Introduction 1

Home , Dam Street, Double Xposure, Feng Congde, Fish and Elephant, Lan Yu (general), Liu Fusheng

Notes

Introduction 1. For example, David Harvey, A Brief History of Neoliberalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 151. 2. See Edward Wong, “China’s President Lashes Out at Western Culture,” New York Times, January 3, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/04/world/asia/ chinas-president-pushes-back-against-western-culture.html (accessed March 23, 2012). 3. In their 1989 edited volume, the original Chinese term of unofficial is wu guan- fang 無官方 or fei zhengtong 非正統, and the three editors define popular culture as any kind of culture, including any idea, belief, and practice that “has its origin in the social side of the tension between state and society” and has “origins at least partially independent of the state.” The topics discussed in the book are something that “the government has wanted to suppress or sought to discour- age . . ., or pretended to ignore . . ., or warily tried to co-opt.” See Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul Pickowicz, eds., Unofficial China: Popular Culture and Thought in the People’s Republic (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989), 5. In their 2002 edited volume, they once again belittle the state’s role in the production of popular culture and propose an emphasis on different aspects of globalization that they argue to have stronger centrality than the state in shaping tension in popular culture. This time they analyze “a variety of relatively uncensored forms of expression and communication” such as shunkouliu, which Perry Link and Kate Zhou claim contain popular thought and sentiment. Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul Pickowicz, eds., Popular China: Unofficial Culture in a Glo- balizing Society (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002), 1, 3. For Perry Link and Kate Zhou’s discussion on shunkouliu, see Perry Link and Kate Zhou, “Shunkouliu: Popular Satirical Sayings and Popular Thought,” inPopular China: Unofficial Culture in a Globalizing Society, ed. Perry Link, Richard Madsen, and Paul Pickowicz (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002), 89–110. 4. Jing Wang, “Guest Editor’s Introduction,” positions: east asia cultures critique 9, no. 1 (2001): 3. 5. James Lull, China Turned On: Television, Reform, and Resistance (London: Rout- ledge, 1991), 127–53. 172 ● Notes

6. Liu Kang, Globalization and Cultural Trends in China (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2004), 80–81. 7. Sheldon H. Lu, China, Transnational Visuality, Global Postmodernity (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001), 211–12. 8. Kevin Latham, Pop Culture China!: Media, Arts, and Lifestyle (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2007), 32. 9. I agree with Latham’s conceptualization of popular culture. Yet, his approach is a brief historical outline of different forms of popular culture. He does not perform elaborated close readings to illustrate how the content of popular culture interacts with the state. His work is an “introductory overview,” as he puts it, or good for leisure reading, as stated on the back page of the book. See Ibid,, 32, and back page. Lu’s account is useful in seeing how various kinds of revolutionary culture underwent commercialization and became popular culture that simultaneously challenges the dominant state ideology and elitism and is subject to appropriation of the state ideology. However, he does not explain what good qualities the state uses to establish its reputation and moral superiority during the process of domesticating cultural forms, nor does he evaluate the different levels of the state’s appropriation. Moreover, he ignores the presence of a censorship system that renders state manipulation more direct. 10. Thomas Gold, “Go With Your Feelings: Hong Kong and Taiwan Popular Culture in Greater China,” The China Quarterly 136 (1993): 908, footnote 2. 11. Chandra Mukerji and Michael Schudson, eds., Rethinking Popular Culture: Con- temporary Perspectives in Cultural Studies (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), 3. 12. Laikwan Pang summarizes three main approaches to the study of Chinese cinema: the assertion of “Chinese national cinema,” the theorization of Chinese cinema as a category composed of different regional cinemas, and the global and transnational dimensions of Chinese cinema. Laikwan Pang, “The Institution- alization of ‘Chinese’ Cinema as an Academic Discipline,” Journal of Chinese Cinemas 1, no. 1 (2007): 55–61. However, I would like to argue these three main approaches are based on, resistant to, and expended upon the notion of the national and transnational, such that we explore issues including but not limited to history, gender, nation, and globalization found in “Chinese cinemas.” A few monographs of this voluminous scholarship include Zhang Yingjin, Chi- nese National Cinema (New York: Routledge, 2004) and Screening China: Critical Interventions, Cinematic Reconfigurations, and the Transnational Imaginary in Con- temporary Chinese Cinema (Ann Arbor, MI: Center for Chinese Studies, 2002); Sheldon Lu, Chinese Modernity and Global Biopolitics: Studies in Literature and Visual Culture (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2007); Rey Chow, Senti- mental Fabulations, Contemporary Chinese Films: Attachment in the Age of Global Visibility (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007); Chris Berry and Mary Ann Farquhar, China on Screen: Cinema and Nation (New York: Columbia Uni- versity Press, 2006). Edited volumes on Chinese cinema, covering issues of gender, historiography, identity, diaspora, environmental issues, Chinese languages, Notes ● 173

(post–)modernity, and (post–)socialism are also compiled under an overarching theme—Chineseness or national/transnational Chinese. Some examples are Sheldon Lu, Transnational Chinese Cinemas: Identity, Nationhood, Gender (Hono- lulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1997); See-Kam Tan, Peter X. Feng, and Gina Marchetti, eds., Chinese Connections: Critical Perspectives on Film, Identity, and Diaspora (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2009); Sheldon H. Lu and Emilie Yueh-yu Yeh, eds., Chinese-Language Film: Historiography, Poetics, Poli- tics (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2005); Sheldon H. Lu and Jiayan Mi, eds., Chinese Ecocinema: In the Age of Environmental Challenge (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2009); Olivia Khoo and Sean Metzger, eds., Futures of Chinese Cinema: Technologies and Temporalities in Chinese Screen Cultures (Bris- tol, UK: Intellect, 2009). Chinese TV, compared to Chinese film, is an emergent field; yet, there are promising book-length efforts that have introduced Chinese TV drama and the TV industry to English-speaking academia. Similarly, these works revolved around the industry as an entity in China or its transnational aspect, such as Michael Curtin’s provocative analysis of Chinese film and TV in Playing to the World’s Biggest Audience: The Globalization of Chinese Film and TV (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007). Some academics are aware of the politics in TV dramas or in the industry as a whole, but they do not provide detailed analyses, which are long overdue. Some of these current attempts include Ying Zhu, Michael Keane, and Ruoyun Bai, eds., TV Drama in China (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2008); Ying Zhu, Television in Post-Reform China: Serial Dramas, Confucian Leadership and the Global Television Market (London: Routledge, 2008); Ying Zhu and Chris Berry, eds., TV China (Bloom- ington: Indiana University Press, 2009). There are also many sporadic articles on the development of the TV industry, production, content, and reception of TV programs. For a more detailed record of scholarship on Chinese TV studies, please refer to Ying Zhu, Television in Post-Reform China: Serial Dramas, Con- fucian Leadership and the Global Television Market (London: Routledge, 2008), 13–17. 13. There are recent books series that treat TV and film as compatible under the theoretical framework of screen culture or screen industries. They, however, not only neglect the state’s role, but also overlook the politics in the common production environment of the two media forms. See, for example, the TransAsia Screen Cultures Series by the Hong Kong University Press and the International Screen Industries Series by the British Film Institute. 14. Miao Di, “Between Propaganda and Commercials: Chinese Television Today,” in Changing Media, Changing China, ed. Susan Shirk (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 91–114; Chris Berry, “Shanghai Television’s Documentary Chan- nel: Chinese Television as Public Space,” in TV China, ed. Ying Zhu and Chris Berry (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009), 71–89; Yin Hong, “Mean- ing, Production, Consumption: The History and Reality of Television Drama in China,” trans. Michael Keane and Bai Jiannu, in Media in China: Consump- tion, Content and Crisis, ed. Stephanie Donald, Michael Keane, and Yin Hong 174 ● Notes

(London; New York: Routledge, 2002), 28–40; and Bai Ruoyun, “Media Com- mercialization, Entertainment, and the Party-State: The Political Economy of Contemporary Chinese Television Entertainment Culture,” Global Media Journal 4, no. 6 (2005): article no. 12. 15. See Ying Zhu, Chinese Cinema During the Era of Reform: The Ingenuity of the Sys- tem (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003); and Ying Zhu and Stanley Rosen, eds., Art, Politics, and Commerce in Chinese Cinema (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2010). 16. Zhong Xueping, Mainstream Culture Refocused: Television Drama, Society, and the Production of Meaning in Reform-Era China (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2010), 12. 17. Ying Zhu, Two Billion Eyes: The Story of China Central Television (New York: New Press, 2012). 18. Zhang Wanshu, Lishi de da baozha: “Liusi” shijian quanjing shilu 歷史的大爆炸:「六四」事件全景實錄 [The great explosion of history: The panoramic record of the “June Fourth Event”] (Hong Kong: Tiandi tushu youxan gongsi, 2009), 232. 19. In this book, I focus on screen culture, leaving a more distinctive genre— literary production—behind. For current scholarship on zhuxuanlü novels, see, for example, Liu Fusheng, Lishi de fuqiao: shiji zhi jiao “zhuxuanlü” xiaoshuo yanjiu 歷史的浮橋︰世紀之交 “主旅律” 小說研究 [Pontoon bridge of history: A research on zhuxuanlü fiction at the turn of the century] (Kaifeng Shi: Henan daxue chubanshe, 2005); and Xie Jinsheng, Zhuanxing qi zhuxuanlü xiaoshuo yanjiu: yi xiandaihua wei shijiao 轉型期主旋律小說研究 [A research on zhuxuanlü fiction in the transformation era] (Ha’erbin Shi: Heilongjiang renmin chubanshe, 2005). 20. Wu Suling, Zhongguo dianshiju fazhan shigang 中國電視劇發展史綱 [A brief history of Chinese TV drama], (Beijing: Beijing guangbo xueyuan chubanshe, 1997), 274. 21. Liu Cheng, “Dui 1989 nian gushipian chuangzuo de huigu” 對1989年故事片創作的回顧 [Review of production of feature films of 1989],Zhongguo dianying nianjian 1990 中國電影年鑑 [China film year book], 18–24, quoted in Rui Zhang, The Cinema of Feng Xiaogang (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2008), 35. 22. Zhang Yingjin, Chinese National Cinema, 240. 23. Zhang Yingjin suggests three reasons for the rise of zhuxuanlü films in the 1990s: first, quoting Chris Berry, he points out the state can reeducate the population and instill the spirit of nationalism via zhuxuanlü film; second, in order to cel- ebrate the anniversary of the PRC, some zhuxuanlü productions are also called xianli pian 獻禮片 film presented as a gift; third, studios and individual directors participated in these productions in order to accumulate political capital. See Zhang, Chinese National Cinema, 285. After the tragic 1989 summer, zhuxuanlü production emerged along with another cultural trend—the commercialization and professionalization of cultural productions, creating a tension-fraught atmo- sphere on the Chinese cultural scenes in the 1990s. See Zha Jianying, China Pop: Notes ● 175

How Soap Operas, Tabloids, and Bestsellers Are Transforming a Culture (New York: New Press, 1995), 4. 24. The four ideologies and spirits sixiang( yu jingshen) are (1) patriotism, collectiv- ism, and socialism; (2) reforms, openings, and modernizations; (3) ethnic unity, social progress, and the people’s happiness; and (4) obtaining a good life with honesty and human labor. “倡導一切有利於發提愛國主義, 集體主義, 社會主義的思想和精神, 大力倡導一切有利於改革開放和現代化建設的思想和精神, 大力倡導一切有利於民族團結, 社會進步, 人民幸福的思想和精神, 大力倡導一切用誠實勞動爭取美好生活的思想和精神.” See Wu Sul- ing, Zhongguo dianshiju fazhan shigang 中國電視劇發展史綱 [A brief history of Chinese TV drama], 215. 25. Rui Zhang, The Cinema of Feng Xiaogang: Commercialization and Censor- ship in Chinese Cinema After 1989 (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2008), 36. 26. Ibid., 9. 27. Bai Xiaoyi, Xin yujing zhong de Zhongguo dianshiju chuangzuo 新語境中的中國電視劇創作 [The creation of Chinese TV series in the new context] (Beijing: Zhongguo dianying chubanshe, 2007), 154–56. 28. However, the state financial investments are hard to trace; see Rui Zhang,The Cinema of Feng Xiaogang, 37. 29. Ibid., 38; and Wendy Su, “To Be or Not To Be?—China’s Cultural Policy and Counterhegemony Strategy Toward Global Hollywood from 1994 to 2000,” Journal of International and Intercultural Communication 3, no. 1 (2010): 46. 30. Zhang Lin and Xu Lin, “Qianxi woguo guangdian zongju dianshi jianguan xian- zhuang” 淺析我國廣電總局電視監管現狀 [A brief explanation of SARFT’s current monitor over television], Qingnian jizhe, March 6, 2012, http://qnjz. dzwww.com/gdst/201203/t20120306_6966694.htm (accessed March 27, 2012). 31. But since the state ideology keeps changing, whether or not a film wins the endorsement of the state is conditional and historically specific. For example, the TV drama Qianshou 牽手 [Holding Hands] won a Feitian Award in 1999 but was not considered a zhuxuanlü product by mid-2000, as the state ideology placed a higher value on social harmony, whereas the TV drama depicted an extra-marital affair. See Ji Xiuping, “Shichang jizhi xia de zhuxuanlü‘ ’ zuoping” 市場機制下的 “主旋律” 主品 [Zhuxuanlü works under the market mechanism], in Toushi Zhongguo yingshi shichang 透視中國影視市場 [Examining Chinese film and TV market], chief ed. Chen Xiaochun (Beijing: Zhongguo guangbo chubanshe, 2002), 402. 32. To name a few of these films: Zhang Yimou’s earlier works in the late 1980s and early 1990s, such as Red Sorghum (1987) and To Live (1992); Tian Zhuang- zhuang’s The Blue Kite (1993); and Jia Zhangke’s “Hometown trilogy” (Xiao Wu, 1998; Zhantai [Platform], 2000; Ren Xiaoyao [Unknown pleasures], 2002). Research on the predecessors of zhuxuanlü, left-wing films, seems to be relatively richer and more prominent. See, for example, Chen Huangmei, Zhongguo zuoyi 176 ● Notes

dianying shi 中國左派電影史 [History of Chinese left-wing film] (Beijing: China Cinema Press, 1990); Laikwan Pang, Building a New China in Cinema: The Chinese Left-wing Cinema Movement, 1932–1937 (Lanham, MD: Row- man and Littlefield, 2002); and Vivian Shen,The Origins of Left-wing Cinema in China, 1932–37 (New York: Routledge, 2005). 33. Yomi Braester, “Contemporary Mainstream PRC Cinema,” in The Chinese Cin- ema Book, eds. Song Hwee Lim and Julian Ward (Houndmills, Basingstoke, UK: British Film Institute, 2011), 181. His view may also be explained by his selected pool of zhuxuanlü films, as he limitedzhuxuanlü films to only those depicting revolutionary history with significant subjects. 34. For example, Yin Hong and Yan Ling, Xin Zhongguo dianying shi, 1949–2000 新中國電影史 [A history of Chinese cinema, 1949–2000] (Changsha Shi: Hunan meishu chubanshe, 2002), 154–67; and Zhang Yingjin, Chinese National Cinema, 240, 285–86. 35. For example, Yu Hongmei, “The Politics of Image: Chinese Cinema in the Con- text of Globalization” (PhD diss., University of Oregon, 2008); Shen Yipeng, “The State Goes Pop: Orientalism inGrief over the Yellow River,” Southeast Review of Asian Studies 32 (2010): 68–83. 36. For details on how censorship worked in the republican era, please see Zhiwei Xiao, “Anti-Imperialism and Film Censorship During the Nanjing Decade, 1927–1937,” in Transnational Chinese Cinemas: Identity, Nationhood, Gender, ed. Sheldon Lu (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1997), 35–58; for the CCP’s changing censorship policy, see Laikwan Pang, “The State Against Ghosts: A Genealogy of China’s Film Censorship Policy,” Screen 52, no. 4 (Winter 2011): 461–76. 37. For a detailed explanation of the censorship processes, please refer to the State Administration of Radio, Film, Television (SARFT), “Guojia guangbo dianying dianshi zongju ling” 國家廣播電影電視總局令 [Ordinance of the SARFT], http://www.chinasarft.gov.cn/articles/2003/10/21/20070920161659520454.html (accessed April 6, 2012). 38. Ibid. 39. For example, the screening permit of the filmLost in Beijing was revoked during its screening in theaters. For details, please see my discussion in Chapter 2. 40. However, there are grey areas for filmmaking. The advancement and populariza- tion of recording technology allows more and more independent individuals to engage in unsupervised film production. 41. Ji Xiuping, “Shichang jizhi xia de ‘zhuxuanlü’ zuopin” 市場機制下的 “主旋律” 作品 [Zhuxuanlü works under market mechanism], 391–407. 42. During the 1980s, the government launched various campaigns that promoted “new” or “socialist” lifestyles and socialist construction with a scope ranging from personal hygiene, etiquette, and value systems to (of course) political ideology. Again, loving and supporting the Party was at the center of these campaigns. For details and examples of these campaigns, please see Anhui sheng “wu si san” huodong weiyuanhui, Shenghuo fangshi yu jingshen wenming 生活方式與精神文明 [Lifestyles and spiritual civilizations] (Hefei: Anhui renmin chubanshe, Notes ● 177

1985); and Gong qing tuan (China), Wu jiang si mei shouce 五講四美手冊 [The handbook of five emphases and four beauties] (Beijing: Zhongguo qingnian chubanshe, 1983). 43. Wendy Larson uses the 1995 film Postman (dir. He Jianjun) to propose that the revolutionary spirit of righting what is wrong persists in contemporary Chinese culture. See Wendy Larson, From Ah Q to Lei Feng: Freud and Revolu- tionary Spirit in 20th Century China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2009). 44. I agree with novelist Yu Hua’s idea that the Chinese government currently fears democracy less than revolution, as revolution may imply political insta- bility or even a change of regime. However, Yu also sees political uprisings as highly possible. See Yu Hua’s speech, “A Writer’s China—Acclaimed Chinese Novelist Yu Hua Speaks to Montana State students,” http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=tYArZoJfWV4 (accessed March 23, 2012). 45. For example, Prime Minister Hu Jintao recently proclaimed that cultural products have been the battlefield of ideological struggles and the focal area of hostile international forces’ long-term infiltration; therefore China should develop its own cultural productions to meet the demands of local Chinese citizens as well as to bolster the international influence of Chinese culture. See Edward Wong, “China’s President Lashes Out at Western Culture.” 46. For the Campaign’s manifestation in the literary field, please refer to Wendy Larson, “Realism, Modernism, and the Anti-‘Spiritual Pollution’ Campaign in China,” Modern China 15, no. 1 (January 1989), 37–71; and Charles J. Alber, Embracing the Lie: Ding Ling and the Politics of Literature in the People’s Republic of China (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2004), 235–51. 47. Zhu Yu, “Zhongyang zhengfawei fachu kaizhan xiang Ren Changxia tongzhi xuexi de tongzhi” 中央政法委發出開展向任長霞同志學習的通知 [Notice issued by Political and Legislative Affairs Committee of the CCP: Learn from Ren Changxia], Xinhuanet, June 13, 2004. http://news.xinhuanet.com/newscenter/2004-06/13/content_1523135.htm (accessed April 6, 2012). 48. Dawn Einwalter, “Selflessness and Self-Interest: Public Morality and the Xu Honggang Campaign,” in Journal of Contemporary China 7, no. 18 (1998): 257–69. 49. Wu Wencong and Feng Zhiwei, “Lei Feng Continues to Lead by Heroic Example,” China Daily, March 5, 2012, http://english.people.com.cn/90882/7747507. html (accessed March 23, 2012); and Peter Mattis, “Another Lei Feng Revival: Making Maoism Safe for China,” The Jamestown Foundation, March 2, 2012, http://www.jamestown.org/programs/chinabrief/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_ news%5D=39091&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=25&cHash=004f169fa675b5 370f16042eebf39216 (accessed March 23, 2012). 50. The “Eight Honors and Eight Shames” 八榮八恥( ) sets up eight pairs of rights and wrongs or do’s and don’ts:

● Love the country; do it no harm (以熱愛祖國為榮、以危害祖國為恥) ● Serve the people; never betray them (以服務人民為榮、以背離人民為恥) 178 ● Notes

● Follow science; discard superstition (以崇尚科學為榮、以愚昧無知為恥) ● Be diligent, not indolent (以辛勤勞動為榮、以好逸惡勞為恥) ● Be united, help each other; make no gains at another’s expense (以團結互助為榮、以損人利己為恥) ● Be honest and trustworthy; do not sacrifice ethics for profit以誠實守信 ( 為榮、以見利忘義為恥) ● Be disciplined and law-abiding, not chaotic and lawless (以遵紀守法為榮、以違法亂紀為恥) ● Live plainly, work hard; do not wallow in luxuries and pleasures (以艱苦奮鬥為榮、以驕奢淫逸為恥)

Hu announced this set of values during the tenth Chinese People’s Politi- cal Consultative Conference (中國人民政治協商會議), aiming to establish moral guidelines to measure work, conduct, and attitude of the Communist Party cadres as well as the rest of the general public. The fifth and the sixth pairs advance the Confucian virtues of faithfulness and sincerity. In Confu- cian Analects, the master emphasized to “hold faithfulness and sincerity as first principles” (主忠信) and “in intercourse with others, to be strictly sincere” (與人忠). Confucius distinguished the superior man from the mean man by his focus, concluding that “the mind of the superior man is conversant with righteousness; the mind of the mean man is conversant with gain” (君子喻於義, 小心喻於利). See Book I Xue Er (學而第一), Book XIII Zi Lu (子路第十三), and Book IV Li Ren (裏仁第四), Confucius Analects, in James Legge, The Chinese Classics: Confucius (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1960), 141, 271, 170. 51. For the different perspectives of the Party leaders on economic reforms, see Zhao Ziyang, Gaige licheng 改革歷程 [The secret journal of Zhao Ziyang] (Hong Kong: New Century Press, 2009), 120. 52. Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (Min- neapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984). 53. See Zhang Xudong, Chinese Modernism in the Era of Reforms: Cultural Fever, Avant-Garde Fiction, and the New Chinese Cinema (Durham, NC: Duke Uni- versity Press, 1997); Postsocialism and Cultural Politics: China in the Last Decade of the Twentieth Century (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008); Tang Xiaobing, Chinese Modern: The Heroic and the Quotidian (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000); and Sheldon Lu, China, Transnational Visuality, Global Postmodernity. 54. One of Arif Dirlik’s definitions of post-socialism is a historical situation in which “socialism has lost its coherence as a metatheory of politics because of the atten- uation of the socialist vision in its historical unfolding.” See Arif Dirlik and Maurice J. Meisner, eds., Marxism and the Chinese Experience: Issues in Contem- porary Chinese Socialism (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1989), 364. Pickowicz dates post-socialism to midway through the Cultural Revolution, as there was a “massive disillusionment with socialism among true believers and ideological Notes ● 179

agnostics” although it mostly flourished in the 1980s. Paul Pickowicz, “Huang Jianxin and the Notion of Postsocialism,” in New Chinese Cinemas: Forms, Iden- tities, Politics, eds. Nick Brown, Paul G. Pickowicz, Ivian Sobchack, and Esther Yau (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 62. However, Chris Berry pushes the post-socialist/post-modern line up to the end of the Cultural Revolu- tion, finding a significant marker in the end of the grand Maoist narrative of pro- letarian cultural reform. Chris Berry, Postsocialist Cinema in Post-Mao China: The Cultural Revolution After the Cultural Revolution (New York: Routledge, 2004). 55. Lisa Rofel suggests that China is currently transforming into a neo-liberal state whose commencement was marked by the first post-Mao soap opera aired in China, Yearnings (Kewang, 1990), which teaches people the art of longing. The state, in its neo-liberal experiments, creates and tolerates various subject positions, including those of gays and women, to construct a “desiring China” in which expressing yearning is part of a cosmopolitan human nature. How- ever, her anthropological approach ignores the state’s control over the pursuit of desire in the screen industries and on the screen, leading her to conclude that China’s ongoing experimental project creates multiple uneven neo-liberal subjects. Lisa Rofel, “Yearnings: Televisual Love and Melodramatic Politics,” in Desiring China: Experiments in Neoliberalism, Sexuality, and Public Culture (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007), 31–64. In a similar vein, Jason McGrath, in his 2008 monograph, Postsocialist Modernity, magnifies the state’s retreat from other forces; in his case, the market and its ability to create a new cultural landscape. Premising his argument on the concept of capital modernity, through the study of commercial fiction and films, McGrath contends that the central cultural logic of China at the turn of the twenty-first century “is largely consistent with the fundamental dynamics of capitalist modernity itself.” Therefore, he proposes the termpost-socialist modernity in describ- ing contemporary Chinese culture. Jason McGrath, Postsocialist Modernity: Chinese Cinema, Literature, and Criticism in the Market Age (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008), 6–7. When introducing diverse practices of neo-liberalism over the world, geographer and social theorist David Harvey describes China’s conflicting economic and political systems as “neoliberalism with Chinese characteristics,” given that China allows more inflow of capital on one hand and maintains its strict control on the other. David Harvey, A Brief History of Neoliberalism , 151. 56. Jeffrey C. Kinkley,Corruption and Realism in Late Socialist China: The Return of the Political Novel (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007), 8–9. 57. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Vin- tage, 1979), 194. 58. Stuart Hall, Encoding and Decoding in the Television Discourse (Birmingham, UK: Centre for Cultural Studies, University of Birmingham, 1973), 16–18. 59. Ibid., 13, 17, 18. 60. By saying this, I do not mean, either, that a warmly received film will automati- cally succeed in instilling political ideology. 180 ● Notes

61. Yomi Braester, “Contemporary Mainstream PRC Cinema,” 181. 62. Wang Ban, The Sublime Figure of History: Aesthetics and Politics in Twentieth-Century China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997). Laikwan Pang, in analyz- ing the Leftist Cinema Movement in the 1930s, also illustrates that sexuality is sublimated or purified to serve political goals. See Laikwan Pang, Building a New China in Cinema, 99. 63. Chris Berry holds another view about the elevated relationship between romantic love and politics. He argues that didactic concerns have subordinated romantic love. See Chris Berry, Postsocialist Cinema in Post-Mao China, 116.

Chapter 1 1. Ci Jiwei, “The Moral Crisis in Post-Mao China: Prolegomenon to a Philosophical Analysis,” Diogenes 56, no. 1 (2009): 20. 2. Zygmunt Bauman, Does Ethics Have a Chance in a World of Consumers? (Cam- bridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 8. 3. See Dawn Einwatler, “Selflessness and Self-Interest: Public Morality and the Xu Honggang Campaign,” Journal of Contemporary China 7, no. 18 (1998): 257–69; Li Li, “The Television Play, Melodramatic Imagination and Envisioning the ‘Har- monious Society’ in Post-1989 China,” Journal of Contemporary China 20, no. 69 (2011): 327–41; Michael Keane, “Television and Moral Development in China,” Asian Studies Review 22, no. 4 (1998): 475–503. 4. Gong Haomin, Uneven Modernity: Literature, Film, and Intellectual Discourse in Postsocialist China (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2012), 94–116; Rui Zhang, The Cinema of Feng Xiaogang: Commercialization and Censor- ship in Chinese Cinema After 1989 (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2008). 5. Wang Ban, “Documentary as Haunting of the Real: The Logic of Capital inBlind Shaft,” Asian Cinema 16, no. 1 (2005): 4–15. 6. For socially conscious films, I refer to a more narrow sense of Ying Zhu’s loose theorization of director Li Yang’s socially conscious but nonoppositional films. See Ying Zhu, “Li Yang’s Socially Conscious Film as Marginal Cinema—China’s State-Capital Alliance and its Cultural Ramifications,”Chinese Journal of Com- munication 2 (2009): 212–26. To refine her loose usage, I refer to “socially conscious” films as those that address current Chinese social issues by exposing the social problems and provoking questions and reflections on reality rather than those of main melody productions that gloss over social problems by shifting the filmic attention to heroic official figures who fight social problems. 7. Her awards include the National Award of Excellent Young Experts (Quanguo qingnian gangwei nengshou) from the Chinese Communist Youth League and the Department of Labor and Human Resources in 1995; the National Award of Excellent People’s Police from the Ministry of Public Security of the PRC in 1996; the Award of Outstanding Women in Zhengzhou City from the Propaganda Department of Zhengzhou City in 1998; the National Award of Outstanding Notes ● 181

Women from the All-China Women’s Federation (Quanguo funü lianhehui) in 2002. 8. See, for example, Zhao Fuhai, Yingxiong nü gong’an juzhang Ren Changxia chuanqi 英雄女公安局長任長霞傳奇 [The legend of Ren Changxia—the heroic female police chief] (Zhengzhou: Henan renmin chubanshe, 2005); Rong Xin and Liu Congde, eds., Gong’an juzhang de bangyan: Ren Changxia 公安局長的榜樣: 任長霞 [Ren Changxia—the model of police chief] (Zhengzhou: Henan renmin chubanshe, 2004); Xiang Ren Changxia tongzhi xuexie bianxie zu, Xiang Ren Changxia tongzhi xuexie 向任長霞同志學習 [To learn from comrade Ren Changxia] (Beijing: Zhonggong dangshi chubanshe, 2004); Yu Pei and Ning Li, eds., Ren Changxia de gushi 任長霞的故事 [The story of Ren Changxia] (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 2004); Zhonggong Dengfeng shiwei xuanchuanbu, Xinbei: Yingxiong Ren Changxia 心碑︰英雄任長霞 [Stele in the heart—the hero Ren Changxia] (Shanghai Shi: Shanghai jiaotong daxue chubanshe, 2004). 9. Peng Yaochun, “Xin shiji Zhongguo jingcha yingxiang zhi biaozhixing shuangbi—dian ying Ren Changxia yu dianshiju Ren Changxia bijiao” 新世紀中國員警影像之標誌情雙璧—電影《任長霞》與電視劇《任長霞》比較 [Two symbolic jades of the image of the China’s police in the new century—a comparison between the filmRen Changxia and the TV drama Ren Changxia], Jiangsu jingguan xueyuan xuebao [Journal of Jiangsu Police Officer College] 2 (2008): 196–200. 10. Li Mingjie and Wang Xiaoqiu, “Liu Litao Ren Changxia shi de gong’an juzhang” 劉麗濤任長霞式的公安局長 [Liu Litao police chief of Ren Changxia mode], Zhonghua ernu [Sons and daughters in China] 3 (2008): 58–61; Ma Fang and Tao Yongwei, “Zuo renmin zhongcheng de baohushen” 做人民忠誠的保護神 [To be a loyal guardian angel of the people], Dang de jianshe [Constructions of the Party] 5 (2008): 28–29; Zhang Ruidong, Lu Chunlan, and Li Xuewen, “Honghe lijian puo changkong” 紅河利劍破長空 [Red river/sharp sword cut through the sky], Shidai fengcai [Graciousness of the time] 2 (2006): F36–F38. 11. Zhonggong Dengfeng shiwei xuanchuanbu, Xinbei, preface. 12. Ibid., 49. 13. Ibid., preface. 14. See Renmin gongpu de bangyang bianjizu, Renmin gongpu de bangyang: Kong Fansen 人民公僕的榜樣︰孔繁森 [The role model of civil servants: Kong Fansen] (Beijing: Zhonggong zhoang yang dangxiao chubanshe, 1995), 2; and Zhang Jiaxiang and Yu Peiling, eds., Renmin de gongpu Jiao Yulu 人民的公僕焦裕祿 [Civil servant of the people: Jiao Yulu] (Nanjing: Jiangsu renmin chubanshe, 1990), 8. 15. A phrase coined by the political theorist C. B. Macpherson, which refers to a human who is “in his capacity as proprietor of his own person,” whose “human- ity does depend on his freedom from any but self-interested contractual relations with others,” and whose “society consists of a series of market relations.” See C. B. Macpherson, The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962), 271, 272. 182 ● Notes

16. Fa zhi ribao, “Bu fanfu ren wang zheng xi: Wen Jiabao zai lianzheng huiyi fa chu fanfu jiangyin” 不反腐人亡政息: 溫家寶在廉政會議發出反腐強音 [The ruin of civilization and governance if we do not fight corruption: Wen Jiao announced his determination to fight corruption at an anti-corruption conference],Zhong- guo Wang, March 28, 2012, http://www.china.com.cn/policy/txt/2012-03/28/ content_25003728.htm (accessed January 20, 2013); Edward Wong, “New Communist Party Chief in China Denounces Corruption in Speech,” New York Times, November 19, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/20/world/ asia/new-communist-party-chief-in-china-denounces-corruption.html?_r=0 (accessed January 20, 2013). 17. Zhonggong Dengfeng shiwei xuanchuanbu, Xinbei, 53. 18. Ibid., 101. 19. Mary Leila Makra, trans., The Hsiao Ching [The classic of filial piety], ed. Paul K. T. Sih (New York: St. John’s University, 1961), 3. 20. D. C. Lau, trans., Mencius, Book 1, Part A (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 2003), 19. 21. Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/xiao-jing (accessed January 13, 2012). 22. In the conflict between Confucianism and the CCP, I refrain from evaluating which is taking a winning side. Rather, I suggest the CCP uses Confucian rhetoric of filial piety to gain support, on the one hand, and Confucianism is defeated, on the other. It is exactly because of its deep rootedness in Chinese culture that it is adapted for revolutionary rhetoric. (I don’t understand how, then, Confucian- ism is defeated if it is used in revolutionary rhetoric.) 23. Zhonggong Dengfeng shiwei xuanchuanbu, Xinbei. 24. The film script is expanded into a novel published with the same name, which also includes production features of the film and interviews with Qiao Anshan. See Wang Xingdong and Chen Baoguang, Likai Lei Feng de rizi (Beijing: Jief- angjun wenyi chubanshe, 1997). 25. Lei Xianhe is currently a member of the National Committee of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference. 26. Mao Zedong, Wei renmin fuwu; jinian Bai Qiu’en; yugong yishan 為人民服務; 紀念白求恩; 愚公移山 [Serve the people; in memory of Norman Bethune; the foolish old man who removed the mountains] (Beijing: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1972). 27. As seen in the 1962 filmLei Feng. 28. Memorial publications on Kong Fansen are many; for example, Xing Zhidi and Liu Jimeng, eds., Kong Fansen jiazhiguan yanjiu 孔繁森價值觀研究 [Research on Kong Fansen’s value systems] (Beijing: Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao chubanshe, 1998); Renmin gongpu de bangyang bianjizu, Renmin gongpu de bangyang: Kong Fansen 人民公僕的榜樣︰孔繁森; and Ma Jun, Lingdao ganbu de kaimu Kong Fansen 領導幹部的楷模孔繁森 [An exemplary model of leading cadres: Kong Fansen] (Jinan: Shandong renmin chubanshe, 2006). 29. This is frequently cited in books paying tribute to Kong Fansen. For instance, see Ma Jun, Lingdao ganbu de kaimu Kong Fansen 領導幹部的楷模孔繁森 [An exemplary model of leading cadres: Kong Fansen], 104. Notes ● 183

30. Wendy Larson, From Ah Q to Lei Feng: Freud and Revolutionary Spirit in 20th Century China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2009), 211. 31. Ge Fei, Niu Bocheng, et al., Ren Changxia (Beijing: Qunzhong chubanshe, 2005), 36, 50; Yu Pei and Ning Li, eds., Ren Changxia de gushi 任長霞的故事 [The story of Ren Changxia], 14. 32. Although Ren Changxia opens up an ambiguous space for a negotiated reading against the value to sacrifice oneself, the ending of the film closes that space by portraying a carefree Ren Changxia surrounded by a field of beautiful yellow canola flowers, suggesting she enjoys a good afterlife for her sacrifice. These two scenes offer us evidence to show that conflicting ideologies are present in zhuxu-a anlü production.

Chapter 2 1. Arif Dirlik, “The Global in the Local,” inGlobal/Local: Cultural Production and the Transnational Imaginary, ed. Rob Wilson and Wimal Dissanayake (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996), 21–45. 2. Ibid., 28. 3. For instance, Vivian Shen discusses the debates of the sex scenes, love and revolution, female sexuality and agency, and masculinity and the state in her article, “History, Fiction, and Film Lust, Caution Revisited,” Asian Cinema 22, no. 2 (Spring/Summer 2011): 305–21. 4. Stephanie Donald, “Tang Wei: Sex, the City and the Scapegoat in Lust, Caution,” Theory, Culture and Society 27, no. 4 (2010): 46–68. 5. Cui Shuqin analyzes Fish and Elephant, Dam Street, and Lost in Beijing as a trilogy and argues that it serves as a vehicle for discussing female sexuality from the perspective of a female director and women’s cinema. See Cui Shuqin, “Searching for Female Sexuality and Negotiating with Feminism: Li Yu’s Film Trilogy,” in Chinese Women’s Cinema: Transnational Contexts, ed. Wang Lingzhen (New York: Columbia University Press, 2011), 213–34. 6. Her feature film debut won the Elvira Notari Prize at the Venice Film Festival in 2001; her second picture captured the C.I.C.A.E. (Confederation Internationale des Cinemas D’Art et D’Essai) Award in Venice anew and the Golden Lotus Award from the Deauville Asian Film Festival in 2006; Lost in Beijing’s screenplay garnered her and the film’s producer Fang Li Honorable Mention at the Tribeca Film Festival in 2007, and the film was nominated for Golden Berlin Bear at the Berlin International Film Festival and the Best Film at the Bangkok International Film Festival; most recently, Buddha Mountain won the Award for Best Artistic Contribution at the 23rd Tokyo International Film Festival. 7. Orville Schell, To Get Rich Is Glorious: China in the Eighties (New York: Pantheon, 1984). 8. Scholarship has aruged that the Chinese government has opened up opportuni- ties for the new rich and may even have become part of the new rich. David Goodman argues that “China’s new rich are not readily separable from the Party-state as a social, political, or even economic force”; for instance, it is not 184 ● Notes

uncommon for close family members of the CCP members become business people. See David Goodman and Xiaowei Zang, “The New Rich in China: The Dimensions of Social Change,” in The New Rich in China: Future Rulers, Pres- ent Lives, ed. David Goodman (London; New York: Routledge, 2008), 6; and David Goodman, “Why China Has No New Middle Class: Cadres, Managers and Entrepreneurs,” in The New Rich in China,35–36. 9. See National Bureau of Statistics of China, “Communiqué on Major Data of the Second National Agricultural Census of China (No. 5),” http://www.stats. gov.cn/was40/gjtjj_en_detail.jsp?searchword=+migrant+worker&channelid=952 8&record=7 (accessed January 14, 2012). This number takes into consideration rural migrant workers alone. According to the statistics in 2010, the total number of migrant workers hit 242 million, while the migrant workers employed outside their province reached 153 million. See National Bureau of Statistics of China, “Statistical Communiqué of the People’s Republic of China on the 2010 National Economic and Social Development,” http://www.stats.gov.cn/was40/ gjtjj_en_detail.jsp?searchword=migrant+workers&channelid=9528&record=1 (accessed January 14, 2012). 10. Nearly 70 percent of the floating population are registered as peasants in their households, and half of the floating population moves for the purpose of employment and business. See Guojia tongjiju renkou he jiu yu tongjisi, ed., 2007 Zhongguo renkou 中國人口 [2007 China population] (Beijing Shi: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 2008), 107–9. For the education level of the floating population in 2006, see National Bureau of Statistics of China, “Communiqué on Major Data of the Second National Agricultural Census of China (No. 5),” http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/newsandcomingevents/t20080303_402465584. htm (accessed February 7, 2012). 11. For example, the male and female interviewees in an article that appeared on Beijing Review were a cabinet installer and a salesperson at a department store, respectively. Although the city life and their working conditions were not utopian, and they were of low socioeconomic status and felt that they were labeled as second-class citizens because of their identity as migrant workers, they remain determined to become urban citizens and settle down in the city. See Yin Pumin, “A Beautiful Dream,” Beijing Review, June 18, 2010, http://www.bjreview.com. cn/print/txt/2010-06/18/content_280181.htm (accessed January 15, 2012). 12. Wenshu Gao and Russell Smyth argue that expectations about future income is the reason why rural migrants continue to flock to cities where they work in the “Three D jobs.” See Wenshu Gao and Russell Smyth, “What Keeps China’s Migrant Workers Going? Expectations and Happiness Among China’s Float- ing Population,” Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy 16, no. 2 (2011): 163–82. According to the National Bureau of Statistics of China, the per capita disposable income of urban households was three times higher than that of rural households, triggering an aspiration for a better life in the urban areas; see National Bureau of Statistics of China, “Statistical Communiqué of the People’s Republic of China on the 2007,” http://www.stats.gov.cn/was40/gjtjj_en_detail.jsp?searchword=+m igrant+worker&channelid=9528&record=8 (accessed January 15, 2012). Notes ● 185

13. The floating population in Beijing contributes 27 percent of Beijing’s total population. Guojia tongjiju renkou he jiu yu tongjisi, ed., 2007 Zhongguo renkou [2007 China population], 113–16. 14. See Eli Zarestky, Capitalism, the Family, and Personal Life (New York: Harper and Row, 1976), 24, 29, 61. 15. Arlie Russell Hochschild, The Commercialization of Intimate Life: Notes from Home and Work (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 1, 9, 198. 16. Translation from DVD subtitles. 17. Rey Chow, Sentimental Fabulations, Contemporary Chinese Films: Attachment in the Age of Global Visibility (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), 176. 18. Wendy Brown, “Neo-liberalism and the End of Liberal Democracy,” Theory and Event 7, no. 1 (2003). http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/theory_and_event/ v007/7.1brown.html (accessed March 23, 2012). 19. Marshall Berman, All That Is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982), 111. 20. Zygmunt Bauman, Does Ethics Have a Chance in a World of Consumers? (Cam- bridge, MA: Harvard University Press), 56. 21. As such, An Kun and Pingguo’s neo-liberal logic contrasts significantly with another film about justice,The Story of Qiu Ju (Qiu Ju da guansi 秋菊打官司, dir. Zhang Yimou, 1992), which illustrates a persistent pursuit of justice or shuofa within a rural Chinese setting. In The Story of Qiu Ju, Qiu Ju and her husband Qinglai perceive an apology from the village chief, who had violated Qinglai by kicking him, as more significant than any financial compensation, and they are willing to forsake their rights to indemnity based on the chief’s apology. These differing approaches to justice offer us a glimpse into the ways filmic representation has responded to the changing social codes in China over the past two decades. 22. Lu Xiaoxian, “Pingguo bei jin: jie se yi, jie ying nan” 《蘋果》被禁︰戒色易, 戒癮難 [Lost in Beijing is banned: Easy is to abstain from lust, difficult to abstain from addictions], Jiakechong [Lifestyle culture] 2 (2008): 66–67. 23. Ding Xianming, “Jiqing Pingguo tiaozhan Guangdian Zongju jinling” 激情《蘋果》挑戰廣電總局禁令 [A passionate Lost in Beijing challenges SARFT’s ban], Xin shiji zhoukan 新世紀周刊 [New century weekly] 11 (2008): 55–57. 24. Ibid. 25. Sanpei xiaojie 三陪小姐 (literally, “girls who accompany men in three ways”) refers to KTV bar companions or hostesses who provide services that typi- cally include drinking, singing, dancing, playing games, flirting, chatting, and caressing. See Tiantian Zheng, “Anti-Trafficking Campaign and Karaoke Bar Hostesses in China,” Wagadu: A Journal of Transnational Women’s and Gen- der Studies 5 (Summer 2008): 75. Although the term sanpei xiao sometimes is associated with sexual services, Xiao Mei initially does not offer any sexual service. 26. See Walter Benjamin, Arcades Project, ed. Rolf Tiedemann (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1999), 335; and Walter Benjamin, Charles Baudelaire: A Lyric Poet in High Capitalism (London: New Left Books, 1973), 171. 186 ● Notes

27. Graeme Gilloch, Walter Benjamin, Critical Constellations (Cambridge: Polity Press; Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2002), 209. 28. Susan Buck-Morss, The Dialectics of Seeing: Walter Benjamin and the Arcades Proj- ect (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989), 164, 179. 29. Yin Hong and Yan Ling, Xin Zhongguo dianyingshi 1949–2000 新中國電影史 [A history of Chinese cinema, 1949–2000] (Changsha Shi: Hunan meishu chubanshe, 2002), 26. 30. The three reasons that SARFT stated for the cancellation of the permit are: (1) the uncensored version of the film was submitted to the Berlin Film Festival without permission, (2) the deleted sex scenes circulated on the Internet, and (3) the film’s promotions were inappropriate and unhealthy. See SARFT, “Guangdian zongju guanyu chuli Pingguo weigui wenti de qingkuan tongbao” (廣電總局關於處理《蘋果》違規問題的情況通報) [SARFT’s report on violations of Lost in Beijing], http://www.chinasarft.gov.cn/articles/2008/01/03/20080103170651960259. html (accessed January 16, 2012). The punishment also included prohibiting the producer Fang Li from film production for two years, disqualifying Laurel Films from participation in the film industry for two years, and criticizing other involved film production companies and investors. 31. SARFT, “Guojia guangbo dianying dianshi zongju ling (di 52 hao)” 國家廣播電影電視總局令 (第52號) [Ordinance of the SARFT (no. 52)], http://www. sarft.gov.cn/articles/2006/06/22/20070924091945340310.html (accessed Janu- ary 16, 2012). 32. Wang Hongchang, “Cong Pingguo yu Se Jie kong dangqian Zhongguo dianying zhong de xing ‘xushi’” 從《蘋果》與《色戒》看當前中國電影中的性「敍事」 [Looking at the “narration” of sex in contemporary China through Lost in Beijing and Lust, Caution], Dianying pingjie 電影評介 [Movie review] 7 (2008): 27–28. 33. Michael Berry, Speaking in Images: Interviews with Contemporary Chinese Film- makers (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005), 210, 226. 34. The director Li Yang, researching coal mines before filming, concluded that virtu- ally all coal mines are illegal operations. See Michael Berry, Speaking in Images, 219. 35. Haiyan Lee, Revolution of the Heart: A Genealogy of Love in China, 1900–1950 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007). 36. Rey Chow sees Blind Shaft as an allegory of an unconcealment of species differen- tiation—that people kill strangers and preserve their own group survival; see Rey Chow, Sentimental Fabulations, Contemporary Chinese Films, 178. 37. Tom Zaniello, The Cinema of Globalization: A Guide to Films About the New Economic Order (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 2007), 43. Wang Ban, “Documentary as Haunting of the Real: The Logic of Capital in Blind Shaft,” Asian Cinema 16, no. 1 (2005): 4–15. 38. Michael Berry, Speaking in Images, 551, footnote 1. 39. I do not think that commercial concerns account for such a change. Even though it is impossible to completely eliminate such a possibility, the regional differences Notes ● 187

remain a significant factor. Why is it that China demands such tailoring of content? If sex is so appealing, why is it less appealing than politics for citizens of other nationalities?

Chapter 3 1. See Wu Changzhen, ed., Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo hunyin fa jianghua 中華人民共和國婚姻法講話 [Talk on Marriage Law of the People’s Republic of China] (Beijing: Zhong yang wen xian chubanshe, 2001), 85. 2. Wu Xiaocheng, ed., Hunyinfa shiyong yu shenpan shiwu 婚姻法適用與審判實務 [Applications and practical issues of Marriage Law] (Beijing: Zhongguo fazhi chubanshe, 2008), 257. 3. Figures from Zhonghua renmin gonghe guo minzheng bu, Zhongguo minzheng tongji nianjian 2009 中國民政統計年鑒 [China civil affairs’ statistical yearbook] (Beijing: Zhongguo tongjishe chubanshe, 2009), 76. 4. Ying Zhu, Michael Keane, and Ruoyun Bai, “Introduction,” in TV Drama in China, ed. Ying Zhu, Michael Keane, and Ruoyun Bai (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2008), 8. 5. Jason McGrath’s theory of “cinema of infidelity” also applies in TV dramas in which it is the male character who has an extra-marital affair in urban settings. See Jason McGrath, Postsocialist Modernity: Chinese Cinema, Literature, and Criti- cism in the Market Age (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008), 100. 6. SARFT, “Guojia guangbo dianshi zongju guangyu yinfa ‘Dianshiju neiroung shencha zhanxing guiding’” 國家廣播電影電視總局關於印發《電視劇內容審查暫行規定》的通知 [Notice on “Temporary regulations of the content censorship of TV drama” issued by SARFT], http://www.chinasarft.gov.cn/articles/2006/05/30/20091217145313220574.html (accessed February 23, 2012). 7. Yu Zhu, “Daoyan Zheng Xiaolong: kanduo le ‘hunwailian’ laobaixing ye bu shufu” 導演鄭曉龍:看多了 “婚外戀” 老百姓也不舒服” [Director Zheng Xiaolong: Common people won’t feel good after watching too many “extra-marital affairs”], Yangcheng wanbao, August 27, 2008, http://www2.ycwb.com/big5/ misc/2006-08/27/content_1193493.htm (accessed February 24, 2012). 8. See Wang Lanzhu, chief ed., Zhongguo dianshi shoushi nianjian 2007 中國電視收視年鑒 [The yearbook of Chinese TV viewing rate] (Beijing: Zhongguo chuanmei daxue chubanshe, 2007), 93. 9. Hu Zhanfan, “Clarify Requirements and Do Well All the Work for the Year 2007 in Resisting Low and Vulgar Tastes.” China Radio and TV Academic Journal, 5 (2007): 8–10. 10. See Sheldon Lu, “Soap Opera in China: The Transnational Politics of Visuality, Sexuality, and Masculinity.” Cinema Journal 40, no. 1 (2000): 31–32. 11. Yu Zhu, “Daoyan Zheng Xiaolong: kanduo le ‘hunwailian’ laobaixing ye bu shufu” 導演鄭曉龍:看多了 “婚外戀” 老百姓也不舒服,” Yangcheng wanbao, August 27, 2008, http://www2.ycwb.com/big5/misc/2006-08/27/content_1193493.htm (accessed February 24, 2012). 188 ● Notes

12. Wang Lanzhu, chief ed., Zhongguo dianshi shoushi nianjian 2008 中國電視收視年鑒 [China TV rating yearbook] (Beijing: Zhongguo chuanmei daxue chubanshe, 2009), 124. 13. Free love was seen as a weapon to attack feudalism from the May Fourth period in the 1910s up through the Marriage Campaign in the 1950s. Intellectuals and modernists in the early republican era did not see marriage itself as an oppres- sive institution but vehemently opposed arranged marriage. Therefore, the critical point in China at that time was to highlight free love and feelings. 14. Translation; see China, Law of Succession of the People’s Republic of China; Law of the People’s Republic of China; Marriage Law of the People’s Republic of China [中華人民共和國繼承法, 中華人民共和國收養法, 中國人民共和國婚姻法] (Beijing: Falü chubanshe, 2002), 79. 15. Ibid.; and Falü chubanshe fagui zhongxin, ed., Hunyinfa quancheng jingjie 婚姻法全程精解 [Succinct exposition of Marriage Law] (Beijing: Law Press China, 2008), 2. 16. Translation from Marriage Law of the People’s Republic of China, 79. For official interpretation of the article, see Wu Changzhen, ed., Zhonghua Renmin Gong- heguo hunyin fa jianghua 中華人民共和國婚姻法講話 [Talk on Marriage Law of the People’s Republic of China] (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2001), 87. 17. Sigmund Freud, Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious (New York; London: W. W. Norton, 1960), 120. 18. Ibid., 114–15, 119. 19. Ibid., 119. 20. Shuyu Kong, “Family Matters: Reconstructing the Family on the Chinese Televi- sion Screen,” in TV Drama in China, ed. Ying Zhu, Michael Keane, and Ruoyun Bai (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2008), 75–88. 21. Svetlana Boym, Future of Nostalgia (New York: Basic Books, 2001), 64. 22. Ibid., 41. 23. Zao Ping, “Gongming shi meiyou guojie de” 共鳴是沒有國界的 [Resonance is boundaryless], in Dangdai dianshi 當代電視 [Contemporary TV] 11 (2008); and He Mingxia, “Dianshiju Jinhun de xushi tedian” 電視劇《金婚》的敍事特點 [Narrative features of the TV drama Golden Marriage], Dianying wenxue 電影文學 [Movie literature] 21 (2008): 91. 24. Michael Berry, A History of Pain: Trauma in Modern Chinese Literature and Film (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 289, 297. 25. Michel Foucault, History of Sexuality: The Will to Knowledge, vol. 1 (London: Pen- guin, 1998), 108. I thank Prof. Peng Yun at the 59th Mid-West Conference on Asian Studies for suggesting this reference to Foucault in order to better explain the power relationship between the law, sexual freedom, and family. 26. Ye Yi, Zhong Nanshan zhuan 鍾南山傳 [The life of Zhong Nanshan] (Beijing: Zuojia chubanshe, 2010), 75–81. 27. Hannah Beech, Susan Jakes, and Huang Yong, “Hiding the Patients,” Time, April 28, 2003, 23. Notes ● 189

28. Confucius, Li Ch’i: Book of Rites: An Encyclopedia of Ancient Ceremonial Usages, Religious Creeds, and Social Institutions, vol. 2, trans. James Legg (New Hyde Park, NY: University Books, 1967), 412.

Chapter 4 1. See, for example, Xunwang, “Shishang zui yindang de dianshiju” 史上最淫蕩的電視劇 [The most licentious TV drama in history],Gansu Daily, November 26, 2009, http://comment.gansudaily.com.cn/system/2009/11/26/011366740. shtml (accessed March 20, 2012); and Nanfang dushi bao, “Woju bei pi le ge hen de” 《蝸居》被批了個狠的 [Narrow Dwelling was seriously criticized], Nan- fang dushi bao], December 12, 2009. 2. National Language Resource Monitoring and Research Center, “2009 niandu Zhongguo zhuliu meiti shida liuxingyu fabu” 2009 年度中國主流媒體十大流行語發佈 [Press release of the ten most popular words in mainstream media in China 2009], Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, http:// www.moe.edu.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/s236/201202/130336. html (accessed January 24, 2015). 3. Liuliu, Woju 蝸居 [A romance of house] (Wuhan Shi: Changjiang wenji chubanshe, 2007). 4. My point here is not to judge whether an accumulation of money is a good or bad criterion in choosing a lover, but to point out how the changing aspirations for love and happiness are shaped by distinct social contexts as engendered by leading state ideologies. 5. Wen Jie, “Zhongguo guniang,” 種瓜姑娘 [The melon-planting girl], inTian- shan Muge 天山牧歌 [Pastoral songs of the Tian Mountain] (Beijing: Renmin daxue chubanshe, 1958), 32–33. I cite the translation by Jianmei Liu, Revolution Plus Love: Literary History, Women’s Bodies, and Thematic Repetition in Twentieth- Century Chinese Fiction (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2003), 162. 6. See Haiyan Lee, Revolution of the Heart: A Genealogy of Love in China, 1900– 1950 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007), 142–51. 7. Ibid., 143. 8. Dan Levin, “China’s New Wealth Spurs a Market for Mistresses,” New York Times, August 9, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/10/world/asia/10mistress. html?_r=1 (accessed August 11, 2011). 9. Jason McGrath, Postsocialist Modernity: Chinese Cinema, Literature, and Criticism in the Market Age (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008), 100. 10. Changjiang ribao, “Wuhan ‘Jiushihou’ Nüdaxuesheng qiguai: Baimaonü weihe bu jia ‘youqinren’ Huang Shiren” 武漢 “90後” 女大學生奇怪: 白毛女為何不嫁 “有錢人” 黃世仁 [Female student born in the 90s puzzled: Why Baimaonü not marry to “rich man” Huang Shiren], Yunnan Wang, October 15, 2009, http:// big5.yunnan.cn/2008page/edu/html/2009-10/15/content_942232.htm (accessed January 24, 2015). The story White-Haired Girl is originally a folk story and later became widely known because of the film version (1951) and the ballet version 190 ● Notes

(1965) produced during the revolutionary-era China. The story outline depicts the difficulties faced by a poor girl. Her father, a penniless peasant, is forced to sell her into a creditor’s family to offset the family debts. Her beauty attracts the young creditor who later rapes her. She later escapes from being sold again and hides in a cave without knowing that her hair has become white. She is later saved by her former lover who led the revolutionary army, and her hair turns black again. 11. Jin’ai, “Jiushihou zishu: wo dang ‘ernai’ zhende hen xingfu” 90後自述：我當 “二奶” 真的很幸福 [An account of born-in-the-90s: Being a mistress is happy], June 4, 2010, http://club.china.com/data/thread/26154311/2713/63/36/8_1. html (accessed April 20, 2011). 12. The Chinese original saying is: 如果黃世仁生活在現代“ , 家庭環境優越, 可能是個外表瀟灑、很風雅的人。加上有錢, 為什麼不能嫁給他呢?即便是年紀大—點也不要緊”; Changjiang ribao, “Wuhan ‘Jiushihou’ Nüdaxuesheng qiguai.” 13. China, Law of Succession of the People’s Republic of China; Law of the People’s Republic of China; Marriage Law of the People’s Republic of China [中華人民共和國繼承法, 中華人民共和國收養法, 中國人民共和國婚姻法], (Beijing: Falü chubanshe, 2002), 79, 99. 14. Netizen “beauteen11” praised Song as a good man and comments every woman will love him. See http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YOo0_XDVi8s, accessed December 31, 2010. For criticisms of Haizao, for example, netizens “Tnek612” and “qiaoermiao” called Haizao a “bitch”; see http://www.youtube. com/watch?v=k6usNOKb5UE and http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CDeX- GOsEmy8, both accessed December 31, 2010. 15. For example, netizen “wushuaizi” commented that the wife offers Song money to make up the amount of bribes he takes by highly approving the wife’s self- sacrifice even though she is betrayed by the man. See http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=NM9iIDGIDes, accessed December 31, 2010. 16. Xiaoxiaowenbo, “Kanwan Woju, ganshou henduo, zhongdu hen shen” 看完蝸居, 感受很多, 中毒很深 [After watching Narrow Dwelling, many feelings, seriously addicted], Baidu, http://tieba.baidu.com/p/1408972174?pn=1 (accessed February 28, 2012). 17. Xiaoju Jessica, Baidu, http://tieba.baidu.com/p/1408972174 (accessed February 27, 2012). 18. The netizen writer is self-identified as Tongzizhuo, “Gaixie Woju jieju jiran bu xihuan jiu gai le” 改寫《蝸居》結局既然不喜歡就改了 [Rewriting Narrow Dwelling’s ending, change it as (I) don’t like it], Baidu, http://tieba.baidu.com/ p/690289712?pn=1 (accessed February 27, 2012). 19. Netizen “60.2.14” replied to Tongzizhuo; see Baidu, http://tieba.baidu.com/ p/690289712?pn=5 (accessed February 27, 2012). 20. Netizen “110.6.253” replied to Tongzizhuo; see Baidu, http://tieba.baidu.com/ p/690289712?pn=4 (accessed February 27, 2012). 21. Feiwen shaonü, “Weishenme ai shang Song Siming Haizao xuanze Song Sim- ing de shi da liyo” 為什麼愛上宋思明海藻選擇宋思明的十大理由 [Why fall for Song Siming: Ten reasons for Haizao to choose Song Siming], Huashang Notes ● 191

luntan, December 1, 2009, http://bbs.hsw.cn/read-htm-tid-1168875-page-1. html (accessed February 27, 2012). 22. Xiaomonüyiran, “You Woju Song Siming renwu xiangxiang yinfa de hunwai- qing sikao” 由《蝸居》宋思明人物形象引發的婚外情思考 [Reflections on extra-marital affair provoked by the characterization ofNarrow Dwell- ing’s Song Siming], 360doc, June 27, 2010, http://www.360doc.com/content/10/0627/19/1921399_35603630.shtml (accessed February 27, 2012). 23. Chen Xing, “Zhang Jiayi changtan Woju Song Siming: zhezhong nanren kaobuzhu” 張嘉譯暢談《蝸居》宋思明：這種男人靠不住 [Zhang Jiayi’s free talk on Narrow Dwelling’s Song Siming: This type of men is unreliable],Sina , November 29, 2009, http://ent.sina.com.cn/v/m/2009-11-29/16052790502. shtml (accessed January 24, 2015). 24. Nanfang dushi bao, “Woju bei pi le ge hen de”; Zhu Meihong, “Guangdian Zongju mingnian qi xianzhi weishi dianshiju bozhu shijian Woju bei pi shehui yingxiang disu” 廣電總局明年起限制衛視電視劇播出時長《蝸居》被批社會影響低俗 [SARFT limited time for airing TV drama on satellite TV channel from next year; Narrow Dwelling was criticized as vulgar], Xinwen chenbao, December 12, 2009, http://xwcb.eastday.com/c/20091212/u1a667888.html (accessed April 16, 2012). 25. Numerous netizens (wangmin) condemned Li Jingsheng’s criticisms on the popular Chinese discussion forum http://bbs1.people.com.cn. For example, netizen “124.131.209” opined that Li was even more corrupt than the character Song Siming, see “Pi Woju da de shi sheide erguang?” 批《蝸居》打的是誰的耳光 [Who got slapped when Woju was criticized?], http://bbs1.people.com.cn/post Detail.do?view=2&pageNo=1&treeView=0&id=96371547&boardId=2 (accessed February 24, 2012). Some results of a thorough background check were erroneous. See Xinmin wanbao, “Guangdian zongju sizhang piping Woju zao renrou wangyou Zhangguanlidan” 廣電總局司長批評《蝸居》遭人肉網友張冠李戴 [The department head of SARFT who criticized Narrow Dwelling got a thorough background check, netizens were mistaken], Renmin Wang, December 15, 2009, http://media.people.com.cn/GB/40606/10579717.html (accessed February 17, 2012). 26. There was a claim thatNarrow Dwelling would be banned from further airing after a suspension of its rerun on the Beijing Youth Channel in November 2009. However, such a claim proved to be wrong, as the television drama was rerun in 2010 with a much lower profile. 27. Xinhuanet, “Wen Jiabao tan fangjia: Wo zhidao suowei ‘woju’ de ziwei” 溫家寶談房價︰我知道所謂 “蝸居” 的滋味 [Wen Jiabao talked about property prices: I know the feelings of so-called “woju”], February 27, 2010, http://news. xinhuanet.com/politics/2010-02/27/content_13062569.htm (accessed April 20, 2011). 28. Li Si-ming and Zheng Yi, “The Road to Homeownership Under Market Transi- tion: Beijing, 1980–2001,” Urban Affairs Review42, no. 3 (2007): 342; James Lee and Ya-peng Zhu, “Urban Governance, Neoliberalism and Housing Reform in China,” The Pacific Review 19, no. 1 (2006): 39–61. 192 ● Notes

29. Hua Wei, chief ed., 2008 Shanghai fangdichan nijian 上海房地產年鑑 [2008 Shanghai real estate yearbook] (Shanghai: Shanghai caijing daxue chubanshe, 2009), 134. 30. Xiaofeng chanyue, “Zai wai zuo baigujing, zai jia zuo yaojing” 在外做白骨精，在家做妖精 [White bone demon in the public, fox fairy at home], Sinablog, November 15, 2006, http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_48ef666b010007oj.html (accessed February 27, 2012). 31. Xinmin wanbao, “Guangdian zongju sizhang piping Woju zao renrou wangyou zhangguanlidan.”

Chapter 5 1. There is no an agreed umbrella term capturing alternative film production and film culture in contemporary China. For the nuances of different terms for these productions, see Paul Pickowicz, “Social and Political Dynamics of Underground Filmmaking in China,” in From Underground to Independent: Alternative Film Culture in Contemporary China, ed. Paul Pickowicz and Zhang Yingjin (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2006), 1–22. 2. Even if Nameless would execute his original plan, which is to assassin the King of Qin, the value of loyalty to his country is still protected. According to the film’s logic, it is worth sacrificing one’s own life to assassinate the one who destroys one’s home state. 3. See Gary Xu, Sinascape: Contemporary Chinese Cinema (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2007), 25–46; and Haizhou Wang and Ming-Yeh T. Rawnsley, “Hero: Rewriting the Chinese Martial Arts Film Genre,” in Global Chinese Cin- ema: The Culture and Politics of Hero, ed. Gary D. Rawnsley and Ming-Yeh T. Rawnsley (London; New York: Routledge, 2010), 90–105. 4. Wendy Larson, “Zhang Yimou’s Hero: Dismantling the Myth of Cultural Power,” Journal of Chinese Cinemas 2, no. 3 (2008): 181–96; and “On Zhang Yimou’s Hero: Counter-response,” Journal of Chinese Cinemas, 3 no. 1 (2009): 89–91. One of the many critics and scholars who see Hero in support of state ideology and totalitarianism in general is Nick Kaldis, “A Brief Response to Wendy Lar- son’s ‘Zhang Yimou’s Hero: Dismantling the Myth of Cultural Power,’” Journal of Chinese Cinemas 3, no. 1 (2009): 83–88. I will analyze other critics in the later section that focuses on reactions to the film. 5. Louise Edwards, “Twenty-first Century Women Warriors: Variations on a Tra- ditional Theme,” inGlobal Chinese Cinema, 65–77; Kam Louie, “The King, the Musician and the Village Idiot: Images of Manhood,” in Global Chinese Cinema, 53–62. 6. Anthony Fung and Joseph M. Chan, “Towards a Global Blockbuster: The Politi- cal Economy of Hero’s Nationalism,” in Global Chinese Cinema, 198–211. 7. HD, “Shen Bing zhuanfang Zhang Yimou—‘Yingxiong’ yiwai de huati” 沈冰專訪張藝謀—“英雄” 以外的話題 [Shen Bing interviewed Zhang Yimou— topics outside of Hero], Dianying wenxue電影文學 [Film literature] 2 (2003): 62–64. Notes ● 193

8. Jiang Feng, Lin Jinbo, and Ma Pengkong, Zhang Yimou dianying zuopin: yingxiong zhizuo quan jilu 張藝謀電影作品英雄製作全紀錄 [The making of Hero] (Taibei Shi: Lia jing chuban shiye gufen youxian gongsi, 2002), n.p. 9. For a detail description of antipiracy measures, see Gary Xu, Sinascape, 25–46. 10. As recorded in the documentary on the production of Hero, Yuan Qi (Cause, dir. Gan Lu, 2002). 11. See, for example, Kenneth Chan’s discussion on Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon’s feminist possibilities, “The Global Return of the Wu Xia Pian (Chinese Sword- Fighting Movie): Ang Lee’s Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon,” Cinema Journal 43, no. 4 (2004): 3–17. 12. Eddy U, “Third Sister Liu and the Making of the Intellectual in Socialist China,” The Journal of Asian Studies 69, no. 1 (2010): 57–83. 13. Sheldon Lu, China, Transnational Visuality, Global Postmodernity (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001), 33. 14. Jason McGrath, Postsocialist Modernity: Chinese Cinema, Literature, and Criticism in the Market Age (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008), 59–94. 15. Kam Louie, Theorising Chinese Masculinity: Society and Gender in China (Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 1. 16. Xiaoming Chen and Ming-Yeh T. Rawnsley, “On tian xia (‘all under heaven’) in Zhang Yimou’s Hero,” in Gary D. Rawnsley and Ming-Yeh T, Rawnsley, eds., Global Chinese Cinema: The Culture and Politics of Hero (London; New York: Routledge, 2010), 86. 17. Time, “Zhang Yimou Interview,” April 12, 2004, http://www.time.com/time/ magazine/article/0,9171,610119,00.html#ixzz1Oi0u6915 (accessed June 13, 2011). 18. Liu Xiaobo is a recent example of one whose work upsets the state for his efforts in promoting human rights in China and participation in writing the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. He was sentenced to eleven years of imprisonment in 2009 for “inciting subversion of state power.” 19. See Chris Berry and Mary Ann Farquhar, China on Screen: Cinema and Nation (New York: Columbia University Press, 2006), 164; and Gary D. Rawnsley, “The Political Narrative(s) of Hero,” in Global Chinese Cinema: The Culture and Politics of Hero, ed. Gary D. Rawnsley and Ming-Yeh T. Rawnsley (London; New York: Routledge, 2010), 20–21. 20. “King Hui of Liang Part 2, Chapter 8,” in The Works of Mencius, vol. 2 of The Chinese Classics, trans. James Legge (Taipei: SMC Publishing, 1998), 167. For D. C. Lau’s translation, see Mencius (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 2003), 43. 21. Hu Shaohua, “Confucianism and Contemporary Chinese Politics,” Politics and Policy 35, no. 1 (2007): 149. 22. Daniel Bell, China’s New Confucianism: Politics and Everyday Life in a Changing Society (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008), 12. 23. Hu Shaohua, “Confucianism and Contemporary Chinese Politics,” 150–51. 24. I am inspired by John Fiske’s phrase on popular culture, “socially located criteria of relevance,” to explain the CCP’s selection process of relevance; see John Fiske, 194 ● Notes

“Popular Culture,” in Critical Terms for Literary Study, ed. Frank Lentricchia and Thomas McLaughlin (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 327. 25. John Makeham, Lost Soul: “Confucianism” in Contemporary Chinese Academic Discourse (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center for the Harvard- Yenching Institute, 2008), 6. 26. Peter Moody, “The New Anti-Confucian Campaign in China: The First Round,” Asian Survey 14, no. 4 (1974): 313. Merle Goldman, “China’s Anti-Confucian Campaign, 1973–74,” The China Quarterly 63 (1975): 435–62. 27. For the Party’s participation in Confucian revival, see Yang Bingzhang, Zhongguo dalu dangdai wenhua bianqian 中國大陸當代文化變遷 [Cultural changes in contemporary mainland China] (Taipei shi: Guiguan tushu gufen youxian gongsi, 1991). For the overall picture of Confucian development in the 1980s–1990s, see Makeham, Lost Soul, 42–98. 28. Jing Wang, High Culture Fever: Politics, Aesthetics, and Ideology in Deng’s China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 69. 29. Ibid., 2. 30. Gu Mu, “Kongzi danchen 2345 zhounian jinian dahuishang zhici” 孔子誕辰 2345 週年紀念大會上致辭 [Speech at the celebration meeting of the 2345th anniversary of Confucius], quoted in Makeham, Lost Soul, 65. 31. Zhu Linyong, “Confucius Stands Tall Near Tian’anmen,” China Daily, January 13, 2011, http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/cndy/2011-01/13/content_11841761. htm (accessed September 28, 2011). 32. Chinanews, “Tiananmen guangchang Kongzi xiang bairi zhi lai qu” 天安門廣場孔子像百日之來去 [The one hundred days of Confucius’ statue at the Tian’anmen Square], Jornal Cheng Pou. http://www.chengpou.com.mo/news/ special/2011/4/28/12307.html (accessed January 24, 2015). 33. Before Hero was screened in the United States in 2004, the worldwide box office had exceeded $100 million in December 2003, covering the estimated budget of $30 million. See IMDB, Hero, http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0299977/ (accessed September 27, 2011). 34. Joseph Nye coined the term “soft power” to describe the ability to co-opt, per- suade, and attract rather than to coerce as a means to shape the preferences of others in world politics. See Joseph Nye, The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: Public Affairs, 2004). 35. See Hu Jintao, “Hu Jintao zai dang de shiqida shang de baogao” 胡錦濤在黨的十七大上的報告 [Hu Jintao’s report at the 17th CPC National Congress], Xin- huanet, October 24, 2007, http://news.xinhuanet.com/newscenter/2007-10/24/ content_6938568_6.htm (accessed June 8, 2011). 36. Statistics from Hanban official website: http://www.hanban.edu.cn/hb/ node_7446.htm (accessed August 26, 2013). 37. James F. Paradise, “China and International Harmony: The Role of Confucius Institutes in Bolstering Beijing’s Soft Power,” in Asian Survey 49, no. 4 (July/ August 2009): 649. 38. Lin Shaofeng, ed., Shijue yingxiong, 視覺英雄 [The films by Zhang Yimou] (Bei- jing Shi: Zhongguo guangbao dianshi chubanshe, 2005), 26. Notes ● 195

39. Evans Chan, “Zhang Yimou’s Hero: The Temptations of Fascism,” inChinese Connections: Critical Perspectives on Film, Identity, and Diaspora, eds., See-Kam Tan, Peter X. Feng, Gina Marchetti (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2009), 263–77. 40. J. Hoberman, “Review of Hero,” quoted in Chris Berry and Mary Farquhar, China on Screen, 167. 41. Hao Jian, “Shei chengjiu le Zhang Yimou” 誰成就了張藝謀 [Who made Zhang Yimou successful], Nanfeng chuang 南風窗 [Window of the southerly breeze] 15 (August 2004), 85. 42. Wang Yuli, “Gudian beiju de xiandai yanyi” 古典悲劇的現代演繹 [Contempo- rary interpretation of a classic tragedy], Xiezuo 寫作 [Writing] 9 (2004): 13. 43. Luo Yijun, penned by Jin Yan, “Zhang Yimou yu Zhongguo dianying yantaohui jishi” 張藝謀與中國電影研討會紀實 [Record of seminar on Zhang Yimou and Chinese cinema], Yishu pinglun 藝術評論 [Arts criticism] 12 (2004): 48. 44. Fang Lili, penned by Jin Yan, “Zhang Yimou yu Zhongguo dianying yantaohui jishi” 張藝謀與中國電影研討會紀實 [Record of seminar on Zhang Yimou and Chinese cinema]. Yishu pinglun 藝術評論 [Arts criticism] 12 (2004): 50. 45. Fang Lili, “You Zhang Yimou yingpian yinqi de wenhua fansi” 由張藝謀影片引起的文化反思 [Cultural reflections caused by Zhang Yimou’s films], Yishu pinglun 藝術評論 [Arts criticism] 10 (2004): 39. 46. E Beijia, “Zongkan ‘Yingxiong’ yangtian san wen” 重看 “英雄” 仰天三問 [Re- watch Hero 3 enquires into the air], Dianying 電影 [Film] 10 (2004): 45. 47. Shen Rui, “Wei Zhang Yimou er bian” 為張藝謀二辯 [Two defenses for Zhang Yimou], Yishu pinglun 藝術評論 [Arts criticism] 10 (2004): 42. 48. See Shuang Die, “Yingxiong Zhang Yimou” 英雄張藝謀 [Hero Zhang Yimou], Xin Xibu 新西部 [New west region] 3 (2003): 23; and Wu Yajun, “Guochan ‘dapian’ shangye xing yu yishu xing de duowei fansi—cong ‘Yingxiong’ dao ‘Chibi’” 國產大片商業性與藝術性的多維反思—從 “英雄” 到 “赤壁” [Multidimensional reflections of commercial and artistic values in Chinese blockbusters—from Hero to Red Cliff ], Sichuan Wenhua Chanye Zhiye Xueyuan xuebao 四川文化產業職業學院學報 [Magazine of Sichuan Cultural Industry and Vocational College] 2 (2009): 10. 49. Even though the explicit politically submissive subjectivity is explicit, scholarship is still able to find subversive space and discuss a dissent critique to tyranny; see, for example, Ming Lee Jenny Suen, “Against Orientalism and Utopian Nostal- gia: Competing Discursive Constructions of Chinese Empire in Zhang Yimou’s Hero” (M.A. thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 2006).

Chapter 6 1. Alvin Wong argues that the interregional borrowing, adaptation, and retransla- tion involved in the production of Butterflydestabilize easy definitions of Chinese, Taiwanese, and local Hong Kong identities. However, I maintain the opposite— that it is the unique adaptation of Butterfly that makes up a local Hong Kong identity. See Alvin Wong, “From the Transnational to the Sinophone: Lesbian 196 ● Notes

Representations in Chinese-Language Films,” Journal of Lesbian Studies 16, no. 3 (2012): 307–22. 2. Michael Berry, Speaking in Images: Interviews with Contemporary Chinese Film- makers (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005), 150. Zhang Yuan’s previ- ous efforts, the feature filmBeijing Bastard and the documentary The Square, were only screened at international film festivals. 3. Cui Zi’en, “Duli Zhongguo dianying zhong de tongxiang xiangai” 獨立中國電影中的同性相愛—關於首屆同性戀電影節 [Homosexual love in independent Chinese movies—On the first Queer Film Festival],Dianying Pingjie 電影評介 [Movie review] 4 (2002): n.p. 4. Michael Berry, Speaking in Images, 151. 5. Homosexuality has been increasingly associated with the term “hooliganism” since this label was introduced in Criminal Law in 1979, even though it was not explicitly listed as a form of criminal action until a specific reference to the crime of hooliganism was made in 1997. See Travis Kong, Chinese Male Homosexuali- ties: Memba, Tongzhi, and Golden Boy (New York: Routledge, 2010), 154–55. 6. J. L. Austin, How to Do Things with Words (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1962). 7. Song Hwee Lim, Celluloid Comrades: Representations of Male Homosexuality in Contemporary Chinese Cinemas (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2006), 95. 8. Sebastian Veg, “Wang Xiaobo and the No Longer Silent Majority,” in The Impact of China’s 1989 Tiananmen Massacre, ed. Jean-Philippe Béja (New York: Rout- ledge, 2011), 86–94. 9. Chris Berry, “East Palace, West Palace: Staging Gay Life in China,” Jump Cut 42 (1998): 85. 10. For a detailed analysis of the changes in literary writing and publishing in contemporary China, please refer to Shuyu Kong, Consuming Literature: Best Sellers and the Commercialization of Literary Products in Contemporary China (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2005). 11. Song Hwee Lim, Celluloid Comrades, 98. 12. Michael Berry, Speaking in Images, 453. 13. This loyalty contrasts with the main character in Hong Ying’s fictionalSummer Betrayal. Summer Betrayal takes place after the June Fourth Event and follows the main character as she commits a double betrayal of both her government and her boyfriend. See Michael Berry, A History of Pain: Trauma in Modern Chinese Literature and Film (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 309. 14. For example, Feng Congde mentioned several times in his memoir on the June Fourth Event that the International Anthem along with the Chinese National Anthem were repeatedly broadcast to demonstrators at the Tian’anmen Square to boost morale. See Feng Congde, Liusi riji: guangchang shangde gongheguo 六四日記: 廣場上的共和國 [A journal of Tian’anmen] (Taipei: Ziyou wenhua chubanshe and chenhong shuju, 2009), 173, 357. 15. Perry Link, “June Fourth: Memory and Ethics,” in The Impact of China’s 1989 Tiananmen Massacre, ed. Jean-Philippe Béja (New York: Routledge, 2011), 14. Notes ● 197

16. Michael Berry, Speaking in Images, 454. 17. Ibid., 448. 18. Dianying wenxue, “Lan Yu/Guan Jinpeng fangtan lu” 藍宇/關錦鵬訪談錄 [Lan Yu/Stanley Kwan interview record], Dianying wenxue 電影文學 [Film literature] 1 (2002): 51. 19. Cui Zi’en, “The Communist International of Queer Film,” trans. Petrus Liu, positions: east asia culture critique 18, no. 2 (2010): 419, 421. 20. Beijing tongzhi, Beijing gushi 北京故事 [Beijing story], Yifan shuku, http://www. shuku.net:8080/novels/beijing/beijing07.html (accessed April 22, 2012). 21. Ibid., http://www.shuku.net:8080/novels/beijing/beijing08.html (accessed April 22, 2012). 22. Ibid., http://www.shuku.net:8080/novels/beijing/beijing09.html (accessed April 22, 2012). 23. For example, one of the earliest films containing homoerotic intimacy, Ainu (Intimate Confessions of a Chinese Courtesan, 1971) portrays its protagonist being forced to become a courtesan and pretending to be in love with the female owner of the brothel to survive, and thus, is arguably exposing a naked female body for viewers instead of creating a self-identified lesbian subject on the screen. 24. Helen Leung, “Queerscapes in Contemporary Hong Kong Cinema.” positions: east asia cultures critique 9, no. 2 (Fall 2001): 434–35. For example, Intimates (dir. Zhang Zhiliang, 1997) shows an old woman yearning for another woman with whom she has been in love since they were young. 25. Fran Martin, Backward Glances: Contemporary Chinese Cultures and the Female Homoerotic Imaginary (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010). 26. Ibid.,, 251, footnote 17. 27. Chu Wei-cheng recognized Chen Xue together with Chi Ta-wei and Luci- fer Hung Ling as representatives of the beginning of queer literature in 1990s’ Taiwan. See Chu Wei-cheng, ed., Taiwan tongzhi xiaoshuo xuan 台灣同志小說選 [Selections of Taiwan tongzhi fiction] (Taipei: Eryu Wenhua, 2005), 28. Fran Martin suggests Chen Xue’s novel inflects the figuration of the relationship between jia and tongixnglian and a decentering of “Euro-Western” queer theory; see Fran Martin, Situating Sexualities: Queer Representation in Taiwanese Fic- tion, Film and Public Culture (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2003), 119–40. 28. Tze-lan Sang, Emerging Lesbian: Female Same-Sex Desire in Modern China (Chi- cago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 129. 29. Cui Zi’en, “The Communist International of Queer Film,” trans. Petrus Liu, positions: east asia culture critique 18, no. 2 (2010): 421. 30. See Sang, Emerging Lesbian, 99–126. 31. Chou Wah-shan, Hou zhimin tongzhi 後殖民同志 [Post-Colonial tongzhi] (Hong Kong: Xianggang tongzhi yanjiu she, 1997), 360. 32. Chen Xue, “The Mark of Butterfly,” inHudie [Butterfly] (Taibei Xian Zhonghe Shi: INK yinke chuban youxian gongsi, 2005), 61. 33. Yan Yan Mak admitted that she injected her own memory of Hong Kong in the 1980s in the film. SeeCity Entertainment, “Buneng fei jiu bushi hudie le” 198 ● Notes

不能飛就不是蝴蝶了 [It’s not Butterfly if it can’t fly],City Entertainment (Hong Kong) 655 (2004): 34. 34. Students demonstrators in Tian’anmen Square called for Hong Kong’s support in May 1989; see Zhang Liang, ed., Zhongguo “Liu Si” zhenxiang 中國「六四」真相 [June Fourth: The true story], (Hong Kong: Mingjing chubanshe, 2001), 255. For the rescue of fugitive democrats and commemoration of the June Fourth tragedy, see Sonny Shiu-Hing Lo, Competing Chinese Political Visions: Hong Kong vs. Beijing on Democracy (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2010), 23–43. Lo argues that Hong Kong’s vision for democracy is competing with Beijing’s one-party dictatorship and is a model for China’s democratization.

Conclusion 1. Although Jason McGrath, quoting Chris Berry, reminds us of the fact that some alleged, “banned” films have never been near a censor. I suspect that filmmakers of these films are aware of the censoring bureau’s standards and are able to predict that their films are not pleasant to the state. See Jason McGrath, “The Urban Generation: Underground and Independent Films from the PRC,” in The Chinese Cinema Book, ed. Song Hwee Lim and Julian Ward (Houndmills, Basingstoke, UK: British Film Institute, 2011), 169. 2. However, if we compare its worldwide potential market, Lan Yu should be relo- cated to the right of Blind Mountain, keeping its position on the x-axis, because Lan Yu performed better at the box office. Lan Yu’s total worldwide box office sales are $116,325, while Blind Mountain has $36, 615. See Box Office Mojo http://boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=lanyu.htm and http://boxofficemojo.com/ movies/?id=blindmountain.htm (accessed April 19, 2012). According to Box Office Mojo, Lost in Beijing has worldwide box office sales of $1,350,967, confirm- ing its current placement in the more popular quadrant in the figure. See http:// boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=lostinbeijing.htm (accessed April 19, 2012). 3. Dong Bingfeng, director of the 10th Beijing Independent Film Festival (BIFF), whose first-day screening was interrupted by authorities, proposes that film is the most dangerous art form by far, as “in any country where there’s a tense political situation, the government is on edge that films can affect a lot of people, even people who don’t know how to read or write.” Dong’s explanation points to the Chinese government’s belief in the capacity of film as an influential vehicle to mobilize people who may gather into a mass that can both support or threaten a governing entity. See Liz Tung, “‘Film Is The Most Dangerous By Far’: An Interview With ‘Cancelled’ Beijing Independent Film Festival Artistic Direc- tor Dong Bingfeng,” Beijing Cream, September 10, 2013, http://beijingcream. com/2013/09/film-is-the-most-dangerous-by-bar-interview-with-dong-bingfeng/ (accessed September 11, 2013). 4. A recent study to fill this gap is Kenny Ng’s article on censorship in postwar Hong Kong. See Kenny Ng, “Inhibition vs. Exhibition: Political Censorship of Chinese and Foreign Cinemas in Postwar Hong Kong,” Journal of Chinese Cinemas 2, no. 1 (2008): 23–35. Notes ● 199

5. There is a recent piece of scholarship that aims to fill this research gap. See Ying Zhu and Bruce Robinson, “Cross-Fertilization in Chinese Cinema and Televi- sion: A Strategic Turn in Cultural Policy,” in A Companion to Chinese Cinema, ed. Yingjin Zhang (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012), 429–48. 6. The four films areYiban shi huoyan, yiban shi haishui (一半是火焰, 一半是海水Half Flame, Half Brine, dir. Xiang Gang, 1989), Wan zhu (頑主 The Troubleshooters, dir. Mi Jiashan, 1989),Lun hui (輪回 Samsara, dir. Huang Jianxin, 1988), and Da chuanqi (大喘氣 A Gasp, dir. Ye Daying, 1988). 7. Chen Xudong, Dangdai Zhongguo yingshi wenhua yanjiu 當代中國影視文化研究 [Contemporary cultural studies of film and TV], (Beijing: Peking University Press, 2004). 8. Mary Farquhar and Yingjin Zhang, “Introduction: Chinese Stars,” Journal of Chi- nese Cinemas 2, no. 2 (2008): 85. 9. Ibid., 86. 10. For example, Hsiu-Chuang Deppman has discussed the transnational cultural and social significance of the popular Taiwanese dramaLiuxing huayuan 流星花園 [Meteor Garden]. See Hsiu-Chuang Deppman, “Made in Taiwan: An Analysis of Meteor Garden as an East Asian Idol Drama,” in TV China, ed. Ying Zhu and Chris Berry (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009), 90–110. 11. We have seen mainly Paola Voci’s research on smaller screen in her book, China on Video: Smaller Screen Realities (New York: Routledge, 2010). Bibliography

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Page numbers in italics refer to content in figures and tables. agency, individual, 2–3, 16, 21, 58, 71, Braester, Yomi, 10–11 101, 136, 140, 159, 183n3 Brown, Wendy, 56 Anti-Spiritual Pollution Campaign, 13 Buddha Mountain. See Guanyin shan audience response theory, 11, 16–18, (Buddha Mountain, film, 2011) 23–24, 45–47, 95, 112, 160–66. Butterfly. See Hu Die (Butterfly, film, 2004) See also reading position theory calligraphy, 125, 135–36 Bai mao nü (White-Haired Girl, film, censorship, 4, 6–7, 11–12, 16–17 1951), 30 bypassing, 19, 27–28, 137, 156–57, Bai, Ruoyun, 6 160, 162, 164 baigujing (white collar), 111–12 as detector of negative sentiments, Banlu fuqi (Halfway Couples, TV 165–67 drama), 78 self-censorship, 23, 59, 67, 95, 104, Bao Qingtian (Bao, The Clear Sky, TV 112, 149, 160, 167 drama), 168 See also State Administration of Radio, Baudelaire, Charles, 60–61 Film, and Television (SARFT); Bauman, Zygmunt, 27, 56 zhuxuanlü (main melody) film Beijing gushi (Beijing Story, online and TV novel), 145 centrifugal force/effect, 88, 165–66 Bell, Daniel, 128–29 centripetal force/effect, 13, 165 Benjamin, Walter, 60–61 Chan, Evans, 133–34 Berry, Chris, 6, 128, 142, 174–75n23, Changchun Film Studio, 30 178–79n54, 180n63, 198n1 Chen, Guoxing, 42 Berry, Michael, 88 Chen, Kaige, 120–21 Bethune, Norman, 37, 40 Chen, Xiaoming, 125 Blind Mountain. See Mang shan (Blind Chen Xue, 24, 151–56 Mountain, film, 2007) Chi, Li, 24 Blind Shaft. See Mang jing (Blind Shaft, China. See Chinese Communist Party film, 2003) (CCP); People’s Republic of China Boym. Svetlana, 85 (PRC) 220 ● Index

China Central Television, 7 corruption, 34, 38, 40, 47, 66, 96–97, Chinese Communist Party (CCP) 103, 108–13, 121 and Confucianism, 12–14, 34, 36, critical localism, 50 92, 117, 127–32, 182n22 Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon (film, and distribution of film and TV, 2000), 122 6–10 Cui, Shuqin, 183n5 and intellectuals, 124, 135 Cui, Zi’en, 148, 153 and June Fourth Event, 7–8, 146, culture 155 official culture, 4 Marriage Law Campaign, 81 screen culture, 5, 66, 167–68, Propaganda Department, 10–11, 30, 173n13, 174n19 42, 79 unofficial culture, 4 and social harmony, 75 See also popular and socialist spirit, 12, 37–38, 40–41, Cuo’ai (Wrong Love, TV drama), 62, 85, 89–90, 127–32, 146 78 Chou, Zero, 150 Chow, Rey, 55, 65, 186n36 Dam Street (film, 2005), 51 Chow, Stephen, 168 Days Without Lei Feng. See Likai Lei Chow, Yun Fat, 168 Feng de rizi (Days Without Lei Ci, Jiwei, 27 Feng, film, 1996) Ciqing (Spider Lilies, film, 2007), 150 Deng, Xiaoping, 7–8, 31, 148 coal mining, 50, 64–66, 68, 71–72, desire, 67, 69, 77 186n34 economic, 1, 14–15, 27, 52, 62 commercialization, 1, 4–9, 19, 78, representation of, 16–17, 159, 118, 133–35, 142, 162, 162–64, 179n55 172n9, 174–75n23 sexual, 20–24, 75, 80–86, 95–106, of kinship, 51–58 138, 140–41, 144–45, 148, Confucianism 150–55 and CCP, 12–14, 34, 36, 92, 117, Di, Miao, 6 127–32, 182n22 Diexue shuangxiong (The Killer, film, Confucian Institutes, 132 1989), 168 faithfulness, 177–78n50 Dirlik, Arif, 50, 178–79n54 filial piety, 29, 35–36, 47, 87, Double Xposure (film, 2012), 51 182n22 and harmonious society, 86, 92 East Palace, West Palace (film, 1996), 24, proper governance, 92 137–44 sincerity, 177–78n50 bypassing censorship, 156, 160, 162, See also virtue 164 control and freedom, 1–10, 15–18 as political allegory, 138, 141–44, and audience response, 23, 112, 160, 155–56 164–66 sexuality in, 137–44, 155–56 and daily life, 133 “economic,” use of the term, 29 and neoliberalism, 179n55 economic desire, 1, 14–15, 27, 52, 62 and television, 109–10 Economic Reforms, 6, 14–15, 20, See also censorship; desire 37–39, 52, 66, 104 Index ● 221 economic subjectivity Hu Die (Butterfly, film, 2004), self-interested, 49–52, 56, 63, 66–71 149–56 selfless, 21–22, 27–29, 31–39, 41, bypassing censorship, 24, 160, 162, 45–47 164 Emperor and the Assassin. See Jing Ke ci and Hong Kong identity, 138, Qinwang (The Emperor and the 150–55, 160, 195n1 Assassin, film, 1998) and June Fourth Event, 149–50, Emperor’s Shadow. See Qin song (The 154–55, 160 Emperor’s Shadow, film, 1996) sexuality in, 24, 138, 149–56 Hu, Jintao (PRC president), 1, 14, 132, Farquhar, Mary, 128 177n45, 177–78n50 Feitian Awards, 10, 79, 175n31 Hu, Shaohua, 128 Feng, Xiaogang, 6, 27–28, 168 Hu, Yaobang, 7 filial piety, 21, 29, 35–36, 47, 87, Huabiao Awards, 10, 38, 42, 120 182n22 Hudie de jihao (The Mark of the Fish and Elephant. See Jinnian xiatian Butterfly, novella), 151 (Fish and Elephant, film, 2001) hulijing (evil fox spirit), 111–12 Foucault, Michel, 16, 89, 161, 188n25 Hundred Flowers Awards, 126 freedom. See control and freedom ideology, 1–20, 52, 161–66, 172n9, Gaishi haoxia (The Final Combat, TV 175n24, 183n32, 189n4 drama), 168 Confucian, 127–32 Gold, Thomas, 4–5 social harmony, 22, 75–76, 78, 80, Golden Marriage. See Jinhun (Golden 83–93 Marriage, TV drama) See also zhuxuanlü (main melody) Golden Rooster Awards, 126 film and TV Goldman, Merle, 129 independent productions, 49–65, Gorbachev, Mikhail, 8 70–71, 127, 163 Gu, Mu, 130 individualism, 76–77, 84–88, Guanyin shan (Buddha Mountain, film, 134 2011), 51, 183n6 “individuals,” defined, 16

Hall, Stuart, 16, 161 Jiandang weiye (The Founding of a Hao, Jian, 134 Party/Beginning of a Great Revival, Hoberman, J., 134 film, 2011), 164 Holding Hands. See Qian shou (Holding Jiang, Zemin, 9–10 Hands, TV drama) Jianguo daye (The Founding of the Hong Kong, 5, 96–97, 109, 133, 145, Republic, film, 2009), 164 163 Jiao Yulu (communist cadre), 37 actors and actresses, 168 Jiao Yulu (film, 1990), 41 handover of, 37, 148, 167 Jiehun shinian (Ten Years of Marriage, and Hu Die (Butterfly, film, 2004), TV drama), 77 24, 138, 150–56, 160 Jing Ke ci Qinwang (The Emperor and Television Broadcasts Limited (TVB), the Assassin, film, 1998), 97, 168 120–22 222 ● Index

Jinhun (Golden Marriage, TV drama), Lan Yu (film, 2001), 137–38, 151 99, 78–93, 101, 112 box office sales, 198n2 and familial harmony, 84–90 bypassing censorship, 24, 160, 162, and model sexual subjects, 78–84 164 and nostalgia, 85–88 and June Fourth Event, 138, 144–49 popularity of, 79, 86, 163 and political subjectivity, 144–49, and social harmony, 75–76, 78, 80, 155, 160 84–93 production of, 144–45 as zhuxuanlü production, 22–23, and reminiscence as political protest, 75–76, 78–79, 82–83, 90–93, 163 145–49 Jinhun fengyu qing (Golden Marriage: sexuality in, 144–49, 155 Love in the Storm, TV drama), as tongzhi film, 153 79, 163 Lao She Wenxue Jiang (Lao She Litera- Jinnian xiatian (Fish and Elephant, film, ture Award), 64 2001), 51, 150 Larson, Wendy, 13, 43–44, 119, June Fourth Event (Tian’anmen 117n43 Square), 7–8, 24, 130 late socialism, 15 background and timeline, 7–8 Latham, Kevin, 4, 172n9 and CCP, 7–8, 146, 155 Lau, D. C., 128 and Confucianism, 127 Lee, Ang, 51, 122 and Hong Kong, 153, 198n34 Lee, Haiyan, 65 and Hu Die (Butterfly, film, 2004), Legge, James, 128 149–50, 154–55, 160 Lei, Feng (socialist hero), 13, 37–41. and Lan Yu (film, 2001), 138, 144–49 See also Likai Lei Feng de rizi (Days and music, 146, 196n14 Without Lei Feng, 1996) and the spiritual turn, 7–8 Lei Feng (film, 1963), 37 Lei Feng (TV drama), 37 Kaiguo lingxiu Mao Zedong (Mao Zedong, Lei Feng de sushi (The Story of Lei Feng, The Founding Leader, film, 1999), 10 animated series), 37 Kong, Fansen (communist cadre), 29, Lei Feng zhi ge (The Song of Lei Feng, 37, 41–48, 182n28 film, 1979), 37 Kong Fansen (film, 1995), 41–48, 66 Lei, Xianhe, 38, 182n25 and corruption, 47 lesbianism, 51, 138, 149–56, 197n23 and familial conflict, 43, 45–48 Leung, Helen, 150 and oppositional readings, 161 Li, Jingsheng, 109, 110–13, 163, and selflessness/self-sacrifice, 47–48 191n25 and serving the people, 42–44, 47–48 Li, Junbiao, 31 as zhuxuanlü production, 21, 29, Li, Minqing, 31 41–48, 162, 163 Li, Peng, 7 Kong, Shuyu, 84 Li, Shaohong, 167 Kwan, Stanley, 144–45, 147–49, 153. Li Yang, 2, 22, 50, 63–64, 68, 71–72, See also Lan Yu (film, 2001) 160, 180n6, 186n34 Li, Yu, 51–52, 150 Lailai wangwang (Coming and Going, Lihun jinxing (In the Process of Divorce, TV drama), 77 2005), 78 Index ● 223

Likai Lei Feng de rizi (Days Without Lei and gender, 67–69, 71 Feng, film, 1996), 37–41 production of, 64, 71–72 and capitalism as source of corruption, Mang shan (Blind Mountain, film, 39–41, 47 2007), 49–50, 63–64, 68–72 and Qiao Anshan, 38–41, 182n24 box office sales, 198n2 selflessness in, 40 and censorship, 2, 22, 69–70, 72, temporal structure of, 38–39, 47 160, 162, 164 as zhuxuanlü production, 21–22, 29, and economic subjectivity, 50, 68–71 162, 163 and family/kinship, 68–70 Link, Perry, 4–5, 148, 171n3 and gender, 68–71 Liu, Kang, 4 and human trafficking, 68–71 Liu, Litao, 31 two versions of, 2, 22, 69–70, 72 Liu, Qingbang, 64 Mao Zedong and Maoism, 10, 14, Liuliu, 96 40, 43, 61, 102, 124, 129–30, Lost in Beijing (film, 2007), 127,162 , 178–9n54 176n39, 183n6 market economy, 1–6, 12–20, 40, 47, box office sales, 198n2 161–66 and economic subjectivity, 22, 49–58 international markets, 49, 51, 59, and family/kinship, 22, 50, 52–56, 69, 71, 132–33, 139, 146–48, 58, 65, 70 156–57, 159, 162–63 and gender, 50, 54–59, 52, 68, 71 and real estate, 107–11 moral ambivalence of, 52, 62–63 and sexuality, 50–58, 60–61, 69, realism in, 51–52, 58 97–102 and SARFT, 51, 58–60, 62–64, marketization, 6, 8, 11, 22, 34, 39, 55, 186n30 97, 11, 124 and sexuality, 51–52, 56–61 marriage termination of screening permit, 51, divorce, 76–9, 81, 91, 104, 145, 58, 63 151–2 two versions of, 22, 58–63, 71, 163 extra-marital affairs, 23, 76–79, Lu, Sheldon, 4, 14 81–82, 91, 95–114, 166, 187n5 Lull, James, 4 ideal, 22–23 Lust, Caution (film, 2007), 51 and individualism, 76–77, 84–88, Lyotard, Jean-François, 14 134 in Jinhun (Golden Marriage, TV Madsen, Richard, 4–5, 171n3 drama), 78–93 Makeham, John, 129 Marriage Law, 77, 80–82, 85, 95, Mang jing (Blind Shaft, film, 2003), 98, 104 49–50, 55, 63–72, 186n36 Marriage Register Regulation, 77 bypassing censorship, 50, 64, 160, 162, and sexuality, 75–76, 78–92 164 and socialist patriotism, 76, 89–90, and coal mining, 50, 64–66, 68, 92 71–72, 186n34 in Woju (Narrow Dwelling, TV DVD version, 22, 64, 66–67 drama), 95–113 and economic subjectivity, 65–69, 71 Martin, Fran, 150, 197n27 and family/kinship, 65–66 Mencius, 36, 128 224 ● Index

Ministry of Radio, Film, and Television, political economy, 2–3, 5–7, 15, 18, 24 9. See also State Administration political protest and reminiscence, of Radio, Film, and Television 145–49 (SARFT) political subjectivity, 23, 120–27, Moody, Peter, 129 133–36, 144–49, 155, 160 moral crisis, 21–22, 27–28, 50 political taboos, 7, 24, 88, 117, 137–38, Mukerji, Chandra, 4–5 146, 149 popular culture Narrow Dwelling. See Woju (Narrow defined, 4–5, 171n3 Dwelling, TV drama) heterogeneity of, 18–20 Native of Beijinger in New York, A (TV scholarly approaches to, 3–5 series), 78–79 spectrum of, 3, 18–19, 24, 28, negotiations, 2–3, 16–18, 20–24, 50, 161–65 58–59, 63, 70–72, 75–76, 79, post-modern, 14–16, 178–79n54 112–13, 159–61 post-New Era, 14 neo-liberalism, 1, 8, 13–16, 49, 52–53, post-socialist, 14–16, 66, 137, 55–56, 60, 97–102, 137, 179n55 178–79n54, 179n55. See also neo- New Era, 14, 131 liberalism; postmodern nostalgia, 23, 85–89, 150 Qian shou (Holding Hands, TV drama), Open Door Policy, 20 77, 91, 175n31 Opening-Up Policy, 13, 85–86 Qin song (The Emperor’s Shadow, film, 1996), 121 People’s Republic of China (PRC) Qiu Ju da guansi (The Story of Qiu Ju, divorce rate, 76–77 film, 1992), 185n21 employment, 52 Hu Jintao (president), 1, 14, 132, Rawnsley, Ming-Yeh T., 119, 125, 128 177n45, 177–78n50 reading position theory, 11, 16–18, 166 intervention in cultural industries, dominant/preferred readings, 16, 1–2 39, 89 popular culture in, 5, 11, 16–18, negotiated readings, 16–18, 21–22, 161–65 72, 159, 161, 183n32 sixtieth anniversary of, 37, 174n23 oppositional readings, 16–17, 161 uneven modernization, 52 See also audience reception theory See also Chinese Communist Ren, Changxia (Dengfeng police chief), Party (CCP); State Administra- 13, 29–33 tion of Radio, Film, and Television Ren Changxia (film, 2005), 29–36, 66 (SARFT) corruption in, 34, 47 Piaolang qingchun (Drifting Flowers, familial conflict in, 32, 34–36, 47–48 2008), 150 gender in, 29, 32, 41–45, 47–48 Pickowicz, Paul, 4, 171n3, 178–79n54 and reading position theory, 17, Pingjin zhanyi (Pingjin Battle, film, 21–22, 161 1992), 9–10 selflessness/self-sacrifice in, 31–34, political allegory, 138, 141–44, 155–56 36, 40, 47–48 political corruption, 107–10 and serving the people, 31–34 Index ● 225

state endorsement of, 162, 163 and selflessness, 21–22, 27–29, as zhuxuanlü production, 10, 21, 31–39, 41, 45–47, 71 28–29, 31, 161, 162, 163 socialist patriotism, 23–24, 76, Ren Changxia (TV drama), 30, 32, 35 89–90, 92, 117, 126–36 resistance, 2, 4, 16, 38, 112–13, socially conscious productions, 28, 49, 121–22, 133–36, 149–50, 161 63, 180n6 revolutionary spirit, 13, 177n43 spectrum of popular culture and state-approval, 3, 18–19, 24, 28, Schudson, Michael, 4–5 161–65 self-interest, 49–52, 56, 63, 66–71 State Administration of Radio, Film, selflessness, 21–22, 27–29, 31–39, 41, and Television (SARFT), 9–10 45–47 Anti-Vulgarity Campaign, 22–23, 78, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome 83, 86, 89, 91, 109–10 (SARS), 90 and Jinhun (Golden Marriage), sexuality 77–79, 86 casual sex, 85–86, 91 and Lost in Beijing, 51, 58–60, desire, 20–24, 75, 80–86, 95–106, 62–64, 186n30 138, 140–41, 144–45, 148, 150–55 and Woju (Narrow Dwelling), 95–96, gendered violence, 51–58, 60, 62–64, 109–10, 166 68–69, 105, 189–90n10 See also censorship homosexuality (male), 137–45 state power/hegemony and “hooliganism,” 196n5 and allegory, 137, 139–44 ideal sexual subjects, 80–81, 98 and appropriation of Confucianism, lesbianism, 51, 138, 149–56, 197n23 127–28, 131–34 prostitution, 49, 53, 59–63, 67–69, and corruption, 108 71, 104 and intellectuals, 126, 133–36 sexual virtue, 23, 75–76, 81, 85–88, negotiations with, 2–3, 16–18, 101, 105 20–24, 50, 70, 112–13, 159–61 taboos, 24, 63, 117, 137–38, 146, 149 and popular culture, 4–6, 14, 112 tongzhi (of the same intent, comrade), and regional identity, 156 153 and zhuxuanlü productions, 2, 8–9, See also marriage 11, 16–21, 31, 47, 89, 117–18, Shaonian Lei Feng (Young Lei Feng, 159–61, 165 film, 1996), 37.See also Lei Feng sublime figure, 17, 20, 75 (socialist hero) Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian), 121 taboos Shiyue huaitai (Ten Months of Pregnancy, political, 7, 24, 88, 117, 137–38, TV drama), 78 146, 149 Shuangmian jiao (Double-sided Tape, sexual, 24, 63, 117, 137–38, 146, TV drama), 96 149 Sino-Japanese War, 37 Taiwan, 5, 96, 129, 150–51, 153–54, socialist spirit, 7–18 156, 163, 168 and Confucianism, 12, 37–38, Tang, Xiaobing, 14 40–41, 62, 85, 89–90, 127–32, Third Sister Liu (film, 1960), 146 124 226 ● Index

Tian’anmen Square sexuality in, 95–113 and Confucius statue, 130–31 socioeconomics in, 100–113 Mao’s portrait in, 61–62 state-criticism of, 2, 95, 109–11, 113, references to in Lost in Beijing, 61–62 166, 191n24–25 See also June Fourth Event Woo, John, 168 (Tian’anmen Square) Wu Ge Yi Gongcheng Awards, 10 Tibet, 41–43, 46 To Live (film, 1992), 119–20, 175–76n32 Xi, Jinping, 34 trafficking, human, 2, 49, 64, 68–71 Xin jiehun shidai (New Age of Marriage, TV drama), 78 underground productions and directors, Xu, Honggang, 13 24, 71–72, 117, 137–56, 160, 164 Yan, Yan Mak, 151, 153–56, virtue 197–98n33 Confucian, 12–13, 28–29, 35–36, Yige dou buneng shao (Not One Less, 47, 87, 92, 177–78n50 film, 1999), 126 sexual, 23, 75–76, 81, 85–88, 101, Yin, Hong, 6 105 Yingxiong (Hero, film, 2002), 64, 117–36, 143, 192n4 Wang, Ban, 20, 66 actors in, 122, 133 Wang, Dan, 154 box office sales, 194n33 Wang Gui yu An Na (Wang Gui and An commercial success of, 119–20, Na, TV drama), 96 132–36 Wang, Haizhou, 119 Confucianism in, 127–33 Wang, Jing, 4, 130 and intellectuals, 117, 124–36 Wang, Shuo, 167 international audience, 132–33 Wang, Xiaobo, 139, 141–42 interpretations of, 119, 128–29 Wen, Jiaobao, 31, 34, 36–37, 45, plot, 117–18 110–11, 113, 182n16, 191n27 and political subjectivity, 120–27, Wode fuqin muqin (The Road Home, 133–36 film, 1999), 126 selflessness/self-sacrifice in, 117, Woju (Narrow Dwelling, TV drama), 123–24, 132, 134 95–113, 162, 163, 191n26 and socialist patriotism, 23–24, 117, actors and actresses in, 106–7, 112 127–36 and audience response, 95, 104–7, as zhuxuanlü production, 23, 117–19, 112 126–27, 161, 162, 163–64 creation and production of, 96–97 Yingxiong ernü (Heroic Sons and gender in, 100–104 Daughters, film, 1964), 30 narrative structure, 97 Yu, Hua, 177n44 political corruption in, 107–10 popularity of, 96–97, 109–10, Zaniello, Tom, 66 112–13, 163 Zhang, Jiayi, 106–7, 112 and SARFT, 95–96, 109–10, 166 Zhang, Jingsheng, 102 and self-censorship, 23, 95–96, 104, Zhang, Rui, 6 106–7, 112, 160 Zhang, Xudong, 14 Index ● 227

Zhang, Yimou, 64, 117, 119–22, Jinhun (Golden Marriage, TV 126–27, 133–36, 175–76n32 drama) as, 75–76, 78–79, 82–83, Zhang, Yingjin, 174–75n23 90–93 Zhang, Yongning, 145 Kong Fansen (film, 1995) as, 21, 29, Zhang, Yuan, 139, 142, 156 41–48, 162, 163 Zhang, Zhiliang, 197n24 Likai Lei Feng de rizi (Days Without Zhao, Ziyang, 7 Lei Feng, film, 1996) as, 21–22, Zheng, Xiaolong, 78–79 29, 162, 163 Zhong, Nanshan, 90 model sexual subjects, 78–84 Zhong, Xueping, 6 Ren Changxia (film, 2005) as, 10, 21, Zhongguo shi lihun (Chinese-Styled 28–29, 31, 161, 162, 163 Divorce, TV drama), 77 and social harmony, 75–76, 78, 80, Zhongnian jihua (Middle-aged Plans, 84–93 TV drama), 78 socialists spirit promoted by, 12–13 Zhou, Xiaowen, 121 state support for, 10 Zhu, Ying, 6–7 Yingxiong (Hero, film, 2002) as, zhuxuanlü (main melody) film and TV, 23, 117–19, 126–27, 161, 162, 2, 6–12, 16, 28, 46, 180n6 163–64 defined, 1–2, 8–10 Zou guo xingfu (Walking with functions of, 9 Happiness, TV drama), 78