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Astronomical Calculation of the Dating the Historical Battles of Marathon, Thermopylae and Salamis Based on Herodotus’ Description

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SCIENTIFIC CULTURE, Vol. 7, No. 2, (2021), pp. 81-99 Open Access. Online & Print www.sci-cult.com DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.4465552 ASTRONOMICAL CALCULATION OF THE DATING THE HISTORICAL BATTLES OF MARATHON, THERMOPYLAE AND SALAMIS BASED ON HERODOTUS’ DESCRIPTION Konstantina Gongaki1, Panagiota Preka-Papadema2, Konstantinos Kalachanis*3 and Panagiotis Antonopoulos4 1Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece 2Department of Astrophysics, Astronomy and Mechanics, Faculty of Physics National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece 3New York College, Athens, Greece 4ICT Consultant, InterMediaKT-Interactive Media Knowledge Transfer Patras, Greece Received: 12/11/2020 Accepted: 12/02/2021 Corresponding author: Konstantinos Kalachanis ([email protected]) ABSTRACT An important event of world history is the Greek-Persian war (5th century BC), as its outcome (with the victory of the Greeks) defined the evolution of culture in Greece and in whole Europe. Three battles that determined the course of this multi-year war was the battles of Marathon (490 BC) and of Thermopylae (480 BC) and the naval battle of Salamis (480 BC). Although the year of the above events is known, there is an uncertainty as to the date of their conduct. The purpose of this study is the presice determination of these dates based on the historical descriptions of Herodotus and the use of astronomical knowledge as Herodotus relates these events to great celebrations (Olympic Games, Carneia and Great Eleusinia) which were determined on the basis of the lunar calendars of Greek cities. Also, Herodotus mentions two solar eclipses that were observed at the beginning and end of Xerxes’ campaign (480 BC) the dates of which help us to determine the period of this campaign. KEYWORDS: Greco-Persian wars, Xerxes, astronomy, Herodotus, Artemision, battlrfield, eclipse, Olympic games. Lunar Copyright: © 2021. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. (https://cre- ativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). 82 K. GONGAKI et al 1. INTRODUCTION 1980; Steele, 1993) or September (e.g. Greswell, 1827). While for the naval battle of Salamis, dates between The Greco-Persian Wars started during the 5th cen- 22 to 29 of September are referred as possible dates tury BC because Athens and Eretria helped the Ionian such as September 27-28 (e.g. Busolt, 1908), Septem- cities against king Darius I. After the first failed cam- ber 21-22, (e.g. Goodwin, 1906), September 22-25 (e.g. paign of 492 BC the Persians came back, 490 BC, oc- Papantoniou, 1950), September 25 (e.g. Strauss, 2004). cupying various islands in Aegean Sea and the Ere- The main purpose of this work is not to describe tria. However, after they suffered a heavy defeat by the already known events (e.g. Lagos and Karyanos, the Athenians in Marathon returned to Persia. After 2020; Cartledge, 2013; Strauss, 2004; Matthews, 2008) the death of king Darius, king Xerxes I invaded but to determine the exact date of these three im- Greece, in 480 BC, in order to conquer the whole portant battles. Research methodology includes a) the country. According to Herodotus (VII, 138),"the study of the literary and historical source which is the king's campaign, only in name, turned against Ath- original text of the ‘Histories’ of Herodotus, which is ens, while really threatened the whole of Greece". His the main source for the Persian Wars and b) the use of plan is revealed by himself (VII, 8), "I will unite all the science of Astronomy as a methodological tool. countries in one, crossing the whole of Europe". But Herodotus refers to specific ancient festivals, which his plan was cancelled. After Thermopylae battle in are the Olympic Games, Carnea, Yakinthia and the 480 BC, the united Greeks defeated the Persians in the Great Eleusinia, which are determined temporally naval battle of Salamis in 480 BC, and the following based on ancient calendars and lunar months. Also, year they defeated them completely in Plataea and he mentions two solar eclipses, marking the start and Mycale. Finally, Persians abandoned their intentions the end of the Xerxes’ campaign which were used via of conquering Greece and Europe. The main source appropriate software to determine the exact time of about these critical and important wars is the ‘Histo- the battles. Such methodologies have been used suc- ries’ of the Greek historian Herodotus (484 or 425-410 cessfully in the field of Archeoastronomy for the pur- BC). pose of dating events based on astronomical observa- The unity of Greek cities was crucial for the deter- tions (e.g. Papamarinopoulos et al 2012; 2014). rence of Persian danger. This is highlighted by the messages of the Greeks, before the battle of Salamis, 2. ASTRONOMICAL DEFINITIONS: A to Gelon, Tyran of Syracuse ‘because if all the Greek BRIEF TUTORIAL cities are united, then Greece becomes a great and re- The lunar (synodic) month is the time between the sistant power against the enemy (VII, 157). The same two successive same phases of the Moon (e.g. from was mentioned by Thebans to Mardonius, in the bat- one full Moon to the next full Moon or from new tle of Plataea, ‘because with the power, the Greeks, Moon, to the next new Moon etc.). This time period is when they are united, have been known for a long 29.530589 days. The ancient Greeks divided the solar time, it is difficult to beat over them and all the people year into 12 lunar (synodic) months. Every month had together’ (ΙΧ, 2) alternately 29 or 30 days. The solar year (~365 days) is The assurance of the freedom of the Greeks, the period that the Earth makes an orbit around the achieved with the victorious outcome of the Persian Sun or equivalently from an observer on Earth, the wars, allowed the Greek cities to develop a high civi- period that the Sun makes an orbit around the Earth. lization and to spread it throughout the world. Other- Actually 12 months of 29.5 days’ equals to 354 wise, our ‘developed’ world would be different, as days. There is a difference of 11 days between solar the conquest from the east would have leaded him to and lunar year. This difference corrected by adding 3 "barbarian morals and customs" with the ancient months during a time interval of 8 years (in 3rd, 5th and Greek meaning of the term. This is the greatest im- 8th year). This critical period named Octaetiris. In the portance of these battles according to all the interna- middle of Octaetiris, the Olympic Games took place tional analysts. dividing the 8-year into 49 and 50 lunar months, total Αlthough we know the chronologies of these im- 99 months (8 x 12=96, 96+3=99 months). Thus, 99 x portant battles, as well as several details relating to 29.5 = 2920.5 days is almost the same with 8 x 365 = their conduct, their exact date is not known precisely. 2920 days. We note that the 19-year Metonic cycle Regarding the date of the battle of Marathon, most which included the intercalary month in a given year scholars agree that took place on September 11-12 was established after the Persian Wars, in 433 BC (e.g. Hammond, 1968) or August 12 (e.g. Olson et al. (Liritzis & Castro, 2013). 2004). Also, about the battle of Thermopylae, they According to Pindarus the Olympic Games took suggest confuse dates such as early August (e.g. Hi- place around the full Moon, in summer time (Olympia gnett, 1963), mid-August-around 17th-20th (e.g. Hol- 3, 19 and 10, 74-75). Additionally, according to Scholia land, 2006; Cartledge, 2007; Green, 1970; Bradford, SCIENTIFIC CULTURE, Vol. 7, No 2, (2021), pp. 81-99 ASTRONOMICAL CALCULATION OF THE DATING THE BATTLES OF MARATHON, THERMOPYLAE AND SALAMIS 83 in Pindarum (Ol.3, 35) the Olympia were held alterna- of Elians says the following: starting at the first of the tively during the Apollonios (July) either Parthenios month (or the new Moon) which is called Thosythias in Elis (August) months of the Elis calendar. ‘Γίνεται δε ὁ at the time of the winter solstice. And the Olympic Games ἀγὼν ποτέ μέν διά τεσσαράκοντα ἐννέα μηνῶν, ποτέ δε διά are held in the 8th month’ which means in English that πεντήκοντα. ὅθεν καί ποτέ μέν τῷ Απολλωνίω μηνί, ποτέ δέ firstly when the month called Thosydias in Elis during τῶν Παρθενίων, παρ’ Αιγυπτίοις Μεσωρί ή Θωθ, ἐπιτε- which occurs winter solstice. And the 81st Olympias takes λοῦνται. The Games are conducted either during the 49th or place during the 8th month. (see also V. Vaughan (2002) either 50th month that is during Apollonios month or Par- in http://www.onereed.com/articles/vvf/olym- thenios month respectively which is called by the Egyptian pics.html). Indeed, for the 81th Olympiad (456 BC) the Mesori or Thoth’. Or A<διχόμηνις:>διχόμηνις<ὅτι>περὶ 8th full Moon after winter solstice was in July 25th, τὴν ιϛʹ πανσελήνου οὔσης ἄγεται τὰ Ὀλύμπια, τουτέστι while for the previous 80th Olympiad it was in August διχομηνίᾳ Παρθενίου ἢ Ἀπολλωνίου μηνὸς, παρ' 8th (the dates computing according to Espenak calcu- Αἰγυπτίοις Θὼθ ἢ Μεσωρί. At the full of the Moon: In the lations, see in the next chapter). 16thday which is the full Moon the Olympic Games are con- Perhaps, caused to this point, there are different ducted that is to say during the full Moon of Parthenios or opinions among the resources, about dating the Apollonios month called by the Egyptians Mesori or Olympic Games; if the Olympia took place οn the first Thoth’.
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