IΔΡΥΜA ΜΕΙΖΟΝΟΣ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΣΜΟΥ Συγγραφή : Νούτσου Μαρίνα Μετάφραση : Βελέντζας Γεώργιος (18/7/2005) Για παραπομπή : Νούτσου Μαρίνα , "Darius I", 2005, Εγκυκλοπαίδεια Μείζονος Ελληνισμού, Μ. Ασία URL:
Περίληψη : Darius I was king of the Persian Empire from 522/521 to 486/485 BC. He expanded the boundaries of the Persian Empire, reorganized the administration into satrapies and created a detailed financial system for the administration of the country's resources. He squashed the Ionian Revolt and campaigned against Scythia and Greece. He supported the development of the arts and architecture. Άλλα Ονόματα Darajava(h)us, Darjawes, Dareiaios, Dareian, King of the Peoples, King of the Kings, Great King, Great Τόπος και Χρόνος Γέννησης 550-549 BC (approximately) Τόπος και Χρόνος Θανάτου 486/485 BC Κύρια Ιδιότητα Official at the royal court, King of the Persian Empire
1. Birth-Family
Darius I was the King of the Persian Empire from 522/521 until 486/485 BC. His name means ‘he who has the power’or ‘he who maintains the good’.1
Ancient sources do not mention the year he was born. However, this is estimated circa 550-549 BC, according to information from Herodotus2, who says that Darius I was approximately 20 years old when King Cyrus II was killed, which happened between 530 and 529 BC.
There is more information about his origins.3 He was the eldest son of Hystaspes, descendant of Ariaramnes of the Persian dynasty of the Achaemenids. Darius’father was an officer by Cyrus II, whom he followed in the campaign against the Massagetai. It is likely that Hystaspes became governor of the province of the Parthians.4 Herodotus 5 says that Darius had two brothers, Artabanus and Artaphernes, satrap of Sardis.
2. Youth
The only information about Darius’youth comes from Herodotus6, who mentions the dream Cyrus had before he was killed in the battle against the Massagetai. According to the historian, Darius appeared in his dream as the Great King of Persia. Cyrus took the warning seriously and sent Hystaspes to suppress his son’s alleged conspiracy.
Before Darius ascended to the throne, he had been an officer under Cambyses II, whom he had served as a doryforos in the campaign against Egypt (525 BC).7
3. Action
After Cambyses died (522 BC), Darius faced Smerdis (or Gaumata the Magian), a Mede usurper of the throne in Susa. On the inscription at Behistun Darius is said to have killed Smerdis in the Median acropolis Sikayauvatis, where he had taken him helped by six other conspirators.8 Herodotus writes that Darius headed a group of six Persian noblemen, united against the usurper on Otanes’
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The murder of Smerdis signified the ascent of Darius to the throne. According to the prevalent view, the fact dates back to 522 BC.10 According to earlier estimations, based on the inscription at Behistun, the information from Herodotus that Smerdis remained in power for 7 months and the Babylonian calendar, the 16th October 521 BC is thought to have been the exact date.11 Darius was then approximately 30 years old and reigned in the Persian Empire for 36 years.12
Among the first actions of Darius as a king were the murders of two officers and the capture of Samos.13 After the murders of the magicians, he killed Intaphernes, one of the conspirators, because he had not respected him. He then put to death Oroetes, the Persian first officer of Sardis, for the crimes he had committed. It was then that the Persians set out against Samos under the command of General Otanes. The desire of Syloson, son of Aeakes, to win back his power on the island is reported to have been the reason for that campaign. Darius responded to the request of the Samian tyrant in order to reward him for the help he had offered in Egypt, when he still was a doryforos of Cambyses. According to Herodotus, Samos was the first conquest of Darius.
The major military activities of Darius in his early reign included the recapture of the revolted provinces of his kingdom. Rarely did he lead his campaigns, which were under his commanders and generals.
The most important revolt was led by the Babylonians under the command of Nidintu-Bel, who called himself Nebuchadrezzar III. Darius led the army himself during the siege of Babylon, which lasted several months14. He finally captured the city towards the end of 520 BC15 with the help of a cunning plan of Zopyrus, one of the conspirators and son of Megabyzus.
After the capture of Babylon a large number of provinces in the east and northeast revolted, the most important being Media and Parthia. Abettors of the two revolts were Phraates of the Median dynasty of Cyaxares and Hystaspes respectively. Darius confronted and beat Phraates. The rest of the uprisings, most of which happened simultaneously, were suppressed by the king’s commanders.
While Darius was in Media, a second uprising sparked off in Babylon was suppressed towards the end of 519 BC. The campaign against the Asian Scythians was launched in the same period. Ctesias writes that the operation was undertaken by Ariaramnes, the satrap of Cappadocia, on Darius’order. 16 Two years later Darius went to Egypt either to quell the riots caused by the bad behaviour of first officer Ariadnes or punish the officer because he wanted to resemble the Great King. It was then that the neighbouring areas of Egypt were annexed to the Persian territory.17
According to the prevalent view, the year 517 BC signified the end of operations and the recapture of revolted provinces.18 The only sufficient ancient evidence for the above events is the bas-relief at Behistun, carved by order of Darius. The relief shows the defeated sovereigns, appearing tied up before the Great King. The representation is accompanied by a long trilingual inscription with the day and the month each campaign took place, without indicating the year though, which makes it difficult to establish the accurate chronology of the events.19 The inscription of Behistun mentions 23 nations Darius annexed to his territory in the first period of his reign. India, later inscribed on Darius’sepulchral stele, had not been conquered yet.20 The year India was conquered is not known. In any case, it was the easternmost edge of the Empire.
When the eastern provinces had been annexed, Darius launched his campaigns against Ionia and the West.21 The dominance of Darius over Ionia resulted in replacing the democratic regimes of the cities with tyrannies. The fleets of the Ionian tyrants, mainly Histiaeus of Miletus, supported the campaign against the Scythians, who lived beyond the Danube River (Ister). Darius tried to extend his territory over Europe22 and gave particular attention to the conquest of Thrace, a region rich in gold and wheat, by leading the operations himself. Although Artabanus had dissuaded him from advancing, Darius crossed the Bosporus in 513 BC with a big number of soldiers, helped by the Samian architect Mandrocles, who built a bridge of ships. In memory of the event Darius erected two columns in Byzantium. Most Thracian towns submitted voluntarily to the Persian army. The operations against the European Scythians lasted for only a few days and were disastrous for the Persians. The Danube became the northernmost European boundary
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After the campaign against the Scythians Darius ordered Megabyzus at first and Otanes later to submit the Greek cities and secure Thrace; then he returned to Asia Minor. The satrapy of Thrace between the Strymon (Struma) and Danube Rivers was then formed.
Darius gave Histiaeus, as a reward for his services, the region of Myrkinos in the Struma River, rich in silver mines and timber. When Histiaeus started to fortify the area, Darius suspected him of disloyalty so he recalled him to be his adviser in Sardis.24 In 499 BC the Ionian Revolt broke out, after the unsuccessful attempt of Aristagoras, the tyrant of Miletus, and Artaphernes, the satrap of Sardis, to conquer Naxos. Aristagoras and Histiaeus were the instigators of the revolt. Operations to suppress the revolt finished in 494 BC, when Miletus was captured.25 During the war Darius annexed Cyprus (498 BC) and the islands along the Ionian coast to his territory. After the Ionian Revolt general Mardonius, Darius’son -in-law, established democratic regimes in the Greek cities of Asia Minor.26
Mardonius led the campaign against the Greek mainland, organised by Darius in 492 BC. The operation was not completed, for the Persian fleet was wrecked off the peninsula of Mount Athos. The Persians under the command of Datis and Artaphernes attacked the Greek cities again the following year, but they were defeated in the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. The only benefit Darius reaped from the campaign of Mardonius was the conquest of the Cyclades.
3.1 Relations
According to Herodotus,27 Democedes of Croton, a doctor taken from Sardis to Persia together with other captives after the murder of Oroetes, belonged to the immediate environment of Darius. He was an eminent nobleman because he had cured Darius and Atossa, Xerxes’mother, whom he greatly influenced. In order to escape from the Persian court, he suggested, helped by his mother, that Darius should form a group of spies to be sent to Greece under Democedes and explore the country before the campaign against the Greeks.
3.2 Personal and Family Life
Before Darius ascended to the throne, he had married the daughter of Gobryas, one of the conspirators who had overthrown Smerdis. He had three children by this marriage, the eldest son being Artobazanes. As soon as he assumed power, he married Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus and ex-wife of Cambyses, her brother, and Smerdis the Magian. Atossa was the most powerful of all Darius’wives. They had four children, the eldest son being Xerxes I. Other wives of Darius were Artystone, daughter of Cyrus, Parmys, grand-daughter of Cyrus, and Phedime, daughter of Otanes and ex-wife of Smerdis the Magian. With the help of his daughter, Phedime’s father revealed the deceit of the magicians. Finally, Phratagoune, daughter of his uncle Artanes, is reported to have been his wife. Most of Darius’marriages were into the family of Cyrus II.28
Gobryas and Otanes played important roles in Darius’life. They were generals and advisers of the king and accompanied him in his campaigns. General Mardonius, husband of Darius’daughter, was the son of Gobryas. 29
3.3 Political Ideology
Herodotus30 writes that Darius I was always an advocate of monarchy. He caused his election as the absolute monarch, contriving a divine omen that favoured him. He demanded that he be established by Ahura Mazdā as a monarch by the grace of God.
3.4 Administration
Darius Icreated the most extensive Persian Empire ever existed, which extended from south Mesopotamia, the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean to the Black Sea (Euxinus Pontus), Armenia and the Aral Sea, and from India and Bactria to Egypt, the Aegean and
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Thrace. Students of history believe that he did not know the exact boundaries of his state, but he was particularly capable of organising interior matters.31 The administrative and fiscal systems he created were in operation until the end of the Achaemenid Dynasty (331 BC).
The division of the Empire into 20 provinces, the satrapies, is reported to have been the first administrative action of Darius. These regions were governed by the satraps, top officers with political and military authority. In order to win their loyalty Darius granted the satraps more power, making them almost independent, since they were considered local kings with complete dominance over their territory and the right to make war beyond their territory. In addition, they minted their own coinage from all metals except gold, used only by the Great King.32
In general, he introduced a sophisticated fiscal system, which included the management of the territory’s resources, mainly owned by the king. Part of this policy was the measurement of the Ionian land after the Ionian Revolt.33 After satrapies were restored in the area, Darius compiled a land register, used later by Alexander the Great and the Seleucids. According to Herodotus,34 in Darius’ time taxes were first levied in amounts of money instead of products. At the same time, he introduced the imperial coinage system by minting gold and silver coins bearing his picture. The gold coins were staters called ‘Darics’, while the silver ones were called siglos.35 Although slightly different, the silver siglos depicting Darius as an archer were in circulation until the end of the Achaemenid Dynasty.
Systematic coinage made transport and commercial transactions easier. Darius was particularly interested in the development of trade by planning sea routes and constructing high roads connecting provinces with metropolises. The most important of them was the royal road running from Susa to Ephesus and Sardis. The artery followed a formerly planned road used by Cyrus II as well. Under Darius’ expansionary policy to the West the road was called ‘Persian Royal Road’and was organised with stations and relays as well as gates-strongholds. Herodotus36 mentions 111 stations and 4 gates, two of which were on the border with Cilicia, one in Armenia and one on the Alys River. The road covered a total distance of 13,500 stades or 450 parasangs.37 It started from Sardis and ran across Lydia, Phrygia and Cappadocia, entered east Cilicia and Armenia before it finally ended south in Susa.
Furthermore, Darius promoted the establishment of a new system for more accurately measuring mass and weight. In order to boost commerce Scylax of Caryanda was assigned the task of circumnavigating India.38
Darius took the initiative in constructing water supply channels, the so-called qanate. However, his most ambitious project was the opening of a canal from the Nile to the Red Sea, which he never accomplished. In memory of the project Darius erected a column in the area of Suez, depicting himself bearing an inscription, which called him the master of Egypt.39
The centre of the state was Persepolis in the region of Fars. The city was founded by Darius, replacing Pasargadae, the capital of Cyrus II, which was to the north and at a higher altitude. At the same time, he made Susa, to the east of Mesopotamia, the winter capital, and maintained the Median Ecbatana, to the northwest, as the administrative centre.40
Finally, Darius is believed to have created architecture and art based on Greek standards and Egyptian influences, mainly apparent in the palaces of Persepolis and Susa. Greek-Ionian influences are the helices adorning the complicated capitals and the widespread use of columns in palaces. The Greek influence becomes even more apparent when it comes to rendering figures on architectural reliefs, such as the figures of Darius on his throne, his courtiers and his subjects, the most important being the relief of the nations on the external walls of the audience chamber in Persepolis. In the same cluster of buildings there are representations of animals fighting (lion and wild goat), a very common iconographical representation in Greek art at the time. Finally, the private royal art is significantly influenced from Greece, as proven by coins and seals. Examples of fine art are the signets with the name of Darius and his figure in action, i.e. during lion hunting.
4. Other Information
In the numerous reliefs in Persepolis and Susa Darius is depicted in profile, with a typically long nose. The same is shown on coins,
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5. Death
Darius died towards the end of 486 or 485 BC. According to Herodotus, he was in Egypt at the time in order to quell a riot, while at the same time he was preparing his new campaign against Greece. One year earlier he had appointed Xerxes I as his successor.41 From Herodotus’42 writings it is concluded that Darius had not reached the age of 66 when he died. According to another version by Ctesias,43 Darius died in Persia, following an illness of 30 days, at the age of 72.
The tomb of Darius I is in the necropolis of Nagsch i Rustam, approximately 6 km to the north of Persepolis. It is in a cliff face, while its front is in the shape of a cross. There is a relief representation showing the Great King being deified as well as an extensive inscription referring to his conquests and glory. A small central opening leads to the death chamber, inaccessible to visitors due to its high level.
6. Assessment and Judgements
6.1 Judgements by Contemporaries and Posterity
Although Herodotus is affected by the hostile feelings the Greeks had for the Persians, he does not fail to record the moments when Darius is grateful to all who support him. As for taxation imposed on satrapies, Herodotus calls him an ‘exploiter’,44 accusing him of exploiting everything in order to become rich. However, the historian remarks that he ‘managed to accomplish anything he undertook’.45 In Persians Aeschylus writes
‘The scenes of glory opening to our eyes, When this vast empire o'er The good Darius, with each virtue bless'd That forms a monarch's breast, Shielding his subjects with a father's care Invincible in war, Extended like a god his awful power’.46
Aelianus (1st-2nd c. BC) underlines that Darius was lenient with his opponents at the correct moment, so they respected him and submitted to him.47
6.2 Overall Assessment
Darius was a powerful personality and a particularly ambitious person. He was interested in his posthumous fame, as concluded from the works of art and inscriptions of his time. He followed the expansionary policy of Cyrus II, thus creating the first world empire.
He was not a distinguished general, since most of his military victories were won by his commanders. His leading light mainly appears in the way he organised and maintained his territory.
In Asia Minor, in particular, in order to gain control over the Greek cities, he put an end to the democratic regimes and imposed local tyrants submitted to him. The tyrants were mainly to blame for the Ionian Revolt and perhaps that was the reason why Darius did not oppose to the restoration of democracy in Greek cities by Mardonius.
As a whole, Darius was a fair judge when it came to his state’s interests. In addition, he took advantage of his efficient subjects for the benefit of himself and his state. In his court there were Egyptian and Greek doctors. Builders from Ionia and Egypt were used in
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Persepolis and Susa, for they were very skilful stone-carvers. His fleet in the Mediterranean was commanded mainly by Phoenicians and, secondarily, Egyptians, while the trade was organised mainly by Babylonians.48
In order to keep control over the subordinate nations, Darius liberalized lots of activities, such as commercial transactions, religion, language and writing. At the same time he fostered ‘sciences’, mainly astronomy.
As regards religions, his attitude towards the Egyptians is indicative of the matter, as he restored the worship of Apis and built temples of worship. He permitted the Jews to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem. In Greek regions, he honoured the worship of Apollo, as evidenced by a personal letter sent to Gadatas, an officer in Magnesia ad Maeandrum, where he reprimanded him because he had demanded taxes from the priests of Apollo.49
He demanded that the nations fully recognise his divine power. The association of his power with the divine will secured his position. As the god’s representative, he was inaccessible to ordinary mortals. Darius accepted the foreign representatives, who came to Persepolis from subordinate nations in order to submit to the Great King, only during the greatest celebration held in honour of Ahura Mazdā.50 This is evidenced by the reliefs adorning the external walls of the audience chamber in Persepolis.
1. Meyer, Forschungen zur Alten Geschichte I (1892), pp. 194‑195.
2. Herodotus Ι.209.
3. The most significant testimony regarding Darius' genealogy is the inscription of Behistun, see. Lautemann, W. – Schlenke, M., Geschichte in Quellen I. Altertum (1965), p. 105, no. 94. See also Herodotus Ι.209 and VΙΙ.11.2.
4. About Hystaspes: RE, column 542, see entry “Hystaspes” (J. Miller).
5. Herodotus ΙV.83.1 and V.30.5.
6. Herodotus Ι.209 onwards.
7. Herodotus ΙΙΙ.139.
8. See Lautemann, W. – Schlenke, M., Geschichte in Quellen I (1965), p. 105, no. 94.
9. The events are narrated by Herodotus ΙΙΙ.68-79. In the book ΙΙΙ.70 he mentions the names of the six conspirators: Otanes, Intafernes, Gobrias, Megabyzos, Aspathinesς, Hydarnes. The conspirators have different names in Ctesias, History of the Persians 38a in Photius, 72. Polyaenus VΙΙ.11.2 mentions seven conspirators plus Darius. Aeschylus in The Persians, line 775 onwards, mentions Artaphernes as the murderer, something that is not perceived as historical truth since the work is a poetic text. The day of the slaughter of the magicians was established as official celebration, the so- called "Magofonia". See also Ctesias, History of the Persians 38a in Photius, 72 and Plutarch, Politics 27D.
10. Cook, M.J., The Greeks in Ionia and the East (London 1965), p. 124· Roaf, M., Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East (1990- 1991), p. 207.
11. Meyer, Forschungen zur Alten Geschichte IΙ (1892), pp. 473‑475∙ Haywood, M.R., Ancient Greece and the Near East (1968), p. 147.
12. Haywood, M.R., Ancient Greece and the Near East (1968), p. 146 estimates that Darius assumed authority when he was 28 years old. Regarding the years of his reign see Herodotus VΙΙ.4.Ctesias, Περσικά 38b in Photius, 72 mentions 31 years.
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13. Herodotus. ΙΙΙ.118-119, 120-128, 139-149.
14. Herodotus, ΙΙΙ.153.1, mentions 20 months.
15. Meyer, Forschungen zur Alten Geschichte IΙ (1892), p. 475 and 501∙ Roaf, M., Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East (1990‑ 1991), p. 207. The campaign of Darius in Babylon is narrated by Herodotus ΙΙΙ 150‑160. See also Diodorus Σ., X.19.2.
16. Ctesias, History of the Persians 38a.
17. Polyaenus VΙΙ.11.7 and Herodotus ΙV.165-166. The lands around Egypt are mentioned on an inscription at the tomb of Darius in Nagsch i Rustam. See Cook, M.J., The Persian Empire (London – Melbourne – Toronto 1983), pp. 58-59 and p. 60 about the year which Darius spent in Egypt.
18. The end of the campaign has been estimated between 519, year of the second occupation of Babylon, and 512, a year after the end of the Scythian campaign in Europe. See Meyer, Forschungen zur Alten Geschichte IΙ (1892), p. 501. RE, column 2187, see entry “Dareios” (Seeck).
19. This is a colossal relief representation that was made on the rocky slop of Mount Bagastana, in the area of Media. The inscription, which was written in Elamite, Persian and Babylonian, was the starting point for the decipherment of the Persian cuneiform writting by Rawlinson, in 1840. See also Cook, M.J., The Persian Empire (London – Melbourne – Toronto 1983), p. 68· Matheson, Α.S., Persien (2003), p. 146 omwards.·Roaf, M., Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East (1990-1991), p. 206· RE, column 2187, “Dareios”( Seeck). Regarding the text of the inscription: Lautemann, W. – Schlenke, M., Geschichte in Quellen I (1965), pp. 105-107, no. 94.
20. About the text of the inscription Lautemann, W. – Schlenke, M., Geschichte in Quellen I (1965), p. 108, no. 98.
21. Roaf, M., Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East (1990-1991), pp. 207, 212.
22. Diodorus Σ., Χ.19.5.
23. Regarding the campaign against the Scythians see Herodotus ΙV.83 onwards. Also, Ctesias, History of the Persians 38a-b in Photius, 72. Regarding the forces of Darius 700,000 men and 600 ships are mentioned, numbers that are considered excessive. See also Cook, M.J., The Persian Empire (London – Melbourne – Toronto 1983), p. 59.
24. Herodotus V.11 and 23-25.
25. The only complete ancient source of the campaign is Herodotus V.23-122, VΙ.33. About the fall of Miletus see Herodotus VΙ.18-22. About Histiaeus he mentions in V.35-36 that the latter hoped in an uprising of the subjects of Ionia, in the hope that Darius would restore him to power in Miletus.
26. Herodotus VI 43.3-4.
27. Herodotus ΙΙΙ.129 onwards.
28. Herodotus ΙΙΙ.68.3, 88.2‑3 and VΙΙ 2.3, 3.4, 224.2.
29. Herodotus VΙ.43.1.
30. Herodotus ΙΙΙ.80-86 has a narration that has been contested by research, see also. RE, see entry "Dareios”( Seeck), according to which the conspirators convened immediately after the assassination of Smerdes about the political future of the Empire. Otanes was in favour of democracy, Megabyzos oligarchy and Darius monarchy. Finally it was decided to elect one of the seven as king and Darius managed to be elected through trickery. See also Ctesias History of the Persians 38a in Photius, 72. About the system of government see Haywood M.R., Ancient Greece and the Near East2 (1968), p. 147.
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31. About the administrative work of Darius see Koch H., Es kündet Dareios der König. Vom Leben im persische Großreich (Mainz – Philipp von Zabern 1992).
32. Herodotus ΙΙΙ.89 and 97. See also Cook, M.J., The Greeks in Ionia and the East2 (London 1965), p. 124. About the list of Darius' satrapies see Herzfeld, E., The Persian Empire. Studies in Geography and Ethnography of ancient Near East (Wiesbaden 1968), pp. 295-297 and Cook M.J., The Persian Empire (London – Melbourne – Toronto 1983), pp. 78-79. In addition, CAH, The Persian Empire and the West, IV, pp. 193-201. About the coins in Ionia in Darius' era see Gardner, P., “The coinage of the Ionian revolt”, JHS 31 (1911), pp. 151-160.
33. The measurement of the land is attributed by Herodotus VΙ.42 to Artaphernes, satrap of Sardis.
34. Herodotus ΙΙΙ.89. Analytically about the taxes paid by the nations Herodotus ΙΙΙ.89-97. About the tax paid by the people of Asia Minor see Herodotus ΙΙΙ.90.
35. Cook, M.J., The Persian Empire (London – Melbourne – Toronto 1983), pp. 69-71 estimates the minting of coins in 512 BC.
36. Herodotus V.52-53. See also, CAH, The Persian Empire and the West, IV, p. 193.
37. Approximately 2,700 km.
38. The first carving of the road, which Darius gave "royal" status, was during the Assyrian era. About Darius' activities see Herodotus ΙV.166. Cook, M.J., The Greeks in Ionia and the East2 (London 1965), p. 124· Ramsay, Historical Geography of Asia Minor (1962), p. 27 onwards. Herzfeld, E., The Persian Empire. Studies in Geography and Ethnography of ancient Near East (Wiesbaden 1968), p. 288· Roaf, M., Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East (1990-1991), p. 212. About Scylax's campaign see Herodotus ΙV.44.1-2 mentions that Darius wanted to explore the area of the Indus river, the second most important source for the import of crocodiles, and the sea in which it flows into. About the sea routes see Cook, M.J., The Persian Empire (London – Melbourne – Toronto 1983), pp. 64-65.
39. Regarding the qanate see Matheson, A.S., Persien (2003), p. 8. About the Nile canal see Herodotus ΙΙ.158, ΙV 39· Diodorus. Ι.33.9 onwards.· Strabo. ΧVΙΙ.804. According to the ancient testimonies the work has began by Pharaoh Psammetichus. Darius continued it, leaving the last part towards the Red Sea incomplete because they believed that the sea was higher from Egypt and as a result it would flood the country. The canal was completed much later by Ptolemy II. About the column see Lautemann, W. – Schlenke, M., Geschichte in Quellen I (1965), p. 107, no. 96. See also Herzfeld, E The Persian Empire. Studies in Geography and Ethnography of ancient Near East (Wiesbaden 1968), pp. 293-294· Wilcken, U., Griechische Geschichte im Rahmen der Altertumsgeschichte (1962), p. 87.
40. Culican, W., Imperial Cities of Persia. Persepolis, Susa and Pasargadae (London 1970).
41. Herodotus VΙΙ 3.4∙ Meyer, Forschungen zur Alten Geschichte IΙ (1892), pp. 475, 481, 501∙ Haywood, M.R., Ancient Greece and the Near East (1968), p. 147 and 486. Ο Cook, M.J., The Persian Empire (London – Melbourne – Toronto 1983), p. 99, estimates Dariusʹ death on December 1st 486 BC.
42. Regarding Darius' age when Cyrus died and the years of his reign see Herodotus Ι.209 and VΙΙ.4.
43. Ctesias, History of the Persians 38b in Photius, 72.
44. Herodotus ΙΙΙ.89.
45. "He was efficient in whatever he undertook": Herodotus ΙΙΙ.88.3· Also, Herodotus. ΙΙΙ.140, IV.143, V.11, VI.30.
46. Aeschylus, The Persians 856-862.
47. Aelianus, Varia Historia VI.14.
48. Cook, M.J., The Greeks in Ionia and the East (London 1965), p. 125.
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49. Diodorus Ι.95.4 onwards. Regarding Apollo see Herodotus VI.97 and 118 onwards. Regarding Darius' letter to Gadatas see Lautemann, W. – Schlenke, M., Geschichte in Quellen I (1965), p. 107, no. 95 and Dittenberger, ?, Sylloge I.22. Regarding the worship of Apis and the temple of Jerusalem see Cook, M.J., The Persian Empire (London – Melbourne – Toronto 1983), pp. 60 and 71-72.
50. The celebration took place in the beginning of spring with the beginning of the new year, according to the Persian calendar. In the same period the government moved from Susa to Persepolis.
Βιβλιογραφία : Boardman J., Persia and the West, London 2001
Cook M.J., The Persian Empire, London – Melbourne – Toronto 1983
Cook M.J., The Greeks in Ionia and the East. Ancient Peoples and Places, London 1962
Culican W., Imperial Cities of Persia Persepolis, Susa and Pasargadae, London 1970
Gardner P., "The coinage of the ionian revolt", JHS, 31, 1911, 151-160
Haywood M.R., Ancient Greece and the Near East, London 1968
Herzfeld E., The Persian Empire Studies in Geography and Ethnography of ancient Near East, Wiesbaden 1968
Koch H., Es kündet Dareios der König Vom Leben im persischen Großreich, Mainz 1992
Lautemann W., Schlenke M., Geschichte in Quellen I. Altertum. Alter Orient – Hellas – Rom, München 1965
Matheson Α.S., Persia An Archaeological Guide, London 1972
Meyer Ε., Forschungen zur Alten Geschichte Band 1: Zur älteren griechischen Geschichte, 1892
Wilcken U., Griechische Geschichte im Rahmen der Altertumsgeschichte, München 1962
Roaf M., Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia and the Ancient Near East, New York 1990-1991
Δικτυογραφία : A Commentary on Darius http://www.herodotuswebsite.co.uk/darius.htm Darius I, The Great http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/History/hakhamaneshian/darius_great.htm Darius The Great http://www.iranchamber.com/history/darius/darius.php Darius the Great http://www.livius.org/da-dd/darius/darius_i_0.html History of Iran, Achaemenid Empire
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http://www.iranchamber.com/history/achaemenids/achaemenids.php
Χρονολόγιο 522 BC: Death of Cambyses II.
522/521 BC: Assassination of Smerde. Darius I ascended the throne.
520 BC: First occupation of Babylon.
519 BC: Second occupation of Babylon. Campaign against the Asian Scythians.
517 BC: Dariusʹ stay in Egypt. The end of the campaign for the re ‑occupation of the provinces.
513 BC: Campaign againsts the Scythians.
499 BC: The beginning of the Ionian Revolt.
494 BC: The Fall of Miletus. The end of the Ionian Revolt.
492 BC: Organization of a campaign against mainland Greece (Mardonius).
490 BC: Battle of Marathon.
486 BC: Darius names Xerxes I as his successor.
486/485 BC: Death of Darius I.
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