Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION 21) in 1996. PA 21 adopts a framework that places people and nature at the center of development activities. PP lants are a vital part of the world’s biological diversity and an essential UNCED also proved to be a turning point resource for the planet. They offer the towards the conservation of the world’s most diverse uses for local households. biological resources as it was also during They are sources of firewood, herbal the UNCED that the nations of the world medicine, beverages, condiments, resins, adopted the Convention on Biological food, and light construction materials. Diversity (CBD). Ratification of the CBD Plants or plant parts such as roots, by the Philippine Government was on 08 rhizomes, leaves, bark and fruits are October 1993. The objectives of this collected, prepared and either served as Convention are the conservation of food or administered to treat certain biological diversity, the sustainable use of illnesses. Plants or plant parts are also its components, and the fair and equitable used as ornaments and are basic in sharing of benefits derived from the landscaping purposes. Economically utilization of genetic resources. Part of the important ornamental plants, like orchids commitments of the Philippine and ferns provide alternative sources of Government to the CBD is the perpetual income to the local people. Ecologically, existence and conservation of plant plants provide oxygen that we breathe, diversity. hold water to prevent flooding, release water to prevent drought and serve as As an urgent response and as a sanctuaries for most of the faunal species, manifestation of its commitment to among others. implement the provisions of the CBD, the Philippines through the Department of Human pressure on plant resources has Environment and Natural Resources led to the depletion of these resources. In (DENR) developed the National recognition of the growing severity of Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan threats to biological diversity, including (NBSAP) in 1997. The NBSAP presented plants, and the international nature of the status of the country’s biological actions required to address the threats, as diversity and the strategies and actions on well as the need to operationalize the the problems, issues and gaps identified on principles of sustainable development in all their conservation, sustainable use, and countries around the globe, the Nations of equitable sharing of benefits. the world gathered to collectively map out a plan to address the twin goals of With the emergence of new information, environmental preservation and economic approaches and analyses from various development. This historic event, the conservation efforts and initiatives, the United Nations Conference for DENR-Protected Areas and Wildlife Environment and Development (UNCED) Bureau (PAWB), the Conservation or Earth Summit in June 1992, produced a International (CI), and the University of the blueprint for a global agenda known as Philippines – Center for Integrative and Agenda 21. In response to UNCED’s Development Studies (UP-CIDS), in global call for nations to establish national collaboration with more than 300 mechanisms and to formulate and individuals from more than 100 local and implement their own agenda of actions for international institutions, developed the sustainable development, the Philippines Philippine Biodiversity Conservation came up with the Philippine Agenda (PA Priorities Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 2

(PBCP) in 2002. The PBCP, which is an the CBD, particularly Article 7, on update of the NBSAP, can provide the identification and monitoring, through basis for development programs on increasing the fundamental biological data biodiversity conservation. essential to underpin the conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing of the In September 2002, a global review of the benefits from the utilization of biological implementation of Agenda 21 was held in diversity. The GTI thus, aims to address Johannesburg, South Africa through the the problems of insufficient knowledge of World Summit for Sustainable all components of biological diversity Development (WSSD) where countries (including their classification, description, reiterated their commitment to work value of function) and lack of taxonomic toward addressing biodiversity loss. capacity, to overcome what has been Among the commitments and actions termed taxonomic impediments in the agreed during the WSSD is the reduction implementation of the CBD. in the current biodiversity loss by 2010 by: (i) effectively promoting the conservation While plant conservation has found a place and sustainable use of biodiversity, in the global arena, efforts at the national promoting support initiatives for hot spot level appear to be more focused on the areas and other areas essential for conservation of wild fauna. There is no biodiversity, and promoting the structured project or program on plant development of national and regional resources conservation that is being ecological networks and corridors; (ii) implemented to date. Although there are strengthening national, regional and several individuals and institutions international efforts to control invasive undertaking certain activities/measures to alien species, which are one of the main conserve the Philippine flora, these, causes of biodiversity loss, and however, are fragmented, not properly encouraging the development of effective coordinated with key stakeholders, and work program on invasive alien species at not well disseminated. For these reasons all levels; and, (iii) promoting the and in pursuit of the Philippine implementation of the program of work of Government’s commitment to the CBD, the Global Taxonomy Initiative (GTI). the DENR through PAWB proposed the development of a national framework on Plant conservation was given global plant conservation. This proposal met the emphasis during the CBD – 6th Conference approval of known plant experts in the of the Parties (CoP) when the CoP country during a meeting held on 28 adopted the Global Strategy for Plant August 2002. Conservation (GSPC) (Decision VI/9). The ultimate aim of this global strategy is On 20 January 2003, DENR Secretary to halt the current and continuing loss of Elisea G. Gozun issued Special Order No. plant diversity. The CBD-CoP 6 invited 2003-32 formally creating the Philippine Parties and Governments to support the Plant Conservation Committee (Annex A). GSPC, develop national targets, and as Chaired by the PAWB Director and appropriate, incorporate these targets into composed of plant experts in the country, relevant plans, programs and initiatives, the Committee is tasked primarily to including national biodiversity strategy and develop the Philippine Plant action plans. During the same CoP, the Conservation Strategy and Action Parties also adopted the GTI (Decision Plan. VI/8). This global initiative seeks to provide the key information required for Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 3

2.0 PLANT DIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION STATUS be an assemblage of ophiolite terranes, island-arc, ocean-basin, and continental 2.1 Phytogeography fragments of different origins and ages. This complex geological history, The Philippines is part of a distinct plant archipelagic nature, climatic conditions, and geographical region known as Malesia topographic features of the Philippines (Figure 1). Together with Malay Peninsula, contribute to its present plant diversity Sumatra, Borneo and Java, it is part of the pattern. sub-floristic province called West Malesia (van Steenis, 1950; Jacobs, 1974). However, 2.2 Diversity East Malesian (Sulawesi, Moluccas, and New Guinea) floristic elements are well- Reports on the estimated number of represented in the Philippines, indicating that species for the Philippine flora vary the archipelago might have been the stepping depending on the revisions done for stones (corridor) through which floristic various plant groups. An estimate credits elements from both sub-provinces are some 12000 species of plants to the exchanged (Tan & Rojo 1989). The Philippines, 8000 of which are phanerogams Philippine flora shares uniquely with Sulawesi (Madulid 1985). The total vascular flora, in several plant species reflecting the the absence of a complete and importance of island arcs as dispersal routes comprehensive revision, is estimated to be for plants (Merrill 1926; Balgooy 1987; at 9000 (Ashton 1997). Fernando 1990). Mainland Asiatic elements The Philippine flora is composed of at least 14000 species, representing five percent of the world’s flora (DENR-PAWB, CI, & UP- CIDS 2002; Table 1). There are about 8000+ species of flowering plants or angiosperms, 33 species of gymnosperms, 1100 species of pteridophytes (Barcelona 2002), 1271 species of bryophytes, more than 3555+ species of fungi and molds, about 1355+ species of algae (DENR-UNEP 1997; Villareal & Fernando 1999), and 790 Figure 1. Map of the plant geographical region species of lichens (Gruezo 1979). The of Malesia that includes the Philippines (after Johns 1995). Table 1. Estimated number of species of plants (including algae and fungi) currently known from the Philippines (data from Gruezo are present in the Philippine flora which are 1979; DENR-UNEP1997; Villareal & Fernando often associated vegetation found in medium 2000; Barcelona 2002). to high elevation mountains mostly confined Plant Group Estimated No. of Endemic to Luzon (van Steenis 1950). The Philippine Species Species flora also contains an appreciable number of Angiosperms 8,120 c. 5,800 Australian-Papuasian elements (van Steenis Gymnosperms 33 6 1987). Pteridophytes 1,100 285 Bryophytes 1,271 195 Many palaeogeographic models (e.g. Roeder Algae 1,355 ? 1977; Mitchell et al. 1986; McCabe et al. Fungi, slime molds, 3,555 ? water molds 1987; Hall 1998) consider the archipelago to Lichens 789 ? Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 4 angiosperms constitute 22.5% of the percent of the gymnosperms are believed Malesian, and 3.8% of the world’s vascular to be still undescribed (DENR-UNEP flora. Taxonomic revisions and new species 1997). Within the last three years alone, discoveries, as well as, geographical range at least seven species from the Philippines extensions would undoubtedly change the have been described as new to science. estimates for the species counts. For This include Homalium palawanense example 162 of the 242 families of Regalado et al. [Flacourtiaceae] (Regalado angiosperms and gymnosperms have already et al. 2000), Aeschynanthus madulidii been revised in the Flora Malesiana. Mendum [Gesneriaceae] (Mendum 2001), Heterospathe califrons Fernando In the recent Flora Malesiana revisions are [Arecaceae] (Fernando & Sotalbo 2001), 108 flowering plant families, represented Rafflesia speciosa Barcelona & Fernando mostly by small to moderate-sized families [Rafflesiaceae] (Barcelona & Fernando and a few speciose families such as 2002), Vaccinium oscarlopezianum Co et al. Ericaceae, Meliaceae, Sapindaceae, [Ericaceae] (Co et al. 2002), Dischidia Leguminosae (= Fabaceae). Using Merrill’s cleistantha Livshultz [Apocynaceae] (1926) account of 8210+ seed plant species (Livshultz 2003), and Carruthersia glabra as basis, it was noted that only 1363 out of Middleton [Apocynaceae] (Middleton 1726 species remain valid after revisions, 2003). reflecting a difference of 363. The observed net reduction (due to synonymy, new The rate at which new discoveries are records, range extensions, etc.) will be increasing should not be underestimated. modified further as large speciose families Even in areas already subjected to logging, are revised. Examples of drastic reduction such as Surigao in northeastern Mindanao in number of species attributed to the new botanical discoveries are still being Philippines include the following: Leeaceae, made: Tectaridium macleanii Copel. (new from 25 to 12 species; Rosaceae, 51 to 41; record for Mindanao of this monotypic Meliaceae, 135 to 75 (Mabberley et al. Philippine endemic genus), Lindsaea 1995); and, Sapindaceae 123 to 63 (Adema gueriniana (Gaud.) Fee (erstwhile Sulawesi et al. 1994). endemic), and Santiria grandifolia Kalkm. (new to the Philippines, erstwhile Bornean) About five to eight percent of the flowering (Co et al. in prep.) plants, mosses, fungi and lichens, and five Table 2. Genera of flowering plants and ferns endemic to the Philippine Islands; figures in paren- theses denote the number of species in the genus (modified after van Steenis 1987; Johns 1995).

Adonidia (Palmae) (1) Macropodanthus (Orchidaceae) (1) Amesiella (Orchidaceae) (1) Merrittia (Compositae) (1) Antherostele (Rubiaceae) (4) Phragmorchis (Orchidaceae) (1) Astrocalyx (Melastomataceae) (2) Quisumbingia (Asclepiadaceae) (1) Astrothalamus (Urticaceae) (1) Reutealis (Euphorbiaceae) (1) Catrionia (Melastomataceae) (1) Sulitia (Rubiaceae) (1) Clemensiella (Asclepiadaceae) (1) Swinglea (Rutaceae) (1) Cyne (Loranthaceae) (4) Thaumasianthes (Loranthaceae) (2) Dolichostegia (Asclepiadaceae) (1) Vanoverberghia (Zingiberaceae) (1) Fenixia (Compositae) (1) Villaria (Rubiaceae) (5) Gloeocarpus (Sapindaceae) (1) Nannothelypteris (Thelypteridaceae) (5) Gongrospermum (Sapindaceae) (1) Psomiocarpa (Tectaria Group) (1) Greeniopsis (Rubiaceae) (6) Podosorus (Polypodiaceae) (1) Leptosolena (Zingiberaceae) (1) Tectaridium (Dryopteridaceae) (1) Luzonia (Leguminosae) (1) Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 5

2.3 Endemism Anacardiaceae, 44% (Ding Hou 1978) and Burseraceae, 33% (Leenhouts 1956). Twenty-six genera of flowering plants and ferns are endemic to the Philippines (van Mitra (1973) reported high endemism Steenis 1987; Madulid 1991; Johns 1995; (70% to 80%) in the following families Table 2). Among these are the four (each with no less than 15 genera): genera in Rubiaceae; three each in Sapindaceae, Meliaceae, Orchidaceae, Asclepiadaceae; two each in Zingiberaceae, Rubiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Asclepiadaceae, and Sapindaceae; and one each in Arecaceae, Annonaceae, Zingiberaceae, Arecaceae, Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Sterculiaceae, Melastomataceae, and Fabaceae, Rutaceae, Urticaceae, Verbenaceae. Aside from Sapindaceae and Loranthaceae, and Melastomataceae. Meliaceae, all the other families above are There are also four endemic fern genera still being revised in Flora Malesiana. It is (Psomiocarpa, Podosorus, Tectaridium, and worth noting that the percentage Nannothelypteris). Seventeen of these endemism of these two families are endemic genera are monotypic. presently estimated at 30% and 9%, respectively. In a research conducted for Among flowering plant families, the the Conservation Priority-Setting Orchidaceae, Rubiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Workshop (CPSW) Process (DENR- Myrtaceae and Moraceae have the highest PAWB, CI, & UP-CIDS 2002), 108 of the number of indigenous and endemic species 141 families revised in the Flora Malesiana while Poaceae, Liliaceae, Ulmaceae, were cross-referenced with the listing in Leguminosae, and Rutaceae have lower the Merrill’s An Enumeration of Philippine endemism. Flowering Plants (1923-1926). The average rate of change in the number of species Generally, flowering plant endemism in the per family, resulting from revisions was Philippines ranges from 45% to 60% less than 1%. This validates the estimate (DENR-UNEP 1997, Amoroso 2000; of Myers et al. (2000) and Madulid (1982) Mittermeier et al. 1999). However, placing the present number of flowering species endemism may be as high as 100% plants at 7500 and 8000 respectively. in families represented by a single or few Earlier estimates placed species endemism genera, as in Rafflesiaceae (3 species, at 75% (Merrill 1926; Dickerson 1928; Meijer 1997; Nais 2000; Barcelona & Mitra 1973). The average reduction in the Fernando 2002) and Daphniphyllaceae (3 rate of change in endemism resulting from species, Huang 1997). In certain families revisions is approximately 35% based on and genera endemism reaches 70% to 80% the revised families in Flora Malesiana. (e.g. Arecaceae, 70%, Fernando 2001; Species endemism is placed at Vaccinium (Ericaceae) 93%, Sleumer 1966; approximately 27% (DENR-PAWB, CI, & Amyema (Loranthaceae) 79%, Barlow 1997; UP-CIDS 2002), that is close to the 25% Symplocos (Symplocaceae), 78%, estimate of Madulid (1985). Nooteboom 1977). Many of these taxa are those especially confined to primary 2.4 Centers of Plant Diversity and forests (Merrill 1923-26). The Important Plant Areas Orchidaceae, with more than 900 species and 130 genera, and the largest family of Several areas in the country have been flowering plants in the Philippines, has 74% considered Centers of Plant Diversity. endemism (Valmayor 1997). Plant families The NBSAP adopted the list of 18 sites of lower endemism include the (Table 3) identified by the Threatened Dipterocarpaceae, 47% (Ashton 1982), Plants Unit at Kew (Cox 1988) and Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 6

Table 3. Centers of plant diversity in the Philippines (after DENR-UNEP 1997). Name of mountain or area Location

1 Mt Iraya Batan Island 2 Sierra Madre Mountains Isabela Province, Luzon Island 3 Mt Pulag Cordillera Mountains, Luzon Island 4 Mt Arayat Pampanga Province, Luzon Island 5 Mt Makiling Laguna and Batangas Provinces, Luzon Island 6 Lobo Batangas Province, Luzon Island 7 Mt Isarog Camarines Sur Province, Luzon Island 8 Mt Halcon Mindoro Island 9 Coron Coron Island 10 Palawan Palawan Island 11 Southern Samar Samar Island 12 Sibuyan Sibuyan Island 13 Mt Kanlaon Negros Island 14 Mt Talinis + Lake Balinsayao Negros Island 15 Mt Baloy Panay Island 16 Mt Kitanglad Mindanao Island 17 Agusan Marsh Mindanao Island 18 Mt Apo Mindanao Island recommended by Madulid (1993) based on the following considerations: (1) the site or vegetation type is species-rich even though the total number of species present therein may not be accurately known; (2) the site or vegetation type is known to harbor a large number of endemic species; (3) the site may harbor a diverse range of habitat or ecosystem types, e.g., terrestrial, aquatic, etc.; and, (4) the site may have a significant number of species adapted to special edaphic conditions, such as ultrabasic formation or limestone formation.

The PBCP, on the other hand, identified 43 priority areas for plant conservation (or important plant areas) (Table 4 and Figure 2; DENR-PAWB, CI, & UP-CIDS 2002) and 19 terrestrial biodiversity corridors based on their biological importance and degree of socio-economic pressure exerted on said areas. Figure 2. Priority areas in the Philippines for The process in defining the priority sites plant conservation. (DENR-PAWB, CI, & UP- was consultative in character. The sites CIDS, 2002). were assessed using information from the initial available data, from the results of Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 7

Table 4. Conservation priority areas for plants (Important Plant Areas or Important Plant Sites) (after DENR-PAWB, CI, & UP-CIDS 2002).

Seq. No. Area No. Important Plant Area Island (Province)

1 1 Batanes Islands Protected Landscape & Seascape Batanes Islands 2 12 Peaks of Central Cordillera (above 1000 masl) Luzon (Abra, Mt Province, Benguet, Ifugao, and Ilocos Sur Provinces) 3 22 Mt Arayat National Park Luzon (Tarlac, Pampanga and Nueva Ecija) 4 28 Bataan Natural Park & Subic Bay Forest Reserve Luzon (Bataan and Zambales) 5 38 Mt Makiling Forest Reserve Luzon (Batangas and Laguna) 6 41 Mt Palaypalay – Mt Mataas na Gulod National Park Luzon (Cavite and Batangas) 7 53 Mt Isarog National Park Luzon (Camarines Sur) 8 63 Mt Halcon Mindoro (Mindoro Occidental and Mindoro Oriental) 9 64 Naujan Lake National Park Mindoro (Mindoro Oriental) 10 82 Sibuyan Island Sibuyan Is. (Romblon) 11 86 Central Panay Mountains: Madjaas-Baloi Complex Panay (Aklan, Capiz, Antique, and Iloilo) 12 94 Mt Canlaon National Park Negros (Negros Occidental and Negros Oriental) 13 108 Mt Cabalantian – Mt Capotoan Complex Samar (Samar, Eastern Samar and Northern Samar) 14 118 Dinagat (Mt Kambinlio & Mt Redondo) Mindanao (Surigao del Norte) 15 121 Mimbilisan Protected Landscape Mindanao (Misamis Oriental) 16 125 North Diwata (Bislig, Mt Agtuuganon – Mt Pasian) Mindanao (Agusan Del Sur, Compostela, Davao Oriental, and Surigao del Sur) 17 127 Mt Kaluayan – Kinabalian (Kimangkil Ridge), Mindanao (Misamis Oriental, Bukidnon, Davao, Bukidnon – Agusan del Norte border Davao del Sur, Agusan del Norte and Agusan del Sur) 18 129 Mt Kitanglad Mindanao (Bukidnon) 19 130 Mt Kalatungan Range Mindanao (Misamis Oriental, Bukidnon, Lanao del Norte and Lanao del Sur) 20 132 Munai Tambo Complex (Kolambugan uplands & Mindanao (Lanao del Norte and Lanao del Sur) associated mountains 21 133 Lake Lanao Mindanao (Lanao del Sur) 22 135 Mt Piagayungan (Ragang) Complex Mindanao (Bukidnon, North Cotabato, Lanao del Sur and Maguindanao) 23 136 Mt Butig / Lake Butig National Park Mindanao (Lanao del Sur and Maguindanao) 24 139 Marilog Forest Reserve, Bukidnon – Davao boundary Mindanao (Davao and Davao del Sur) 25 143 Mt Apo Range Mindanao (North Cotabato and Davao del Sur) 26 146 Mt Matutum Mindanao (North Cotabato, Davao del Sur, Sarangani, South Cotabato, and Sultan Kudarat) 27 151 Mt Latian Complex (Sarangani Mountains) Mindanao (Davao del Sur and Sarangani) 28 153 Mt Malindang & Lake Duminagat Mindanao (Misamis Occidental and Zamboanga del Norte) 29 216 Isabela – Sierra Madre Luzon (Isabela) 30 217 Aurora –Sierra Madre Luzon (Aurora) 31 222 Mt Tapulao Luzon (Zambales) 32 223 Northern Quezon (Central Sierra Madre) Luzon (Quezon) 33 226 Southern Quezon (Central Sierra Madre) Luzon (Quezon) 34 229 Bicol National Park – Mt Labo Luzon (Camarines Sur) 35 238 Calamianes Calamian Islands (Palawan) 36 242 Northern Palawan Palawan 37 244 Central Palawan Palawan 38 245 Southern Palawan, including Balabac Group of Islands Palawan 39 256 Cuernos de Negros Region Negros (Negros Oriental) 40 260 Sohoton – Loquilocon area Samar (Eastern Samar and Western Samar) 41 263 Mt Pangasugan & Anonang – Lobi Range Leyte 42 279 Mt Hibok-hibok Camiguin Island (Misamis Oriental) 43 281 Tawi-tawi Tawi-tawi Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 8 regional consultations, from the overlaying philippinensis (Verbenaceae), and Pinanga of relevant maps (forest cover, bicolana (Arecaceae). Rafflesia manillana, topographic, etc.) and from the existing although known from three islands knowledge of plant experts consulted. including Luzon, has not been seen The choice of sites was based on elsewhere, except on Mt Makiling, Mt representation, habitat importance and Banahaw and Mt Isarog. Tectona ecosystem characteristics of each philippinensis occurs only in two small areas candidate area. Scoring was made based in Lobo and Nasugbu in Batangas Province on evaluation of the status, distribution, in southern Luzon, and on Ilin Island off richness and endemism of selected plant southern Mindoro. The small area near groups and flagship species. Lobo has been converted into an exotic fruit tree plantation and the remaining The identified research gaps in other individual trees are felled for charcoal significant areas prompted the production. Pinanga bicolana is known only consideration of additional priority sites as from the Bicol National Park on Luzon well as the adoption of the biodiversity Island. It has been severely threatened by corridor concept. Corridors, large reduction of its natural habitat to a mere interconnected networks of protected 10% of its original size, with the remaining areas and surrounding land, were population consisting of not more than delineated based on the established priority sites.

2.5 Threatened Species

The present state of our knowledge of the Philippine flowering plants is not such that a thorough analysis can be made of how many and what species are extinct, threatened, or near-threatened. Many plant groups are still poorly known. There is very limited knowledge on what plants occur on what island, and in what sorts of Figure 3. Rafflesia manillana Teschem., a species endemic to the Philippines and listed as critically habitats. With the extensive devastation endangered. Species of Rafflesia are always parasitic of the natural vegetation and habitats, on stems or roots certain species of Tetrastigma some species previously occurring in (Vitaceae). Photo E.S. Fernando certain areas are, almost certainly, now 100 mature individuals (Fernando & either rare or completely absent. The Cereno 2000). situation is even more serious for endemic species that are extremely restricted in A large number of species are also very their geographical range to one or a few rare, occurring only in particular habitats localities. and localities. For example, in the large genus Medinilla (Melastomataceae) many of Nevertheless, some listings on endangered the Philippine endemics (72 out of 80 Philippine plants have appeared in the past species in the Philippines) are very local in (e.g. Quisumbing 1967; Madulid 1982, their distribution (1995). At least four 2000; Tan et al. 1986; Gruezo 1990). species (e.g. Medinilla binaria, M. apayaoensis, M. panayensis, and M. Species that have been identified as tayabensis) are known only from one or critically endangered include Rafflesia two collections. Of the 127 taxa in manillana (Rafflesiaceae) (Figure 3), Tectona Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 9

Psychotria (Rubiaceae), 30% are known from a single locality, over 70% from 2 or 3, and 40% have not been collected after 1930 (Sohmer 2001). In the Arecaceae, about a dozen endemic species (e.g. Pinanga samarana, Heterospathe dransfieldii, Plectocomia elmeri) are known only from one or two adjacent localities and some have no longer been sighted in their known areas in recent visits and are now believed to be extinct (Fernando 1990, 2001).

The 2004 IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources now World Conservation Union) Red List of Threatened Species includes 279 species of Philippine plants belonging to 112 genera and 50 families (Annex B). Dipterocarpaceae, Myristicaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Meliaceae, Leguminosae, Sapindaceae, Annonaceae, Figure 4. Cycas edentata de Laub., one of four Apocynaceae, Sapotaceae, Lauraceae, currently known species endemic to the Philippines. All species of Cycas are listed in Appendix II of Palmae, and Elaeocarpaceae contain the CITES. Photo E.S. Fernando most number of threatened species in the list. It should be noted that this list is very inadequate and obviously needs some serious reassessment. Many species may, in fact, already be under the critically endangered category. On the other hand, some species included in the list are actually quite common and do not appear to be threatened.

A number of plant species are also being threatened by trade. As of December 2005, species listed under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) include species in Cyatheaceae, Orchidaceae, and Nepenthaceae, Taxus sumatrana (Taxaceae); and Hedychium philippinense (Zingiberaceae). In the Philippines, these include 41 species under Cyatheaceae; 6 species in Cycadaceae (Figure 4); 143 species in Orchidaceae; 13 species in Nepenthaceae; 2 species of Figure 5. Paphiopedilum adductum Asher is a rare Zingiberaceae; 3 species of Dicksoniaceae; terrestrial, montane species. It is one of about 14 1 species of Euphorbiaceae; and, 4 species species of Lady Slipper Orchids indigenous to the Philippines.allowed Allfor species trade, of Paphiopedilumand exportation are listed inof of Thymelaeaceae, (Annex C). Appendix I of CITES. Photo E.S. Fernando these species may only be allowed under Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 10 exceptional circumstances (e.g., Table 5. Wild relatives of crop plants and wild food plants conservation-oriented studies). indigenous to the Philippines; species marked with asterisks Presently, all species of Lady’s are endemic to the Philippines. Slipper Orchids of the genus Family Scientific Name Edible Paphiopedilum (Fig. 5) are not part allowed for trade, and exportation of these species may Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea cumingii* tubers Dioscorea divaricata* tubers only be allowed under exceptional circumstances (e.g. Dioscorea elmeri* tubers conservation-oriented studies). Dioscorea loheri* tubers Dioscorea luzonensis* tubers 2.6 Wild Relatives of Dioscorea merrillii* tubers Crop Plants Dioscorea palawana* tubers Sapindaceae Cubila cubili seeds Crop diversity – the diversity within and between crops and Nephelium ramboutan-ake fruit their wild relatives - is the raw Nephelium lappaceum fruit material for breeding new Litchi chinensis subsp. philippinensis fruit varieties of crops. The use of diversity to produce more Dimocarpus longan subsp. malesianus fruit productive crops on farm, field Glenniea philippinensis* fruit experiments, and biotechnology Moraceae Artocarpus altilis fruit remains one of the best ways of ensuring our food security. Artocarpus blancoi fruit Wild relatives of crops in forests Artocarpus cumingii fruit and other natural habitats (Table Artocarpus rubrovenius fruit 5) help safeguard the future of a diverse and plentiful food supply. Artocarpus camansi fruit They are an essential source of Artocarpus odoratissimus fruit genes for improving crop Fagaceae Castanopsis philippinensis fruit production. The loss of wild crop relatives will not only have Actinidiaceae Saurauria bontocensis* fruit an impact on the ecosystems Guttiferae Garcinia binucao fruit where they grow, but will also Garcinia dulcis fruit limit our opportunities for the Garcinia vidalii* fruit future. Anacardiaceae Mangifera odorata fruit

Mangifera altissima* fruit Based on the most recent Mangifera caesia fruit inventory of the National Plant Genetic Resources Laboratory Mangifera longipes fruit (NPGRL) (Villareal & Fernando Mangifera monandra* fruit 2000), the laboratory holds a Mangifera merrillii* fruit collection of nearly 400 species Apocynaceae Willughbeia sarawacensis fruit of various plants that include Dryopteridaceae Diplazium esculentum frond cereals, fibers, sugar cane, forage and pasture crops, fruit trees, Blechnaceae Stenochlaena palustris frond legumes, nut trees, oil crops, Pteridaceae Ceratopteris thalictriodes frond plantation crops, root crops (including yams), small fruits, Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 11 vegetables and, about 75% of this collection is of local origin.

3.0 PHILIPPINE VEGETATION TYPES

3.1 FOREST VEGETATION

The natural vegetation of the Philippines is generally a mosaic of different kinds of forests (often called formations, Whitmore 1984a) that differ from each other in structure, physiognomy and floristic composition. The primary vegetation may be divided into 12 types following the scheme and nomenclature used by Whitmore (1984a). The forest types described by Whitford (1911) are adapted here with some modifications. These have also recently been reviewed by Tan & Rojo (1988).

Similar formations can be recognized Figure 6. Shorea palosapis (Blanco) Merr., a large elsewhere in Southeast Asia on the basis tree of the Dipterocarpaceae family, reaching to 50 m tall. Dipterocarps are a major component of the of their structure and physiognomy, but lowland evergreen rain forest. Photo M.L. Castillo the differences in floristic composition can be substantial. tropical lowland evergreen rain forest (Whitmore 1984a). Whitford (1911) 3.1.1 Lowland evergreen rain forest recognized sociological units (also termed subtypes or associations) within this This is the typical tropical rain forest formation in the Philippines. These are, formation in the Philippine Islands. It however, often not readily distinguishable includes the dipterocarp and the mixed- because of the large number of species dipterocarp forests described by Ashton concerned and the difficulty of (1997). This formation occurs from differentiating them in the field. The coastal flats up to c. 900 m elevation and is change from one subtype to another is best developed in areas where rainfall is also usually gradual. The variation appears more or less uniform throughout the year to be correlated with elevation, (as in the eastern parts of the archipelago) topography, soil-water relations and or where there is only a short dry season. dominant species composition and perhaps It is characterized by its richness in even storm frequency (Ashton 1997). arborescent flora. The Dipterocarpaceae forms the major component of the forest This type of formation, dominant along the and its emergents (Figure 6). Whitford eastern parts of the archipelago, is (1909) has shown that the relative density battered yearly by storms coming from of dipterocarps, among trees exceeding 40 the Pacific. Their canopy structure is often cm in diameter, varied from 3% on greatly modified becoming more diffuse Mindoro Island to 89% on Negros Island. and allowing more light to penetrate the understorey. This permits dense growth Variation generally occurs within the Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 12 of tangles of rattans (calamoid palms) and On the northwestern coastal hills of Luzon lianas, epiphytes, herbaceous plants on the and near the east coast of Mindoro this forest floor, arecoid tree palms, and forest is often dominated by Vitex parviflora seedlings and saplings of the emergents. (Maun 1958). Associated species include Ashton (1997) believes that this may Wallaceodendron celebicum, Litchi chinensis explain why the Philippines is unique in ssp. philippinensis, Pterocarpus indicus, Intsia Southeast Asia in having extensive bijuga, Lagerstroemia pyriformis, and dipterocarp forest in which regeneration Kingiodendron alternifolium. The trees are of intermediate sizes is abundant. usually unbuttressed, low-branching, and form an uneven canopy often less than 30 3.1.2 Semi-evergreen rain forest m tall.

This formation includes deciduous trees in In Palawan patches of this formation is still a mixture but with a tendency towards present in the Irawan valley, Calauag, and gregariousness (Whitmore 1984a). It south of Roxas (Podzorski 1985). They occurs in areas where there is yearly occur on steep slopes with thin topsoil. water stress of some duration and perhaps Leaf litter is usually scanty, and the forest bounds the zone of monsoon climates. floor is open. Emergent trees reach 30-35 There is, as yet, no exact delimitation of m tall; lianas are very common; ferns, this formation in the islands, but the epiphytes and herbs are rare. The deciduous Lauan-apitong subtype common emergents include Pterocymbium described by Whitford (1911) probably tinctorium, Pterospermum diversifolium, belongs here, as well as the semi- Garuga floribunda, and Intsia bijuga. deciduous forest reported on Palawan Island (Podzorski 1985) and the Subic Bay Very little is known of the floristic Forest Reserve in Zambales (Fernando diversity and structure of this formation. 1997). These forests are characteristically dominated by a single dipterocarp species, 3.1.4 Forest over limestone Dipterocarpus grandiflorus or Shorea contorta. The western side of the This formation occupies low, karst archipelago, including Palawan and limestone hills, either coastal or bordering Zambales on Luzon, has a seasonally dry large uplifted river valleys, which are climate characteristic of areas where this mainly composed of crystalline limestone formation occurs. covered by a shallow or very thin soil. It is generally open and its large trees are few 3.1.3 Semi-deciduous forest and scattered. The intervening spaces are filled with small trees and growth of This formation occurs in areas where usually sprawling, climbing and small erect water availability can be limiting to plants bamboos. With a few exceptions, the and the forest. They are often on the dominant trees are short-boled, irregular leeward side of mountains or on dry in form and with wide-spreading crowns. coastal hills (Ashton 1997). Merritt The forest has a deciduous foliage, (1908) described extensive semi-deciduous especially on rough topography in regions forests in western Mindoro dominated by where the dry season is pronounced. In Pterocarpus indicus, Intsia bijuga, Toona aseasonal areas, this forest includes many calantas, Koordersiodendron pinnatum, herbs such as begonias, gesneriads, and Pometia pinnata, Dipterocarpus validus, other species. Bischofia javanica, and Alstonia scholaris. A number of leguminous trees are Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 13 dominant in this formation, viz. Afzelia latifolius (Podzorski 1985). Other tree rhomboidea, Sindora supa, Intsia bijuga, species include Neissosperma glomerata and Albizia acle, Wallaceodendron celebicum, species of Gymnostoma, Suregada, Pterocarpus indicus and Kingiodendron Archidendron and Pouteria. The Mt Victoria alternifolium. Other dominant species area is the largest region of ultramafic include Pterocymbium tinctorium, Zizyphus forests on Palawan and is home to the talanai, Toona calantas, Mimusops elengi, endemic tree Embolanthera spicata, one of Maranthes corymbosa, Wrigthia pubescens only two species in the genus (the other ssp. laniti, Lagerstroemia piriformis, and being in Indo-China). Heritiera sylvatica, and such smaller trees as Diospyros ferrea, Pterospermum diversifolium, The ultramafic forest in northeastern and Mallotus floribundus. Mindanao are taller reaching 15 to 20 m and include Tristaniopsis micrantha, This formation is apparently similar to the Sararanga philippinensis, Terminalia so-called Molave (Vitex parviflora) forest as surigaoensis, among others. Those on the described by Whitford (1911) on other southeastern peninsula occur at high substrates. elevations and are thus considerably shorter, in some areas not reaching even a 3.1.5 Forest over ultramafic rocks meter tall and have sometimes been referred to as bonsai forest. This formation occurs in soil rich in heavy metals and is generally characterized by a On Dinagat Island and also the sclerophyllous stunted vegetation with northeastern tip of Mindanao and Leyte sharp boundaries. In the Philippines it is the ultramafic forest contains the endemic found on Palawan (Podzorski 1985), tree Xanthostemon verdugonianus. eastern Isabela and northern Zambales on This formation in the Philippines needs Luzon, northeastern and southeastern further investigation particularly for its Mindanao, and on Dinagat Island. rare and endemic flora.

Some of the ultramafic forests on Palawan 3.1.6 Beach forest are only about 2-5 m tall and contain a unique flora including, among others, This formation forms a narrow strip of Planchonella sp. and the heavy metal woodland along the sandy and gravelly indicators Scaevola micrantha (Figure 7), beaches of the seacoast. Its composition is Brackenridgea palustris and Exocarpus uniform throughout Malesia and Southeast Asia and most of the representative species are pantropical. Many species have fruits and seeds adapted for water dispersal. The principal species occurring in the Philippine beach forests are: Terminalia catappa, Erythrina orientalis, Barringtonia asiatica, Thespesia populnea, Thespesia populneoides, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Callophyllum inophyllum, Pongamia pinnata, Tournefortia argentea, Casuarina equisetifolia and Scaevola frutescens.

Figure 7. Scaevola micrantha Presl., a small tree typical of forests on ultramafic rocks. Locally one or other species may become Photo E.S. Fernando dominant, but a mixed association is more usual. Terminalia catappa may occur in Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 14 small patches of pure stands in rich river abundant: Rhizophora apiculata (Figure 8), bottoms. On sandy flood plains near Rhizophora mucronata, Bruguiera cylindrica, rivers, Casuarina equisetifolia usually forms Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Bruguiera parviflora, pure stands. Bruguiera sexangula, Ceriops decandra, Ceriops tagal, Avicennia marina, Avicennia Dendrolobium umbellatum and Pandanus officinalis, Sonneratia alba, and Sonneratia odoratissimus also occur commonly in the caseolaris. beach forest. On the accreting sand there is usually a narrow strip of herbaceous Species of Avicennia and Sonneratia occupy vegetation dominated by Ipomoea pes- the seaward side where the soil is caprae. generally mixed with sand or coral limestone. Associated with these species 3.1.7 Mangrove forest is Osbornia octodonta, of Australian affinity, which forms almost pure thickets. This formation occurs along clayish Rhizophora stylosa also invades sandy seashores and in the tidal zones in river shores and coral terraces and does not estuaries. It can be bordered at its inland occur inland. side by old shorelines of low hills, by tidal fresh-water swamp or more or less sandy Species of Bruguiera and Ceriops, as well as transition forest. Along its borders on the Lumnitzera littorea, Lumnitzera racemosa, lateral side, it merges gradually into the Aegiceras corniculatum, Aegiceras floridum, beach formation. Camptostemon philippinense, Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea, Excoecaria agallocha, The number of tree species in a mangrove Heritiera littoralis, and Cerbera manghas are forest is usually limited in the Philippines found on the inner edges of the mangrove and elsewhere in Malesia. By far a total of formation. 39 species have been recorded for the Philippines (Fernando & Pancho 1980). The following species may be rare to The number includes inland marginal frequent and occur along the borders: species that are usually not abundant. Glochidion littoralis, Dolichandrone spathacea, Only about 13 species (in 5 genera and 3 Barringtonia racemosa, Xylocarpus granatum and Xylocarpus moluccensis. In cut-over areas and along the edges, the swamp fern Acrostichum aureum and two species of spiny scandent Acanthus are prominent.

On the inland edge of the mangrove and the upper tidal limit of estuaries occur extensive pure stands of the distinctive, acaulescent palm Nypa fruticans, especially along water courses. This is sometimes referred to as the brackish-water formation but which merges with the Figure 8. Rhizophora apiculata Blume, a common mangrove of which it is generally tree species in Philippine mangrove forests. Photo considered a part. E.S. Fernando families), however, contribute significantly 3.1.8 Peat swamp forest to the floristic composition of the forest. The following are the more common and This formation occurs in areas where the Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 15 water table is higher than the surrounding of this land has been converted for areas, with the peat often about 50 cm agricultural activities. Other co-dominants deep, acidic, with a soft-crust over semi- are Albizia saponaria and Sesbania liquid interior with large pieces of wood; cannabina. Phragmites balatoria, Eriochloa the only incoming water is from rain procera, Scirpodendron ghaeri, and Paspalum (Whitmore 1984a). The presence of peat spp.. are some common sedges and swamp forests in southern Philippines has grasses found in the marshland. been indicated by Whitmore (1984a). Small patches of this formation have been 3.1.10 Lower montane rain forest observed in southern Leyte and there could still be similar areas on Mindanao. In The lower montane rain forest in the the Philippines, the flora of this formation Philippines includes the tanguile-oak has never been documented. subtype described by Whitford (1911). It occurs at elevations ranging from 400 to 3.1.9 Fresh-water swamp forest 950 m, with the upper limit extending up to 1500 m depending on the height of the This formation is regularly to occasionally mountain. In this formation Shorea inundated with mineral-rich fresh-water polysperma is frequently dominant, along from rivers and streams with the water with oaks (Lithocarpus), oil fruits level fluctuating, thus allowing periodic (Elaeocarpus), laurels (Litsea) and makaasim drying of the soil surface. Whitmore (Syzygium) (Brown 1919; Ashton 1997). (1984b) cited two areas of this formation Epiphytic ferns, herbaceous shrubs of in the Philippines viz., the middle Agusan Rubiaceae (e.g. Psychotria) and Acanthaceae valley and west of Pagalungan, both areas (e.g. Strobilanthes) are abundant in the on Mindanao. All have now apparently understorey. In gaps and gullies, Saurauia been cleared for rice paddies, human and species of Urticaceae can be common, settlements or other uses. There are tiny including climbers such as Freycinetia. vestiges of this formation near Tungao, Agusan Province, and also in the In the high plateau region of the Cordillera Zamboanga Peninsula on Mindanao, in the Mountains on Luzon, in a region with a late 1970s. The floristic composition of distinct dry season, Pinus kesiya occurs in this type in the Philippines also has never heavily disturbed areas of the lower been studied. The remaining small montane rain forests (Jacobs 1972). This patches, however, indicate that the palm pine species occurs as a fire climax tree in Metroxylon sagu may have been a dominant pure stands (pine forest) or often component and occurred in huge stands. scattered in fire-prone grasslands. On the It is likely that this formation was once driest sites in western Mindoro and Luzon extensive along the large river systems in (Zambales and Abra Provinces) also occur the archipelago, particularly in the south. another pine species, Pinus merkusii, in similar grassland habitats. Both Pinus kesiya In the vast drainage system of Agusan and and Pinus merkusii have an altitudinal range adjacent provinces in Mindanao, the of usually 500 to 1500 m. freshwater swamp forest is sometimes dominated by Teminalia copelandii and 3.1.11 Upper montane rain forest Nauclea orientalis. While the floristics of the area indicate that there is a relatively This formation in the Philippines is low diversity and endemism of plant commonly called the mossy forest. It species, it is relevant to consider the occurs on mountains above 1000 m swamp forest’s ecological function. Much elevation with the upper limits varying depending on the locality and height of the Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 16

Table 6. Marine plants (seagrasses) in the Philippines (after Fortes 1990).

Family Species

RUPPIACEAE Ruppia maritima L.

CYMODOCEACEAE Cymodocea rotundata (Ehrb. & Hempr.) Aschers. & Schweinf. Cymodocea serrulata (R. Br.) Aschers. & Magnus Halodule pinifolia (Miki) Hartog Halodule uninervis (Forssk.) Aschers. Syringodium isoetifolium (Aschers.) Dandy Thalassodendron ciliatum (Forssk.) Hartog

HYDROCHARITACEAE Enhalus acoroides (L.f.) Royle Halophila beccarii Aschers. Halophila decipiens Ostenf Halophila ovalis (R. Br.) Hook. f. Halophila ovata Gaudich. Halophila minor (Zoll.) Hartog Halophila minor (a new variety) Halophila spinulosa (R. Br.) Aschers. Thalassia hemprichii (Ehrenb.) Aschers. mountain. The topography is rough and 3.1.12 Subalpine forest constantly changing. It consists of steep ridges and canyons. Generally the climatic In the Philippines this formation is best conditions are exceedingly moist, both as known on the Mt Halcon-Mt Sialdang regards rainfall and humidity. Apposed to range (2470-2587 in alt) on Mindoro this is the great exposure to winds. Island. The vegetation is generally Hence, the mossy condition and dwarfed, regarded as open shrub heaths, mainly crooked trees is characteristic of this characterized by the dominance of small, formation. Many trees seldom reach 20 m woody dicots with microphyllous- tall. The trunks and branches of trees are sclerophyllous leaves, forming a low, dense generally covered with mosses, liverworts, canopy (Merrill 1907, Mandia 2001). The ferns and other epiphytes. The open soil is shallow, acidic, and nutrient poor. places are occupied by ferns and grasses. Many of the genera are mainly temperate in distribution (microtherms). This The floristic composition is relatively formation differs from the summit complex, but less so than the formations vegetation of the other high mountains at lower elevations. The typical trees in where grasses and sedges dominate with this formation are conifers of the genera few herbaceous elements. Certain areas Dacrydium, Dacrycarpus, and Podocarpus, as on Mt Pulag (Jacobs 1974), Mt well as, broadleaf genera such as Mantalingahan and Mt Kinasalapi may have Lithocarpus, Symplocos, Engelhardtia, elements of a subalpine forest. Syzygium and Myrica. Species of Ericaceae (Rhododendron, Vaccinium and Diplycosia) Some of the more common woody dicots and Melastomataceae (Astronia, Medinilla, on the Mt Sialdang subalpine rain forest and Melastoma) are common, as is the tree include Styphelia suaveolens, Rhododendron fern genus Cyathea. quadrasianum, Vaccinium myrtoides, Myrica javanica, Leptospermum flavescens, and Eurya coriacea (Mandia 2001). This assemblage of Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 17 plants fits well with the subalpine distribution (e.g. disjunct) pattern. This is formation on the rocky summits of Mt especially true in lakes that are geologically Kinabalu (4101 m alt., Borneo) and Mt old. Examples are Blyxa novoguineensis Kerinci (3800 alt., Sumatra). (Hydrocharitaceae), a submerged aquatic plant originally known from alpine lakes in New Guinea and discovered in one of the 3.2 INLAND WATERS Mt Tabayoc lakes (approx. 2400m asl) in VEGETATION 1972 (Jacobs 1972), and Isoetes philippinensis (Isoetaceae), also a The inland wetland ecosystems of the submerged plant and the only known country include, among others, 211 lakes, quillwort from the Philippines discovered 18 major rivers and 22 marshes and from a clear pool in Lanao del Norte swamps. In general, the vegetation may be (approx. 500m asl) (Merrill & Perry 1940, subdivided into lacustrine (lake), palustrine Alston 1959). (marsh), and riverine types. A previous aggregate tally of plant species attributable Lowland forests adjoining lowland lakes to this type of ecosystem has identified have practically been converted to other 439 species of macrophytes (431 land-uses. No documentation is extant on angiosperms, 7 pteridophytes, and 1 the nature of its original vegetation aside bryophyte) (DENR UNEP 1997). from sporadic comments of Elmer in Lake Mainit in Agusan del Norte and Surigao del 3.2.1 Lakes Norte border).

In general, lake vegetation has very low Residual forest near Lake Naujan is diversity of vascular plants, usually dominated by bangkal, Nauclea orientalis consisting of taxa that often have very and some Pandanus spp., and Scirpodendron wide distribution range. The dominant ghaeri. In Lake Manguao, in northern herbaceous vegetation are sedges and Palawan, the aquatic plant community is grasses with the latter confined to dominated by species of Ceratophyllum, lakeshores. Nitella, and Nymphaea growing together near the lakeshore (Podzorski 1984). In lowland lakes, the submerged plants Ischaemum glaucescens and Pseudoraphis include Vallisneria gigantea, Hydrilla spinescens also grow in the lake margin and verticillata, Ottelia alismoides, and water. Ceratophyllum demersum. The floating species are Nelumbo nucifera, Pistia 3.2.2 Rivers and Creeks stratiotes, and Eichhornia crassipes. Along the lakeshore, the common plants are Rivers and creeks are considered forest species of Poaceae (Hymenachne internal borders, traversing all vegetation amplexicaulis, Arundo donax, Phragmites types in forested areas. The gallery forest vallatoria, and Pseudorhaphis squarrosa), and partial clearing they create, form an Cyperaceae (Scirpus grossus, Cyperus spp., exclusive biotope. In Peninsular Malaysia, and Fimbristylis spp.), Fabaceae (Sesbania Corner (1940) described three (3) cannabina), and Sterculiaceae (Pentapetes categories of riverine vegetation named phoenicea). according to its dominant constituent. Unfortunately, aside from streams Though species-poor like the lowland influenced by tidal fluctuations (i.e. Nypa- counterparts, the upland lakes may harbor dominated tidal streams), no similar certain plant species with very interesting categorization exists for the Philippines. Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 18

Special mention must be made to a 3.3 MARINE VEGETATION peculiar riverine vegetation type in short- coursed, swift-flowing rivers and streams Seagrass beds are discrete communities subjected to periodic flash-floods. These dominated by flowering plants with roots are referred to as rheophytes (river plants) and rhizomes (underground stems) that or stenophyllous (narrow-leaved) vegetation grow best near estuaries and lagoons in typified by common Homonoia riparia the Philippines. They are often associated (Euphorbiaceae). The preponderance of with mangrove forests and coral reefs, narrow leaves is part of an adaptive often forming the ecotone between these morphological modification to flash two divergent ecosystems (Fortes, 1995). floodings, a sort of aerodynamic trimming The seagrass meadows support a rich designed to reduce drag and resistance to diversity of species from adjacent systems swift currents. In addition, they have and provide primary refugia for both strong, tough branches, as well as, a well- economically and ecologically important developed taproot system that serves as organisms. The plants are sensitive to strong anchor. They occupy a variety of fluctuations because species coming from niches such as cascades and rapids, gorges, their neighboring systems encounter riverbeds of rock boulders, gravel, pebbles, “marginal conditions” and are at the sandbars, banks and sand-submerged extremes of their tolerance levels to bottoms. How their seedlings establish environmental alterations which make themselves is not yet known. them useful indicators of changes not easily observable in either coral reef or While rheophyte communities are found in mangrove forest. most parts of the world (excepting cold regions and truly oceanic islands), it is the Southeast Asia, with its extensive Indo-Malesian region where they are most combined coastline of more than 120,000 strongly represented. Van Steenis (1981) km, is the second most diverse area, next listed c. 400 species (in 67 families) of only to Australia, in relation to seagrasses, rheophytes worldwide. Borneo tops the with the Philippines, Indonesia, and list with 82 species, while the Philippines Vietnam contributing the greatest number comes fourth with 26 species. of species in the region (19 or about 55%). Myrmeconauclea (Rubiaceae), an ant-plant So far 16 species of seagrasses have been genus with several species in Borneo and identified in Philippine waters (Fortes Palawan is restricted to this habitat. Ficus 1990) (Table 6). Coral reefs with their rivularis (Moraceae), Ligustrum stenophyllum associated seagrasses potentially could (Oleaceae), Dorystephania luzoniensis supply more than 20% of the fish catch in (Asclepiadaceae), Aglaia angustifolia the country (McManus 1998). (Meliaceae), Desmodium unifoliolatum (Fabaceae) are some examples of narrow From ocular surveys, the Philippines has endemics occurring in this habitat. sizeable seagrass areas spread discontinuously along the shallow portions Well-developed expressions of this of its coastlines. The number of species rheophyte vegetation type in the present appears to be largely a function of Philippines may be observed in the Sierra the extent of the studies made, the length Madre Mountain Range, upper reaches of of the coastline, and the emphasis the Apayao River, and possibly other countries give on the habitats. A total of regions of the Philippines, especially along 978 km2 of seagrass beds have been the eastern part. measured from 96 sites. The areas of seagrasses reported are estimates from Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 19 selected study sites, not reflecting the area Opinion has been expressed, especially by for the country. those who have regarded the mossy oak forest as being montane, that these grasslands represent alpine grasslands 3.4 GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM above the tree limits. However, this is doubtful as the tree limits in Southeast 3.4.1 Lowland Grassland Asia and the tropics generally is at much higher altitudes. On Mt Kinabalu in Large areas of Philippine grasslands on the Borneo the tree limit is not reached until plains and hills are covered mainly with 3650m. cogon (Imperata cylindrica) and talahib (Saccharum spontaneum). Of these two, The Mt Pulag grassland appears to be the more aggressive is cogon, a vigorous merely an upland extension of the mid- and fast-growing grass. Talahib is a much mountain grasslands. Certainly it is taller and coarser species, with clumping dominated by dwarfed bilaw (Miscanthus), habit. In both species, the reproductive associated with the grasses Deyeuxia structures, light and feathery fruit, are stenophylla, Anthoxanthum, Microlaena, perfectly adapted to wind dispersal. They Deschampsia flexuosa, Isachne, and also spread vegetatively by means of Danthonia oreoboloides, as well as, a dwarf underground, lateral stems (rhizomes). bamboo, Yushania niitakayamensis. The rhizomes are deep-seated so that they are not easily affected by fire when the True alpine herbs are lacking although aerial parts of the plants are burned. such plant species as Hypericum pulagensis Cogon is usually found in clay soil, while (a local endemic), Euphrasia borneensis, talahib is more often found in sandy or Ranunculus philippinensis (a Philippine gravelly soils. endemic), Haloraghis micrantha, Gentiana spp. and Anaphalis suggest a subalpine The open and water-logged lowland areas habitat. are easily invaded by tambo (Phragmites vallatoria), a hardy grass reed which usually forms pure stands. 3.5 SECONDARY VEGETATION

3.4.2 Montane Grassland A large percentage of the total area of the Philippines is now occupied by regrowth. In the pine region of central and northern Together with cogon grasslands, secondary Luzon, other species of grass take the vegetation or parang (Whitford 1906; place of cogon and talahib. Punaw Brown 1919; Richards 1952) form one of (Themeda australis) a low, perennial grass is the country’s most characteristic and usually associated with bilaw (Miscanthus extensive vegetation types. It results from sinensis), a coarse, perennial grass. Both man’s activities. It consists predominantly species are resistant to fire. of Imperata cylindrica and Saccharum spontaneum. In the lowlands, trees include The summit area of Mt Pulag from about fast-growing representatives of familes 2750 m upwards is where one might such as Euphorbiaceae (Macaranga), expect to find a true montane forest. This Urticaceae (Pipturus) and Trema area is made up of several square (Celtidaceae). In the Zambales-Bataan kilometers of open tussock grassland. area, thick clumps of the bamboo Schizostachyum lumampao are also common in this type of vegetation. On Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 20 some very steep slopes may occur individuals of Cycas riuminiana.

Although logging is now extending the areas of this vegetation type, the system of shifting agriculture known as kaingin farming contributes to a significant extent. The virgin forest is first felled in small plots and planted with various crops for two or three years. The patch is then abandoned to revert to secondary tree growth while

Figure 10. Conversion of habitats to kaingin or slash-and-burn farming remains a serious threat to Philippine plants. Photo E.S. Fernando

In most areas, cogon grass, the tall wild sugarcane (Saccharum spontaneum) and other grasses form the dominant cover. Phragmites vallatoria (tambo) is found in wet to swampy situations.

4.0 THREATS TO PHILIPPINE PLANTS Figure 9. Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Reinw. ex Blume) Reichb. f. & Zoll., a small tree common as a 4.1 Land Conversion and Habitat pioneer species in secondary vegetation. Degradation Photo E.S. Fernando a new plot is opened up. If the cycle is The decline in the quality and quantity of repeated over the same area the the country’s biodiversity is largely due to succeeding regrowth phases become more the land conversion and degradation of the and more scrubby. If fire is introduced, habitats (Figure 10). Generally, land the area is taken over by grasses conversion for settlement and agricultural particularly the cogon grass. As the development, kaingin or slash-and-burn grasses can survive burning through their farming, logging, forest fire, chemical underground rhizomes while the tree pollution, and to some extent, mining, seedlings are killed, grasses become energy projects and pest and diseases have stabilized and tree regrowth becomes been the causes of habitat destruction. more and more difficult. In the early Mangrove areas, for example, have been phases and in the absence of further converted into fishponds for the interference however, the forest cultivation of commercially important regenerates. A dense mass of pioneer aquatic organisms (Zamora 1995), such as softwood trees take over, such as Ficus, milkfish (Chanos chanos) and prawn Pipturus, Antidesma, Melanolepis (Figure 9), (Penaeus manodon) (Davis et al. 1990). Melochia, Macaranga, Mallotus, Alstonia, Portions of Candaba Swamp, Manlubas Trema, Artocarpus and Homalanthus. In Swamp, Agusan Marsh, Leyte Sab-a Basin, time the primary forest species appear and and Naujan Lake, among other wetland the regrowth becomes secondary forest. areas, have been converted into

aquaculture ponds. This endangers the flora and faunal species in these areas. Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 21

Previous agricultural lands, on the other 4.3 Kaingin hand, have been converted into other uses. A total of 109,000 hectares of Kaingin activities practiced by uplanders irrigated lands has, over time, been and displaced logging workers also deplete converted into industrial, commercial and and degrade forest habitats to a residential uses. This in turn resulted to considerable extent. These people cut and the conversion of secondary forests and burn stands of forests or burn logged grasslands into agricultural lands. Previous forest remnants to grow cash crops such lowland communities were also pushed as rice, corn and vegetables. These plots into the uplands by these developments are abandoned after a year or two when resulting to the conversion of certain the soil is no longer fertile or suitable for secondary forests and grasslands into agriculture. Because of nutrient depletion human settlement areas and agricultural and lack of shade, the kaingin areas take sites. Mt Data and other areas within the many years before they can regenerate, if Cordillera and Mt Province are now they regenerate at all. vegetable production sites. 4.4 Forest fires Seagrasses in the Philippines are under threat from loss of mangroves and coral Natural forest fires are common in dry reefs, the former acting as a filter for montane forests, pine forests, and forests sediment from land, coastal development, interspersed with grassland. Fires urban expansion and dredging (Leon et al. commonly occur during the dry season 1990), the latter, serving as buffer against when the forest litter easily ignites waves and storm surges. Other impacts spontaneously with high temperature. As include, substrate disturbance, industrial a result, forestlands are transformed into and agricultural runoff, industrial wastes grasslands that today form a dominant and sewage discharges. In the last 50 lineament in the landscape. With the El years, between 30 and 50% of seagrass Nino phenomenon recurring almost beds were lost. This is the result of annually, many of the burnt forests cannot industrial development, ports and regenerate to their original state. The recreation (Fortes 1994). forests of the Sierra Madre, Cordillera, Caraballo, Mindoro, Palawan, and Mt 4.2 Logging Malindang, Mt Kitanglad and Mt Apo in Mindanao, have been severely affected by Logging, both legal and illegal, though forest fires. confined to forest-rich regions, poses the most serious threat to forest biodiversity. 4.5 Pollution The demand for livelihood opportunities of the increasing upland and rural Pollution, in particular chemical pollution, population and continued operations in is recognized around the world as one of forest concessions altogether deplete the the major reasons for the escalating loss of forest cover to a considerably vast extent. biodiversity. Philippine wetlands and This is the common scenario in many parts marine waters suffer from pollution due to of the country today. The Forest sewage and industrial effluents from urban Management Bureau (1993) estimates that areas (e.g. Manila Bay and Pasig River), about 100,000 hectares of watersheds tailings from mining activities (e.g. Calancan need immediate rehabilitation. Only a few Bay in Marinduque), oil spills from shipping areas like Palawan, Samar, and Agusan have operations (e.g. major ports and harbors some remaining virgin forests. around the country), agricultural run-off Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 22 carrying fertilizers and pesticide residues elmeri, E. fullageri, and Ganoderma elmeri. (e.g. lakes, estuaries, etc.), hazardous wastes (e.g. industrial effluents along major 4.7 Invasive Species rivers and on estuaries), and siltation as a result of erosion from watersheds (e.g. all More than 475 plant species have been denuded watershed areas). introduced into the Philippines during pre- historic times mainly from the Malayan Several wetlands are now considered region but a high percentage have been highly polluted like Laguna Lake, Lake introduced within the past 400 years, Lanao, Lake Mainit, Lake Leonard, Lake including a great number of American Wood, Lake Pinamlog, Pasig River, Agno origin (Merrill 1912). About 225 species River, Pampanga River, Agusan River, Agus are found only in cultivation for food and River, Manila Bay, Maribojoc Bay, Bislig were not reported to cause economic or Bay, Panguil Bay, Puerto Princesa Bay, environmental harm. Alien species were Honda Bay, and Ulugan Bay (Zafaralla et al. introduced for economic reasons until 1995). Presumably, many endemic species they were observed and reported to have are affected by the stressed condition of become invasive and have caused ecosystems arising from chemical economic losses and environmental pollution. damage. Biosafety measures and environmental impacts were not 4.6 Pests and Diseases considered before their introduction. Exotic ornamental plants, largely orchids, Forest plantations have decreased their have been introduced into the country and production because of pests and diseases many are used as parental stocks for which plague the trees, e.g., gall disease of orchid breeding. One threat is genetic Paraserianthes falcataria, varicose borer of dilution of native and endemic orchid Eucalyptus deglupta, plant lice or psyllids of species as well as the introduction of Leucaena leucocephala, bark and shoot pathogens that could cause large-scale borers of Pinus species, and shoot borer of epidemics. In recent years, exotic species Swietenia macrophylla. The pine bark monocultures have been plagued with beetle, viz., Ips calligraphus has attacked pests and diseases. natural stands of pine trees in Baguio City and neighboring areas since 1959. The Among the invasive species introduced borer infestation reached an epidemic into the country are Chromolaena odorata scale during the period 1959-1979 (hagonoy weed), Lantana camara (largeleaf resulting in the death of affected trees in lantana), Mikania cordata (Chinese about 81,200 hectares of pine forest, creeper), Salvinia molesta (waterfern), and leaving behind large denuded patches in Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth). Northern Luzon (Veracion 1978). Mangroves have been infested by barnacles 4.8 Over-exploitation (Pollicipes mitella, Octolasmis cor, Chtamalus caudatus) (Rosell 1986), borer (Poecilyps Many forest species are of ornamental falax) and tussock moth (Euproctis sp.) value and are much sought after by local (Sinohin & Flores 1993; see also Melana & and international traders. Among the Mapalo 995). For dipterocarps, some of highly prized ornamental plants are the the common fungi causing decay are Fomes jade vine (Strongylodon macrobotrys), giant luzoniensis, F. semitostus, F. merrillii, F. staghorn fern (Platycerium grande), waling- applanatus, F. pachyphloeus, Polyporus waling (Eunanthe sanderiana), and many semitostus, Pyroplyporus merrilii, Elvingia tree fern species like Cyathea spp. and Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 23

Cibotium spp. Tree fern trunks are used as The NIPAS aims to integrate outstanding substitute for driftwood and serve as remarkable areas and biologically attractive substrate for growing orchids. important public lands that are habitats of Thus, tree fern trunks are over-collected rare and endangered species of plants and in response to the high demand of the animals, biogeographic zones and related orchid industry. Non-timber forest ecosystems whether terrestrial, wetland products like resin and rattans are over or marine, all of which shall be designated harvested, thus decreasing the natural as protected areas. The objectives of the population to very low levels. At present, NIPAS Act are carried out through the the populations of almaciga (Agathis formulation of a General Management philippinensis) and rattans (species of Planning Strategy that will serve as guide in Calamus and Daemonorops) are threatened. the implementation of activities such as Overexploitation of commercial timber resource assessment, zoning, community species (e.g. dipterocarps, kamagong, management, biodiversity monitoring and mabolo, and narra) for the furniture research, advocacy, law enforcement, staff industry and mangrove timber for development, and networking. fuelwood also remains a major concern in the country. At present, 101 protected areas covering a total area of 3.2 million hectares have been established under the NIPAS through 5.0 PAST AND PRESENT presidential proclamation (Annex 4). CONSERVATION Seventy-one (71) of these protected areas INITIATIVES covering 1.61 million hectares are terrestrial representing the various 5.1 In-Situ Conservation vegetation types of the country

In-situ conservation involves the Projects for the management of protected management of biological resources in areas were later developed and their natural environment. One of the implemented through various foreign major initiatives of the Philippine financial grants, namely: the World Bank- Government on in-situ conservation is the Global Environmental Facility (WB-GEF)– establishment of a comprehensive system funded Conservation of Priority Protected of protected areas to ensure the perpetual Areas Project (CPPAP), the European existence of all native plants and animals Union (EU)-funded National Integrated consistent with the principles of biological Protected Areas Program (NIPAP), and diversity and sustainable development. the United Nations Development Program (UNDP)-GEF funded Samar Island Efforts on in situ conservation started in Biodiversity Project (SIBP). The CPPAP 1932 with the National Parks System. was implemented in 10 priority areas One of the purposes for establishing (Batanes Protected Landscape and national parks is the preservation of the Seascape, Northern Sierra Madre Natural wilderness due to its characteristic flora. Park, Subic-Bataan Natural Park, Apo Reef Under the System, 60 national parks and 8 Marine Natural Park, Mt Kanlaon Natural game refuges and bird sanctuaries were Park, Mt. Kitanglad Natural Park, Siargao established. These are now among the Island Protected Landscape and Seascape, areas considered as the initial components Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary, Turtle of the National Integrated Protected Areas Islands Wildlife Sanctuary, Mt. Apo Natural System (NIPAS) established in 1992 Park) while the NIPAP focused on 8 selected sites (Mt. Pulag National Park, El through RA 7586 (NIPAS Act). Nido Managed Resource Reserve, Coron Island, Malampaya Sound Protected Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 24

Landscape and Seascape, Mt. Isarog 5.2 Ex-Situ Conservation Natural Park, Mt. Malindang Natural Park, Mts. Iglit-Baco National Park, and Mt. Ex-situ conservation is defined in Article 2 Guiting-guiting Natural Park). The first of the CBD as the conservation of two projects have been completed, CPPAP components of biological diversity outside in 2002 and NIPAP in 2001. The SIBP, their natural habitat. Several initiatives now on its fourth year of implementation, have been implemented in the Philippines aims to conserve the remaining natural as mentioned in the NBSAP (1997). These forests and biodiversity resources of include the Makiling Botanic Gardens of Samar Island by establishing it as a Natural the University of the Philippines at Los Park under the NIPAS. Baños (UPLB) with 300 hectares showcasing an arboretum, nursery and In addition, two of the protected areas in recreational areas and the Living Museum the country have been designated as of Philippine Medicinal Plants at the ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Quezon Memorial Circle, Diliman, Quezon Nations) Heritage Sites such as the Mts. City, which features indigenous plants used Iglit-Baco National Park and Mt. Apo by indigenous peoples to remedy common Natural Park due to their significance as illnesses. habitats of Tamaraw and Philippine Eagle, respectively. The conservation of plant There are gene banks established by the diversity in these protected areas plays a Ecosystems Research and Development major role in the maintenance of the Bureau (ERDB) of the DENR for rattans habitats of these threatened species. (48 species), bamboo , palm and medicinal plants. Other government agencies, non- government organizations (NGOs) and the PAWB initiated the project on ex-situ academe have also initiated certain in-situ conservation areas for the Philippine teak conservation activities. Efforts are being (Tectona philippinensis). Wildlings of the made by the National Museum to species were collected and planted in conserve certain endangered species on other localities as a strategy to conserve site, such as Phoenix loureiroi in Batanes and the species. Tectona philippinensis in Batangas. The National Museum also established a 5.3 Conservation Research and Biodiversity Information Center-Plants Development Unit (BIC-PU) since 1990. Funded initially by the John D. and Catherine T. Several initiatives have been undertaken on MacArthur Foundation, the BIC-PU plant conservation research in the country. conducts research and field surveys to ERDB, for example initiated an integrated identify and gather information about project on rattan production to identify critical plant sites and rare, endemic and and harness the potential of rattan species endangered plants of the Philippines in for conservation and cane production to coordination with various government support the handicraft and furniture agencies, schools, conservation NGOs, industries. Among the outputs of the and local communities. UNDP-funded Bamboo Research and Development Program of ERDB are: a The Haribon Foundation, on the other comprehensive document on bamboo hand, is pursuing restoration and taxonomy, a guidebook for identification, protection activities within the Siburan and the establishment of pilot bamboo Forest in Sablayan, Occidental Mindoro. plantations. Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 25

The National Museum, on the other hand, 5.4 Long-Term Ecological Plots is implementing the Flora of the Philippines Project that is aimed at collecting, Long-term ecological plots using the processing, identifying, and documenting biodiversity monitoring system (BIOMON) herbarium specimens for taxonomic study protocol under the Smithsonian and as reference materials. Among the Institution- Man and the Biosphere activities and studies undertaken by the Program (SIMAB) research collaboration National Museum under the Project are were established. One plot was conservation in collaboration with established each in Mt Makiling; Mt international conservation NGOs; Guiting-guiting; Irawan, Puerto Princesa researches on rare and endangered plants City; and, Mt Kitanglad. Tree demography such as Tectona philippinensis, Phoenix starting with those with a minimum loureiroi, rare ferns and wild endemic fruits; diameter of 10 cm were measured in the and, inventory of rare and endangered 1-ha plots. Periodic monitoring was plants of different provinces and islands. started in the early 90s.

Research on micro- and macro- The Smithsonian Tropical Research propagation techniques were formulated Institute-Center for Tropical Science and implemented for dipterocarps, (SPRI-CTFS) project that is being mangrove species, medicinal plants, implemented by the consortium of premium and indigenous hardwoods Smithsonian Institution, Harvard University species, endemic ferns, fiber plants, dyes, and Arnold Arboretum established a large- essential oils, resins and exudates by scale forest dynamics plot measuring 16 ERDB, FPRDI (Forest Products Research hectares in Palanan, Isabela. Tree and Development Institute), UPLB, ERDS demographic census starting with those (Ecosystems Research and Development measuring 1 cm at a point 1.3 m from the Sector)-DENR, FIDA (Fiber Industries ground has been taken. Individual trees Development Authority), PTRI (Philippine were also tagged and plotted on a map. Textile Research Institute), and the About 300 species of free-standing trees academe. from 71,400 stems have been identified from the plot. These large-scale forest Handbooks and guidebooks for dynamics plots, some measuring as big as identification of wild food plants (Sinha 50 hectares, have been replicated in the 1987), and mangrove (Palis et al. 1997) tropical realm covering Asia, Africa and were published. Ethnobotanical South America. researches have also been conducted by PCARRD (Philippine Council for The 16-ha forest dynamic plot is Agriculture, Forestry and Natural envisioned to serve as a field biological Resources Research and Development) laboratory for biodiversity research and and the academe. conservation biology (tree spatial distribution, plant-animal interaction, Establishment of seed production areas comparison of efficiency of sampling and identification of seedling and seed techniques vis-à-vis big plots). sources of indigenous species (Pterocarpus The ASEAN Regional Centre for indicus, Intsia bijuga, Tectona philippinensis, Biodiversity Conservation (ARCBC) Vitex parviflora) have been conducted conducted a study on the comparison of nationwide. Seed orchard establishment sampling techniques for plant diversity in a of Vitex parviflora is implemented in forest ecosystem. The results yielded that Pangasinan and La Mesa Dam. quadrat sampling is the appropriate

method for forest ecosystem, to

Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 26 determine plant biometrics and diversity plants and produced radio and television indices within sampling sites. ARCBC programs on plant conservation. provided financial support to study the vegetation of the lowland forest ecosystems of Panay Island and Lamon- Websites on biodiversity conservation in Ragay-Tayabas Gulf. the Philippines were launched. (www.pawb.gov.ph; www.arcbc.org; Studies in ethnographic biodiversity www.pnh.com.ph). conservation and management covering 66 ethno-linguistic groups in the country Public education and awareness efforts of were compiled. Many of these studies different NGOs such as Bantay Kalikasan, were in agriculture and ethnobotany while ABS-CBN Foundation, Center for some were on cultural ecology, local Environmental Concerns, CI, and Haribon cosmology and medicinal plants (PEDCA, Foundation on plant and protected area unpublished). conservation were also recognized.

5.5 Information, Education and 5.6 Capacity Building Communication (IEC) Strategy VI of the NBSAP calls for The DENR through its bureaus, regional stronger international cooperation in offices and projects spearheaded several biodiversity conservation and management. initiatives to catalyze and effect positive In line with this advocacy, the PAWB changes in the hearts and minds of proposed for the creation of the ARCBC. Filipinos toward plant conservation. These The proposal was approved and its initiatives were in the form of awareness establishment supported by funds from the training and workshops, community and EU. ARCBC has been running training school visits, and production of popular programs to upgrade the capacities of and technical materials, such as: different organizations on biodiversity conservation since its inception. Some of • plant morphological and production the training programs conducted were the techniques through RISE (Research National Workshop on Understanding and Information Series on Ecosystems), the Managing Biodiversity at the Provincial and DENR Recommends Series, Canopy, Landscape Levels attended by the DENR- Sylvatrop, Wild Food Plants, PENROs (Provincial Environment and monographs, bibliographies and Natural Resources Officers); National abstracts of researches; leaflets on Trainers’ Training on Biodiversity CBFM (community-based forestry Conservation and Sustainable management) livelihood activities; Development Education at the Tertiary • flashcards featuring waling-waling and Level, attended by 35 biology teachers Philippine Teak; from the centers of excellence in science • paper bags on species biodiversity and nationwide; Regional Plant Taxonomy orchids; Training attended by two participants from • posters about features and benefits the Philippines who worked on the derived from mangroves; and, identification of the genus Argostema and • plastic ruler featuring photos of orchid Neouvaria (Annonaceae). flowers. PAWB also ran courses on plant The National Museum published brochures identification and vegetation assessment and pamphlets on rare and endangered techniques at the start of the Project on Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 27 the establishment of protected areas or requirements of forest conservation. more popularly referred to as the IPAS Occupational standards for protected area (Integrated Protected Areas) Phase I. The staff, where skills and knowledge are wetland conservation, as well as the cave defined to effectively perform specific jobs, and cave resources conservation initiatives i.e. as botanists and resource persons on started with hands-on vegetation plant conservation, have also been identification and assessment workshops. developed. The Bureau also implemented a special training course on plant identification 5.7 Networking and Partnerships through its Wildlife Conservation and 5.7.1 Local and National Networking Management: A Focus on Plant Identification for PAWB and Regional The Sub-Committee on Biodiversity of the technical staff. Committee on the Conservation and Management of Resources for Capacity-building training courses have Development of the Philippine Council for also been ran by other agencies, both Sustainable Development which oversees government and non-government. Some the implementation of the Philippine of these are as follows: short training commitments to the CBD also provides a courses on plant collection and herbarium venue for the ventilation of ideas on techniques; macro and micro-propagation biodiversity conservation and management. of selected premium and indigenous The Foundation for the Philippine species by ERDB-DENR; training programs Environment (FPE) also organized the on plant conservation techniques, plant Experts Advisory Panel (EAP) or a collection and identification, biodiversity network of experts on the various fields of assessment (flora/vegetation), herbarium conservation including plant experts. The curation and ethnomedicinal plants EAPnet as it was called has been dormant inventory and documentation, use of for sometime but there are present efforts Botanical Resources and Herbarium to revive it. Management System (BRAHMS) by the Philippine National Museum-Plants Unit; The DENR has been entering into the Philippine Plant Specialist Group’s agreements with various entities, both training workshop on Red Listing of local and international, for the Threatened Species; seminars, workshops conservation and management of species and environmental education training for and ecosystems. Most of the efforts have, Miriam College, Miriam PEACE (Public however, been directed towards Education and Awareness Campaign for conservation of wild fauna. Only a few the Environment) Foundation and other deal with vegetation assessment and institutions; and, strengthening community management, such as the tripartite plant genetic resources conservation and Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) with development, through provision of SEARCA (Southeast Asia Regional Center technical assistance, management advice for Graduate Study and Research in and education materials to local NGOs Agriculture), the Provincial Government of and people’s organization by the Southeast Misamis Occidental and DENR, and the Asia Regional Initiatives for Community MOA with Ruhr University of Germany. Empowerment (SEARICE). Forty-seven (47) universities and colleges offering Some NGOs are involved in law forestry, biology and natural resources enforcement. The Palawan Network for courses also provide the venue for NGOs, Inc. (PNNI) has been actively capability and skills enhancement on plant involved in the enforcement of conservation. Initiatives are underway to bioprospecting policy in the province of revise the curriculum to address the Palawan. This involvement has resulted to Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 28 the apprehension of several local and knowledge on the characteristics, uses, foreign scientists who collected certain and values of biological diversity; (2) plant specimens in Palawan without proper Enhancing and integrating existing and authorization, and seizure of illegally planned biodiversity conservation efforts collected plants in favor of the with emphasis on in-situ activities; (3) government. Formulating an integrated policy and legislative framework for the conservation, Several NGOs have also been involved in sustainable use and equitable sharing of initiating partnerships with other benefits of biological diversity; (4) institutions on plant conservation. These Strengthening capacities for integrating and are the Happy Earth Foundation, which institutionalizing biodiversity conservation initiated a national summit towards and management; (5) Mobilizing an conservation of Philippine teak (Tectona integrated Information, Education and philippinensis) and a community project on Communication (IEC) system for kaong (Arenga pinnata), and Majent biodiversity conservation; and, (6) Foundation of Pangasinan which Advocating stronger international collaborated in the conservation of Vitex cooperation on biodiversity conservation parviflora. and management.

To strengthen networking and partnership 5.7.1.2 Philippine Biodiversity among local government offices (GOs) and Conservation Priorities (PBCP) NGOs, PAWB initiated the establishment of a national framework for sharing The PBCP is the major product of the biodiversity information through electronic Philippine Biodiversity Conservation and satellite-centered configuration. The Priority-setting Project (PBCPP), a framework has been adopted by 18 program implemented by the DENR- government offices, 8 NGOs, and 2 PAWB, CI and UP-CIDS with the intention universities through a MOA in 2002. of updating the NBSAP based on the best scientific knowledge and experience of Networking and partnerships at the local various experts, as well as from available level have produced two major published information. More than 300 conservation frameworks as follows: natural and social scientists from more than 100 local and international institutions 5.7.1.1 National Biodiversity Strategy participated in this undertaking. and Action Plan (NBSAP) The key outputs of the PBCPP are: (1) re- NBSAP, the major output of the Philippine assessment and updating of the terrestrial Biodiversity Country Study (PBCS) Project and marine biogeographic regions; (2) which was jointly implemented by the identification of 206 biodiversity DENR and the UNDP, represents the conservation priority areas; (3) culmination of hard work by people from a identification of five strategies and actions broad range of sectors; from government, to be pursued to ensure that conservation non-government and peoples’ in the 206 priority areas is successfully organizations to universities, research implemented; (4) identification of marine institutions and individual stakeholders. and terrestrial biodiversity corridors; and, (5) state of the art assessments for each The NBSAP provides six strategies to thematic group of biodiversity. These conserve the country’s biodiversity, outputs are integrated in a general namely; (1) Expanding and improving framework known as the Philippine Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 29

Biodiversity Conservation Priorities member country. The NBRU interfaces (PBCP). the ARCBC with the national authorities and institutions, provides local instruments The five strategic actions provided in the for in-country follow-up of project PBCP are: (i) harmonize research with activities, and constitutes a first reference conservation needs; (ii) enhance and for screening of research proposals for strengthen the protected areas system; (iii) formal endorsement to ARCBC. institutionalize innovative and appropriate biodiversity conservation approaches, i.e. biodiversity corridors; (iv) institutionalize Networking with international NGOs monitoring and evaluation systems of likewise produced significant results. An projects and of biodiversity; and, (v) example of this is the Conservation and develop a national constituency for Sustainable Development of Sulu-Sulawesi biodiversity conservation in the Philippines. Marine Ecoregion (SSME) Project with World Wildlife Fund (WWF). The SSME 5.7.2 Regional and International project was conceptualized during the Networking Biodiversity Visioning Workshop conducted by WWF-Philippines last March Networking at the regional and 2001. The Project aims to develop and international level is an important implement a long-term conservation undertaking. Philippine plant experts have program to protect the outstanding established partnerships with the ASEAN biodiversity and natural resources in the and European plant scientists on flora country, particularly in the SSME. To meet conservation. These global experts meet this goal, the DENR and WWF will jointly annually to review and update taxonomic undertake the following activities: design accounts of plants found in the Region. and delineate a network of Marine The association produced bulletins and Protected Areas (MPAs) in the SSME; monographs on plants (Flora Malesiana). strengthen environmental enforcement activities in marine conservation; design The complementary networking by the and initiate a Tri-National Turtle Reserve Philippine Government, through the with Indonesia and Malaysia; operationalize DENR, with the ASEAN and the EU has and/or strengthen the Regional Inter- resulted to the establishment of the agency Technical Working Groups for ARCBC. Sulu-Sulawesi Seas under the Presidential Commission for Integrated Conservation of the Sulu and Celebes Seas; and, The ARCBC, a joint cooperation project implement joint management conservation between the ASEAN and the EU, serves as of dugongs and sea turtles in the the central focus for networking and Philippine, among others. institutional linkage among ASEAN Member Countries (AMCs) and between ASEAN and EU partner organizations to enhance the capacity of the ASEAN in promoting biodiversity conservation. ARCBC is linked to a National Biodiversity Reference Unit (NBRU) established within an existing institution in each ASEAN

Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 30

6.0 POLICIES 6.3 Republic Act (RA) No. 3571 of 1963 Several policies have been issued for the conservation of Philippine plants since This law provided for the protection and early 1930s. These include the following: conservation of plants growing in public grounds. It prohibited the cutting, 6.1 Act No. 3983 of 1932 destroying or injuring of planted or growing trees, flowering plants and shrubs The fundamental law that provided or plants of scenic value along public protection to plants in the Philippines is roads, in plazas, parks, school premises or Act 3983 entitled An Act to Protect Wild in any other public pleasure ground. Parks Flowers and Plants in the Philippine Islands and Wildlife Office Administrative Order and to Prescribe Conditions Under Which No.1 provided for the Rules and They May Be Collected, Kept, Sold, Regulations for the Protection and Exported and For Other Purposes. The Conservation of Flora in Public Grounds. Act made it unlawful for any person to take, collect, kill, mutilate or have in her 6.4 Presidential Decree (PD) No. or his possession, living or dead, or to 389 of 1974 purchase, offer or expose for sale, The Forestry Reform Code of the transport, ship or export, alive or dead Philippines (PD 389) was promulgated to any protected flowering plant, fern, orchid, effectively conserve the country’s public lycopod or club moss and other wild forests, including watershed areas, protect plants in the Philippines. This was and preserve national parks, and at the implemented through Forestry same time provide suitable agricultural Administrative Order (FAO) No. 10-1 as lands for the people, among others. amended by FAO No. 6-1.

6.5 Presidential Decree No. 705 of 6.2 Act No. 3915 of 1932 1975, as amended

This law provided for the establishment of The Revised Forestry Code of the National Parks, declaring such Parks as Philippines (PD 705) which amended PD Game Refuges and for other Purposes. 389, was aimed at the protection, Under this law, the Governor-General was development, management, regeneration authorized to reserve and withdraw from and reforestation of forest lands including settlement, occupancy or disposal any the development and preservation of portion of the public domain which, national parks, marine parks, game refuges because of its panoramic, historical, and wildlife sanctuaries, among others. scientific or aesthetic value, should be Later amendments were issued to further dedicated and set apart as a national park strengthen the implementation of the law. for the benefit and enjoyment of the people. It also declared it unlawful to Several Department Administrative destroy or damage in any manner timber Orders (DAO) were issued by the DENR or other forest products or forest cover to regulate cutting, gathering, utilization of therein. Subsequently, FAO No. 7 was premium hardwood species such as issued setting forth the rules and Pterocarpus spp, Vitex parviflora, regulations governing national parks. The Dracontomelon dao, Diospyros philippinesis, penalties provided under Act 3915 was Instia bijuga, Acacia spp., Albizia acle, later increased and amended by R.A. No. Mastixia philippinensis, Wallaceodendron 122. celebicum, Litsea leytensis, Madhuca betis, Diospyros pilosanthera, Toona calantas,

Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 31

Wrightia pubescens, Heritiera javanica, Resources, Their By-products and Pistacia chinensis, Sindora supa, Tectona spp. Derivatives and for Other Purposes, this Afzelia rhomboidea and Koompassia excelsa EO was signed in 1995 by the President to (DAO No. 78, Series of 1987) while a regulate the prospecting of biological and nationwide ban on the cutting of Agathis genetic resources in the country. It philippinensis was imposed by the DENR regulates the research, collection, and (DAO No. 74, Series of 1987). utilization of said resources for purposes of applying the knowledge derived 6.6 Presidential Decree 953 of therefrom for academic or commercial 1976 purposes.

This law required the planting of trees in 6.9 Republic Act No. 9147 certain places and penalized unauthorized cutting, destruction, damaging and injuring This law, otherwise known as the Wildlife of certain trees, plants and vegetation. Resources Conservation and Protection Planting was specifically required on lands Act was enacted in 2001. The Act adjoining the edge of rivers and creeks broadened the definition of wildlife to both as a measure of beautification and include plants, from its original definition reforestation; and along roads and areas referring to animal species alone. It aims intended for the common use of owners to conserve and protect wildlife species of lots in subdivisions in order to provide and their habitats, regulate the collection shade and healthful environment therein. and trade of wildlife, pursue the Philippine commitments to related international 6.7 Republic Act 7586 (NIPAS Act conventions, and initiate or support of 1992) scientific studies on the conservation of biological diversity. The Implementing The National Integrated Protected Areas Rules and Regulations of the Act was System (NIPAS) Act of 1992 or RA 7586 approved by the Secretaries of DENR and was enacted by the Philippine Congress for the Department of Agriculture (DA) and the establishment and management of a the Chairman of the Palawan Council for comprehensive system of protected areas, Sustainable Development (PCSD) on May which shall encompass outstandingly 18, 2004. RA 9147 repealed Act No. remarkable and biologically important 3983 (as mentioned under Item 6.1 areas that are habitats of various species of hereof) and Act 2590 of 1916, the plants and animals, biogeographic zones fundamental law protecting game and fish. and related ecosystems. The Implementing Rules and Regulations of the 6.10 Republic Act No. 9168 Act was approved by the Secretary of DENR on June 31, 1992 and issued as The law which is known as the Philippine DENR DAO No. 25, Series of 1992. Plant Variety Protection Act of 2002 aims Subsequently, several guidelines were to protect the intellectual property rights issued by the DENR to further implement of plant breeders with respect to the plant the NIPAS Act. variety they may have developed. It defines the requirements and procedures 6.8 Executive Order (EO) No. 247 for the grant of plant variety protection to these breeders and creates the National Entitled Prescribing Guidelines and Plant Variety Protection Board which is Establishing a Regulatory Framework for authorized, among others, to promulgate the Prospecting of Biological and Genetic policy guidelines for the implementation of the provisions of the Act. Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 32

6.11 Other laws affecting plants 6.12.2 National Biosafety Framework Project (NBFP) Other laws incorporating concerns on the protection of plants include RA 9072 also The NBFP is a UNEP-GEF funded project known as the National Caves and Cave that is being implemented by the DENR in Resources Management and Protection collaboration with the DA, Departments Act and RA 8371 or the Indigenous of Science and Technology (DOST), People’s Rights Act (IPRA). The Cave Act Health (DOH), Interior and Local aims, among others, to protect and Government (DILG), Trade and Industry conserve plants and animals found in caves (DTI), Foreign Affairs (DFA) and the while the IPRA law provides for the National Committee on Biosafety of the management and development of natural Philippines (NCBP). The Project aims to resources within ancestral domains. develop a national framework on

6.12 Policy Formulation Initiatives biosafety that is consistent with the provisions of the CBD’s Cartagena 6.12.1 Support to the Implementation Protocol on Biosafety. Its components of E.O. 247 (Bioprospecting include the inventory of existing policies, Policy) Project rules and regulations, existing and planned projects/programs, national experts, and This is a 2-year project between the public participation mechanisms on issues Philippine Government through the DENR pertaining to biosafety; assessment of and the Government of Germany through current national capacity to address the GTZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft fur biosafety-related concerns; capacity Technische Zusammenarbeit or German building on risk assessment and Technical Cooperation) that aims to management; and, biosafety framework develop a policy that will strengthen the development. The Project was implementation of access regulation in the completed in December 2004. One of country. Such policy will include the the major outputs of the Project is a draft guidelines establishing the parameters to EO establishing the National Biosafety determine the amount of bioprospecting Framework (NBF), prescribing guidelines fee and performance & ecological for its implementation, strengthening the rehabilitation bond to be paid/posted by NCBP, and for other purpose. The commercial researchers, as well as the framework contains general principles and quota of specimens to be allowed for minimum guidelines that the relevant collection for bioprospecting purposes, agencies are expected to follow and to and the benefit-sharing and monitoring which their respective rules and schemes. The policy, in the form of a Joint regulations must conform with. DENR, DA, PCSD and NCIP (National Commission on Indigenous Peoples) Administrative Order entitled Guidelines 7.0 INTERNATIONAL for Bioprospecting Activities in the CONVENTIONS AND Philippines was approved on January 14, AGREEMENTS 2005. The guidelines streamline the procedures for granting access to genetic 7.1 Convention on Biological and biological resources for Diversity (CBD) bioprospecting purposes. It sets bioprospecting fees and provides equitable The CBD is a convention that aims to sharing schemes for benefits derived from conserve the Earth’s biological diversity, bioprospecting activities among the including the protection of a government and the host communities or representative system of ecosystems resource providers.

Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 33 adequate to conserve biological diversity; and fauna; protect species from over- promote the sustainable use of the exploitation resulting from unregulated components of biodiversity; and, provide international trade; promote the aesthetic, for a fair and equitable sharing of benefits scientific, cultural, recreational and derived from the utilization of genetic economic values of wildlife; formulate resources and appropriate access to science-based decisions; and, promote genetic resources, including transfer of international cooperation. It regulates the relevant technologies. The CBD was international trade of flora and fauna signed by over 154 States on 22 May 1992 through a system of permits and during the UNCED in Rio de Janeiro. It certificates issued by the designated entered into force on 29 December 1993. Management Authority of each member- country. The Conference of the Parties (COP) to the CBD adopted a supplementary CITES was signed on 03 March 1973 in agreement to the Convention known as Washington, District of Colombia, USA. the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (CPB) The Philippines became its member on 16 on 29 January 2000. The CPB seeks to November 1981. Two CITES Management protect biological diversity from the Authorities have been designated in the potential risks posed by living modified country, namely; the DENR-PAWB for organisms (LMOs) or genetically modified terrestrial species, and the Bureau of organisms (GMOs) resulting from modern Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) of biotechnology. It establishes an advance the DA for aquatic species. informed agreement (AIA) procedure for ensuring that countries are provided with These Management Authorities are the information necessary to make assisted by Scientific Authorities which informed decisions before agreeing to the provide advice on whether the export or import of such organisms into their import of a certain species will not be territory. The Protocol contains detrimental to their population in the wild. reference to a precautionary approach and The Scientific Authorities for terrestrial reaffirms the precaution language in species are the DENR-ERDB, University of Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on the Philippines-Institute of Biological Environment and Development. The Science (UP-IBS), and the National Protocol also establishes a Biosafety Museum of the Philippines (NMP). For Clearing-House (BCH) to facilitate the aquatic species, these are the DA-BFAR, exchange of information on LMOs/GMOs UP Marine Science Institute, UP Visayas, and to assist countries in the Silliman University, and the NMP. implementation of the Protocol. The Philippines signed the Protocol in May The CITES provides a list of species that 2000. need to be protected against trade, nationally and internationally. This listing 7.2 Convention on International is categorized as CITES Appendix 1, Trade in Endangered Species Appendix II and Appendix III. Appendix I of Wild Fauna and Flora includes species threatened with (CITES) extinction, for which trade must be subject to particularly strict regulation, and CITES is a treaty that aims to: encourage exportation or importation is only rational and sustainable utilization of flora authorized in exceptional circumstances.

Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 34

The only Philippine taxa listed under which provides the framework for national Appendix I are species of Paphiopedilum action and international cooperation for (Orchidaceae) (Figure 5) commonly known the conservation and wise use of wetlands as the Lady’s Slipper Orchids. and their resources including plants. It was adopted in Ramsar, Iran in 1971 and Appendix II includes species which are not entered into force in 1975. The Philippines necessarily now threatened with became a contracting party to the extinction but may become so unless trade Convention on 08 November 1994 with is strictly regulated. This further covers the DENR-PAWB as the focal point. The so-called look-alike species which are Conference of the Contracting Parties controlled because of their similarity in promotes policies and technical guidelines appearance to other regulated species, to further the application of the thereby facilitating a more effective Convention. control. Philippine plant species listed in Appendix II include 38 endemic species 7.4 International Treaty on Plant under Cyathaceae; 4 endemic species in Genetic Resources for Food and Cycadaceae (Figure 4); 192 species under Agriculture (ITPGRFA) Orchidaceae; and 12, species under Nepenthaceae, majority of which are Recognizing that there are now more than endemic. 815 million people in the world suffering from hunger, the World Food Summit, Appendix III contains species that are organized by the Food and Agriculture subject to regulation within the jurisdiction Organization (FAO) in 1996, pledged to of a Party and for which cooperation of halve hunger in the world by 2015. To other Parties is needed to prevent or ensure that resources for food will be restrict their exploitation. We have no available for future generations, an Philippine species listed under Appendix III international treaty to safeguard the at present, but this may always be resorted genetic resources of plants for food and to should there be a need to protect agriculture was forged. This International indigenous species which are threatened Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources was by international trade but not yet listed in finalized after seven years of negotiations either Appendix I or Appendix II. during the 31st Session of the FAO held in Rome in November 2001. The CITES provisions indicate that the Convention shall in no way affect the right The Treaty establishes a multilateral of Parties to adopt stricter measures system of access to plant genetic regarding conditions for trade, possession resources of Contracting Parties. It also or transport of specimens of species listed aims to ensure the conservation of plant under its Appendices. It also allows genetic resources that are being used for Parties to adopt domestic measures food and agriculture, promote their restricting or prohibiting trade, possession sustainable use, and the fair and equitable or transport of species not included in the sharing of the benefits arising from their Appendices. use, including benefits derived from commercial use. 7.3 Convention on Wetlands or Ramsar Convention To date, 54 countries have ratified the Treaty representing a broad range of both The Convention on Wetlands or Ramsar developing and industrialized countries. It Convention, is an intergovernmental treaty entered into force on 29 June 2004. Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 35

8.0 GAPS of the values of marine ecosystems and their components. The NBSAP recognized three types of gaps based on the comprehensive assessment of Agroecosystem – inadequate records of land Philippine biodiversity in relation to its races and wild species of agriculture and conservation and utilization, namely; i) their spatial distribution; incomplete data gaps in knowledge; ii) gaps in management; on endemism in agriculture; unsystematic and iii) gaps in policies. statistics on agricultural plants and animals, especially the descriptors, and reporting The nature of gaps in knowledge in each of formats; insufficient records of natural the biodiversity sector is as follows: habitats and their biological components; and, inadequate record on genetic erosion Forest ecosystem – incomplete knowledge of important agricultural crops. of flora and faunal diversity of Philippine forests, including the biology, ecology, In terms of management gaps, the specific conservation status, geographic, and gaps in each biodiversity sector are: altitudinal distribution of rare and endangered species; insufficient data to Forests Ecosystem – lack of management enable accurate delimitation of the plans/schemes for non-timber species and biogeographic zones; and, unavailability of weak implementation of management standard criteria for classifying forest types policies based on species distribution, ecology, physiognomy, and vegetation structure. Wetlands Ecosystem – absence of a viable management scheme that ensures the Wetland ecosystem – incomplete knowledge application of integrated and on the different aspects of biodiversity in comprehensive approach to the country’s various categories of Philippine wetlands wetlands conservation and management. which include 78 lakes, 421 major rivers, 4 major swamps or marshes, and numerous Marine Ecosystem – lack of management bays, estuaries and mudflats. mechanisms that are proactive, predictive, and participatory, including the inadequacy Marine ecosystem – absence of foundation of rehabilitation and restoration geographic information system (GIS) on technology to effectively conserve the habitats from which baseline seagrasses, coral reefs, and bottom monitoring could be designed to detect resources, and their biodiversity. impacts and changes in the ecosystems that are ecologically and economically Agroecosystem – weak institutional capacity significant; inadequate quantitative baseline for monitoring and evaluation of agro- measures of temporal and spatial biodiversity; and, outdated policies, rules abundance, recruitment and mortality and regulations in the light of national rates of seagrass beds and coral reefs, and requirements for biodiversity data on their associated flora and fauna conservation, enrichment, and especially those with critical conservation sustainability in agriculture. status; lack of quantitative measurements of physico-chemical correlates with Protected Areas – many operational gaps detailed baseline which are useful in related to the implementation of the delineating biogeographic zones; management plans for protected areas in insufficient studies on indicator species and accordance with the NIPAS Law. responses; and, inadequate quantification Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 36

The specific policy gaps identified are as 9.1.2 C o m p e n d i u m o f E x t a n t follows: Botanical Collections in the Philippines Wetland Ecosystem - absence of an overriding policy framework for Philippine The DENR-ERDB implemented the wetlands. Compendium of Herbarium Collections Project from April 2000 to October 2001, Marine Ecosystem – absence of regulatory covering all herbaria nationwide. The and management policies which protect Project revealed that there are a number the seagrass beds and coral reefs; unclear of herbaria established and maintained in delineation of institutional responsibilities the Philippines with specific purposes like and, enforcement of policy, rules and reference for teaching, repository of regulations; unclear guidelines and policies specimen used in research and others. governing the conservation of biodiversity These herbaria, however, are scattered in in seagrass beds, coral reefs, and soft the country and specimens deposited bottom communities; lack of policies for therein are unfortunately not duly coordinated and integrated marine enumerated and not easily accessed by the biodiversity conservation and sustainable public, the researchers and scientists in use; and inadequate financial mechanisms particular. The collections or herbaria are for sustained conservation and research also generally associated with academic efforts. institutions, a division of botanical gardens, arboretum or museum and sometimes, Agroecosystem – inadequate policies privately owned. concerning biotechnology in the agriculture sector. The Compendium aims to present all available specimens housed in various 9.0 PLANT CONSERVATION herbaria nationwide, including those that GAPS are deposited in selected herbaria abroad like in Paris (Laboratoire de Phanerogamie), Plant experts have identified six (6) major United Kingdom (Kew Gardens), the gaps in plant conservation, namely: (i) Netherlands (Rijksherbarium/Hortus research/knowledge; (ii) policies; (iii) Botanicus), etc. and to make them information sharing and management; (iv) accessible both in hard copy and dynamic/ information, education and interactive database forms. communication; (v) monitoring; and (vi) funding. The project collaborated with 17 different herbaria in the country holding 9.1 Research/Knowledge approximately a total of 407,100 type specimens. Currently, a total of 4,979 9.1.1 Flora of the Philippines entries from 5 herbaria have been encoded for the database. The writing of the Flora of the Philippines manuscript requires adoption of a user- So far, a total of 1808 species from 714 friendly format for the flora treatment, genera and 167 families have been illustrations of representative genera and generated from a record of 4,687 checking of descriptions, nomenclature, specimens from 5 institutions (against over and collaboration of other plant experts. 400,000 collections in 18 institutions identified). One can just imagine how many species of plants can be disclosed if the Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 37 collections of our herbaria nationwide are other conservation-oriented purposes; compiled, not to mention species new to policy on the registration and accreditation science or yet to be to be discovered, and of commercial plant breeders; and, policy if these specimens can be made available to to protect indigenous knowledge on plants researchers, scientists and students. and their uses. Existing policies on the import, export and local transport of All records can be made available both in plants and plant genetic resources have to dynamic database form and periodic hard be reviewed and harmonized, as copy publications but this can only be warranted. feasible if collaboration and commitment from each herbarium is strengthened. Limitations encountered, however, are not 9.3 Information Sharing and the collaboration per se but the availability Management of data a particular herbarium maintains. Almost all herbaria contacted signified At present, results of researches their interest as partners and contributors conducted and other information, to the Compendium project, although including traditional knowledge on limited by a common factor – the Philippine plants, are confined to unavailability of their data in digital form. researchers, institutions and organizations These herbaria, are therefore encouraged holding such information. There is no to digitize their checklist, and contribute common venue for sharing of research and share their data holdings to this outputs or a common repository of these existing database to come up with a information. A lot of information also needs to be assessed and disseminated. complete compendium of Philippine flora. For example, the IUCN list of threatened 9.2 Policies Philippine plants has to be verified based on field observations of local scientists. There is a need to focus efforts on the development of policies specifically for the 9.4 Information, Education, and conservation and protection of our plant Communication resources. While these concerns may be incorporated in existing wildlife policies, Most publications about plant conservation specific procedures and guidelines are too technical and cannot be grasped by governing plant conservation activities are the general public. There is a dire need for translation of these information to still lacking. local dialects and popular language. Although there have been several The promulgation of the list of protected initiatives spearheaded by government and plant species in the country should be NGOs to produce information materials, prioritized. This is necessary to provide distribution of these materials is limited to basis for all other protection and urban areas. conservation efforts on plants. Other areas for policy development are: Plant uses and economic potentials are not guidelines on the exchange of plant widely understood by the masses but specimens between and among local and known only to researchers and the foreign institutions / organizations / scientific community. Thus, the potentials individuals for taxonomic research and for promoting plant-based trade remain less explored (e.g. gugo plantation with Unilever, Procter and Gamble, etc.).

Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 38

9.5 Monitoring

Many research and conservation projects in the Philippines do not include monitoring and evaluation (M&E) systems (PBCP 2002). There is inadequate expertise to conduct monitoring of plant conservation measures and initiatives.

To initiate a monitoring and evaluation of plant resources status in the country, criteria and indicators to maintain a viable population of plants should be determined and developed.

9.6 Funding

There is low priority for funding plant conservation projects due to weak understanding and appreciation by legislators and national agencies.

There is no national body to spearhead access to international funding sources, and inadequate financial mechanisms for sustained conservation and research efforts.

Baccaurea philippinensis (Merr.) Merr.

Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 39

10. PLANT CONSERVATION 1.3 Develop and implement STRATEGY AND ACTION conservation and management plan PLAN for each of the designated IPS. Such plan must include mechanisms 10.1 Mission that will ensure active participation of concerned local government Halt the current loss of Philippine units and other stakeholders; and, plant diversity to ensure its perpetual existence essential to 1.4 Identify key plant species that will meet the present and future needs serve as emblem of plant of the Filipino people and the global conservation in each region of the community. country.

Strategy 2: 10.2 Objectives Document Philippine plant diversity, 1. Provide a framework to enhance including its uses and its distribution existing initiatives aimed at plant in the wild, in-situ within and outside conservation, identify gaps where protected areas, and in ex-situ new initiatives are required, and collections. promote mobilization of the necessary resources; and, Actions:

2.1 Conduct specimen-based plant 2. Provide mechanisms to enhance inventory throughout the country; species and ecosystem approaches to the conservation and sustainable 2.2 Develop a checklist of Philippine use of plant diversity and focus on plants (per protected area, the vital role of plants in the mountain, province, region); structure and functioning of ecological systems and assure their 2.3 Publish a book on the Flora of the provision of goods and services. Philippines;

10.3 Strategies 2.4 Establish and maintain ex-situ conservation centers of wild plants; Strategy 1: and,

Conserve important plant areas in 2.5 Establish a National Botanic Garden the Philippines and plant species of that showcases the Philippine native direct importance to human plants. societies. Strategy 3:

Actions: Promote and support research on the genetic diversity, systematics, 1.1 Formulate criteria for taxonomy, ecology and conservation identification of Important Plant biology of plants and plant Sites (IPS) or Important Plant Areas communities, and associated habitats (IPA); and ecosystems.

1.2 Identify and designate Important Actions: Plant Sites (IPS) or Important Plant Areas (IPA) or In-Situ Plant 3.1 Conduct studies on threatened Conservation Centers; endemic plants Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 40

a. conservation biology 5.4 Establish a system that will link the b. demography / population local databases to regional and studies; international information centers.

3.2 Pursue / support / encourage Strategy 6: taxonomic studies; and, Monitor the conservation status of 3.3 Develop research proposals for Philippine plant diversity. funding support solicitation. Actions: Strategy 4: 6.1 Establish the National List of Promote and support research on Threatened Philippine Plants; social, cultural and economic factors that have impact on biodiversity. 6.2 Establish the National List of Economically-Important Species; Actions: and,

4.1 Conduct research on plants uses 6.3 Assess the conservation status of by the local communities and the all known Philippine plants impact of these uses on plant periodically. species conservation; and, Strategy 7: 4.2 Conduct research on plant resource valuation. Promote education and awareness about plant diversity.

Strategy 5: Actions: Develop an integrated, interactive database information system to 7.1 Develop libraries on Philippine manage and make accessible plants; information on plant diversity. 7.2 Develop and publish popular and Actions: technical papers on Philippine plants, including articles on plant 5.1 Enhance capacity of staff to use conservation-related undertakings software or databases; regularly;

5.2 Develop / update / enhance digital 7.3 Produce plant identification guides; information on Philippine plants to include their traditional knowledge; 7.4 Work for the declaration and celebration of Plant Conservation 5.3 Establish a system, including Day/Week or restore the websites, that will ensure constant celebration of Arbor Week; exchange of information on Philippine plant genetic resources 7.5 Conduct lectures/seminars and between and among concerned organize workshops, conferences, institutions/organizations and make fora and other venues to these information accessible to all disseminate and articulate issues interested parties; and, relating to plants and their conservation; and,

Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 41

commercial plant production 7.6 Integrate topics on plant purposes; and, conservation in school curricula.

9.3 Promote sustainable utilization of Strategy 8: plant resources in production Develop capacity including physical areas. and technological infrastructure and financial support for plant Strategy 10: conservation. Develop and enforce policies on plant

conservation. Actions:

Actions: 8.1 Establish the roster of plant

experts and agencies, research a. Develop guidelines on the institutions and organizations accreditation and registration of involved in plant conservation in plant nurseries/establishments/ the country; breeders;

8.2 Provide career opportunities for b. Develop guidelines on the botanists and plant taxonomists; exchange of plant specimens

between and among researchers/ 8.3 Assess the plant taxonomic needs taxonomists, locally and of the Philippines; internationally; and,

8.4 Develop centers of excellence on c. Review and harmonize existing plant conservation; policies on the conservation and

export, import and transport of 8.5 Implement technical capacity plant genetic resources. building programs on plant

conservation and management (e.g. trainings on plant identification, preservation, etc. at the national, regional and local level); and,

8.6 Identify and implement appropriate community training programs.

Strategy 9:

Promote sustainable production and utilization of plant resources.

Actions:

9.1 Produce ‘how-to-manuals’ on plant propagation and utilization;

9.2 Promote establishment of nurseries and propagation centers for Framework for Philippine Plant Conservation Strategy and Action Plan 42

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