban asylum seekers and refugees in Bangkok leaves them less of choice but to join the informal economy in order to afford for themselves and their dependents. AAT officer confirmed that women and girls are at risk of sexual and gender based violence (AAT representative, 27/06/2017).

AAT in their support and empowerment recognizes that some women who are asylum seekers and refugees end up in “survival sex” as their only way to make an income in Bangkok. AAT officer expressed her worries for single women and girls living in communities that provide little support. Somalis still wear hijab and they are very cautious to show their hair to their men. They usually wear hijab hence this makes them to be separated in some activities like hair dressing since they are required to unveil their hair for demonstration. The representative narrated how she one day asked them in groups what they on what they do in the morning in their families. The women responded that they cook, clean and do all the house-cleaning chores while the men wake up and shower (AAT representative, 27/06/2017).

Men and women interact fully when the organization is conducting activities such as vocational training. She explained on how she tried to encourage Somali men put henna but they refused stating that the particular practice is for women and not men. The representative said that traditions to some extents are kept. She talked about an asylum seeker who needed money and hence she ended up selling her body and after she became

pregnant. She stated that the woman was isolated by the family because it was unacceptable in the Somali tradition to have a baby without a father (AAT representative, 27/06/2017).

As an organization, in case they are buying them food they have to make it clear that the food is halal or not halal before offering them. However at home they make Somali food that is mainly pasta or biryani and Injera (AAT representative, 27/06/2017).

The representative said that due to religion, they still have some LGBT few members of the Somali community. They claim asylum because they fear for their lives as back in Somali it is considered an act against religion. She stated that the particular group faces persecution. Within the organization, the Somali men and women do not shake hands. Hey only say, “Hello” or “salaam Aleikum” (AAT representative, 27/06/2017).

The representative said that she got around 15 students whom she provides fare regularly for them in order to attend to classes where she teaches them English language and gender based violence. They also tech them basic skills like being a professional hairdresser which they can use for future. The purpose of women empowerment is to help them become more independent on themselves (AAT representative, 27/06/2017).

The representative said that Somali girls are taught different with Somali boys because whenever they are together, girls are uncomfortable with them. The representative said that they support in case of weddings where the Somali involved dance the traditional Somali styles and songs. They dress in their traditional fancy clothes required for their wedding (AAT representative, 27/06/2017).

AAT officer stated that language barrier is among the challenges that the Somali in her organization goes through especially those who do not know English. She further stated that the interesting thing is that they try to interact with other people. The organization also teaches the Somali some Thai words so that they can be able to interact with the wider society especially buying Halal food and understanding directions (AAT representative, 27/06/2017). AAT considers their cultural background before helping the Somali asylum seekers. For instance, they engage in Somali culture by supporting their music where they have a chance to listen to their music. AAT officer stated that Most of them are thinking about third country especially USA and Canada however, few would like to stay here since they have been here for long and would not want to restart again (AAT representative, 27/06/2017).

3.8 Data from Interview with a Thai Imam

The Imam has worked as the mosque’s imam for 5 years and has seen the asylum seekers and refugee population rise significantly. As he stated, Bangkok has been a destination country for minority Muslim groups such as the Somali community. Imam stated that the foundation has groups from six nationalities so far. He stated that the Somali refugees have increased especially in the last 4 years. He said that through the mosque, they have a Muslim foundation aimed to help the asylum seekers and refugees. The sheikh noted that seventy percent of the asylum seekers are of Somali origins. So far, the mosque supports around fifty Somalis (Imam, 29/06/2017).

During the Holy month of Ramadan, Imam said the Somali community unites since they are staunch Muslims. Most of the documented Somalis will turn up as soon as the sun begin to set in order to have dinner or iftar. “As a religious leader it is my responsibility to take care of my community without discrimination of the people” (Imam, 29/06/2017).

The Imam mention of a food court within the mosque and said they offer food to vulnerable people who had come to the mosque. He humbly said that asylum seekers go to the Mosque because they heard that people are receiving help. In every he said that the asylum seekers and refugees receive 1,000 baht to support for their rent however they also sometimes receive food in case they receive donations. Ahmed further stated that they support Somali children who are attending school by providing daily bus fares. He stated that the mosque intervenes in cases of severe medical attention like bullet wound where Muslim doctors and nurses support the refugees. In cases where an asylum file has been rejected, they help to return the patient back to their county by giving them 5,000 baht as an individual and if it is a family, they receive 10,000 baht (Imam, 29/06/2017).

As asserted by the Imam, wearing of the hijab by the Somali women has helped them identify themselves with religion. The wearing of the hijab can be closely linked to the kind of welcome women get as it can be said to be a symbol of religion. Ahmed said that on every Sunday, all the Muslims are taught about the Koran where the master art of reading and understanding, they are taught how to pray. Ahmed said that the Mosque has already chosen two Imams among the Somali (Imam, 29/06/2017).

The imam responded to the topic of gender roles by saying that, “men will do all the hard and dirty work but women are expected to stay at home, cook and look after the children. However, in survival in Bangkok has seen the Muslim refugees and asylum life’s change. Still, it is now acceptable since the couples have to support each other in order to raise their children. ” (Imam, 29/06/2017).

3.9 Somali Immigrants in Thailand

3.9.1 Immigration Act 1979

In efforts to protect its citizens, Thailand’s immigration law arose in attempts to surrender territories from France and Britain hence the purpose was to provide protection to “nationals” (Muntarbhorn, 1992). This was after the huge number of Indochinese displaced persons came out in large numbers seeking refuge in Thailand in the year 1979. Different expressions are used in different ways in Thailand as regards to refugees hence this affects how they are treated and understood by the Thai law. For instance, the 1951 convention includes person other types of persecution not just fighting while under the immigration act of 1979 indicates that it is a person who escapes fighting or war ad enters the kingdom in breach of the immigration Act. Two categories of displaced individuals fall under this particular act that are those entering the country without permission and those whom their government did not request for them to enter Thailand hence referred to as illegal immigrants since they do not have proper identity documents. Section 81 of the immigration Act of 1979 defines consequences met by individuals who stay in Thailand without permission stating: “Any alien who stay in the Kingdom without permission or with permission expired or revoked shall be punished with imprisonment not exceeding two years or a fine not exceeding 20,000 Baht or both.”

3.9.2 Alien Work Act 2008

Arnold and Hewison (2005), note that the Act rose at a time when Thailand is trying to control the immigrant workers mainly those from Burma. The Act contains the rights and liberties of the particular individuals living in Thailand. It states that the workers can have a work permit and extension validity of 2 years. All the displaced persons are categorized

as aliens in Thailand while the Section 9 states that any alien is prohibited to engage in any work unless they have been granted a work permit or those that have been permitted by the immigration law to engage in working. Asylum seekers fall under the category of temporary stay meaning they can be employed under the immigration law as persons seeking refuge. This means that if the migrants are registered under the immigration act, this makes them legible to work.

“No alien shall engage in any work other than the works under section 7 and the permit shall be granted by the registrar, except for the alien who enters into the Kingdom temporarily under the law on immigration so as to engage in necessary and urgent work for a period of not exceeding fifteen days and that alien may engage in that work after giving written notification to the registrar. In the issuance of the permit, the registrar may impose any conditions to be complied with by the alien…”

3.9.3 UNHCR Refugee Status Determination

There are no distinct laws that clearly define an urban refugee in Thailand thus this forces the UNHCR to be part of their protectors that happens under the process of the refugee status determination (RSD). This is an international protection under the law that protects and supports refugees. In Thailand, since the government is not a signatory to the 1951 refugee protection resolution, the UNHCR steps in and help in the process of the RSD of the asylum seekers who have landed in Thailand. An applicant of the asylum under the UNHCR becomes registered under the UNHCR in order to have an “asylum seeker certificate’ which minimizes chances of arrest and also a very crucial document in case one wants to be served at the UNHCR. This type of asylum seekers certificate is replaceable by the refugee certificate once proven by the UNHCR to be a refugee. In Thailand, asylum

seeker receive the asylum seekers’ cards with letter “A” for the unproven cases while those whose cases have been accepted receives card with letter “R” implying they have been accepted as refugees. For the Asylum seekers with the card written on it letter “A” means they are aliens since Thailand has not ratified the 1951 convention nor it 1967 protocol implying such migrants are illegal hence arrested.

3.9.4 Legal Labour Migrants

Social entities, such as the household, play a major role before an individual worker decides to be labour migrant hence supporting the new economics theory of migration. One of the ways to evade household risk is by labor migration involving a family member as the scholar contends. The family members send to the countries of origin remittances that are responsible foreign exchange earner (Taylor, 1999). As the ILO states, remittances help in knowledge acquisition and boost foreign direct investment while abroad (ILO, 1988). On another theory, Massey argues that labour migration is due to individual and national reasons may not be compatible. In all its seen that individuals seek to accumulate income where their decisions to migrate are reliant upon national or international entities.

3.9.4.1 International Students

The most qualified migrants in a given community are likely to be absorbed in undertakings given by a particular market system (OECD, 2000). Being proficient in an alien language in the world today is associated with capability to learn the local knowledge with no trouble, and the ease of dispensation and collecting information within a short period. Immigrants knowing a foreign language popular in the destination country means that they stand a better chance to take part in its labour market (Dustmann, 1994). Some Somali

members study in Bangkok and are part time translators for the UNHCR and other NGOs dealing with Somali migrants. They are under student visa granting their legal stay in Bangkok thus by this they are able to translate Somali into English. Being students in the destination country, they stand high chances of the temporary jobs linked to their mastery foreign language as locally trained are the most preferred (Cobb‐Clark, 2000). A close analysis of Somali students shall contribute to approving those settled in Thailand for jobs or those that might be purely determined to study.

3.9.4.2 Asylum Seekers and Refugees

Asylum seekers are individuals hailing from different states and are affected by human rights abuses and conflicts in their countries of origin. In their countries of origin, they face ethnicity, gender, sexuality, religious or political affiliations that consequently lead to their persecution (King, Black, Collyer, Fielding, & Skeldon, 2010). Persecution of the religious minorities plays a key role the ongoing violence in the southern part of Somalia. Not only do the religious minority face brutality from the ICU, but also the minority clans as well. The persecution in Somalia is determined by a specific time and place for a specific cause. The minorities are likely to depending on the place they came from. This answer the question that being a Muslim does not protect one to persecution in Somali. According to UNHCR report, the number of refugees and asylum seekers in Thailand urban areas is almost 8,000 where more than 102,000 live along the Thai-Myanmar border camps (Long, 2010).

Thailand being not a signatory to the 1951 convention of refugees and the 1967 protocol still is responsible for the asylum seekers in Bangkok. According to the UDHR 1948 article 14, “Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.

This right may not be invoked in certain cases”. This implies that asylum is an inalienable basic right to every human being that should not be denied. In Thailand, it raises a question of the right of the individual versus the law of the state thus leading to the arrest of asylum seekers who are constantly harassed.

The definition of refugees has been accomplished through the 1951 convention, the UNHCR statute and the 1967 protocol at the international level. Such concepts have been adopted in different countries in order to allow for humanitarian asylum. Institutional and legal frameworks are considered protection of refugees. The 1951 convention and the 1967 protocol maintain a solid protection for the refugees. The 1951 convention of refugees allows for those who actively oppose the governing political party in their countries of origin. Ethnic, religious, persecuted victims are also included. Also recognized are the people who come from their states of origin because of serious disturbance of chaos that comprises of war, fierceness, conflict and enormous violations of human rights rather than fear of individual persecution.

Asylum seeker and refugees are words used incorrectly thus bringing in a great deal of confusion. An asylum seeker is an individual seeking international protection though the status has not been determined. On the other hand, a refugee is one who has been recognized under the 1951 convention relating to the status of refugees. After the Somali people make claims of asylum, the criteria are evaluated as per the 1951 united Nations convention involving the status of refugees together with its 1967 protocol which Thailand is not a signatory. As stated in the protocol, a refugee is termed as a person who “owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality, and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country.”

3.9.5 Economic Conditions of Somali Migrants

3.9.5.1 Livelihoods and Self-reliance

Frank Ellis asserts livelihood as the societal institutions, family relations, and the way in which they are able to access capitals hence livelihood is understood to be abilities and undertakings necessary to make a living (Ellis, 1998). Urban areas in the modern times are increasingly receiving refugees and asylum seekers (Brees, 2008). As noted by the UNHCR website, more than a half of the refugees served by the UNHCR now live in urban settings. A large population of refugees and asylum seekers are in Asia. Its noted that the actual figure of the refugees remain unknown, as some of them are unregistered. However, only 15 out of 47 countries in the region has signed the refugee convention. In this context, the asylum seekers and refugees are subjected to human rights violations. In Thailand, the UNHCR is settling the asylum seekers elsewhere. Sex and gender based violence, arbitrary arrest, prolonged arrest, trafficking, healthcare, livelihood and education are among the many challenges that the Somali asylum seekers face.

It is emerging that due to the minimal intervention by the international refugee bodies, presently, two thirds of the world refugees and asylum seekers find themselves in hard situations in the developing countries that are not very stable economically (Milner & Loescher, 2011). The UNHCR tends to focus on repatriating people or fleeing people thus with the insufficient funds it becomes hard to sustain refugees who have prolonged their stay (Jamal, 2000).

The high demand of recognition of transnationalism has shed some light to the role of remittances for refugees’ livelihoods (Horst, 2008). Not only do the remittances supplement income of the refugees’ livelihoods but also it helps in supplementing their economic capabilities. For instance, through the Somali transnational ties, they were able to launch minibus businesses in Kenya (E. H. Campbell, 2005). Existing research asserts that refugees sustain their ties with their countries of origin that enables them to conduct business. For instance, in Bangkok, Somali refugees and asylum seekers make income by engaging in small businesses like selling dresses, shoes and spices from Thailand to Somalia through their established trade networks.

3.9.6 Remittances

In the contemporary society, remittance has been confirmed to be one the most important international financial flows. As argued by Giuliano and Ruiz-Arranz, workers’ remittances have outshined modern sources such as aid and private capital flows and currently amounts to US $444 billion as per the UNCTAD statistics (Giuliano & Ruiz- Arranz, 2009). This amount is nearly three times the amount of official aid and equivalent to foreign direct investment flows to developing countries, and the remittance income comprises more than 10 percent of gross domestic product in many developing countries. As a result of the improved worldwide integration and faster communication technology, there has been facilitation of movement of labor from one country to another. At the end, labor migration leads to flow of remittances that increases with increase of labor. Most remittances are transacted through the laborers from the underdeveloped countries that are important for sustained livelihoods. This is because of migration to developed countries in the North accepting migrant workers from the poor South. The remittance sent to developing countries, help in support of livelihoods. Remittance are important for the

marginalized poor people to enhance their livelihood by providing a substitute source of income. The remittances are believed to have direct impact on the poor and thus contributes to alleviating poverty in a significant way than other sources of external finance. In support of this, asylum seekers and Somali international students in Bangkok mainly rely on remittances from relatives who are living the English-speaking countries

CHAPTER IV CULTURAL RETENTION AND ADAPTATION OF SOMALI CASE STUDIES

4.1 Framework of Culture of Origin and Adaptation.

Culture is a multifaceted concept that is a debatable topic with no particular definition reached in consensus in the literature field. Out of the many likely definitions studied, UNESCO describes culture to be a set of collective values and beliefs that distinguish national, ethnic, or other individuals and orient their behavior. As it has many definitions, culture affects what people do in their society because of their ideas, values, and normative patterns of behavior. Hofstede defines culture as the collective programming of the mind that tells between the members of different groups and passed from generation to generation which changes all time since each generation before passing it on adds something. As such, UNESCO has it that unique ways of being in a society such as lifestyles, togetherness, common values, traditions and belief is acceptable as culture (UNESCO, 2001). Inclusion and participation can help to transform integration as a way of assimilating migrants. The participation help in the democratic and in change hence this changes the concept of participation in the community organizations. In attempts to increase political concerns, inclusion is said to be close to integration hence referring the migrant to be social groups (Castles, 2001).

Osei upholds on the necessity of Africans from moving from their local cultural traditions and adopting those cultures that are harmonious with their necessities such as the scientific understanding and western education (Osei, 1971). In order for the Somali community to comfortably fit in the Thai society, they face voluntary cultural changes such as teaching their children Thai language and young women dressing the western way in order to

integrate with the society. This proves Osei’s theory correct, since this cultural change is voluntary and at the end of it renders Somali children education and women employed in hotels and restaurants. From this perspective, less cultural interaction of Thai and Somali community denies the country understanding cultural differences thus forsaking the Somali culture.

In all the definitions mentioned above, value is a principal aspect noted in the progress of human society where a community’s way of life is the key important aspect of culture. D.T. Campbell notes that in the human society, normative structure, shared beliefs and common behaviors help in maintaining social collectiveness (D. T. Campbell, 1982). However, regardless of the applicability of cultural characteristics, a vibrant value in a given community determine how likely it is going to be adopted. The possibility of a community following a specific cultural pattern rises when they have confirmed reasons to justify their decisions. In my paper, I will focus on the role played by language, religion, clan, clothing, gender roles and cuisine as my unit of analysis in illustrating the cultural situation of the Somali community in Bangkok.

4.1.1 Religion and Gender Roles

Religion is the primary element that precedes Somali identity and culture. Most of the migrant community in Bangkok identify their religion as Sunni Muslim. Praying five times a day is a common practice amongst the Somali people. Islam religion as a bond amongst the Somali community living in the diaspora especially for the youths that helps in maintaining an ethnic identity (McGown, 1999). Tiilikainen in his study of the Somali women in Finland found that the Somali women together their families share their encounters thus insisting on the need of Muslim background (Tiilikainen, 2007). Among

the Somali Muslim women, the interpretation of the Quran is very important in the definition of gender roles, dressing and affiliated religious practices In relation to the study, the challenges and opportunities that the migrants face in Thailand makes them choose to continue with certain cultural practices or to change and adjust for survival.

4.1.2 Marriage

In Somali community, parents are the sole determinants of an individual’s wife or husband. After the parents choose a wife for the husband, he can choose a second wife for himself where boys are qualified to marry after they hit 20 years while girls are married off as soon as they reach puberty. Among the traded items as part of bride dowry is negotiated livestock. Marriage is formed with the help of a Sheik or a religious leader who solves it also in times of dispute.

4.1.3 Language

In order to replace English and Italian in Somalia, the Somali language was introduced in 1972 in both education and administrative grounds hence making the country a monolingual state (Bartoo, 2010). Somali stands as one of the African countries that has made an African language a national language. Somali as a language is spoken mostly in Somalia and the neighboring parts of Kenya, Djibouti and Ethiopia. Somali has three main dialects: northern Somali, Maay and Beenadir. Somali language is aired on local, regional and international radio stations. Arabic forms the second largest spoken language in Somali as it was introduced in the 13th century to help teach Quran.

According to Gordon, any group of immigrant will start their compatibility with the destination country through cultural assimilation that may serve as the most important link in minimizing isolation and absence of interaction (Gordon, 1964). As such, he insists that cultural assimilation is more dependent on the dominant local population that give the migrant groups gain to acceptance. A family’s way of life, environment, and the parental upbringing is said to play a major part in the native language proficiency of a particular community (Cummins, 2005). Migrant communities have the ability to pass the best to their siblings if at all they acquire the right encouragement. Native language may be lost because of some parents choosing a certain language. He maintains that a young child may be more influenced by another language from relatives who are older. Adequate resources are important for a community to maintain the heritage of languages (Kondo, 1997).

4.1.4 Food and Dressing

Bananas, sorghum porridge, grain legumes and vegetables are among the foods popular among the Somali communities. Pork and alcohol consumption is prohibited among the Somali community though some of the people in the urban settings take alcohol though still many of them will not touch pork. It is normal for the wife and children to eat after the man who is considered to be the head of the house. In Thailand, kosher foods meet the Muslim dietary requirements. Thai, Muslim and Somali practices overlap because of the migrants’ livelihoods. For instance, young Muslim women make decisions about their dress, behaviors, and their means of earning a living. (Heger Boyle & Ali, 2010) contend that the religion affects the gender roles hence leading to the divide of the Somali culturally in both the United States and Somali.

Somali clothing is quite varied. Men wear two length of white cotton wrapped around them as a skirt and a shawl or even wear a western shirt also. Somali women wear full-length dresses where the married individuals wear headscarves with no veil and the unmarried wear veils where they are not supposed to show men their faces until marriage. Hand and foot painting also known as, henna is popular among the Somali community. In this case, the artist is generally a woman who uses dyes extracted from plants to create paintings done to the feet and hands in style. One of its main relevance is to become a sign of occasions such as marriages or the birth of a baby.

4.1.5 Communication Styles

It is acceptable for men to shake hands with men as a gesture of respect in greeting however, it is not allowed for men and women to shake hands. Hand gestures such as quick twist of open hands is considered nothing. Pointing a finger amongst the Somali culture is considered rude whereas the western thumbs up is obscene to them. In case of greetings and passing objects, the right hand is used which is regarded as clean. When referring to the elder persons, names such as aunt or uncle is used even if it is a stranger. Jospeh Nyasani contends the presence of a straight up authority arrangement that is shaped by the traditional African family and not the freedom of individuals, which creates a cultural distinction amongst western and traditional African children (Joseph M. Nyasani, 1997). In most cases, the African child is trained on receiving the authority and being submissive.

Khadija’s explanation had it that women are treated as the subordinates in the Somali community. Gender misrepresentation could be pull out from his choice of words as women are seen much to be part of the household but to the outer world they are not allowed by their men to work. “The Somali perception of women as weak and vulnerable

is a still up to date mentality that some Somali men have. In Thailand, they work, and men never brings in the issue of religion. This is not religion that mainly works in Somali, these are only selfish tendencies raised by men.”

4.2 Cultural Retention and Adaptation

The idea of a culture identity refers to a personal ancestral background together with individual cultural security and how the surrounding people understand it. This particular theory brings in understanding in a certain social setting. As contended by (Cross Jr, 1978), identity can become an issue of concern especially when it has something to do with a marginalized group of people. Cross further states that identity can be at its peak in case where migrants are facing challenging life experiences. Gender, family, religion, are noted be affected by the experiences of the people in a given geographical setting. Culture is understood to be a collective arrangement amongst members of a particular group that makes them different from another group. Because of the nature of culture, ethnicity alone cannot be used to determine the cultural identity of a group but also cannot be based on ethnicity alone, or cultural characteristics of a specific group (K. Menkhaus & Enough, 2012). In order to feel more protected and not abandoned, the non-ruling communities have constructed unique identities to assert their empowerment in culture, protection and recognition in a collective manner. On the other hand, communities may procreate practices that transcend a specific communal identity and thus aim to benefit through transnational language of universal rights.

Table 3 Culture retained and Adapted by the Somali migrants

Case Amina Mohamed Khadija Farooq Hussein Abdi Profile

Culture Religion Somali Religion Religion Religion Religion Retained Somali brotherhood National Greetings brotherhood Religion Identity Marriage Traditional dance Language Marriage Language Female Language Languag Food Dressing Food Genital Gender e Dressing Food Female mutilation roles Dressing Culture Gender Roles Gender roles Genital Food Food. Gender Adapted Language Mutilation Language roles Communication Gender Gender Female style roles roles Genital Marriage Greetings Mutilatio Dressing Dissolve n of Marriage patriarchal Clannism ties Clannism Marriage

Future Resettlement Resettlement Relocate Moving to Get a full Move to Aspiration Apply a new Become to Europe other scholarship countries s Case Educated or countries Move to that are Australia of the Australia more Wait at the world. profitabl IDC e.

Go back to Teach his Somalia children business Help Somali get educatio n abroad

In this study, Somali migrants in Thailand fled Somalia during the civil war in the era of Said Barre and many others have come from southern part of Somalia during the ongoing conflict. Somali identity is traditionally tied very closely to the clan structure in Somalia. Status and social relations are conditioned both by the clan and by the strength relating to heritage of an individual. However, a practical impact of enforced migration to the Thailand is the affecting of this hierarchical system of power and influence particularly in relation to wider society and in relation to gender dynamics in Somali families living in areas of disadvantage. Additionally, Somalis are almost exclusively Muslim and are particularly visible in their faith and this need to be factored into any consideration of culture, heritage, and identity. This has a particularly important impact on younger Somalis’ sense of self in Bangkok; however, a fuller understanding of the community’s engagement with it requires a cultural understanding of identity across the generations. Migrants and how they have adapted is important to the clan system as indicated by gendered roles, marriage, clothing, and their networks with Somali as their country of origin.

The cultural identity comprised of variables such as age, gender, cultural background, and religion as identification variables. The examination of future inspirations instigates migration, migration pattern, and cultural group, and gender, socioeconomic status of

family of origin, religion, educational level, the country of origin, and the country of origin where the migrants are from. Most of these variables have be used in respect to exploring the Somalis culture in Bangkok.

Religion being universally accepted by most of the countries to be both morally and a fundamental right, this makes it to flourish and to remain unchanged no matter where a person of faith goes.

In the outcome of the overall process lies the cultural adaptation of the Somali migrants in Thailand. Cultural adaptation is the process and the time an individual takes to assimilate the new culture. Culture adaptation refers to the ability of human to overcome changes of their natural and social environments by modifications to their culture. The scale of culture is measured through social, ethnic and ideological spheres. Somali migrants are known to be more sensitive to their religion, dressing, marriages, language and gendered roles that form part of their culture. On Somali migrants’ approach to cultural adaptation, their migration process and their livelihood strategies counts in in determining the kind of approach they take. The ability to adapt to the new environment calls for proper livelihood that entails their survival livelihoods in Bangkok.

Cultural adaptation stresses the significance played by people and their cultural backgrounds in relation to the new environments state facilitating or obstructing the adaptation practice. On the same note, the culture that the people of Somali regard as customary to a very large extent can or cannot be put into consideration when partaking in events in the Thai society. Occurrence of cultural adaptation among the Somali migrants means that they in a way trade their culture in order to fit in the new culture such as the language.

4.3 Opportunities and Challenges in Adaptation and Retention of Culture

Waever (1993) shows the difference in the by explaining that since 1980, there has been a shift in migration understanding globally (Wæver, 1993). This clarifies the prominence of more studies focusing on migration thus implying that migration as a phenomenon is an issue of security. Specifically, the pervasiveness of ethnic and nationalist struggles during and after the Cold War led to identity concerns and struggles in the field of security studies. Nevertheless, as contended by (Long, 2010), integrating identity to migration makes it difficult to analyze and study their linkage. However, Waever (1993) argument is that societal security consists of the capability of a particular culture to continue in its critical custom despite unstable circumstances and possible pressures. Employed in the situation of Somali community migration to Thailand therefore, it explains how they perceive their cultural, linguistic and national identity whether legal or illegal.

In addition, Waever (1993) claims that threats to cultural security as faced by migrants are relative and subjective. According to him, how a country defines itself is likely to determine its threat to security. As an illustration, Canada upholds multicultural policies which are noted to be more tolerant to migrants but on the other hand states which oppose multiculturalism are at a higher chance of remaining hostile towards them. Remarkably, in the wake of the September 11th, 2001 attacks, the focus of migration has projected more consequences in the field security studies. The importance of “cultural identity” despite the states policies has taken a different stance in security and migration.

Migration in the past decade has received much attention and has become a global issue. To support this, many analytical studies have been made in South East Asia, Western Europe and U.S in order to understand specifics of this phenomenon. However, (F. Hansen et al., 2008) contends, many a times the analysis are narrowly focused in that not all the

100

impacts of the migrants are considered by the receiving agents or even the host country. However, this does not imply that scholars have not endeavored to give an analysis on the cultural situation of migrants.

With regards to the effects of migration on cultural security, literature recommends two methods to it. As (Jallow et al., 2004) upholds, one can decide to evaluate the impacts by placing the society as the referent object or by taking the immigrant as the argument of referent. In Thailand, asylum-seekers are often associated with threats ranging from unemployment rates as the host country, increasing crime rates in the urban areas, threatening the societal values of the host population among others. The second on the other hand, has pursued to examine on the difficulty of the immigrants by evaluating how expatriation and arrest policies influence negatively on their individual security, not forgetting not being able to preserve their social way of life. In Bangkok, Khadija felt liberated from the bondage of culture. She explained how she felt her rights were denied by Somali culture because in Somalia, women are seen as nobody if they don’t do as per the man’s wish. Most of the traditions required of us women are not to serve our interest but those of men.

According to the IOM, immigrants are regularly subjected to an extensive range of vulnerabilities for instance, health which is a major concern. As the Somali asylum-seekers fear of being deportation and arrest, they incline to seek medical assistance unless it is the last option. As such, the asylum-seekers often are underprivileged in health measures like the safe childbirth, immunizations and pregnancy care (Gushulak, Weekers, & MacPherson, 2009). Somalis experiences in Bangkok determine their cultural developments. Successful integration or resettlement in Thailand shall dwindle relations with friends, families and promote new personalities initiated by local connections rather than clan links.

100

101

Largely, Thailand serves as a country of opportunities to the Somali migrants living in Bangkok. Women are able to break away from the harmful traditional practices and become more empowered through various NGOs that make them realize their social and cultural responsibilities. Students are able to gain knowledge that can be used to their country in the post war reconstruction as some students are studying in Thailand. Businesspersons are able to send remittances back to their home country hence they are able to support their families and this overall contribute to the economy of Somali state.

4.4 Future Aspirations

The study explained future aspirations through expressions and accounts about future goals in livelihood, education, plans and individual principles of the Somali migrants. The researcher recognized the difference between the Somali migrants though they all encompassed an aspiration linking higher education or better livelihood. Somali migrants related their aspirations to future progress hence leading to the following themes:

4.4.1 Aspiration Regarding Resettlement

Somali asylum seekers through the UNHCR are able to get asylum in Europe and America. For instance “Well, for me I don’t have a specific plan, when you’re an asylum seeker what keeps you is hope. Hope for a better tomorrow, I have hopes of being resettled by the UNHCR to a country of their choice because here I cannot work as I am considered to be illegally in this country” (Khadija, 26/05/2017).

101

102

Khadija and Mohamed being asylum seekers explained that they are waiting to be resettled to third country by the UNHCR since their cases had been accepted. On the other hand, Amina had hopes that she was going to appeal her case to the UNHCR since her first case had been rejected. She planned to stick longer in the IDC and wait for her case to be heard. Though resettlement took time, what kept the asylum seekers in Thailand was hope of waiting a refugee status. Resettlement to English speaking countries would allow the Somali asylum seekers in Thailand to secure a source of income and reduce legal vulnerabilities such as arrests and detention. Through assistance by the AAT, and the Imam, asylum seekers resettlement is catered for I both legally and economically respectively.

4.4.2 Aspiration Regarding Local Integration

Asylum seekers future aspirations portrayed a degree of hope and uncertainty. The asylum seekers still have hope of acquisition of a refugee status. “All that I pray to get is the UNHCR to give me a refugee status. I cannot go back to Somali, I cannot take care of my children. If I were a refugee, probably I would be in a position to plan my future. This makes me not to think about today and not tomorrow” (Amina, 28/06/2017).

A majority of the respondents had plans to stay longer in Thailand but the major concern was how they were going to live in Bangkok since they were illegal and cannot work. During their stay in Thailand, adapting to the Thai language was noted to be a key concern of the Somali migrants which enable to integrate with the locals. The language is vital for survival in a case of Abdi who is a businessperson which helps him in attracting more customers. Because of the unemployment and instability in Somalia, Farooq stated that he was seeking for an asylum in Thailand hence expressing his will to have a continued stay in Thailand. Somali migrants expressed their interest to work in the formal sector which

102

103

would help them retain some of their cultures such as the communication styles and strengthen their religion.

Asylum seekers integrate with the Thai society through food like in the case of Amina who had been detained at the IDC. The adaptation to Thai food served her survival in the IDC. Generally, asylum seekers economic constrictions make them able to integrate with the host community through assimilating their way of life.

4.4.3 Aspiration Regarding Repatriation and Relocation

The businessperson stated that Thailand is indeed a transit country where Somali migrants use to get profits and move to other countries. “Thailand indeed is a temporary destination. We are in transit country. We look for the greener pastures or maybe go back to Somali. I have hopes of moving to Canada or even my business does very well I can go back to Somali. Since security and economies force our movement, in looking for a country I can move and have better life than Thailand” (Abdi, 14/05/2017).

Students migrants expressed their will to move to European countries and America or search for international jobs in order to secure livelihood and security. In attempting to increase the chances, the students explained how they were applying for more scholarship opportunities that would enable them to get to move to the developed countries. However, the students and businesspersons’ aspirations to move to other countries was based on the hopes they had. They stated that if their plans did not work, they would go back in Somalia and try to survive.

103

104

4.4.4 Aspirations in relation to culture, traditions and religion.

Migrants life include retention of some of their culture and religion. According to the study, the cost of integration with the Thai society means that the Somali migrants have to adjust to the new culture. Among the Somali migrants who are mainly Sunni Muslims, it can be seen that it’s important to retain their religion whereas Islam is a minority group in Thailand. For Somalis, gender relations are issues of concern where men feel that women have become independent too much.

 Marriage

Somali migrants had an open-minded view on marriage. They all said that they could marry a non-Somali but what their concern was marrying a non-Muslim. Student migrants stated that they could marry in order to make them feel legal. Hussein, an international student stated that he had no problem in marrying a s long as the woman is a Muslim. On the other hand, Khadija stated that she would get married to a non-Somali. Marriage of the Somali migrants faced adaptation hence increasing their chances of integration and relocation in cases where they married from Thailand and developed countries.

Abdi who is a businessman, has one wife despite the tradition allowing for more than one wife. This is as a result of the economic challenges that wouldn’t allow him to marry more wife. He stated that life was manageable with a small family unlike with many wives.

104

105

Khadija who is an asylum seeker, had hopes of learning English language so that she can be able to secure a job and sustain herself. As she found the marriage patterns different in Bangkok and she was able to avoid the early marriage that can trigger her education.

 Female Genital Mutilation

In all the case studies, a tradition of the Female Genital Mutilation seemed to be thing of the past. In Thailand, this cultural practice was put aside by the Somali migrants. For instance. The business person had no problem in marrying a woman who is not mutilated. The traditional mutilation is the one that he is against but its FGM as per our religion is necessary and one becomes more acceptable in the society. Mutilation would lead to serious health complication and overall affect the legality of the parties as this an illegal practice. An end to this practice meant a new beginning to asylum seekers where health and the law was balanced hence Somali migrants not living in fear. Female genital mutilation constantly leads to high medical bills as a result of complications.

 Gender Roles

Female migrants in Thailand have a different view of Somali culture unlike the men who seem to be much of conservatism. According to the interviews, Somali culture is a male centric type of practices that has been made to favour men and weaken women. Migrants overall gradually lose their culture in Thailand and Adapt to their new culture. However, as a result of economic difficulties associated with Somali migrants in Bangkok, gender roles change and women do work in order to gain more for the family. For instance, Khadija worked as a translator in order to maximize her survival in Thailand. Student migrants and businessperson cook for themselves of which men are not supposed to cook but because of the prevailing economic condition, their situation to cook. This contribute to their survival

105

106

in Thailand in terms of cutting the cost of living. Although men prefer women to look after the children and men work, Somali women in Bangkok work illegally in efforts to become economic stable.

 Communication Styles

Somali migrants in Bangkok shook hands as a sign of good luck. This helped the migrants increase hope and support towards each other for instance, migrants contributed to the asylum seekers at the IDC where they took to them food and items that they needed. The respondent group mainly stated that the use of hand gestures is not only a Somali way of communication but it is used nationally. Most of the interviewee opposed this and insisted that in all cultures people express their view differently and hand gestures is one of them.

4.4.5 Aspiration in Relation to Emancipation

Abdi said that in Somali, community shaped the thinking and how individuals lived and the way they behaved. He said that in Thailand, he had discovered that life revolves about work and money and here we have no time in meddling in other people’s lives. I can dress the way I want and no one will question or judge me” In the same interview, Khadija answered the same question by stating that, even if she is was circumcised or not circumcised no one would know in Bangkok not even the religious leaders so in Bangkok this no longer happens to the Somali women. This meant that women felt emancipated from the bonds of cultural practices like the FGM which dehumanized them. It is in Bangkok where Mohamed could wear a short as he stated because in Somali he would not be allowed. The ability to adapt a new dressing of choice, evasion of early marriage

106

107

and change of gender roles is an expression of how emancipated the Somali migrants were.

4.4.6 Aspiration Regarding Employment

As another deduction, education of the Somali international create the desire to relocate because education has helped the students to have a wider view of the outer countries as a result of their communication skills, learning of a foreign language and opportunities to partake in students exchange programs. Because of low salaries in Somalia, the students are unwilling to go back in Somalia hence want to move to other countries like Australia to find employment or a scholarship opportunity. In this, the international students expressed their aspiration in terms of having a better source of income in future. They explained this in terms of a job with better income in a stable environment. The students explained their desire to work hard in school and get better jobs in future.

107

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION, DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

As it was acknowledged in Chapter One, in the migration process, legal and economic factors are important to adaptation and retention of a culture by the Somali community. First, the high stability of Thailand in both politics and religion in the midst of post conflict war torn countries was an element of consideration. Additionally, porous borders of southern part of Thailand were acknowledged to be one of the factors that facilitated the smuggling and illegal entry of Somali asylum seekers into the country. Thirdly, peace in the country enabled business and schools to run smoothly hence providing the atmosphere needed by International students and Businesspersons in Bangkok. Moreover, corruption among Thai government officials also explained how businesspersons access work permit.

The study aimed to show the migration process of the Somali into Thailand. As such, condition in the unstable condition in Somalia has led to the Somali people being left without economic, political and food security hence making life hard. Lack of a stable government, unemployment, and insecurity pushes the migrants out of Somalia through the smuggling agents who use the opportunity to make money at the expense of the migrants who want to be smuggled in Thailand. As a result, Malaysia becomes the gateway to Thailand as the Somali people receive a visa on arrival. The good education system, the probability to engage in small businesses inspires students and businesspersons to migrate into Thailand.

109

Asylum seekers were confirmed to be living in Thailand under support of the UNHCR through the Refugee Status Determination where they exist using the Asylum or refugee card despite that the Royal Thai Government does not allow. Somali students exist legally, facilitated by the student visa while the businesspersons have the work permit that enables them to legally stay in Thailand. Asylum seekers and students have no right to work in Thailand hence causing them to endure more suffering, as they have no economic channels to sustain their stay in Thailand. Since the asylum seekers and the international students have no document to support their work in Thailand, this results to illegal work in attempts to earn a living.

As of this study, clearly there exists a nexus between migrant’s cultural adaptation and future aspirations. Moreover, the study of this connection should not only be limited to the analysis of the phenomenon in the west as the case of Bangkok has shown that there is unquestionably essential for scholars in this field to move attention and appreciate cultural adaptation and future aspirations in respect to the urban migrants. As to whether or not cultural adaptation and retention shape up the future aspirations of the Somalis living in Bangkok, this study suggests that they are indeed able to make their future aspirations based on their abilities of cultural adaptation. Furthermore, the study also confirms that Somalis migration to Bangkok is due to a vast array of factors.

In culture adaptation, food overall was adapted by the three groups of migrants. Asylum seekers and international students adapt to eating Thai food, as they have no option because their financial difficulties won’t allow them to purchase the Somali food. Businesspersons also adapt to Thai food as he doesn’t make much and he survives on a small business. Despite the Somali migrants adapting to Thai food, Somali migrants still stuck with Halal food. Somali migrants adapt to Thai or English language in Bangkok. Businessperson confirmed to learn Thai language to succeed in business while the international student and

109

110

asylum seekers adapted to Thai and English language so that they can be in a better position to learn at school and resettlement in the case of asylum seekers. Males in all the three groups have adapted to the cooking thus becoming more open minded to the new culture in Bangkok where duties are done irrespective of gender. As the Somali migrants’ men in Bangkok have to survive, they cook for themselves while women no longer stay at home too. Somali asylum seekers work in order to earn a living both men and women. In order to increase more room for survival either in Thailand or a third country, Asylum seekers are willing to be married and this can help contribute to their integration. In order to increase chances of more inaugurations and acceptance by the society, students and businesspersons change their mode of dressing where they shift from tradition to modern clothing that contributed to more societal acceptance in Thailand. Adapted new way of dressing made the students and asylum seekers to have a feeling of emancipation where they were no longer compelled to have abide by their traditional mode of dressing. The emancipation led to the end of some harmful practices such as the FGM that were not conducted in Thailand. Communication styles change and all the migrants are open to the culture of shaking hands hence, integration. However, for the asylum seekers, international students and businesspersons were confirmed to retain their religion. As a result of the increased economic support from the Mosques and the Muslim people in general, this encourage the Asylum seekers to stick to their religion. Students and businesspersons increased network in the mosque helped them live as a community.

In conclusion, the study shows that future aspirations are directly related to the cultural adaptations of Somali migrants in Bangkok. Somali asylum seekers in order to deal with the dynamism of the day adapt to Thai and western culture preparing them to adjust as confined to the economic and legal underpinnings. This prepares them to adjust and increases their chances of survival for their intentions of resettlement. Student migrants and businesspersons because of their time to time visit to Somalia, retain their culture to avoid being disowned by their parents or the community at large.

110

111

5.2 Discussion

With regards to the social network theory created by migrants, Massey (1993) asserted social network theory in explanation to how migrants move from the country of destination by using states as the referent object and the migrants as the points of referent. As of review of literature, network theory was found to be the best explanation of migrant movement for this study. Networks created by migrants is the main explanation of how the Somali migrated. As such, this study tried to illustrate the same phenomenon but on a different perspective by taking Bangkok as the referent object as opposed legal and illegal immigrants. Boyd (1989) argued that it was easier for migrants to evade risks and cost through migration however, the study shows that Somali migrants are left in a dilemma in Thailand since their networks do not support money for their further travel. Somali asylum seekers face constant arrest hence contradicting Boyd’s argument of associating networks with reduced cost and risk evasion as a result of migrants having information. Migration of Somali people is community in Bangkok is explained better by this theory. The reasons the Somali people migrate to Thailand is because of the goods, remittances and information they already established migrants. (D. S. Massey, 1990) notes economic and social aspects to make migration possible, he asserts that remittances provided by a migrant household can trigger the feeling of inequality and contribute to the culture of migration. Through small businesses, the Somali community is able to earn a living in Bangkok that enables them to send remittances back to their village. This support is esteemed by many Somalis in the village hence use all the possible routes to migrate so that they can do the same to their family therefore increasing the number of international migrants.

In addition, this study proved that smuggling and trafficking networks within and outside of Somalia contributed and steered this phenomenon. Of excessive concern was those trafficking agents in Somalia and Thai police officers who have purportedly been linked to this problem. Furthermore, of even paramount concern is that those tasked with the

111

112

accountability of safeguarding the security of the Thai border have been energetically involved in facilitating the clandestine movements of illegal immigrants in Thailand. This study observed that police officers have been allegedly paid off by smugglers to ease their movements into Bangkok. The main question that arises here is how Thailand is supposed to tackle illegal immigrants if those who are supposed to be arresting them are in reality assisting them.

The study found Somali migrants adapted to language, dressing, gender roles, marriage greetings and the communication styles when they arrive in Bangkok as asserted. Castles (1998) argued that migrants adapt to culture due to weak legal and economic conditions in a destination country that in turn weaken their cultural practices. Somali migrants in response to survive learn Thai language that is vital for their transportation and for the asylum seekers help they communicate with the police officers in case of arrest. This adaptation of language is seen as one way to help the asylum seekers to express themselves better in case of arrest and detention. Somali students and businesspersons in Thailand lack the political representation making them to adapt culture in terms of dressing and changing gender roles where they cook for themselves because of their economic conditions. The financial constrictions forces men to cook for themselves as purported by Castles (1998) where cooking is termed by Somali men as a way of cutting the cost of living in Bangkok. As castells argued about political, legal and economic condition of migrants, the study showed that religion retention happen amongst the Somali migrants. As such, the study showed a strong relation between religion and survival of migrants. The Mosque and Muslim groups help the migrants economically hence making the migrants become staunch Muslims.

Castles (1998) noted that migrants are expected to give up some of their traditional practices and adapt to the new culture hence this increase more chances of them being

112

113

absorbed by the country. However, this study showed that despite the Somali community adapting to the new culture, they are still not assimilated by Thai government because they haven’t signed the 1951 convention of refugee. Somali migrants speaking a foreign language, eating Thai food and even giving up their traditional practices like the FGM in Bangkok did not contribute to any absorption by the Thai government.

One of the main goals was to bring on board the legal and economic aspects of Somali migrants. On the legal focus, this chapter accredited three ways in which the Somali migrants exist in Bangkok. These are: International students, Businesspersons and Asylum seekers. Of specific significance is that most of the Somali migrants were driven by subjectivity, bearing in mind that migration has been a relatively securitized area especially since the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks. This notwithstanding, this chapter established that indeed Somali migrants face threats especially with regards to Thai national security. This was in respect to the three possible legal underpinnings assessed in this chapter. Alien Work Act 2008 contains the rights and liberties of the particular individuals living in Thailand (Arnold & Hewison, 2005). In this respect, the Somali businesspersons in Bangkok however for the asylum seekers registered under the immigration law are legible to work. On the contrary, many Somalis are registered under the UNHCR and not the immigration law hence unable to work.

On the second concern under this chapter, the study evaluated the economic conditions of the Somali migrants in general. As Stark (1984) argue there needs to be stable markets for the underdeveloped countries support of markets, crop and capital markets. However, this is not achieved in the cases of asylum seekers. Upon landing in Thailand as their country of destination the study exhibited that legality of migrants is directly linked to their economic conditions. Illegal migrants such as the Somali asylum seekers find it hard to engage in economic activities as well as their movements hence are unable to send money

113

114

to their families. The point that illegal immigrants succeed to evade government control along the border signifies danger to the asylum seeker in respect to their survival strategies that includes detention that has been identified to be a strategy. Asylum seekers mainly survive through charity help and remittances from their friends and relatives abroad. Moreover, the study acknowledged Somali asylum seekers as being potential targets of the Thai police who through their unscrupulous doings particularly receive bribes from the migrants.

On the other hand, Somali asylum seekers due to the isolation they face in terms of legal and economic factors, they strive to gain acceptance legally and economically by adapting to a different culture different from their own. In order to fit in the Bangkok setting, the study shows that due fear of arrest and detention, asylum seekers fail to have an economic factor enabling support of their lives hence this affect their livelihoods. In terms of food asylum seekers, change and they adapt to Thai delicacies because they do not have money to buy the Somali food. However, they still stick to halal food that is a Muslim prerequisite. In terms of language, the study concluded that the Somali asylum seekers are much interested in learning the Thai language and English language in order to understand and become more inclusive in the Thai society and help them in cases where they are resettled to the third county. As a result of temperature, and fashion, Somali migrants change their way of dressing where boys wear shorts and even girls wear a more modern way where the gown is tighter. The women place the hijab on their head but they do not show their hair but it is loose. In Bangkok, as per the requirement of Muslim faith, men and women do not shake hands that is a specific code of conduct understood by the people. As of the Asylum seekers, the study show that religion remains constant while other cultural practices changes. In Bangkok, asylum seekers gain skills important for them in relocation to other English speaking countries with ease. Having acquired a skill in their course work, they adjust to a more dynamic society where roles change irrespective of gender of the person.

114

115

5.3 Recommendations

5.3.1 To the Thai Government

To begin with, the researcher recommends that maximum and effective border inspection mechanisms should be put in place since the porosity of Thai borders has been the greatest causative factor of illegal migration flows. This does not essentially mean deploying more police officers at the border points but rather invest in electronic verification systems that can monitor and detect illegal cross border movements and verify passports. This will also diminish the resort to manual and semi-manual processes that are regularly connected with corruption. In addition, in relation to corrupt officials, better salary for government employees would help a great deal in mitigating corruption and reducing deceitful deeds.

Additionally, since some regions appear to have been marginalized with the absence of proper arrangements as has been evidenced in the case of south part of Thailand, allocating resources and developing government cooperation measures in these regions will see these inhabitants result to more inclusive sustaining activities hence develop the border area. In addition, the presence of monitoring measures will also help in reducing irregular movements and improve security of the border bearing in mind the fact that illegal immigrants within the region have taken advantage of the ill-governed region to penetrate the country.

Given the state of Somalia’s conditions of insecurity, Thai government ought to extend its visa policies and allow for the entry of more business people. The process to acquire business and working permit should be not be achieved with such restraint. In cases of Asylum seekers, the government should provide them with working opportunities

115

116

especially in the informal sector. This will ensure that their rights are not violated since the national law shall cover them as well. Asylums seekers who will work shall be able to support themselves and overcome food, dressing, health and money related challenges in Bangkok. This can contribute to more profit in the informal sector hence lead to the overall development of the country. Thai government have a duty to take the accountability to safeguard all the legal and illegal migrants from any form of insecurity. To this end, since migration has occupied a focal point in the realm of security, there is need for the Thai government to work on a number of strategies in order to address this phenomenon.

5.3.2 To the UNHCR

As the international migration has taken stage in the world politics, this study recommends the United Nations to look the matter from it root causes. The United Nations should maximize in building peace in Somalia in order to increase chances for good education, food and security in general. Somali is the root cause of the Somali migrants in Bangkok hence solving the problem in Somalia creates a durable solution to the phenomenon.

5.3.3 To the African Union and Somali Government

The AU should support measures to end impunity and abuses in Somalia by creating inquiry commissions to investigate and recommend measures to stabilize Somalia.

116

117

As economic challenges, especially of the youth steer conflict, the Somali government should create youth employment and include them in the peace and security building process as they form large number of Militia groups.

The Somali president should issue an order to the government forces and the militia to comply with the international human rights and humanitarian law by ending rapes, mistreatment and destruction of property.

117

REFERENCES

Arnold, D., & Hewison, K. (2005). Exploitation in Global Supply Chains: Burmese Workers in Mae Sot. Journal of Contemporary Asia, 35(3), 319-340. Assefa, H., Nimrod, A., Walker, L., & Sindelar, R. (1999). Synthesis and evaluation of potential complement inhibitory semisynthetic analogs of oleanolic acid. Bioorg Med Chem Lett, 9(14), 1889-1894. Assembly, U. G. (2000). Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, Supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime: Adopted. Bartoo, P. J. (2010). Language change and social networks among Somali refugee teenagers. Boyd, M. (1989). Family and personal networks in international migration: recent developments and new agendas. Int Migr Rev, 23(3), 638-670. Brees, I. (2008). Refugee business: Strategies of work on the Thai–Burma border. Journal of Refugee Studies, 21(3), 381-388. Buzan, B. (1991). New patterns of global security in the twenty-first century. International affairs, 67(3), 431-451. Campbell, D. T. (1982). Legal and primary-group social controls. Journal of Social and Biological Structures, 5(4), 431-438. Campbell, E. H. (2005). Urban refugees in Nairobi: Protection, survival, and integration. Migration Studies Working Paper(23). Castels Stephen, M. J. M. (1998). The Age of migration. International population Movements in the Modern World (2nd ed.). London: Macmillan. Castles, S. (2001). Studying social transformation. International political science review, 22(1), 13-32. Castles, S., & Miller, M. J. (1993). The age of migration : international population movements in the modern world. New York: Guilford Press. Choucri, N. (2002). Migration and Security: Some Key Linkages. Journal of International Affairs, 56(1), 98. Cobb‐Clark, D. A. (2000). Do selection criteria make a difference?: visa category and the labour market status of immigrants to Australia. Economic Record, 76(232), 15-31.

119

Cross Jr, W. E. (1978). The Thomas and Cross models of psychological nigrescence: A review. Journal of Black psychology, 5(1), 13-31. Cummins, J. (2005). A proposal for action: Strategies for recognizing heritage language competence as a learning resource within the mainstream classroom. Modern Language, 89(4), 585-592. De Bot, K., & Stoessel, S. (2002). Introduction. Language change and social networks. International journal of the sociology of language, 1-8. Dustmann, C. (1994). Speaking fluency, writing fluency and earnings of migrants. Journal of Population economics, 7(2), 133-156. Ellis, F. (1998). Household strategies and rural livelihood diversification. The journal of development studies, 35(1), 1-38. Fawcett, J. T. (1989). Networks, linkages, and migration systems. International Migration Review, 671-680. Frelick, B., & Saltsman, A. (2012). Ad Hoc and Inadequate: Thailand's Treatment of Refugees and Asylum Seekers: Human Rights Watch. Giuliano, P., & Ruiz-Arranz, M. (2009). Remittances, financial development, and growth. Journal of Development Economics, 90(1), 144-152. Gordon, M. M. (1964). Assimilation in American life : the role of race, religion, and national origins (First Ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Guild, E., & Selm, J. v. (2005). International migration and security : opportunities and challenges. London ; New York: Routledge. Gushulak, B. D., Weekers, J., & MacPherson, D. (2009). Migrants and emerging public health issues in a globalized world: threats, risks and challenges, an evidence-based framework. Emerging Health Threats Journal, 2(1), 7091. Hansen, F., Mutabaraka, J., & Ubricao, P. (2008). Repatriation, Resettlement, Integration: A study of the three refugee solutions: Report by the Niapel Project. Hansen, S. (2009). Piracy in the Greater Gulf of Aden: Myths, Misconceptions, and Remedies. Norwegian Institute for Urban and Regional Research, NIBR Report 2009: 29. Heger Boyle, E., & Ali, A. (2010). Culture, structure, and the refugee experience in Somali immigrant family transformation. International migration, 48(1), 47-79. Horst, C. (2008). A monopoly on assistance: International aid to refugee camps and the neglected role of the Somali diaspora. Africa Spectrum, 43(1), 121-131.

119

120

International Organization for Migration. (2003). World Migration 2003 : managing migration : challenges and responses for people on the move. IOM world migration report series,(2), 396. International, T. (2016). Global corruption report: sport: Routledge. Jallow, A. T., Heinbecker, C., & Malik, S. (2004). Handbook for Repatriation and Reintegration Activities: UNHCR. Jamal, A. (2000). Minimum standards and essential needs in a protracted refugee situation: A review of the UNHCR programme in Kakuma, Kenya: UNHCR Geneva. Joseph M. Nyasani. (1997). The African Psyche. Nairobi: University of Nairobi and Theological Printing Press Ltd.: J.M. Nyasani. Kanyangoga, J. B. (2010). Integrating migration with development in EAC: policy challenges and recommendations. CUTS Geneva Resource Centre: Geneva, Switzerland. King, R., Black, R., Collyer, M., Fielding, A., & Skeldon, R. (2010). The atlas of human migration: Global patterns of people on the move: Earthscan. Kondo, K. (1997). Social-psychological factors affecting language maintenance: Interviews with Shin Nisei university students in Hawaii. Linguistics and Eucation, . 9(4), 369-408. Koser, K. (2004). Why human smuggling pays. paper submitted to Transactions of the Institute of British geographers. Lee, E. S. (1966). A theory of migration. Demography, 3(1), 47-52. Long, K. (2010). Voting with their feet A review of refugee participation and the role of UNHCR in country of origin elections and other. Mabogunje, A. L. (1970). Systems approach to a theory of rural‐urban migration. Geographical analysis, 2(1), 1-18. Marshall, C., Gretchen B. Rossman. (1999). Designing Qualitative Research (3rd Ed.). London: SAGE Publications. Massey, D. S. (1990). Social structure, household strategies, and the cumulative causation of migration. Popul Index, 56(1), 4-5. Massey, D. S. (1993). Theories of International Migration: A Review and Appraisal. Population and Development Review. (19), 159-178. McGown, R. B. (1999). Muslims in the Diaspora: The Somali Communities of London and Toronto. Toronto Bufallo London: University of Toronto Press.

120

121

Menkhaus, K. (2007). Terrorist activities in ungoverned spaces: evidence and observations from the Horn of Africa. Paper presented at the Brenthurst Foundation’s ‘Southern Africa and International Terrorism’workshop. Tswalu, South Africa. Menkhaus, K., & Enough. (2012). After the Kenyan Intervention in Somalia: Enough Project. Milner, J., & Loescher, G. (2011). Responding to protracted refugee situations: Lessons from a decade of discussion RSC Policy Briefing No.6. Missbach, A., & Sinanu, F. (2012). “The Scum of the Earth”? Foreign People Smugglers and Their Local Counterparts in Indonesia. Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, 30(4), 57-87. Muntarbhorn, V. (1992). England: Charendon: Oxford University Press. OND, L. D. (2002). Thinking about hybrid regimes. Journal of democracy, 13(2), 21-35. Opiyo, P. O., Sukontasap, D., Mamadkul, J., & Brown, R. U. (2016). Strategies to Increase the Number of Kenyan Diaspora in Southeast Asian Countries under the Accreditation of Kenya Mission in Bangkok. Open Journal of Political Science, 6(02), 123. Osei, G. K. (1971). The African philosophy of life. Portes, A., & Böröcz, J. (1989). Contemporary immigration: Theoretical perspectives on its determinants and modes of incorporation. International Migration Review, 606-620. Pridmore, S., & Pasha, M. I. (2004). Psychiatry and Islam. Australasian Psychiatry, 12(4), 380- 385. Ravenstein, E. G. (1889). The laws of migration. Journal of the royal statistical society, 52(2), 241- 305. Raymond, J. G. (2002). The new un trafficking protocol. Women's Studies International Forum, 25(5), 491-502. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0277-5395(02)00320-5 Stark, O. (1984). Migration decision making: A review article. Journal of Development Economics 14, 251-259. Taylor, E. J. (1999). The new economics of labour migration and the role of remittances in the migration process. International migration, 37(1), 63-88. Tiilikainen, M. (2007). Continuity and change: Somali women and everyday Islam in the diaspora. From Mogadishu to Dixon: the Somali diaspora in a global context, 207-230. Wæver, O. (1993). Identity, migration and the new security agenda in Europe: Pinter.

121

APPENDICES

Appendix A: Question to Somali migrants

1. How old are you? 2. How would you describe the conditions of the area where you came from? 3. How can you explain how you left your country of origin? Did you arrive as a group or individually? Did you undergo any transportation fee? 4. Which clan do you come from? Are they the majority or the minority? 5. Do you put into consideration the traditions of the Somali people? Weddings, language, dressing and food 6. What is your highest level of education? Where do you live? Do you work? 7. Do you have the legal right to remain in Thailand? If so which one? 8. Do you have a passport? Do you work in Thailand? 9. Did you have legal document upon arriving here in Thailand? 10. How safe do you feel when you’re traveling with the UN asylum seeker ID? 11. Have you ever been arrested? If yes, why? 12. Which process did you use to leave Somali? 13. What made you leave your Somali? 14. How did you arrive in Thailand? 15. Did you undergo any transportation fee? 16. Did you use a recruiter to arrive to Thailand or you came on your own? 17. Why did you choose Thailand as your country of destination? 18. Did you travel alone or as a group? 19. How many years have you been living in Bangkok? 20. Why did you choose to live in Bangkok? 21. Did you have a relative in Thailand? 22. Where are your family members/ siblings? 23. To what extent and in what areas has the traditional culture of the Somali migrants changed in contact with the dominant Thai culture? In what areas has it been maintained?

124

24. What roles within the group are available to whom, and how are they acquired? Is education relevant to this achievement? 25. How do people greet each other? What forms of address are used between people in various roles? 26. Do girls work and interact with boys? Is it proper? 27. What kind of traditions and practices do they keep? Why do they continue to practice these traditions and customs? Which do they decide to change or stop practicing? 28. What do they see as their "identity"? For instance, Thais in America see themselves as Thai-Americans. 29. How would they feel if their children married outside their ethnic group? 30. What languages and varieties of each language are used in the community? By whom? When? Where? For what purposes? 31. What rules are observed during meals regarding age and sex roles within the family, the order of serving, seating, utensils, used, and appropriate verbal formulas (e.g., bow, and if, one may request, refuse, or thank)? 32. What is considered sacred and what secular? 33. What was the most important and meaningful event or celebration in their life? 34. Is there anything you would like others to know that we have not included here about Somali people?

124

Appendix B: Interview Question UNHCR and affiliated NGO

1. How do most Somalis explain how they left their countries of origin? Did they arrive as a group or individually? Did they undergo any transportation fee?

2. Which clan do most Somali Migrants come from? Are they the majority or the minority? 3. Is the number of Somali increasing or decreasing in the last decade? 4. Do you put into consideration the traditions of the Somali people when supporting them? Weddings, language, dressing and food 5. What was their educational background? Where are they living and what do they do? 6. Legal: how does your organization support refugees in matters of legality i.e. to avoid arrests? 7. How is one accepted as an asylum seeker or a refugee in your organization? 8. In instances of arrest, how do you handle the situation? 9. Which form of identification do asylum seekers have in your organization? Does it prevent arrest? 10. How does your organization support the Asylum seekers and refugees? 11. Do you support refugees in terms of basic needs? I.e. food, shelter, clothing 12. To what extent and in what areas has the traditional culture of the Somali migrants changed in contact with the dominant Thai culture? In what areas has it been maintained? 13. What roles within the group are available to whom, and how are they acquired? Is education relevant to this achievement? 14. Do girls work and interact with boys? Is it proper? 15. What kind of traditions and practices do they keep? Why do they continue to practice these traditions and customs? Which do they decide to change or stop practicing?

126

16. What do they see as their "identity"? For instance, Thais in America see themselves as Thai-Americans. 17. How would they feel if their children married outside their ethnic group? 18. What languages and varieties of each language are used in the community? By whom? When? Where? 19. What rules are observed during meals regarding age and sex roles within the family, the order of serving, seating, utensils, used, and appropriate verbal formulas (e.g., bow, and if, one may request, refuse, or thank)? 20. What was the most important and meaningful event or celebration in their life? 21. Is there anything you would like others to know that we have not included here about Somali people?

126

Appendix C: Questions to the Imam

1. In determinations to help Somali asylum seekers in terms of livelihood, what approaches do you have? 2. As a result, of these approaches, what outcomes have Somali communities gained? 3. How many Somali people are in your congregation? 4. How long have you had your position here? 5. Do you have a hint of how the Somali asylum seekers in your congregation arrives here in Thailand? 6. Do you receive complains from the asylum seekers, if yes what type of complains? How do you handle such? 7. What characteristics of the asylum seekers life are affected by religion? 8. How does your religion affect who you date, or plan to marry? 9. What is the role of women in your religion? 10. What is your position on possible cultural change of the Somali asylum seekers? 11. Is there anything else that you think is of importance and would therefore like to add?