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Tibetan Market Participation in China View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Helsingin yliopiston digitaalinen arkisto Institute of Development Studies University of Helsinki Tibetan Market Participation in China Wang Shiyong ACADEMIC DISSERTATION To be presented, with the permission of the Faculty of Social Sciences of the University of Helsinki, for public examination in Auditorium XIII, University main building, on 7 November 2009, at 10 am. ISBN 978-952-92-6250-2 (paperback) ISBN 978-952-10-5801-1 (PDF) ISSN 0359-307X Helsinki University Print Helsinki 2009 2 Contents List of maps................................................................................................................................ 6 List of figures ............................................................................................................................. 6 List of tables ............................................................................................................................... 6 List of acronyms and abbreviations ........................................................................................... 7 Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... 8 Abstract .................................................................................................................................... 10 Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 11 1.1 The Tibetan areas of China ............................................................................................ 12 1.2 Major challenges of Tibetan people since the Open Policy ........................................... 16 1.3 The research ................................................................................................................... 21 1.4 The material and method of enquiry .............................................................................. 24 1.5 Organization of the dissertation ..................................................................................... 27 Chapter 2 Theoretical settings ............................................................................................ 29 2.1 Market, the state and people .......................................................................................... 29 2.2 The impact of social and culture context ....................................................................... 37 2.3 Conditions of market participation ................................................................................ 41 2.4 Characteristics and success elements of small businesses ............................................. 47 Chapter 3 Culture and market participation ....................................................................... 57 3.1 Religion in Tibetan life .................................................................................................. 59 3.1.1 Basic theory of Tibetan Buddhism ......................................................................... 59 3.1.2 Daily practice of Tibetan Buddhism ....................................................................... 62 3 3.2 Major economic activities in traditional Tibetan society ............................................... 67 3.2.1 Monastic economy .................................................................................................. 67 3.2.2 Major economic activities of peasants and nomads ................................................ 70 3.2.3 Trade and handicraft ............................................................................................... 72 3.3 Impact on Tibetans market participation ....................................................................... 77 Chapter 4 Policy and market participation ......................................................................... 85 4.1 Overview of economic development policy since 1950 ................................................ 85 4.2 Policy impact on Tibetans and market participation...................................................... 93 4.2.1 Economic-policy-derived inequalities .................................................................... 94 4.2.2 The failure of taking local conditions into account .............................................. 100 4.3 Business development policy and its impact on Tibetans ........................................... 115 Chapter 5 Education and Market Participation................................................................. 124 5.1 Brief review of Tibetan modern educational history ................................................... 127 5.2 Secondary education .................................................................................................... 131 5.2.1 Language of instruction ........................................................................................ 132 5.2.2 Teaching materials ................................................................................................ 141 5.2.3 Need for qualified teachers ................................................................................... 142 5.3 Vocational training program ........................................................................................ 144 5.3.1 Current situation of vocational training programs ................................................ 144 5.3.2 Problems and challenges facing vocational training programs............................. 149 5.4 Business training programs .......................................................................................... 151 5.5 Educational impact on Tibetan market participation ................................................... 153 4 Chapter 6 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 161 6.1 Summary of the findings .............................................................................................. 161 6.2 Towards a localized development approach ................................................................ 167 References .............................................................................................................................. 175 Appendix A: Basic information of each Tibetan region and prefecture of China. ............ 189 Appendix B: Tibetan educational attainment compared to the national average (2005). ...... 200 5 List of maps Map 1-1: PRC provincial boundaries Map 1-2: Ethnic Tibetan population List of figures Figure 2.1: Flow of logic in BDS market development. Figure 3.1: Tibetan women selling green onions at a busy market of Huangnan Prefecture seat Figure 3.2: Tibetan women selling butter at the corner of the Jokhang Temple, Lhasa. Figure 4.1: A Han woman running a garment shop at a busy market of Huangnan Prefecture seat Figure 4.2: A Hui woman sells Tibetan handicrafts and ornaments at the corner of the Jokhang Temple, Lhasa. Figure 5.1: A Young Tibetan shoe polisher near the main street of Huangnan Prefecture seat Figure 5.2: Educational level of Tibetan entrepreneurs List of tables Table 1-1: The availability of phone connection in China’s village (2003) Table 1-2: Sample of business breakdown by nationality in Barkham Table 4-1: Average GDP per capita in China and selected provinces (RMB) Table 4-2: Composition of Tibetan rural residents’ expenditures on personal consumption (2001 and 2006) Table 4-3: Comparison of per capita annual consumption expenditure of TAR’s urban and rural households, (Rural=1) Table 4-4: TAR’s investment ratio in different sectors and periods (%) Table 4-5: TAR’s investment growth rate in different sectors and periods (%) Table 5-1: Test results of grade three students of Linzhou County Middle School, TAR Table 5-2: Minimum university entrance examination marks in 2003, TAR 6 List of acronyms and abbreviations BDS Business development service GDP Gross domestic product HDI Human Development Index NBS National Bureau of Statistics PRC Peoples’ Republic of China RMB Renminbi = yuan SME Small and Medium Enterprise SOE State owned enterprise TAR Tibet Autonomous Region TESL Teaching English as a Second Language TOEFL Test of English as a Foreign Language UNDP United Nations Development Programme WB World Bank 7 Acknowledgements Research is, in many ways, teamwork. Therefore, many thanks are due to team members for their advice and support during the conception, research and completion stages of this project. First, I am deeply grateful to my principle advisor, Professor Juhani Koponen, for his detailed comments on each chapter. This project would have been impossible without support from the Graduate School of Contemporary Asian Studies (GSAS). I am grateful for financial support that made it possible for me to focus on my research, and I also benefited enormously from its many intellectuals. Comments from many participants in seminars and meetings of GSAS were valuable. I am especially grateful to Professor Joseph Cheng at the City University of Hong Kong and Co- Director of GSAS, for his detailed, insightful comments and suggestions. In addition, other board members of GSAS—Juha Janhunen, Pekka Korhonen, Erja Kettunen-Matilainen, Liisa Salo-Lee, Olavi Fält and Eero Palmujoki provided helpful comments. Special thanks are due to Marita Siika and her efforts to make various seminars and meetings possible. I am grateful for the valuable comments provided for this work by my external reviewers,
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