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Moore D (2006), : Language Situation. In: Keith Brown, (Editor-in-Chief) Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics, Second Edition, volume 2, pp. 117-128. Oxford: Elsevier. Brazil: Language Situation 117 Brazil: Language Situation

D Moore, Museu Goeldi, Bele´ m, Brazil and are active in debating policy and defending ß 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. the interests of the communities that they repre- sent. Indigenous affairs are under the control of the National Indian Foundation (FUNAI), and all Background researchers must obtain authorization from that gov- The indigenous population in what is now Brazil was ernmental entity to enter indigenous areas, as well as much higher in the past, with a multiplicity of societies approval from the National Council for Scientific and and . According to Roosevelt (1994), the Technological Development (CNPq). oldest pottery in the New World (6000–8000 years) is found in Brazilian Amazonia, on whose flood plains The Study of Native Brazilian Languages dense populations, divided into chiefdoms, lived at the time of European contact. Other , Some of the earliest descriptive studies of the native such as the central highlands, the semi-arid northeast, languages of the New World were conducted by and the more temperate southern region, were like- Jesuits in Brazil, for example, Anchieta (1595). This wise home to sizeable indigenous populations, most of tradition did not take hold, however. In the 19th which were destroyed or absorbed. Over 40% of the century and the first half of the 20th century, a num- modern Brazilian gene pool is of indigenous origin. ber of nonspecialists, especially members of scientific European contact began with the arrival of the ships expeditions, accomplished a certain amount of lin- of the Portuguese explorer Pedro A´ lvares Cabral in guistic description. These include, notably, Karl von 1500. He encountered some Tupinamba´ on the eastern den Steinen, General Couto de Magalha˜es, Theodor coast of Brazil. European immigration was relatively Koch-Gru¨ nberg, Curt Nimuendau´ , Emilie Snethlage, slight for the first two centuries. European men fre- and Joa˜o Capistrano de Abreu. Modern scientific quently took indigenous wives, and a class of mestizos studies of native Brazilian languages only began in was produced, which was important in the colonizing the second half of the 20th century. Mattoso Caˆmara process, during which large numbers of native people established the Setor de Lingu¨ ´ıstica at the Museu were relocated and obliged to learn the language of the Nacional in 1961 and also authored a book about mestizo, Lı´ngua Geral, or (Nhengatu), a indigenous languages (1965), though he was not a Tupı´-Guaranı´ language originally spoken on the coast fieldworker. During a number of years, Brazilian re- that was modified by substratum effects and borrow- search on indigenous languages was mainly done at ings from Portuguese. Several dialects of Nheengatu the Museu Nacional and at the State University of still persist in Amazonia. With the expulsion of the (UNICAMP). However, in the second half Jesuits in the mid-18th century, the state assumed con- of the 1980s the study of native languages spread to trol over the communities of resettled native peoples other centers, especially the Federal Universities of (reduc¸o˜es), where the population was already declining Brası´lia (UnB), Goia´s (UFG), (UFPE), from occidental disease. and Para´ (UFPA), aside from the University of Sa˜o The regions of Brazil that have been occupied the Paulo (USP) and the Museu Goeldi, which is a federal longest have the fewest indigenous societies and lan- research institute in Bele´m. guages, especially eastern Brazil, where few indigenous The anthropologist Darcy Ribeiro established a groups still speak their language. Rodrigues (1993) cooperation agreement between the Summer Institute estimates that 75% of the indigenous languages of Linguistics (SIL) and the Museu Nacional in 1956. became extinct. The surviving native groups are most- This agreement was terminated in 1981, and there are ly in remote areas,Author's especially in Amazonia, wherePersonalnow no formal ties between Copy Brazilian academic cen- contact with national society has been more recent ters and organizations. Foreign mission- and less intensive. There are still native groups living aries have become less influential in the study of out of contact with the outside world. Newly con- indigenous languages as their place is being taken to tacted groups still commonly lose two-thirds of their a certain extent by Brazilian and increas- population to Western diseases – an unnecessary loss, ingly by professional and numerous Brazilian scien- since the diseases responsible for this loss of life and tific linguists. A number of these latter have studied language are preventable or treatable. A number of abroad in recent years, and upon the completion of native political organizations exist in Brazil (for ex- their studies, they are strengthening the national ca- ample, the Coordenac¸a˜o de Organizac¸o˜ es Indı´genas pacity in scientific linguistics, especially in diachronic da Amazoˆ nia Brasileira – COIAB, and the Federac¸a˜o linguistics (see, for example, Meira and Franchetto, de Organizac¸o˜ es Indı´genas do – FOIRN) forthcoming), in recent theory and methodology, and

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118 Brazil: Language Situation in overall descriptions of individual languages. The is a valuable source of information and also publica- first complete grammar of a native language in dec- tions (including maps) that can be purchased via the ades authored by a Brazilian linguist was the de- Internet. There is also a website and a listserv run scription of Kamayura´ by Seki (2000). More such by the Museu Antropolo´ gico, Universidade Federal general descriptions have been undertaken by young de Goia´s. Brazilian linguists. There is, unfortunately, no nation- al program for identifying and describing endangered The Situation of the Native Brazilian languages in Brazil. However, a number of recent Languages modern documentation projects with international funding have improved the level of documentation Of course, Portuguese is the of efforts. These are very popular with native groups. Brazil. Impressionistically, is The small number of foreign nonmissionary lin- about as different from the Portuguese dialects in guists studying Brazilian indigenous languages has as is from the English increased considerably in recent years. dialects in Great Britain. There are many other lan- Some modern information about Brazilian na- guages spoken by immigrant communities in Brazil, tive languages appeared in a general work on South especially German, Italian, and Japanese. We will American languages edited by Klein and Stark (1985). attention here on the situation of the native Amazonia became identified as a distinct research languages. It must be emphasized that the informa- area in linguistics with the publication of the Hand- tion presented below is approximate, due to the lack book of series, edited by of systematic data gathering about the situation of the Derbyshire and Pullum (1986–1998) and the com- native . Even when population pendium edited by Payne (1990). Later useful general size is known, the number of effective speakers and works with the same regional focus are those edited the degree of transmission is often not known with by Queixalo´ s and Renault-Lescure (2000) and by certainty. What are considered to be different lan- Dixon and Aikhenvald (1999). These typically in- guages sometimes turn out to be dialects of the same clude languages outside of what is, strictly speaking, language, often reflecting ethnic or political divisions. Amazonia, for example, the languages of the central Much of the information is a revised version of infor- highlands of Brazil. In recent years, volumes of the mation presented in an overview article about ILLA series have included many Brazilian languages, endangered languages in lowland by for example, the volumes edited by van der Voort and Moore (forthcoming), which is based on a number of van de Kerke (2000) and by Crevels, van de Kerke, sources, including Queixalo´ s and Renault-Lescure Meira, and van der Voort (2002). (2000), Rodrigues (1993), Dixon and Aikhenvald In Portuguese, a general treatment of Brazilian lan- (1999), the map of the Centro de Documentac¸a˜o guages is that by Rodrigues (1986). Rodrigues (1993) Indı´gena (1987), the website of the Instituto So´ cio presents information on the situation of Brazilian Ambiental, the author’s own knowledge of several native languages, but suffers from confusion between regions, and personal communications from many the number of speakers and the population size, linguists actively studying indigenous languages in which results in underestimating the degree of endan- various geographical areas. germent. Seki (1999) and Franchetto (2000) describe Language names and the genetic classification are the study of indigenous languages in Brazil. Wetzels adapted from those of the Instituto So´ cio Ambiental (1995) presents a collection of phonological studies. website, which are a 1997 adaptation of information A recent collection of articles is that by Cabral and from Rodrigues (1986). Names used by Ethnologue, Rodrigues (2002). One Brazilian periodical dedicated if different, appear in parentheses after (note that exclusively to indigenousAuthor's languages is Lı´nguas Personal Indı´- Ethnologue’s family names Copy and categorization some- genas Americanas (LIAMES), of UNICAMP. The times differ from the one used here). Population fig- Boletim do Museu Paraense Emı´lio Goeldi contains ures are normally from this same website; numbers linguistics articles in its Anthropology issues. Articles from other sources are put in brackets. Speaker esti- likewise appear in the journals Revista de Documen- mates are from various sources; when more than one tac¸a˜o de Estudos em Lingu¨ ´sticı aTeo´ rica e Aplicada source is used, the second is separated by placing it in (D.E.L.T.A.) of the Pont´ıfica Universidade Cato´ lica brackets. Where no real information is available, the de Sa˜o Paulo, the Boletim da ABRALIN, and the space is left blank. Since many tribal groups span Cadernos de Estudos Lingu¨ ´ısticos of UNICAMP. Of national boundaries, it is important to note that all the many NGOs working with indigenous groups, the estimates are specific to Brazil and excluding speakers largest and most concerned with documentation is of those groups living in, say, or . the Instituto So´ cio Ambiental (ISA), whose website Likewise, the estimate of the amount of study refers to

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Brazil: Language Situation 119 studies carried out among speakers in Brazil, not in Major Language Families other countries. These estimates are very rough and The languages of the Arawak family, in its can change quickly with the publication of new work. restricted sense, also designated Maipurean, have Languages with little or no significant scientific long been recognized as related, though proposed description are rated 0; those with an M.A. thesis or genetic links to other linguistic groups are more several articles are rated 1, those with a good overall doubtful. The supposed link with the Arawa´ lan- sketch or doctoral thesis on some aspects of the lan- guages, for example, has no linguistic basis. The guage are rated 2; and those with reasonably com- work of Noble (1965) influenced archeology, but is plete descriptions are rated 3. In the terminology used dubious in its conclusions. The Arawak languages are here for genetic groupings, ‘family’ means a group of amazingly widespread, from the to Boli- related but different languages whose genetic relation via. In Brazil, they occur in northern Para´ state, on the is reasonably obvious, and ‘stock’ refers to a group of tributaries of the Rio Negro in the northwest, along families whose relation is not so obvious. Because of the Purus River in the west, on the tributaries of the the small size of the surviving speech communities in Mato Grasso, and along the Upper and the precarious conditions in which they live, all . The relatively numerous Tereˆna live in might be considered to be in danger of extinction. do Sul. It is not certain whether or not However, it is more useful to distinguish those that there are still speakers of Mandawa´ka (Mandahuaca) are in serious, imminent danger of disappearing, ei- in the region of the Upper Rio Negro. The Arawak ther because of a low number of speakers, low trans- languages are polysynthetic and often have gender mission, or both factors. Some languages listed may and nominal classification (Table 2). already be extinct, but are listed anyway because a careful search sometimes finds remaining speakers Carib The Carib family is centered on northern South somewhere, and that search may be abandoned if America. The Carib languages of northern Brazil are they are not listed. Languages are not considered rather similar, though Waimiri-Atroari (Atruahı is urgently endangered if there are a reasonable number ´) of speakers of at least one dialect or a reasonable more distant. The language called Galibi do Oiapoque is intrusive from French Guiana, where it is called number of speakers in another country. Larger group- Kali’na (or Carib in Surinam and ). The Carib ings are considered first, following alphabetical order languages on or near the Upper Xingu are quite differ- within the grouping. ent from the northern languages and also do not con- stitute a single consistent subgroup (Table 3). Hypothetical Linguistic Stock Macro-Jeˆ Various authors have, on one basis or Pano The Pano linguistic family is not highly differ- another, proposed groupings of languages often con- entiated internally. It occurs in , , and Bra- sidered today as Macro-Jeˆ. It is important to confirm zil, and is usually considered to be related to the or disconfirm each of the proposed genetic affilia- Tacana family of Bolivia. The Brazilian Pano lan- tions, some of which are not obvious. The Jeˆ family guages occur in the states of and Amazonas, of languages, the largest of the stock, is focused on the except for the Kaxarar´ı in Randoˆnia, and have received savanna regions of Brazil from the southern parts relatively little study. Sources are contradictory as to of the states of Para´ and Maranha˜o south to Santa whether Amawa´ka is spoken in Brazil (Table 4). Catarina e . The other families of this hypothesized stock generally occur outside of Tucano Of the divisions of the Tucano family, West- Amazonia, mainly in eastern and northeastern ern, Eastern, and (for some authors) Central, it is Brazil, but with someAuthor's in central Brazil and fartherPersonalmainly the Eastern branch Copy which occurs in Brazil, west. has been held to be the exception, though Kubewa (Cubeo), of the putative Central apparently living for a long time in an Amazonian branch, also occurs there. Except for Arapaso, each environment in northern Mato Grosso. Recent re- of the Tucano languages of Brazil is also spoken in search, however, indicates that the Jabutı´ languages Colombia, where they have generally received more are probably Macro-Jeˆ, as was speculated by some study. More recent sources doubt that Yuruti (Juriti) authors, indicating a wider and older presence in is spoken in Brazil. These languages are noted for Amazonia as well. Because of their early contact or pitch accent, -intrinsic nasality, with Europeans, many of the Macro-Jeˆ languages in and complex obligatory coding of . The the east and northeast of Brazil are extinct, with or languages are spoken in the region of the Vaupe´s, without some documentation. The last speaker of Tiquie´, and Papurı´ Rivers. The speakers of several of Umotı´na died recently (Table 1). them refer to themselves as Yeba´-masa˜ (Yepa´-masa˜).

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120 Brazil: Language Situation

Table 1 Macro-Jeˆ (Macro-Ge) stock

Linguistic unit Dialects, groups No. of Population Transmission Studies Endangered speakers

Boro´ ro Family Boro´ ro (Boroˆ ro) 1024 2 Guato´ Family Guato´ 5 [40] 372 low 2 urgent Jeˆ Family Akwe´ n Xakriab´ a´ 0? 6000 none urgent Xava´ nte most 9602 high? 1 Xere´ nte all? 1814 1 Apinaye´ 1262 high? 2 Kainga´ ng Kainga´ ng do 25 000 2 total Parana´ total Kainga´ ng Kainga´ ng Kainga´ n Central Kainga´ ng do Sudoeste Kainga´ ng do Sudeste ´ Gorotire 7096 total high 1total Kayapo` Kayapo´ Kararaoˆ Kokraimoro Kubenkrankegn Menkrangnoti Mentuktı´ re (Txukahama˜ e) Xikrin Panara´ (Kreen-akore, all 202 high 2 Krenakarore) Suya´ Suya´ all 334 high 1–2 Tapayu´ na (Beic¸ o-de-Pau) 58 Timbı´ ra Canela Apaniekra 458 high 2 Canela 1337 high Ramkokamekra Gavia˜ o do Para´ (Parkateye´ , 338 low 2 Gavia˜ o, Para´ ) Gavia˜ o do 250 Maranha˜ o (Pukobiye´ ) Krahoˆ 1900 high 1 Krikatı´ (Krinkatı´ , 620 Krikati-) Xokle´ ng (Xokleng) 757 low 1 Karaja´ Family Karaja´ Javae´ most 919 good 2 Karaja´ 1860 2500 high 1 Xambioa´ 10 185 none 0 Krena´k Family Krena´ k (Krenak)Author's Personal 10? 150 low Copy 1 urgent Maxakalı´ Family Maxakalı´ most? 802 1 Ofaye´ Family Ofaye´ (Opaye´ , 25 56 low 1urgent Ofaye´ -) Rikbaktsa´ Family Rikbaktsa´ (Erikpaksa´ , 909 med? 1 Rikbaktsa) Yathe´ Family Yatheˆ , Fulnioˆ , Carnijo´ ) most? 2930 med? 1

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Brazil: Language Situation 121

Table 2 Arawak (Arua´ k, Maipure) family

Linguistic unit Dialects, groups No. of speakers Population Transmission Studies Endangered

Apurina˜ (Ipurina˜ ) 2779 med 2 Banı´ wa do Ic¸ ana 3189 high 3 (Kurripako, Kuripako, [5000] Curripaco) Bare´ 0? 2790 none 1 Kampa (Axı´ ninka, 813 0 Ashe´ ninca) Mandawa´ ka (Mawaca, Mandahuaca) ? [3?] urgent [Mawaya´ na] <10 <10 none? 0 urgent Mehina´ ku close to Waura´ all 199 high 1 Paliku´ r 918 1 Paresı´ (Aritı´ , Haliti, 1293 1 Parea´ s) Pı´ ro Manitene´ ri () [530] 0 Maxine´ ri 459 [345] 0 (Machinere) Saluma˜ (Enaweneˆ -Naweˆ ) 320 high 1 Tariana (Tariano) Yurupari-Tapu´ ya 100 1914 very 3 urgent (Iyemi) low Terena (Tereno, Tereˆ na) 15795 1 Wapixa´ na (Aruma) 6500 variable 1 Wareke´ na (Guarequena) 4912 Waura´ Close to all 321high 1 Yawalapitı´ 8 208 none 1urgent

Many of these languages are quite robust, but have Medium-sized Language Families received little study in Brazil (Table 5). Arawa´ The Arawa´ languages are spoken in a rela- tively circumscribed region centered on the upper and Tupı´ The Tup´ı family consists of 10 branches, one middle Purus and Jurua´ rivers. Their maintenance is of which, Tupı-Guaranı, spreads over a vast area, with ´ ´ generally good (Table 7). extensions into , , Bolivia, Peru, and French Guiana. Languages of this branch have been studied for centuries, but with more fascination Katukina The Katukina family of languages (not for the Tupı´-Guaran´ı dialects on the coast studied by to be confused with Katukina do Acre, a Pano the Jesuits, which contributed many loanwords to language) are spoken by groups on the Javaı´, Jurua´, Portuguese and which achieved an almost classical and Jutuı´ rivers in southern Amazonas. Recently, status in Brazil, where the word ‘Tupı´’ is sometimes Adelaar (2000) presented evidence that the Peruvian used to refer to these dialects. Though Tup´ı-Guaranı´ family is genetically related to the is often thought toAuthor's be somehow more central inPersonal the Katukina family of languages. Copy Their study is urgent family, it is actually rather atypical. Awetı´ is appar- (Table 8). ently the branch most closely related to Tupı´-Guara- n´ı, and these two together with Mawe´ form a Maku´ The Maku´ languages (not to be confused subgroup within the family. The Ramarama and Pur- with the Ma´ku language of ) are spoken ubora´ branches form a subgroup also; the other rela- by hunter-gatherer groups mainly in the region of tions are not obvious and are still being worked out. the Vaupe´s, though the Nade¨b live lower on the Rio Research on the Tupi families in the western state Negro. The Bara´ (Kakua, Kakwa) language (not to of Rondoˆ nia, often considered the original location be confused with the Bara´ () language of of the Tupi peoples, is rather recent. A number of the Tucano family) is spoken on the border with languages important for comparative Tupi studies Colombia, and it is not clear how many live in Brazil are urgently endangered (Table 6). (Table 9).

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122 Brazil: Language Situation

Table 3 Carib (Karib) family

Linguistic unit Dialects, groups No. of Population Transmission Studies Endangered speakers

Aparaı´ (Apalaı´ ) most 415 high 2 [150?] do Para´ (Ukara˜ gma˜ , all? 195 high? 1 Ara´ ra, Para´ ) Bakairı´ most 950 good 2 Galibı´ do Oiapoque (Kali’na, 28 low? 0 Carib) Hixkarya´ na most? [550] high 3 Ingariko´ (Kapo´ ng, Akwaio, 675 good 1 Patamona) Kalapa´ lo (Kuiku´ ro-kalapa´ lo) Kalapa´ lo, Kuiku´ ru, ´ , most 417 good 1 Nahukwa´ are dialects of one language Kaxuya´ na (Warikya´ na, Shikuyana is dialect most 69 [145] low 1 Kaxuiaˆ na) Kuiku´ ru (Kuiku´ ro-Kalapa´ lo) most 450 [500] good 2 Makuxı´ () most 16 500 high? 3 Matipu´ (Matipuhy) few 119 low 0 Mayongong (Makirita´ re, most? 426 high? 0 Yekua´ na, Maquiritari) Nahukwa´ (Matipuhy) most 105 good 1 Taulipa´ ng (Pemo´ ng, ) most 532 high? 1 Tiriyo´ (Tirio´ , Trio, Trio´ ) all 735 [900] high 3 (Txika˜ o) all 310 high 2 Waimirı´ (Waimirı´ -Atroarı´ all 931high 2 Atruahı´ ) Wai-Wai (Waiwai) all? 2020 high 2 Waya´ na () most? 450 med? 1 [150?]

Table 4 Pano (Panoan) family

Linguistic unit Dialects, groups No. of Population Transmission Studies Endangered speakers

Amawa´ ka () [220]? 0 Arara (Shawanaua´ , Arara, Shanenawa´ , Yamina´ wa, 9? 200 1 Sheuanahua) Yawanawa´ are perhaps dialects of one language Katukina do Acre 318 1 (Katukı´ na Pano; Katukı´ na, Panoan)Author's Personal Copy Kaxararı´ 269 0 Kaxinawa´ (Ha˜ tx Kuin, 3964 variable 2 Cashinahua) Koru´ bo () 250 0 Maru´ bo 1043 high 2? (Matı´ s) all 239 high 2 Matse´ s (Mayoruna) 829 [250] high 2 Nukini (Nukuini) any? 458 none? 0 urgent Poyana´ wa 2 403 [180] none 1 urgent Shanenawa´ (Xipina´ wa) 178 [160] 1 Yamina´ wa (Jaminawa, 618 0 Yaminahua) Yawana´ wa (Yawanowa) 450 [220] low

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Brazil: Language Situation 123

Table 5 Tucano (Tucanoan) family

Linguistic unit Dialects, groups No. of speakers Population Transmission Studies Endangered

Arapaso 328 0 Bara´ (Waimaja˜ )390 Barasa´ na, (Barasana) 610 Desa´ na (Desano) close to Siria´ no 1531 1 [Yuruti (Juritı´ )] close to Tuyu´ ka [50?] Karapana˜ (Carapana) 42 0 Kubewa (Kubeo, Cubeo) 287 0 Maku´ na (Yeba´ -masa˜ , 168 0 ) Pira-Tapuya (Waı´ kana, close to Wanano 1004 0 Piratapuyo) Siria´ no () 17 [10] 0 Tucano (Tukano) 4604 3 Tuyu´ ka (Tuyuca) 593 0 Wanano (Guanano) 447 2

Nambikwara The languages occur Mura The language of the Mura and that of the in western Mato Grosso and southeastern Rondoˆ nia, Piraha˜ appear to have been quite close; often they in a region that includes both tropical forest and are grouped under one name (Mu´ ra-Piraha˜). There savanna, centered on tributaries of the Guapore´ are occasional reports of elderly Mura speakers, and the Juruena rivers (Table 10). though the Mura generally speak Portuguese or a dialect of Nheengatu (Table 13). Chapakura (Txapaku´ ra) The extant Chapakura languages are spoken in the state of Rondoˆ nia (and Isolated Languages in Bolivia). Tora´, in the state of Amazonas, is de- Seven languages are not known to be genetically affil- scribed by recent visitors as already extinct for many iated with others. Of these, Aikana˜ (Tubara˜o), Kanoeˆ years. Recent ethnographers state that Urupa´ is ex- (Kanoe´), and Kwaza´ are in the same region in south- tinct also. The More´ live in Bolivia, though there may ern Rondoˆ nia. The language of the Iranxe (Iraˆntxe) be a few in Brazil (Table 11). and Mynky is spoken near the headwaters of the Juruena River, in Mato Grosso. The Truma´i are The languages of the Yanomami family thought to have been relative latecomers to the are spoken in Brazil and in Venezuela, by rather un- Upper Xingu regional system. There is said to be acculturated groups. In Brazil these languages occur only one Ma´ku speaker, in the state of Roraima. in the northern state of Roraima, near the Venezuelan The Tikuna () are numerous, living along the border (Table 12). Solimo˜ es River, extending into Columbia and Peru. It is a sign of progress that, of these isolated languages, Smaller Language Families Kanoeˆ, Kwaza´, Mynky, Trumai, and Tikuna have Bora Some speakers of the Miranha dialect of Bora received intensive modern study in recent years reportedly live alongAuthor's the Solimo˜ es River in Brazil. Personal(Table 14). Copy Guaikuru´ Kadiwe´u, one of the Guaikuru´ languages Creole Languages (which tend to occur in the Chaco region of Paraguay and Argentina) is spoken in in There are two groups in the northern state of Amapa´, Brazil. the Galibi-Marworno (Carib) and the Karipuna do Norte (Karipu´ na Creole French), both of whom lived Jabutı´ The name of this family is a corruption of for some time in French Guiana and speak creoles Djeoromitxi, one of its component languages. The heavily influenced by the French-based creole of that languages are found in southern Rondoˆ nia. country (Table 15).

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124 Brazil: Language Situation

Table 6 Tupı´ family

Linguistic unit Dialects, groups No. of Population Transmission Studies Endangered speakers

Arike´m Branch Karitia´ na all 206 high 2 Awet´ı Branch Awetı´ all 138 high 1 Juruna Branch Juruna (Yuruna, Yudja´ , all 278 high 2 Juru´ na) Xipaia (Shipaya, 2? 595? none 2 urgent Kurua´ ya) Mawe´ Branch Mawe´ (Satere´ -Mawe´ ) most? 7134 good 2 Mondeˆ Branch Arua´ 12? 58 low 0 Cinta-Larga Arua´ , , Zoro´ , and Gavia˜ o all 1300 high 1 (Cinta Larga) are dialects of one language Gavia˜ o (Gavia˜ odo all 338 high 2 Jiparana´ ) Salama˜ y (Monde´ ) 2 semi 10? none 0 urgent Suruı´ (Paite´ r) all 920 high 1 Zoro´ all 414 high 0 Purubora´ Branch Purubora´ 2 semi [50?] none 0 urgent ´ Branch Kurua´ ya 3? 115 none? 0 urgent Munduruku´ most 7500 high 3 Ramarama Branch Karo (Arara, Ara´ ra) most 184 good 2 Tupar´ı Branch Ajuru (Wayoro´ ) 8? 77 low 0 urgent Makura´ p 267 med? 2 Sakurabiat (Meke´ m 25 66 [70] low 2 urgent Mekens) Tuparı´ most? 338 med-low 1 7 7 high 0 urgent Tup´ı-Guaran´ı Branch Akwa´ wa Parakana˜ most 800 high? 0 Suruı´ do (Suruı´ do Para´ ) most 185 high? 1 Asurini do Tocantins most 303 high? 2 (Asurinı´ ) Amanaye´ any? 192 none? 0 urgent Anambe´ 6 132 none? 1 urgent Apiaka´ (Apiaca´ ) 0? 192 ? 0 urgent Arawete´ most 278 high 0 Asurinı´ do Xingu most 106 high? 1 (Asurinı´ , Xingu´ ) Ava´ -Canoeiro most? 14 0 urgent Guaja´ all 280 high 1 Guaranı´ Author'sKaiowa´ (Kaiwa´ ) Personal 34 000 Copy 2 total Mbya´ (Guaranı´ , total Mbya´ ) Nhande´ va (Chiripa´ ) Kaapo´ r (Urubu-Kaapo´ r, most 800 high 2 Urubu-Kaapor) Kamayura´ most 355 high 3 Kayabı´ most? 1000 high? 1

Continued

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Brazil: Language Situation 125

Table 6 Continued

Linguistic unit Dialects, groups No. of Population Transmission Studies Endangered speakers

Kawahı´ b Parintintin 156 2 total Diahko´ i30 Juma (Ju´ ma) 7 Karipu´ na 21 Tenharin 585 med Uru-Eu-Wau-Wau all 87 high (Uru-eu-uau-uau) Koka´ ma Koka´ ma 5 622 low? 2 urgent (Cocama-) Oma´ gua few? 156 [240] low? 0 urgent (Kambeba, Omagua) Lı´ ngua Geral Amazoˆ nica ¼ coastal Tupi- >6000? med 1 (Nheengatu, Guarani altered by contact Nhengatu) Tapirape´ 438 1 Teneteha´ ra 13100 2 Tembe´ 820 variable 2 Wayampı´ (Waia˜ pi; most? 525 high? 2 Oiampi; , Amapari) Xeta´ 3 8 urgent Zo’e´ (Puturu´ , Poturu) all 152 high 1

Table 7 Arawa´ (Anian) family

Linguistic unit Dialects, groups No. of speakers Population Transmission Studies Endangered

Banawa´ -Yafı´ (Banawa´ ) 215 high 1 Deni (Denı´ ) 738 high 1 Jarawa´ ra (Jarua´ ra) 160 high 3 Kulı´ na (Culina) 2318 high 1 Paumarı´ 870 low 3 Jamamadı´ (Yamamadı´ , Kanamantı´ ) 800 high 1 Suruaha´ (Zuruaha´ ) 143 high 1

Table 8 Katukina (Katukinan) family

Linguistic unit Dialects, groups No. of speakers Population Transmission Studies Endangered

Kanamarı´ most? 1327 1 Katawixı´ 10? 250 0 urgent Katukina do Rio Bia´ (Peda´ Djapa´ , Katukı´ na) few? 289 0 urgent Txunhaa˜ -Djapa´ (Tsohom-DjapaAuthor's´ , Tshom- Personal30? 100 Copy 0 urgent Djapa)

Table 9 Maku´ (Maku) family

Linguistic unit Dialects, groups No. of speakers Population Transmission Studies Endangered

Bara´ (Kakua, Cacua) [220] in Brazil ? Daˆ w (Kama˜ )832 Hu´ pda (Hupde¨ ) close to Yuhu´ p 1800 [1800] high 2 Nade¨ b (Guariba) 400 1 Yuhu´ p (Yuhup) 400 1

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126 Brazil: Language Situation

Table 10 Nambikwa´ ra (Nambiquaran) family

Linguistic unit Dialects, No. of Population Transmission Studies Endangered groups speakers

Nambikwa´ ra do Norte 323 [346] med 2 (Mamaindeˆ ; Latundeˆ ; Nagaroteˆ ; Nambiqua´ ra, Northern) Nambikwa´ ra do Sul (Nambikua´ ra, Southern) all [721] good 2 Sabaneˆ (Sabaneˆ s) 7 active [30] none 2 urgent

Table 11 Chapakura (Txapaku´ ra, Chapacura-Wanham) family

Linguistic unit Dialects, groups No. of speakers Population Transmission Studies Endangered

Kujubim (Kuyubi) very close to More´ ? 2? 27[50] none 0 urgent Oro Win 5? 50 urgent Tora´ 0? 51[250] 0 urgent Urupa´ ?0 [150] 0 urgent any? Warı´ (Pakaanova, Pakaa´ snovos) 1930 good 3

Table 12 Yanomami (Yanomam) family

Linguistic unit Dialects, groups No. of speakers Population Transmission Studies Endangered

Ninam (Yanam) 466 11 700 high 2 Sanuma´ 462 total high 2 Yanoma´ m (Yanomae, Yanomam¨ o) 4000 high 2 Yanomami (Yanoma´ mi) 6000 high 3

Table 13 Small familiesAuthor's Personal Copy Linguistic unit Dialects, groups No. of speakers Population Transmission Studies Endangered

[Bora Family] [Miranha] dialect of Bora few? 613 0 Guaikuru´ (Guaicuruan) Family Kadiwe´ u most 1592 high 2 [900] Jabut´ı Family Djeoromitxı´ (Jabutı´ ) 30? 123 low 1 urgent Arikapu´ 2 19 none 1 urgent Mura Family Mura (Mu´ ra-Piraha˜ ) any ? 5540 none 0 urgent Piraha˜ (Mu´ ra-Piraha˜ ) all 360 high 3

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Table 14 Isolated languages

Linguistic unit Dialects, groups No. of speakers Population Transmission Studies Endangered

Aikana´ (Masaka´ , Kasupa´ , Tubara˜ o) 264 med? 2 Ira´ nxe (Iraˆ ntxe) Mynky (dialect) 326 2 Kanoeˆ (Kanoe´ ) 5 95 low 2 urgent Kwaza` (Koaia´ ) 25 25 [40] low 3 urgent Ma´ ku 1[1]none 1urgent Truma´ i (Trumaı´ ) 51120low 2 urgent Tiku´ na (Ticuna) 32 613 3

Table 15 Creole languages

Linguistic unit Dialects, groups No. of speakers Population Transmission Studies Endangered

Galibi Marwono (Carib) 1764 0 [860] Karipuna do Norte (Karipu´ na Creole French) 1708 1 [672]

See also: Arawak Languages; Benveniste, Emile (1902– Franchetto B (2000). ‘O conhecimento cientı´fico das lı´n- 1976); ; Endangered Languages; Evo- guas ind´ıgenas da Amazoˆnia no Brasil.’ In Queixalo´ sF& lution of Semantics; Guarani; Meaning: Pre-20th Cen- Renault-Lescure O (eds.). 165–182. tury Theories; Polysemy and Homonymy; Tupian Klein H E & Stark L R (eds.) (1985). South American Languages. Indian languages: retrospect and prospect. Austin: University of Texas Press. Mattoso Caˆmara J Jr (1965). Introduc¸a˜oa`slı´nguas ind´ı- Language Maps (Appendix 1): Map 51. genas brasileiras. : Livraria Acadeˆmica. Meira S & Franchetto B (2005). ‘The Southern Cariban languages and the Cariban family.’ International Journal Bibliography of American Linguistics 71(2), 127–190. Adelaar W (2000). ‘Propuesta de un nuevo v´ınculo gene´tico Moore D (forthcoming). ‘Endangered languages of lowland entre dos grupos lingu¨ ´ısticos ind´ıgenas de la Amazonia tropical South America.’ In Brenzinger M (ed.) Language occidental: harakmbut y katukina.’ In Miranda L (ed.) diversity endangered. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Actas I Congresso de lenguas ind´ıgenas de Sudame´rica II. Noble G K (1965). Proto-Arawakan and its descendents. Peru: Lima. 219–236. Bloomington: Indiana University Research Center in Anchieta J de (1595). Arte e grammatica da lingua mais Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics. usada na costa do Brasil. Coimbra: Antoˆ nio Mariz. Payne D L (ed.) (1990). Amazonian linguistics: studies in Cabral A S A C & Rodrigues A D (eds.) (2002). Lı´nguas lowland South American languages. Austin: University of ind´ıgenas brasileiras: fonologia, grama´tica e histo´ ria; atas Texas Press. do I Encontro Internacional do Grupo de Trabalho sobre Queixalo´ s F & Renault-Lescure O (eds.) (2000). As Lı´nguas Ind´ıgenas da ANPOLL I and II. Bele´m: Editora lı´nguas Amazoˆnicas hoje. Sa˜o Paulo: Instituto So´ cio Universita´ria UFPA. Ambiental. Centro de Documentac¸a˜o, Indı´gena. (1987). Povos ind´ı- Rodrigues A D (1986). L´ınguas brasileiras: para o con- genas do Brasil. (Map). Sa˜o Paulo: CEDI. hecimento das lı´nguas indı´genas. Sa˜o Paulo: Edic¸o˜ es Crevels M, van deAuthor's Kerke S, Meira S & van der Voort Personal H Loyola. Copy (eds.) (2002). Selected papers from the 50th International Rodrigues A D (1993). ‘Endangered languages in Brazil.’ Congress of Americanists in Warsaw and the Spinoza unpublished manuscript from the Symposium on Workshop on Amerindian Languages in Leiden, 2000. endangered languages of South America. Leiden: Rijks CNWS Publications, 114. Leiden: Research School of Universiteit. Asian, African, and Amerindian Studies. Roosevelt A C (1994). ‘Amazonian anthropology: Derbyshire C D & Pullum G K (eds.) (1986–1998). Hand- strategy for a new synthesis.’ In Amazonian Indians book of Amazonian languages. 4 vols. Berlin: Mouton de from prehistory to the present. Tucson: The University Gruyter. of Arizona Press. 1–29. Dixon R M W & Aikhenvald A Y (eds.) (1999). The Ama- Seki L (1999). ‘A lingu¨ ´ıstica ind´ıgena no Brasil.’ Revista zonian languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University de Documentac¸a˜o de Estudos em Lingu¨ ´ıstica Teo´ rica Press. e Aplicada 15, 257–290.

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Seki L (2000). Grama´tica do Kamaiura´. Campinas: Editora Relevant Websites da UNICAMP. van der Voort H & van de Kerke S (eds.) (2000). Indigenous http://www.socioambiental.org – Instituto So´cio Ambiental languages of lowland South America. Indigenous lan- (ISA). guages of Latin America, vol. 1, CNWS publications http://www.geocities.com/linguasindigenas/ – Listserv about 90. Leiden: Research School of Asian, African, and indigenous languages in Brazil. Amerindian Studies. Wetzels L (1995). Estudos fonolo´ gicos das l´ınguas ind´ı- genas brasileiras. Rio de Janeiro: Editora UFRJ.

Bre´ al, Michel Jules Alfred (1832–1915) E Guimara˜ es, Institute of Language Studies–Unicamp, and this aspect can be found in the work that Sa˜ o Paulo Campinas, Brazil synthesizes the principal points of his production ß 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. (1897). Willful action and intelligence change the signification of a word that, not losing its previous signification, takes on more than one meaning. Poly- Bre´al, French linguist and one of the founders of semy is the result of history and is one of the places semantic linguistics, studied Sanskrit in Berlin with that represent the accumulation of the intellectual Bopp and Albrecht Weber. He received his Ph.D. in work of the language. ´ 1863, defending the thesis He´rcules et Cacus. Etude Another important aspect, also present in the E´ ssai de mithologie compare´e and Des noms perses dans les de se´mantique, is what he called the subjective ele- ecrivains grecs. In 1864, he became a professor of ment. He who speaks is marked in what he spoke. In compared grammar at the Colle`ge de France. languages there are the forms that, when used, mark ´ In 1868, he joined the group that founded the Ecole this presence. Personal are one of the exam- ´ des Hautes Etudes, where he became director and was, ples of these forms, which would later be crucial in for a time, Ferdinand de Saussure’s professor. From the work of E´ mile Benveniste. 1879 to 1888, he was Inspector General of French Public Instruction. His work was dedicated to three domains: the study of ancient inscriptions and myths, See also: Bopp, Franz (1791–1867); Weber, Albrecht Frie- the study of historical and compared linguistics, drich (1825–1901). and reflection on questions related to teaching. He himself named his work in linguistics semantics, Bibliography having been the first to use this word in a linguistic discipline (Bre´al, 1883). In these studies, Bre´al includ- Aarsleff H (1981). ‘Bre´al, la Se´mantique et Saussure.’ His- ed himself in the historical perspective of the 19th toire, Episte´mologie, Langage III 2, 115–134. Bre´al M (1863). Hercule et Cacus, e´tude de mythologie century and considered that semantics deals with compare´e. Paris: A. Durand. the change of the signification of words (Delesalle, Bre´al M (1866). ‘De la forme et de la fonction des mots.’ 1988). He differed from the comparativists of his time Revue des cours litte´raires de la France et de l’e´tranger, (Aarsleff, 1981; Delesalle, 1980), as he considered fascicle dated December 29, 1866. In Desmet P & that language does not reduce to forms and that its Swiggers P (eds.) (1995) De la grammaire compare´ea` la study must necessarily include the meaning (Bre´al, se´mantique. Textes de Michel Bre´al publie´s entre 1864 et 1866). Author's Personal1898. Paris: Peeters. Copy Changes in language are not natural, ruled by inevi- Bre´al M (1883). ‘Les lois intellectuelles du langage. Frag- table laws, but occur by man’s willful action and intel- ment de se´mantique.’ Annuaire de l’Association pour ´ ligence. Willful action, which is not conscious, is l’Encouragement des Etudes Grecques em France, 17. constituted by the slow and groping agreement of the In Desmet P & Swiggers P (eds.) (1995) De la grammaire compare´ea` la se´mantique. Textes de Michel Bre´al publie´s will of many, a collective will. Intelligence is a faculty entre 1864 et 1898. Paris: Peeters. of knowledge and has its origin in the functioning Bre´al M (1897). E´ ssai de se´mantique. Paris: Hachette. of the sign. Language represents an accumulation of Delesalle S (1980). ‘L’analogie: d’un arbitraire a` l’autre.’ intellectual work. Therefore, language is not a natural Langue Franc¸aise 46, 90–108. science; it is historical and cultural (Bre´al, 1897). Delesalle S (1988). ‘L’E´ ssai de Se´mantique de Bre´al, du In this domain, Bre´al established a fundamental ‘transformisme,’ a` la diachronie.’ In La Linguistique concept in semantics studies – that of polysemy – ge´ne´tique. Histoire et the´ories. Paris: PUF.

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