Genius loci: identity and the New Zealand garden Philip Smith1
"To build, to plant, whatever you intend, research into "critical regionalism", Egoz and Bowring of the Landscape To rear the Column, or the Arch to bend, Architecture Group, Lincoln To swell the Terras, or to sink the Grot; University, published an interesting article earlier this year on an In all let Nature never be forgot ..... integrated approach to exploring Consult the genius of the place in all ...." regional identity [5]. Their "complex ecological aesthetic" focussed mainly on the integration of native Alexander Pope, ecology and New Zealand's pastoral Epistle to Richard Boyle, Earl of Burlington landscapes, to develop "landscape approaches that are both culturally and ecologically sustainable" [5, p. 65]. The greater design integrity New Zealand is currently undergoing and gardening. This was essentially derived from such an approach is an an important stage in its evolution a reactionary polemic against what important outcome of a more as a nation. The dominant cultural Pope perceived as the insubstantial complex investigation of regional influences on New Zealand's (and in his opinion, tasteless) works identity. population have shifted during the of many of his contemporaries in art, past 200 years from the indigenous architecture or gardening [2]. These The importance of maintaining the Maori culture, to the English colonial were juxtaposed with his expression distinctiveness of New Zealand's empire, to the present modern state. of the virtue of basing cultural works 'natural' landscapes and native flora Our contemporary cultural identity on the "foundation" of the genius (or is now well-established, as is difficult to define; a statement that the essential spirit) of the place. This evidenced by the 2003 RNZIH could easily be applied to New became an important tenet of the conference on urban biodiversity, Zealand gardens [1]. Rod Barnett, 18th Century English Landscape and current media interest in this hot in A History of the Garden in New Garden movement. Despite the topic. Consequently, the case for the Zealand, goes as far as to say that polemical tone of Pope's poem, its assertion of our national identity "the New Zealand garden does not message is relevant to the landscape through reference to native ecology exist" as a distinct style. Despite profession today, particularly in light and the use of native plants is a the aforementioned author's of an increasing focus on logical argument (if still somewhat assertion that this is "not a "regionalism". In New Zealand, the contentious to some). However, the conclusion to be disturbed by", I leading advocate of this is the place of the New Zealand cultural must admit to being disturbed by Landscape Architecture Group at vernacular in defining identity in our this. New Zealand's distinctive Lincoln University, whose overall constructed landscape is less clear. culture and landscape should be approach is described as "critical This is, in my opinion, due to a strongly reflected in our gardens as regionalism" [3]. common assumption that New an assertion of our national and Zealand does not have a notably regional identities. This article sets The concept of the genius of a place distinct or, perhaps better said, out to discuss the manner in which (or genius loci) is derived from the identifiable culture. The importance we may explore New Zealand Roman concept of the presiding spirit of the landscape vernacular is that identity in our treatment of gardens of a place [4]. The use of the term, it reflects aspects of the New Zealand and the landscape. genius loci, in this article is intended character, as it is formed by the way to describe an integrated concept in which we live our lives, and the The opening extract of this article is of local character, incorporating effect of this on the landscape. The from the epistle (written in 1730- principles of 'natural' (or native) vernacular is the physical legacy of 1731) by the English poet, Alexander ecology and the cultural landscape the history and development of the Pope, to the Earl of Burlington, in vernacular (taken here as the distinct country as a whole, as well as its which he describes his beliefs on forms within our landscape that arise individual regions. appropriate forms for architecture from everyday life). As part of
1 O2 Landscapes, 15 Gorrie Avenue, Epsom, Auckland; [email protected]
12 New Zealand Garden Journal, 2004, Vol.7 (1) extended co-habitation. In ecology, to the toatoa tree that is to be planted Plant ecologies and necessity is the mother of beauty. on the property, and in turn to the identity distinctive plant communities of For those interested in the use of which toatoa is a member. Native plants have moved beyond native plants within the garden, the fringe interest to become an appropriate place to derive A well-known example of the use of important resource for garden inspiration is in the field. To this end, a distinctive indigenous plant form makers and landscape professionals amenity horticulturists can benefit in art is the integration of a colonnade in this country [6]. The most from the considerable knowledge of metal nikau palms into the spectacular recent example of this base of botanists in discovering local architecture of the Wellington Public was in the highly successful New identity. Yet, this resource is almost Library, designed by Ian Athfield. Zealand garden exhibit at the 2004 completely ignored by landscapers These nikau succeed not only as an Chelsea Flower Show, in which a and gardeners, possibly due to a expression of regional identity, but refreshingly wide range of native belief that the specialist scientific as an outstanding piece of design. plants was effectively displayed interest of botanists is non- This is the key to advancing the use alongside stylised features of the transferable or irrelevant to the use of the native flora by New Zealanders. New Zealand landscape and Maori of plants in the garden. I would We should never forget the fact that mysticism. A greater focus on contend that the opposite is true. A gardens are made for people, and, biodiversity should also stimulate an heightened knowledge of plant therefore, must be appealing. Native increased interest in the distinctive physiology and ecology can be a gardens rely too often on the ethic ecologies of our native flora, not just source for artistic inspiration. We do of restoration as their selling point. on the plants themselves. This is not not need to adhere slavishly to literal The virtue of preserving biodiversity a unique or new view, but it is one naturalistic translations of our is insufficient as a driving factor for that has been scarcely translated regional floras and ecologies; they increasing the profile of our distinct into practice by the landscape may inspire us to abstracted landscape forms in gardens profession. A focus on regional representations of indigenous forms. (particularly as we move farther into ecologies should not be confused the future and the novelty of with eco-sourcing (and the An illustration of this is a feature that conservation wears off). contentious issues surrounding that). I recently included in a garden design The latter is a prescriptive approach in Parnell, Auckland. In order to The landscape profession in New aimed at preserving biodiversity, enhance the space fully, it was Zealand should learn from the genius whilst the former should be viewed decided to fabricate a sculpture loci, and enhance it in the as a creative tool for the which would act as a clothesline (this manifestation of local identity in enhancement of our art through the function being necessary within the gardens. However, rather than fundamental scientific practice of small area being developed). The producing generic visions of nature observation. sculpture consists of individual (often false representations from a curved wrought iron rods emerging regional perspective), we need to I recently came across an from the courtyard, culminating in foster challenging, innovative design inspirational plant community in an heads whose form is based on the to escape the risk of native plants area of coastal forest at Karekare, shape of the cladodes (modified being viewed as confined to 'native west of Auckland, in which Astelia stems which function as, and gardens'. Certain native species have banksii, the creeping fern resemble, (Microsorum pustulatum), a ground leaves) of toatoa fern (Polystichum sp.), and the (Phyllocladus charming native forget-me-not toatoa), a (Myosotis petiolata var. pansa), beautiful tree formed a harmonic scene with which is assorted shrub species, including a endemic to the tree daisy (Olearia furfuracea), north of New beneath a low pohutukawa canopy. Zealand The self-ordering mechanisms of (notably in the nature mould communities like this Auckland into visually-unified scenes. One can province). The read of the principles of planting connection to design from any of the myriad of an endemic books on the matter, but one can species creates best come to an understanding of an added the natural order of plant resonance for communities by observing the the client, A sculpture in a Parnell garden, consisting of individual curved wrought harmony that is derived from linking the work iron rods culminating in heads, the form of which is based on the shape of the cladodes of toatoa (Phyllocladus toatoa)
New Zealand Garden Journal, 2004, Vol.7 (1) 13 already been utilised extensively in the most remarkable international our national and regional landscape landscape/garden genres outside examples of the creation of a public vernaculars. It is also helpful to the 'native garden' style. Examples space inspired by natural forms and understand the ways in which these include the use of toothed lancewood processes is Lawrence Halprin's have formed. It is important to (Pseudopanax ferox) and nikau Lovejoy Plaza in Portland, Oregon. actively consider these matters (Rhopalostylis sapida) in modernist It was inspired by the High Sierra of because, as Colin Meurk pointed out gardens; or the widespread use of California, and is an abstract in the 2003 Banks Memorial Lecture puka-nui (Meryta sinclairii) and representation of topographical form [10], "our culture now evolves akapuka (Griselinia lucida) in 'sub- and hydrological processes [8]. consciously rather than tropical' gardens. We need to spontaneously as in past history". increase the range of species in By exploring the physiography of our As the needs that shaped our cultural popular use and increase the land in our gardens, we can preserve landscape are made irrelevant by relevance of our native plants by our own stories. By referring to modern technology, the vernacular utilising them in a variety of manners. Auckland's volcanic heritage, we landscape forms that developed in remind ourselves of the violent forces response to these needs are at risk that shaped the land here. This could of disappearing (and, therefore, be incorporated into landscape erasing the physical mark of our Non-vegetal design by abstracted representations distinct stories from our landscape). landscape of lava flows, or by highlighting soil stratification (a chronological elements and measure of volcanic activity). A Traditional Maori identity salient feature of the New Zealand landscape is the way in which water cultural vernacular moves through the landscape. This article has so far explored the Considering the popularity of water potential of increased attention to The first period of development of features in New Zealand gardens indigenous plants and plant distinctive New Zealand cultural and public spaces, a detailed communities, as inspiration for forms followed the settlement of the consideration of local hydrological distinctive New Zealand garden Maori peoples in New Zealand. They processes could provide some forms. However, plants are not the brought Polynesian ideologies and innovative pieces of design (such as only elements of our natural places customs with them, which were Halprin's plaza). In addition, the which can be referred to as altered in relation to the context of presence of imagery of our fauna in inspiration for regionalist gardens. a substantially different land from gardens has increased markedly in The post-modernist architectural those of their ancestors. The recent years (notably through theorist, Charles Jencks, states that mythology and cultural practices of sculpture), and is another area in gardens can represent a microcosm Maori are rich resources for artists which we can explore regional of greater natural ordering systems or designers in this country, and identity. The challenge is to move (on varying levels in his works, from represent a different sensibility from beyond kitsch or half-gestures, the flow of rivers to the grand European-based culture. These can towards design that truly relates to mechanisms of the universe) [7]. provide us with an extensive the distinctive forms of our Gardens can remind us of the vocabulary of indigenous landscape landscape. underlying character of the land forms. There is far more to Maori which we have adjusted through our visual culture than the koru (a very activities, and also of the character heavily used symbol in New Zealand of significant natural areas which are The cultural art, and one that has parallels in other distant from our everyday lives. cultures). They should also not be vernacular and viewed as anthropological fossils, Unique landscape features may identity but updated to reflect the dynamic include the water flow of braided state of contemporary Maori culture. river systems of the South Island, "All forms of vernacular architecture Vernacular Maori cultural forms the distinct cliff formations of the are built to meet specific needs, Hinuera valley, local bird populations, include the devices and customs accommodating the values, used by Maori for survival. The or the composition of rocks and rock economies and ways of living of the pools on the Takapuna waterfront. beautiful forms of Maori fishhooks cultures that produce them" [9]. The are well known, but other fishing and These features may be geological, same can be said of the landscape hydrological, climatic, fauna-related, hunting devices, such as hinaki (eel- vernacular, and for this reason we catching pots) and snares, are not or relating to other natural processes should be celebrating this more in or forms. The Australian architect, so well known. Similarly, the design our garden-making and landscape of pa or of traditional buildings was Glenn Murcutt, explores aspects of architecture. However, in order to be climate (such as wind, water and related to survival and the constant able to achieve this, we must first be cultural dialogue with the land. Maori light) ingeniously in his work. One of able to identify just what constitutes
14 New Zealand Garden Journal, 2004, Vol.7 (1) This is true of better illustrated than in Oamaru, much more of where an excellent source of local New Zealand stone stimulated the development society now of a majestic town centre (although than the this does not, strictly speaking, traditional qualify as vernacular architecture). interpretation of indigenous (as Local identity was further enhanced the first human by the different regional backgrounds inhabitants of of the settlers who came with the land). I refer colonisation [9]. Christchurch's here to the New English heritage is apparent in the Zealand cultural vernacular architecture and vernacular townscape, as is the legacy of the following predominantly Scottish settlers in colonisation and Dunedin. In New Plymouth, settlers Water feature in Quay Park with the three-fingered hand motif based on leading up to from Devon and Cornwall built cob Ngati Whatua imagery, designed by Ted Smyth the present day. cottages, even though there was an It is regrettable extensive supply of timber available mythology may also provide us with that a cultural cringe exists around [9]. An interesting example of a a powerful reference base for design, our 'modern' cultural heritage, as vernacular landscape form is the use as it was derived from an intimate this too forms an integral part of the of a South African plant, Tecomaria connection with nature (a spiritual New Zealand vernacular. capensis, for hedging in northern interpretation of the genius loci). The New Zealand. For many of us, there Auckland landscape architect, Ted New Zealand's 'modern' vernacular are memories attached to this Smyth, integrated aspects of local forms are derived from the integration species, which many Aucklanders Ngati Whatua lore in his design for of introduced culture and the context refer to commonly as "hedge". Quay Park on Auckland's waterfront, of the place. The necessity of representing local traditions rather adapting to local conditions is well Modernist New Zealand architects than generic abstractions of Maori illustrated by the adjustment of our in the middle of the twentieth century forms. An interesting component of architecture to New Zealand's were inspired by New Zealand Maori culture/lore is the natural position on a fault line, and the vernacular architecture as an history whakapapa, which describe subsequent regular occurrence of example of "straightforward the relationships between apparently earthquakes. This, disparate natural entities and their combined with the relevance to people. One example wealth of timber at is the relationship of Puawhananga hand, resulted in the (Clematis paniculata), offspring of less frequent use of Rehua (the star of Antares), both of bricks in building in which are signs of the onset of New Zealand than in summer, and the tuna (eel) because England [11], a the timing of eel life cycle (and characteristic that is subsequently, eeling) was connected reflected in with the appearance of these celestial garden/landscape and floral entities. forms as well. A notable feature of many regions throughout New The 'modern' Zealand is the art of cultural vernacular drystone walling (such as the volcanic When discussing indigenous culture, drystone walls of I believe that we have reached a Northland), which was point in our history at which this term brought here by can relate to more than just pre- British immigrants European Maori culture (and its who then adapted to development in modern New local stone supplies. Zealand). The term 'indigenous' The adaptation to means "originating or occurring local building naturally in a particular place" [4]. materials is nowhere A drystone wall in Cornwall Park, Auckland, using an imported technique and local material
New Zealand Garden Journal, 2004, Vol.7 (1) 15 responses to site and available Lecture [10], if we continue to ignore landscape. In representing the legacy materials" (qualities that translate our distinctive identities. that we have inherited from our well to modern attitudes) [12]. This forebears, we continue and partake is evident in the New Zealand in that legacy. I would like to think landscape in the veneration of that we will not sit back and accept corrugated iron and No. 8 wire The future a pluralism that is largely based on fencing as elements which impart a international trends as the inherent sense of the New Zealand character. I recently attended a play about the New Zealand cultural condition. This early New Zealand artist, Charles does not mean to say that The qualities that a focus on the Goldie, in which George Henare gave international trends should be viewed landscape vernacular can provide a powerful performance as Patara as invalid garden forms for New are a unity and integrity missing in Te Tuhi, one of Goldie's subjects and Zealand, but rather that a distinctive many areas of our urban landscapes. a Maori warrior. In this role, he New Zealand garden style (or styles) The romance of rural landscapes is explains the Maori view that the should be based on New Zealand's that they are authentic, representing representation of an object and the culture and environment. By referring a continuing dialogue and connection object itself are the same thing (with to the genius loci as our mentor, we with the land [13]. We risk reference to the image of a painting). can express our own histories, disconnectedness with our I believe that this is particularly character and culture in our landscapes, as Colin Meurk pointed applicable to the utilisation of our landscapes. out in the 2003 Banks Memorial natural and cultural heritage in our
References and notes
[1] Rod Barnett, writing of the eclectic garden in A History of the Garden in New Zealand (Bradbury, M. ed., 1995, Viking, Auckland), describes the prevailing status of the New Zealand garden as a "colourful, contented heterogeneity". [2] Butt, J. ed. (1963). The Poems of Alexander Pope. Methuen, London. [3] Retrieved 20 July 2004 from http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/esdd/groups/lag.htm. [4] Genius loci, from the Latin, literally meaning "spirit of the place"; definition for "indigenous" from same source: Pearsall, J. ed. (1998) The New Oxford Dictionary of English. Oxford University Press, New York. [5] Egoz, S. and Bowring, J. (2004). Beyond the romantic and naïve: the search for a complex ecological aesthetic design language for landscape architecture in New Zealand. Landscape Research 29: 57-73. [6] Through literature such as The Native Garden (Gabites, H.I. and Lucas, R., 1998, Godwit, Auckland), increased media attention, and the associated marketability of native plants. [7] Most significantly at his own garden in the Borders area of Scotland. He delivers a fascinating discourse on the potentialities of integrating science with landscape design in his book, The Garden of Cosmic Speculation (Jencks, C., 2003, Frances Lincoln, London). [8] Halprin wrote: "I view the earth and its life processes as a model for creative processes", as reproduced in The Landscape of Man (Geoffrey and Susan Jellicoe, 1975, Thames & Hudson, London). [9] Oliver, P. ed. (1997). Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. [10] Meurk, C. (2003). Cities are cultural and ecological keys to biodiversity futures. New Zealand Garden Journal 6(2): 3-10. [11] Salmond, L.J.E. (1986). Old New Zealand Houses: 1800-1940. Reed Methuen, Auckland. [12] Clark, J. and Walker, P. (2000). Looking for the Local: Architecture and the New Zealand Modern. Victoria University Press, Wellington. [13] The concept of dialogues in landscape are further discussed in Anne Whiston Spirn's excellent philosophical work, The Language of Landscape (1998, Yale University Press, New Haven).
Philip Smith attended Massey special interest in native plants and University between 1995 and 1998 increasing their use in gardens to study landscape design (BApplSc). (particularly threatened species), in He is a landscape designer/contractor the integration of native plants with from Auckland where he has run his flowering perennials and interesting own business, O2 Landscapes, exotic trees and shrubs, and in designing and installing gardens since incorporating New Zealand identity the beginning of 2002. He has a into his gardens.
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