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On the Ecology and Restoration of Podocarpus cunninghamii in the Eastern South Island High Country A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of Canterbury by Alwyn Williams School of Forestry University of Canterbury 2010 Table of Contents List of Figures .............................................................................................................. vi List of Tables .............................................................................................................. vii List of Plates ............................................................................................................. viii Abstract ........................................................................................................................ ix Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... x 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1 The eastern South Island high country ................................................................. 1 1.3 Why restore Podocarpus cunninghamii? ............................................................. 8 1.3.1 Why we should restore Podocarpus cunninghamii forest ............................ 8 1.3.2 Why we need active restoration of Podocarpus cunninghamii forest ........ 11 1.4 Aims and objectives ........................................................................................... 16 1.4.1 Thesis outline .............................................................................................. 17 2 Podocarpus cunninghamii in the eastern South Island high country ................. 18 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 18 2.2 Vegetation history of the eastern South Island high country ............................. 19 2.2.1 Pre-human cover ......................................................................................... 19 2.2.2 Human impacts on the vegetation ............................................................... 25 2.3 Current distribution and associations of Podocarpus cunninghamii ................. 28 2.3.1 The Kaikoura Ranges .................................................................................. 30 2.3.2 Central Canterbury high country ................................................................ 33 2.3.3 South Canterbury high country ................................................................... 36 2.3.4 Central Otago .............................................................................................. 38 2.4 Summary ............................................................................................................ 40 3 The ecology of Podocarpus cunninghamii in the high country ........................... 42 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 42 3.2 Methods.............................................................................................................. 43 3.2.1 Study sites ................................................................................................... 43 3.2.2 Data collection ............................................................................................ 44 3.2.3 Statistical analysis ....................................................................................... 49 3.3 Results ................................................................................................................ 55 3.3.1 Study sites ................................................................................................... 55 3.3.2 Vegetation surveys ...................................................................................... 67 i 3.3.3 Population dynamics ................................................................................... 82 3.4 Discussion .......................................................................................................... 89 3.4.1 Current species distributions and community structure .............................. 89 3.4.2 Population dynamics ................................................................................... 93 3.4.3 Implications for restoration ......................................................................... 96 4 Arbuscular mycorrhizae and forest restoration on ex-agricultural land .......... 99 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 99 4.2 Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi .......................................................................... 100 4.2.1 Nutrient acquisition ................................................................................... 102 4.2.2 Plant-soil water relations........................................................................... 103 4.2.3 Soil aggregation and carbon storage ......................................................... 104 4.2.4 Resistance to soil-borne pathogens and pests ........................................... 105 4.3 Effects of agriculture on AMF communities ................................................... 105 4.3.1 Forest conversion to agriculture ................................................................ 106 4.3.2 Different agricultural practices ................................................................. 108 4.3.3 Implications for restoration ....................................................................... 109 4.4 Use of AMF for tree and shrub restoration ...................................................... 111 4.4.1 Practical considerations ............................................................................ 112 4.5 Conclusions and knowledge gaps .................................................................... 113 4.5.1 Outline of next five chapters ..................................................................... 115 5 Investigation of high country Podocarpus cunninghamii and grassland AMF communities ........................................................................................................... 116 5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 116 5.2 Methods............................................................................................................ 117 5.2.1 Collection of root material ........................................................................ 117 5.2.2 Preparation of root material ...................................................................... 117 5.2.3 Percentage root length colonised .............................................................. 119 5.2.4 Molecular methods with root material ...................................................... 119 5.2.5 AMF spore cultures................................................................................... 128 5.3 Results .............................................................................................................. 130 5.3.1 Preparation of root material ...................................................................... 130 5.3.2 Percentage root length colonised .............................................................. 131 5.3.3 Molecular results with root material ......................................................... 132 5.3.4 Molecular results with pot cultures ........................................................... 137 ii 5.4 Discussion ........................................................................................................ 138 6 The effect of ex-agricultural and forest AMF on the growth of Podocarpus cunninghamii cuttings ........................................................................................... 143 6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 143 6.2 Methods............................................................................................................ 144 6.2.1 Collection and propagation of cuttings ..................................................... 144 6.2.2 Collection and preparation of soils ........................................................... 145 6.2.3 Inoculation of plants ................................................................................. 147 6.2.4 Initial measurements ................................................................................. 148 6.2.5 Harvest and final measurements ............................................................... 149 6.2.6 Nutrient analysis ....................................................................................... 149 6.2.7 Statistical analysis ..................................................................................... 149 6.3 Results .............................................................................................................. 151 6.3.1 AMF colonisation ..................................................................................... 151 6.3.2 Plant growth .............................................................................................. 151 6.3.3 Nutrient analysis ....................................................................................... 153 6.4 Discussion .......................................................................................................
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