History Physics NEWSLETTER of A F o r u m o f T h e A m e r i c a n P h y s i c a l S o c i e t y • V o l u m e X • N o . 3 • F A L L 2 0 0 7 Report from the Chair: Meeting Challenges to Science

By Bill Evenson, Forum Chair

hile retaining high credibility with the public in So what can history of physics do in the face of these general, science faces challenges to its authority challenges? Non-scientists need exposure to good history Wand reliability on particular issues on many fronts of science so they can understand that while scientific con- today. These include attempts to subordinate science to clusions are not final or absolute, nonetheless science is far political or economic interests, questions about the validity from arbitrary; it is supported by careful experiments and of cosmological and biological evolution, and conflicts over argument. Real science always includes false starts, errors, global warming and climate change. A common thread and misleading experimental results, and scientific conclu- running through all these challenges is that the findings sions are uncertain to some degree. But we need to teach of science have produced a picture of reality that conflicts students and the general public that not all uncertain knowl- with preconceptions that support a sense of individual edge is unreliable or dismissible. There are widely varying identity or with an existing worldview that is intertwined degrees of uncertainty in different kinds of knowledge. with economic or political or religious interests. The strength and breadth of evidence for a theory must be It is not the role of science—much less the history of weighed. And many scientific theories, including Big Bang physics—to challenge or undermine economic or political cosmology and neo-Darwinian evolution, are on very firm or religious commitments. Nevertheless, when these are ground indeed. In short, science needs to be judged on the inconsistent with the findings of science, the foundations basis of the strength of the evidence and arguments for its on which we build both our identity and the lenses through claims. And careful histories of science as it is actually car- which we see the world need to be adjusted. This is not to ried out can contribute importantly to the understanding of challenge beliefs, but to ask that the interpretations under- these issues by non-scientists and scientists alike. pinning these beliefs be understood as “interpretations” and hence subject to adjustment in their applications to scientific issues. Continued on page 2

In s i d e Th i s Is s u e General Forum Affairs 3

Pais Prize Lecture 4

March Meeting Reports 5

April Meeting Reports 9

Seven Pines Symposium 16

New Books of Note 17

We Hear That . . . 18 Forum Chair Bill Evenson, Utah Valley State College Meeting Challenges to Science Continued from page 1

I therefore urge that we bring in addition to a technical paper. Most of the development of quantum our interest in history of physics to of the history talks had to be scheduled mechanics.” He is the author of Con- strengthen the understanding of sci- for the usual 12-minute APS meeting cepts of Space (Harvard University Press, ence among our students and the gen- length in 2007, but we will continue 1954), Concepts of Force (Harvard Uni- eral public at every opportunity. to schedule 24-minute talks whenever versity Press, 1957), Concepts of Mass in Meanwhile, most of the regular possible, depending on the number of Classical Mechanics and Modern Physics Forum activity takes place among talks and the meeting rooms available. (Harvard University Press, 1964), The physicists, much of it at physics meet- In an innovation this year, we Conceptual Development of Quantum ings. You will read later in this newslet- reached beyond the March and April Mechanics (McGraw-Hill, 1966), The ter about many splendid sessions orga- meetings and cosponsored a session Philosophy of Quantum Mechanics (Wiley, nized by FHP at the 2007 March and at the Frontiers in Optics 2007/Laser 1974), Einstein and Religion (Harvard April APS meetings. More excellent Science XXIII meeting on the “history University Press, 1999), Concepts of sessions are planned for 2008 (see pre- of Bell’s Theorem and its experimental Mass in Contemporary Physics and Phi- liminary plans outlined on p. 3). Please verification.” This was the APS Divi- losophy (Princeton University Press, plan to attend the 2008 March meeting sion of Laser Science’s annual meeting, 2001), and Concepts of Simultaneity: (New Orleans, March 10–14) or April September 16–20, in San Jose. From Antiquity to Einstein and Beyond meeting (St. Louis, April 12–15) and to Two activities initiated by Virginia (The Johns Hopkins University Press, contribute to our sessions. Trimble have become very important 2006). Truly an outstanding record I am especially pleased to report for the Forum: donated support for of achievement. that many more contributed papers students giving contributed talks in in history of physics than ever before memory of a significant colleague who A Few Reminders: Please remind were submitted in 2007 for the March has passed on (John Bardeen and Rolfe students interested in the history of and April meetings, enabling us to Glover Studentships in 2007, thanks physics that the Forum can offer lim- have two contributed sessions at each to the Bardeen family and to Richard ited travel support to a few of them one. I urge you to continue this trend Prange) and donated sponsorships who wish to present talks at the March and report on your history projects for invited lectures at APS meetings or April APS meetings. They should through contributed talks again next (Franco Rasetti lecture in March 2007, apply be email to me, Bill Evenson, year. Any APS member can give a his- thanks to Bob Resnick, and Samuel K. at [email protected] after submitting tory talk at the March or April meeting Allison lecture in April, thanks to Jim their abstracts to APS. Also remember Cronin). The donors can choose who to send a short record of the work is to be honored (among deceased of retiring scientists (yourself or col- physicists), and the Forum program leagues) to the Center for History committee selects the speaker. of Physics, as explained by Virginia The Forum on History of Physics I was reminded by the recent death Trimble in the last issue of this newslet- of the American Physical Society of Ralph Alpher that not all contri- ter. Likewise, continue to send depart- publishes this Newsletter semian- butions to physics are adequately ment histories to the Center for His- nually. Nonmembers who wish appreciated and rewarded during the tory of Physics and [email protected]. to receive the Newsletter should physicist’s life. A named lecture or And please nominate your deserving make a donation to the Forum of studentship in honor of someone you colleagues for APS fellowship—see $5 per year (+ $3 additional for respect can be appropriate for those more on p. 3. airmail). Each 3-year volume con- who made important contributions, sists of six issues. with or without adequate attention Special thanks are due to now Past during their career. Please consider Chair Virginia Trimble for her signifi- Editor whether you can make a full ($1,200 cant leadership as well as financial con- Michael Riordan to $1,500 for named lectures) or partial tributions to the Forum these last three Institute of Particle Physics contribution and contact me or one of years. And welcome to those who were University of California the Forum officers. elected to the Forum Executive Com- Santa Cruz, CA 95064 The Pais Prize for History of Phys- mittee in 2007, who took office after [email protected] ics has been even more successful the April APS meeting: the new Vice (831) 459-5687 than hoped in calling attention to Chair Gloria Lubkin (American Insti- outstanding career-long work in phys- tute of Physics); and Gordon L. Kane Associate Editor ics history. The 2007 Prize recipient (University of Michigan) and George O. Robert H. Romer was Max Jammer, well known “for Zimmerman (Boston University), both Physics Department his groundbreaking historical studies elected to three-year terms as Commit- Amherst College of fundamental concepts in physics, tee Members-at-Large. n Amherst, MA 01002 including his comprehensive account [email protected]

2 Volume X, No. 3 • Fall 2007 • History of Physics Newsletter Editors’ Corner Special Manhattan Call for Fellowship Project Session Nominations When I began serving as program chair several years ago, our con- By David C. Cassidy By Gloria Lubkin tributed sessions at the annual APS meetings were embarrassing. There The Forum on History of Phys- The FHP Committee on Fel- were none at the March meeting, in ics and the Forum on Physics and lows is seeking suitable candidates fact, and only a few forgettable papers Society are co-sponsoring an invited to be named APS Fellows through were delivered in a lightly attended session on the Manhattan Project, to the Forum on the History of Phys- session in April. be held during the next APS April ics. These nominations should be How things have changed. Now, Meeting, in St. Louis, MO, on 12–15 based on achievements in the history thanks to the efforts of our program April 2008. The speakers will be: of physics and must be sent directly chairs, the Forum offers contributed • Cynthia C. Kelly, President of to the APS office in College Park, sessions at both meetings—and they the Atomic Heritage Foundation. Maryland. The criteria for fellow- attract excellent papers and large, Ms. Kelly has been an outstanding ship and complete instructions for engaged audiences. I experienced this leader in recent years of an effort submitting nominations are given at: personally last April when I gave the to preserve important Manhattan http://www.aps.org/fellowship/fellinfo.html. first paper in a contributed session. Project sites. She has organized a The FHP unit deadline for the To my surprise and pleasure, the number of symposia on various receipt of all materials at APS is 15 room was packed with more than 50 aspects of the Project. May 2008. All nominations submitted listeners! • Val Fitch, Princeton University, to APS will be forwarded to the FHP These sessions are a venue who served as an SED (or Special Fellowship Committee for review. This where—in keeping with APS tradi- Engineering Detachment, US Army) committee will make its recommenda- tions—any APS member who wishes soldier, one of many who actively tions to the Forum Executive Commit- can stand up and give a brief talk on a participated in Los Alamos projects. tee; if approved, the nominations will topic in the history of physics. Partici- He will speak on life at Los Alamos then go to the APS Council for final patory democracy in action, it helps in 1942–1945. approval. bring to light subjects that science • David C. Cassidy, Hofstra Uni- Here are some specific instructions historians may have overlooked. I versity, a historian of science, who about the nomination process, taken experienced this process myself when will speak on historical aspects from the APS website. Before submit- the next speaker, Ramanth Cowsik of of the Manhattan Project and its ting your nomination, make sure that Washington University, lectured about impacts on society. the nominee is a member of the Society Homi J. Bhabha (well known for cal- We also invite contributed in good standing. Obtain supporting culations of electron-positron scatter- papers on the Project, which will letters from two sponsors, who do not ing) and his 1930s work anticipating be included in the contributed have to be APS members. Submit a the discovery of the muon. I had no papers session to be held during the complete original nomination packet prior awareness of it. meeting. (nomination form and supporting let- The contributed-paper sessions We therefore offer a special invi- ters) and one copy of the entire packet have also become a venue for students tation to all Manhattan Project prior to the unit deadline, 15 May interested in the history of physics to physicists who served during the 2008. The nomination form may be air some of their nascent ideas before war years to come to this session, downloaded from the above website. receptive audiences. Aiding them as well as to an evening reception The nomination materials should be financially are named “studentships,” to be held in their honor during the sent to: funded by donations from our mem- meeting. We expect to invite Project Executive Officer bers to help cover travel costs. We veterans to participate in a round- ATTN: Fellowship Program look forward to continuing this wor- table discussion, which will take The American Physical Society thy practice. place the evening of the reception. One Physics Ellipse Brief accounts of these 25 con- Some travel support may be avail- College Park, MD 20740-3844. tributed papers are included in this able for such individuals. We ask newsletter, written by the chairs of any interested Manhattan Project Fellowship nominations may be the sessions. In this manner we bring veterans to contact the organizers: submitted at any time, but must be this new work to the attention of all • Ben Bederson, New York Uni- received by the deadline for the next Forum members and perhaps help versity, [email protected], review. n connect the authors to others with 212-995-7695 similar historical interests. This is a • David C. Cassidy, Hofstra valuable service the Forum can render University, [email protected]. its members, fostering further commu- 516-463-5537. n nications on the history of physics.

—Michael Riordan, Editor

Volume X, No. 3 • Fall 2007 • History of Physics Newsletter 3 The 2007 Abraham Pais Prize Lecture: The Historical Development of the Physical Concept of Time By Max Jammer

The Irish physicist and mathemati- Locke and Berkeley and subsequently cian John Lighton Synge proclaimed by Leibniz, who is often regarded as in 1959 that of all physical measure- the first proponent of a relational or ments that of time is the most funda- causal theory of time. Following some mental and its theory “the most basic brief remarks about Hume’s conception theory of all.” Twenty years later the of time, Kant’s critical investigation of Belgian physicist and chemist Ilya the notion of time is analyzed. Prigogine declared that “the concept There follows a discussion of theo- of time is much more complex than we ries of an “arrow if time” as a result thought.” Indeed, having studied the of the existence of irreversible ther- basic notions in physics such as space, modynamic processes. After a brief mass, force, simultaneity and written discussion of Poincaré’s thesis of the on each of them a detailed monograph, conventional status of a temporal I postponed a similar treatment of the metric, Einstein’s interpretation of concept of time because I realized that distant simultaneity and consequently just by being the “most basic” it is his definition of time via simultane- also the most complex of all notions ity (as presented in his famous 1905 in physics and therefore a rather com- paper on relativity) are discussed. This plicated subject of research. In fact, is followed by some remarks on the time, as perceived by us, is both “flow- concept of time in the general theory ing” and “enduring,” and its passing of relativity. A brief outline of the always lasts. role of the concept of time in modern If I venture nevertheless to offer cosmology—in particular, Hawking’s a survey of the conceptual develop- 2007 Pais Prize recipient Max Jammer notion of “imaginary time”—conclude ment of the notion of time, I do so this essay. n because I limit myself to the role of time only in physics and ignore as far proponents of an idealistic interpreta- as possible any general metaphysical, tion of the notion of time such as that psychological or biological issues. The of St. Augustine, medieval theories of Editor’s Note: This is the abstract of presentation thus ignores the history of time (such as those that proposed the Max Jammer’s Pais Prize Lecture, the notion of time as conceived in the atomicity of time) are discussed. After which was delivered on his behalf by myths and religions of ancient civili- a presentation of sixteenth century Pais Prize Committee Chair Michael zations and begins, after some brief discussions of time (e.g., by Bruno or Nauenberg at the APS April Meeting remarks about the Pythagoreans, with Gassendi), Barrow’s and Newton’s in Jacksonville. The full paper is being the theories of time as proposed by theories of physical time are critically published as “Concepts of Time in the Pre-Socratics, Plato and Aristotle. analyzed. This is followed by a brief Physics: A Synopsis,” Physics in Per- After a critical discourse on the early study of the conceptions of time by spective 9 (2007), pp. 266–280.

4 Volume X, No. 3 • Fall 2007 • History of Physics Newsletter Reports from the March APS Meeting Denver, CO, 5-9 March 2007

The 20th Anniversary of High-Tc Superconductivity: “Woodstock of Physics” Revisited By Bill Evenson

On Monday, March 5, the Forum Research Laboratory. He spoke about the seeds for the group’s later high- sponsored a symposium commemo- the environment and the decisive cir- temperature superconductivity rating the 20th anniversary of the cumstances that in January 1986 led to research; those in 1986 that were criti- “Woodstock of Physics” session at the breakthrough with the discovery cal to its discovery of the 93 K RBCO the March 1987 APS meeting, where of superconductivity in cuprates. The soon after Bednorz and Müller’s dis- early work was announced on high-Tc pre-“Woodstock” period, which lasted covery of the 35 K high-Tc supercon- superconductivity. It was an exciting less than a year, covers the time in ductor; and those that came in 1987 and wonderfully successful session, which the Zurich team tested different after the barrier of the 77 K boiling with over a thousand people in atten- La2CuO4-based compounds, confirmed temperature of liquid nitrogen was dance. Organized by Bill Evenson and the Meissner effect, and studied flux- finally overcome. Paul Grant, the session was chaired by trapping in these new materials. As Douglas J. Scalapino (University Brian Maple, one of the original meet- news of the discovery started to spread of California, Santa Barbara) described ing chairs. during this period, the IBM/Zurich “Some Prehistory to Woodstock” in This anniversary session had eleven group experienced mixed reactions, relating the story of two talks that pro- 15-minute talks, more like the origi- ranging from silent skepticism to polite vided a preview of the excitement that nal “Woodstock” than a regular APS but cautious congratulations. This was to spill over at the 1987 gathering. invited session. The March 1987 affair changed dramatically into excitement The first was an unscheduled talk on was a post-deadline session with about with the confirmation of the IBM/Zur- LaBaCuO by Prof. K. Kitazawa on 5 fifty speakers, most of whom were ich results by the Tokyo and Houston December 1986 at a Materials Research allowed only seven minutes. It was groups led by Tanaka and Chu, and Society symposium on superconduct- held in New York City, and about two culminated in the launching of the ing materials held in Boston. The thousand physicists packed the room new field at the famous March 1987 second was a quasi-public disclosure and overflowed into the hallway until meeting after the discovery of the 90 K by Chu at UC Santa Barbara in late after 3 a.m., when the session finally superconductor. After that, it was “off February 1987 regarding his work on ended. The speakers this year were to the races!” superconductivity above 77 K. either participants in the 1987 session C. W. “Paul” Chu (University of The next seven talks described or deeply involved in those early days, Houston, Hong Kong University of high-Tc activities that immediately and many others present in 1987 were Science and Technology and Law- followed the announcement of the in the audience for this anniversary. rence Berkeley National Laboratory) discovery by Bednorz and Müller: Speakers reminisced about that excit- spoke about “High Tc: The Discovery “The 1987 High-Tc ‘Woodstock’ Ses- ing time 20 years ago and commented of RBCO.” (RBCO stands for R = rare sion and High Tc at IBM,” by Paul M. on progress since then. To set the stage, earth, B = barium, C = copper and O = Grant (IBM Research Staff Member, Chair Brian Maple (University of Cali- oxide.) In his abstract, Chu wrote: “It Emeritus); “Bell Labs and High Tc,” fornia, San Diego) gave an “Introduc- was said by Emerson that ‘there is no by Robert J. Cava (Princeton); “High tion and Overview of the 1987 ‘Wood- history; there is only biography.’ This Tc and Condensed Matter Theory in stock’ Session.” He showed slides of is especially true when the events are 1987,” by Marvin L. Cohen (University press clippings and gave a sense of recounted by a person who himself of California, Berkeley); “Early High-Tc the broad interest and excitement at has been heavily involved, and the line Activity in Japan: The Franco Rasetti that meeting. between history and autobiography Lecture,” by Shoji Tanaka (Supercon- Georg Bednorz (IBM Research, Zur- can become blurred. However, it is rea- ductivity Research Laboratory/ISTEC, ich Research Laboratory), one of the sonable to say that discovery itself is Tokyo, Japan); “High Tc at BellCore,” by original discoverers of high-Tc super- not a series of accidents but an inevita- Laura H. Greene (University of Illinois conductivity who shared the Nobel ble product of each development stage at Urbana-Champaign); “High Tc at Prize for this discovery with Alex of scientific knowledge, as was also Stanford,” by Aharon Kapitulnik; and Müller, talked about “The Discovery pointed out by Holton.” The discovery “High-Tc Superconductivity—1987,” of High-Tc Superconductivity and the of RBCO high-Tc superconductors was by Douglas Finnemore (Iowa State Countdown to the Rally.” He briefly no exception. In his presentation, Chu University). Space does not permit full addressed the guiding ideas on the briefly recounted several events that discussion of these talks, but the early road toward high-Tc superconductivity were crucial to the discovery: those and the early work at the IBM Zurich occurring before 1986 that sowed Continued on page 6

Volume X, No. 3 • Fall 2007 • History of Physics Newsletter 5 20th Anniversary of High-Tc Superconductivity

Continued from page 5

work of the Tanaka group in Japan at low temperatures. In 1982, Prof. S. the Agency for Science and Technology warrants additional comment. (Note Nakajima organized a rather small began to make new development plans that Tanaka gave the Franco Rasetti group for investigating ‘New Super- of their own. Superconductivity fever Lecture, funded in honor of Franco conducting Phenomena,’ and I became had reached Japan.” Rasetti through a much-appreciated a member of the group. In 1985, Naka- Many, many laboratories around donation from Robert Resnick). jima expanded the research group to the world made important contribu- Tanaka writes: “From 1960 to 1980, include more than five experimental- tions to the science of high-Tc super- R&D on superconductivity in Japan ists and five theoreticians. The research conductivity. Although only a small was carried out mainly to improve A15 was on new superconducting materials, sample of the many early researchers, superconducting wires and magnets. with funding from the Ministry of Edu- the speakers in this session were able Improvements of wires were made cation of Japan. In late October 1986, to recall some of the excitement of the mainly in the National Institute for we followed the first paper of Bednorz 1987 “Woodstock of Physics” gather- Metals, and improvements of super- and Müller, and immediately obtained ing. As Doug Finnemore, wrote, “The conducting magnets were made in high-temperature superconductivity discovery of superconductivity in the the Japan Atomic Energy Research and reported it at a group meeting in cuprate class of conducting oxides Institute for future nuclear-fusion reac- early November. In early December, brought a flash of sunlight onto one of tors, the National Railway Laboratory we confirmed that La2-xBaxCuO4 was the fields of condensed-matter phys- for future maglev trains and also in a true high-temperature supercon- ics that many of us had thought was the Electro-Technical Laboratory for ductor, with a critical temperature of rather mature and fairly well under- magneto-hydrodynamical generators. I 28 K. Asahi Shimbun, Japan’s largest stood. In addition to opening a whole began the study of BPBO (BaPb1-xBixO3) newspaper, announced this result in new class of materials to the study of in 1975 and at that time the research its science section, and many people correlated motion of charge carriers, it on oxide superconductors was limited knew that high-temperature supercon- opened a new mind-set that materials to my laboratory in the University of ductivity had been discovered. Then with complex chemical bonding can Tokyo. During the study of this new many physicists and chemists rushed lead to totally new phenomena. The superconductor, we learned quite a lot to this field, and many new kinds of tasks of materials preparation escalated, on how to make ceramic samples as materials were soon synthesized. The and with it came the development of well as how to measure electrical con- Ministry of Education, the Ministry of ductivity and magnetic susceptibility International Trade and Industry, and Continued on page 8 Condensed Matter Physics at Synchrotron Facilities: History as Prologue to the Future

By Bill Evenson On Wednesday, 7 March 2007, the with meV spectral resolution, picosec- sophisticated spectro-microscopy and Forum and the Division of Physics of ond pulse lengths and nanoscale spot lens-less coherent imaging techniques Beams jointly sponsored a symposium sizes. He pointed out why soft X-rays with nanoscale spatial and picosecond on Condensed Matter Physics at Syn- are so useful: large X-ray absorption temporal resolution. In summary, soft chrotron Facilities. It was organized cross sections; narrow lifetime widths; X-rays offer capabilities complementary by Catherine Westfall, who enlisted important absorption edges of ele- to hard X-rays; spectroscopic studies the help of Denis McWhan and David ments in the spectral range; large reveal atom-projected charge and Moncton—who chaired the session. resonance and polarization effects; spin properties of valence electrons; About a hundred persons attended. and nanometer-scale wavelengths that microscopic studies reveal charge and The session led off with Joachim allow nanoscale imaging. Their tunable spin distributions at the nanoscale; Stöhr of the Stanford Synchrotron energy and polarization permit control and time-dependent studies examine Radiation Laboratory speaking on of electronic core-to-valence transitions nanoscale dynamics at intervals down “Soft X-Ray Science: From Photon that provide access to the fundamental to tens of picoseconds. On the horizon Drought to X-Ray Lasers.” He defined charge and spin properties of valence are experiments with soft X-ray lasers soft X-rays as 0.2–2.0 keV photons, electrons in matter. The large cross sec- which, among other things, will pro- with wavelengths of about 1–10 nm— tions associated with absorption-edge vide femtosecond snapshots of matter. which require the use of grazing- resonances provide sensitivity to small John Hill of Brookhaven National incidence optics. Stöhr described the numbers of atoms, as are encountered Laboratory spoke next on “Inelastic major technical developments, begin- in nanostructures, ultra-thin films, X-ray Scattering.” The technique of ning in about 1975, that made high- interfacial layers and surfaces. Present- intensity soft X-rays available, today ly, the most advanced experiments use Continued on page 7

6 Volume X, No. 3 • Fall 2007 • History of Physics Newsletter Condensed Matter Physics at Synchrotron Facilities

Continued from page 6 inelastic X-ray scattering probes the technique for condensed-matter studies. Source, had enormously improved dynamics of a system—its atomic It has enabled important breakthroughs brightness and coherence, and thus and molecular excitations. Hill gave in our understanding of phonon-like allowed access to the surfaces of nano- a broad overview of the field, its his- excitations in disordered materials particles. Robinson illustrated how tory, some recent experiments, and a and matter under extreme conditions. these technological advances led to brief look at the future. Inelastic X-ray In looking to the future, Hill noted two significant scientific breakthroughs. scattering experiments may be divided some recent developments at existing The concept of crystal-truncation rods into roughly two classes; those per- sources and pointed to proposed new led to new views of how the surface formed with meV energy resolution, X-ray sources, such as the NSLS-II proj- is a modification yet still an extension which observe phonons and other ect, which would lead to large gains of the bulk crystal structure. And the collective ionic motions, and those per- for inelastic X-ray scattering. development of lens-less coherent formed with eV resolution, which look The third talk was on “Surface X-ray diffraction imaging has allowed at electronic excitations. The first pho- Structure as a Foundation of Nano- access to the structure of nanocrystal- non experiments were done 20 years technology,” by Ian Robinson of the line materials by three-dimensional ago, and two recent examples were London Centre for Nanotechnology phase mapping of the particle interiors. presented, one a study of liquid Al2O3 and Diamond Light Source. The three The structural principles of these new and the other observing the surface of generations of synchrotron sources nanomaterials are now being investi- liquid indium. The first electronic mea- achieved to date—parasitic, dedicated gated using these new methods. surements were performed 40 years and undulator-based—have each revo- Next, Denis McWhan of MIT spoke ago, and two recent examples were lutionized research in X-ray diffraction. about “Magnetic X-Ray Scattering.” He presented, one a study of excitons in Surface-structure measurements, dem- compared magnetic scattering during organic semiconductors, and the other onstrated already with Coolidge-tube the period 1965–1981, before synchro- of mid-infrared excitations in cuprates. sources, benefited from the enormous tron sources became widely available, Inelastic X-ray scattering as a comple- flux gain of the first generation. Dedi- and in 1985–1992. During the 1980s, ment to neutron scattering has been cated second-generation light sources three factors converged: the develop- suggested for many years, with first such as NSLS allowed in-situ surface ment of synchrotron sources; the devel- attempts dating back to the 1980s. The preparation and reliable, steady beams opment of techniques to grow new advent of hard X-ray third-generation to be available when a surface was materials layer by layer; and the synchrotron light sources has allowed ready to measure. Third-generation its establishment as a routine, powerful sources, such as the Advanced Photon Continued on page 12

March Contributed-Paper Session I By Bill Evenson

On Tuesday afternoon, March 6, the examined the connection between more fully by Shannon. Partly stimulat- Forum held the first of two contributed- spin and the Stern-Gerlach effect and ed by World War II, von Neumann and paper sessions at the APS Meeting in reviewed the lack of mutual influence Turing also played important roles in Denver. Chaired by Bill Evenson, it in the publication record, giving pos- the field. Recently, new cryptographic included six history talks witnessed by sible historical reasons for the absence developments have led to a reexamina- an audience of about 50. then of what seems an obvious connec- tion of the fundamentals of quantum Jean-François Van Huele of Brigham tion today. mechanics, and quantum computation Young University led off with an inter- Supported by a Bardeen Student- is discovering a new perspective on the esting talk entitled, “The Missing ship, Cesar Rodriguez of the University nature of information itself. Part in the Story of Spin: What is the of Texas, Austin, spoke on “The Entan- “Einstein’s Jury: Trial by Telescope” Spin Content of Stern-Gerlach?” Dur- gled Histories of Physics and Computa- was the topic of a talk by Jeffrey Cre- ing the development of the idea of tion.” He focused on how the histories linsten, author of the recent book, Ein- spin in quantum mechanics, after the of physics and computation intertwine stein’s Jury: The Race to Test Relativity Stern-Gerlach effect was known, this in a way relevant to quantum computa- (Princeton University Press, 2006). He effect did not seem to influence the tion. Leibniz not only pioneered calcu- addressed the process of acceptance of conception or acceptance of this idea, lus but also left his footprint in physics special and general relativity. Relativity he explained. Although the experi- and invented the concept of a universal was poorly understood between 1905 ment is widely interpreted today as a computational language. This idea was and 1930, and Einstein worked hard manifestation of spin, it was not seen further developed by Boole, Russell, to make it more accessible to scientists that way initially and did not influ- Hilbert and Gödel. Boltzmann and and scientifically literate laypeople. ence the development of the quantum- Maxwell established the foundations of mechanical concept of spin. Van Huele information theory, as later developed Continued on page 12

Volume X, No. 3 • Fall 2007 • History of Physics Newsletter 7 March Contributed-Paper Session II By Catherine Westfall

The contributed-paper session held play, which features Wolfgang Pauli The session ended with a paper by the Forum on Thursday morning, tempting Paul Ehrenfest to accept a that took the audience in yet another March 8, included four history papers, chargeless, massless particle, was an direction, “Historical Perspectives summarized below, and three others. English translation of the German on Respiratory Fluid Dynamics and About 25 people attended the session. original provided by George Gamov’s Flow Phenomena Deep in the Lung.” The papers were interesting and the second wife for his book Thirty Years Authors Josue Sznitman (ETH Zurich) audience receptive, which made for a that Shook Physics. Although this por- and Akira Tsuda (Harvard School of friendly and lively session. trayal of the play is well known, Keck Public Health) gave a historical review The session began with a paper provided a fascinating analysis of how of the 30-year-long study of respiratory by Willem van de Merwe and Todd Barbara Gamov rearranged and added fluid dynamics and flow phenomena Ream (Indiana Wesleyan University) to the parody to strength the similari- deep in the lungs. The authors noted titled “Compartmentalization of Sci- ties between it and Goethe’s original that after the first pioneering work ence, Power, and Social Responsibility and to reflect her husband’s views, on flow resistance in passageways, as Exemplified in the Life of J. Robert particularly on the international and researchers conducted studies elucidat- Oppenheimer.” Using recent biogra- cooperative aspects of physics. ing the nature of airflow in the upper phies of Oppenheimer as a starting The third paper in the session, “An (nose, larynx) and conducting passage- point, the presentation centered on his 18th Century Thermometer Recipe,” ways. At first, relatively little attention pre-Los Alamos years, noting his atten- took us back in time and to another was given to the airflow in the deeper dance as a child at the Ethical Cultural venue. Presenter Durruty Jesús de Alba regions of the lung, characterized by School in New York City, his studies as Martinez (University of Guadalajara) 300 million pulmonary alveoli provid- a physics graduate student in Europe, told the story of a manuscript con- ing gas exchange with blood. For a his sympathy with left-wing politics taining instructions on how to build long time the argument prevailed that as a young professor, and his passion a thermometer that was found in the airflow velocities in the alveolar region for poetry—including the Bhagavad- Special Funds Collection of the Jalisco’s are negligible due to a large increase Gita—that endured throughout his life. State Public Library and attributed to in the total cross-sectional area at that Using Oppenheimer as an example, the Francisco Javier Clavigero (1731–1787). level; in fact, this view is still taught authors concluded that having a high- He was an important early educator in medical schools. In the last 20 years, quality liberal arts education can help at a the Colegio de Santo Tomàs, a however, new theories have been physics students formulate a frame- Jesuit institution that provided college- developed to explain the experimen- work for a more meaningful career in level education before the opening of tal observation of convective mixing science. the University of Guadalajara. This of inhaled particles deep in the lung. The next paper, “The English Revi- manuscript is intriguing because it These theories suggest that convective sion of The Blegdamsvej Faust,” by Karen was inserted into a vellum-bound airflow in the alveolar region is in fact Keck (Net Advance of Physics), added volume and is in Spanish, not Latin as relevant, and posit that alveolar flows a different twist to the blending of sci- in the rest of the volume. The paper are much more complex than previ- ence and the liberal arts. She addressed explained how the instructions were ously thought, perhaps even exhibiting the updated version of Goethe’s Faust actually used to construct the ther- chaotic flow. The authors concluded presented at the 1932 meeting of quan- mometer and speculated about how that such discoveries constitute a small tum physicists at Niels Bohr’s Copen- the manuscript could have been used revolution in our understanding of hagen Institute. As Keck pointed out, as the experimental part of a physics respiratory flows deep in the lung. n the most widely read version of the course.

20th Anniversary of High-Tc Superconductivity Continued from page 6 totally new spectral probes of the elec- Cooper and J. Robert Schrieffer. Several Condensed Matter Physics”; and Gor- tron gas and the electronic structure hundred attended the session, which don Baym (University of Illinois at in metals.” was chaired by Charles Slichter. It fea- Urbana-Champaign) on “BCS—from That same Monday, March 5, the tured three speakers: Douglas J. Scala- Atoms and Nuclei to the Cosmos.” Division of Condensed Matter Phys- pino (University of California, Santa They discussed the profound influ- ics held a special evening session on Barbara) on “The Impact of the BCS ence of BCS theory throughout our “50 Years of BCS Theory,” celebrating Theory on Condensed Matter Physics”; field, from condensed-matter physics the 1957 publication of “Microscopic John M. Rowell (Arizona State Univer- to elementary-particle theory and cos- Theory of Superconductivity” (Phys. sity) on “The Impact of the BCS Theory mology. n Rev. 106, 162) by John Bardeen, Leon N. on 50 years of Superconductivity and

8 Volume X, No. 3 • Fall 2007 • History of Physics Newsletter Reports from the April APS Meeting Jacksonville, FL 14-17 April 2007 Building the Elements: 50 Years of B2FH Nucleosynthesis By Virginia Trimble

In 1957 there appeared two papers make any, but that was a lot to expect uncertainties in the primary source of that were, on the one hand, summaries for any experiment in those pre-Cock- neutrons used in the s-process. of many years of work by the authors croft–Walton days. The great triumph of these 1957 and others on the origins and abun- The single detail I carried away syntheses was in providing a pro- dances of the chemical elements, and, most carefully from the talks was cess and a plausible site for all the on the other, the stage-setter for the Geoff’s indication that they and Cam- nuclides in existence to be made in at next 50 years of the study of nucleosyn- eron had been aware of each other’s least approximately the right propor- thesis. One of the papers, by Alastair G. work and in communication well tions. It is now essential, Arnett said, W. Cameron, was a Chalk River Report before publication. The details of time to incorporate a better description (CRL-41, with a brief summary in scale of writing and publication of of convection than the faithful old Publications of the Astronomical Society the B2FH paper was driven not by the mixing-length approximation and to of the Pacific 69 (1957), 201), not widely competition (consider Darwin and Wal- do three-dimensional stellar evolution read at the time. The other paper, by lace and all!) but by the departure from calculations, if only to be sure that put- E. Margaret Burbidge, Geoffrey R. Cambridge of Fowler and Hoyle to ting in more physics doesn’t reduce Burbidge, William A. Fowler, and Fred attend the July 1957 Vatican Conference agreement between observations and Hoyle, was published in the open lit- on Galaxies, so that the final draft was predictions. He showed a number of erature (Rev. Mod. Phys. 29 (1957), 547) completed by the Burbidges. My own historical photographs, including the and quickly became known throughout involvement with the subject began classic photo of B2FH grouped in cor- the community as “B2FH.” with a 1974 NATO summer school on rect order around the model steam It was to celebrate the 50th anni- nucleosynthesis in Cambridge (which train engine presented to Fowler on his versary of those events and to gauge was published as Trimble, Rev. Mod. 60th birthday, celebrated in Cambridge, the progress made since and give per- Phys. 47 (1975), 877) where the four of them first met in the spectives for the future that the double David Arnett (University of Ari- 1950s—and where, a dozen or so years session “Building the Elements: 50 zona), who was a student of Cameron later I first met them (as well as Wag- Years of B2FH Nucleosynthesis” was and has been making elements in stars oner and Arnett) collectively. co-sponsored by the Forum on His- since 1967 (well, perhaps in models of Brian Fields (University of Illinois) tory of Physics and and the Division stars; computers in those days were tackled the essential topic of Big Bang of Astrophysics. The good news is too small to hold real stars) set the nucleosynthesis (BBN), not considered that Geoff Burbidge was there (as our stage for the sessions. He mentioned at all in the 1957 papers, which spe- Samuel K. Allison Lecturer, sponsored the essential roles of Hans Suess and cifically addressed processes occur- by Jim Cronin of Chicago—where, it Harold Urey in compiling an accurate ring only in stars. He reminded us turned out, the Burbidges had actu- table of “cosmic” abundances, and of that Fowler and Hoyle had made key ally known Allison during their post- Edwin Salpeter in recognizing the need contributions to modeling cosmologi- doctoral years). The bad news is that for helium-burning via a triple-alpha cal nucleosynthesis, including the first we never managed to persuade APS process to get to heavy elements. New modern calculation aimed at a univer- that the “2” in “B2FH” should be a in the 1957 papers were the processes sal He/H = 0.1 ratio (Hoyle & Taylor, superscript, in the APS Bulletin or any- we now call (following B2FH more Nature 203 (1964), 1018) and the first place else. The sessions were superbly closely than Cameron) slow and rapid to produce a bit of Li-7 as well as the chaired by Robert V. Wagoner, himself neutron capture, p- (for proton, though H and He nuclides (Wagoner, Fowler, a pioneer in nucleosynthesis calcula- it might now be seen as spallation of and Hoyle, Ap. J. 148 (1967), 8). Fields tions. Part of another story, perhaps, is neutrons or even neutrino-induced generously concluded that: (a) as cur- the fact that Allison’s advisor at Chi- reactions), and alpha- (now divided rently understood, BBN and results cago was chemist William D. Harkins, into C, Ne, O, and Si burning) process- from analyzing the cosmic microwave apparently the first person to compile es, and a mysterious x-process respon- background (CMB) radiation are most- a table of abundances of the elements sible for the light elements (which we ly in good accord; (b) considerations of ordering them by nuclear rather than now attribute to the early universe and nucleosynthesis by themselves measure chemical properties. Allison’s thesis to cosmic-ray spallation). Arnett noted the baryon density of the universe; and work was an attempt to liberate alpha that Cf-254 was then assigned the role (c) there is perhaps a lithium problem, particles from mercury vapor using a in supernova light curves that we now strong electric discharge. They didn’t attribute to Ni-56 and that there were Continued on page 10

Volume X, No. 3 • Fall 2007 • History of Physics Newsletter 9 Building the Elements

Continued from page 9 in that the so-called Spite plateau in and their deeds, expressed some worry focuses on the Milky Way and nearby old, non-convective stars falls at a about the robustness of an r-process (mostly dwarf) galaxies, where one smaller abundance than the BBN pre- that seems to depend a good deal on can, to a certain extent, resolve indi- diction, which is consistent with the environmental details, given that the vidual stars and measure their ages other light nuclei. This discrepancy product ratios are so constant from as well as compositions. Even quite could be a hint of something exciting, star to star, even among old metal- small, simple-looking galaxies have for instance a dark-matter component poor ones. Clearly work remains to had multiple star-formation events, consisting of SuperWIMPs, whose be done, even on the classic s, r, and and the products can be shown to have early annihilation could have destroyed p-processes, including, as Fryer noted, differing amounts of input from the some Li-7. The obvious alternative, a new rp-process. nuclear reactions characteristic of stars some settling in the stars concerned, Dieter Harmann (Clemson Uni- of different initial masses and composi- sounds just as exciting to me (but versity) addressed gamma rays as an tions and, especially from core-collapse then I’m an old fashioned astrono- indicator of nucleosynthesis. This may versus thermonuclear-explosion super- mer, much attached to stars). Fields strike you as an odd combination, but novae. An important idea with which reminded us that the baryon supply it is not if you want to know what is she left us is that, at present, ad hoc deduced from BBN (and the CMB) is going on at present! An atom of Fe-56, parameter-fitting models of galaxy considerably larger than the amount Al-27, or Ti-48 has nothing to tell you evolution (where you choose an initial detected in stars, with the rest to be about its age and little about where it mass function, rate, duration, and so distributed somehow among hot X-ray was synthesized. But unstable atoms forth for each episode of star forma- gas, a warm-hot ionized medium, and such as Ni-56, Al-26, and Ti-44 decay tion) adequately describe the range of cooler Lyman-α clouds. Other issues to with half-lives short by astronomical galaxies and star populations observed. be sorted out include the possibility of standards, typically to excited product But she looked forward to a time when a Li-6 plateau in old stars, seeming to states that de-excite, emitting gamma- nucleosynthesis and chemical evolu- require a cosmological component, and ray lines in the MeV range, so that we tion join smoothly onto models now the production of deuterium in stellar know “when” (now) and “where” (the being calculated for galaxy formation, flares and such. This is small now, or direction of the source) this happened. which start with gravitating dark mat- we would see lots of 2.2 MeV photons, A little less directly, we can see Co-56 ter, follow the inflow of baryons into but could have been non-negligible in and later Co-57 powering the light the resulting dark halos, and all the population-III stars. curves of core-collapse supernovae. rest, so that star-formation histories are Chris Fryer (Los Alamos National Among the items he noted were: (a) physically determined rather than just Laboratory), who makes supernova the uniqueness of Cas A as a Ti-44 parametrically fit. models, mostly the core collapse sort, source (it is odd in other ways as well); The final speaker, Geoff Burbidge began by remarking that B2FH had left (b) the joyous detection of Co-56 gam- himself, is an unregenerate dissenter the details of supernova explosions as ma rays just months after visible light from the majority view that a hot, an exercise for the reader, and that one- and neutrinos arrived from SN 1987A dense early universe was responsible dimensional models had done such a (thanks to some hard-working balloons both for the light nuclei and for the good job for decades that there was plus a lucky satellite launch soon after); isotropic microwave radiation. Instead, little incentive to explore more com- and (c) the (I think!) remarkable result he attributes them to processes in plex configurations. He then discussed that Al-26 is largely made by massive active galactic nuclei, probably associ- some of the observational indicators of stars (versus, e.g. novae) because the ated with whatever produces the large dynamically and chemically important gammas coming from its decay co- (non-cosmological) redshifts seen for asymmetries in real supernovae and rotate with the inner disk of the Milky these objects, in turn as part of a cyclic their remnants, including the mixing Way—a discovery that required the model of the universe called “quasi- of ejected layers in SN 1987A and in high energy resolution of the satellite steady state.” He began with a retro- the Cas A remnant, and the extreme jet INTEGRAL. Hartmann also noted that spective of the situation around 1950, structure that arises from collapse to a a great deal more could be done with when George Gamow was trying to black hole and from the merger of neu- gamma rays from these and other make all the elements by neutron cap- tron stars in production of gamma-ray unstable nuclei if detectors were flown tures in the early universe, but falling bursts. Some of his own calculations with comparable energy resolution and into the holes at A = 5 and 8—though (and those of Maeda and others) have much larger collecting areas. Hoyle had already shown in 1946 already shown that critical products, Tammy Smecker-Hane (Univer- that conditions inside highly evolved such as the ratio of Ti-44 to Ni-56 and sity of California, Irvine) addressed stars might, uniquely, reach the high the r-process yield, change significantly the largest unsolved problem in our densities and temperatures required with asymmetry, because some stuff understanding of nucleosynthesis— to fuse atoms up to and beyond iron. is ejected that would otherwise fall putting all the processes and their sites Burbidge also gave a straightforward, back, and conversely. Speaking from together to account for the full range if skeptical, summary of conventional the audience, Stirling Colgate (also of of stellar populations in galaxies as a Los Alamos), a pioneer of supernovae function of redshift. Her own work Continued on page 13

10 Volume X, No. 3 • Fall 2007 • History of Physics Newsletter History of Gravitational Waves and General Relativity By Bill Evenson

On Sunday, April 15, the Forum more on this history, consult his recent staff members, university-managed on History of Physics and the Topical book, Traveling at the Speed of Thought: R&D and science, community access, Group on Gravitation cosponsored a Einstein and the Quest for Gravitational NSF oversight that included getting symposium on the “History of Gravi- Waves (Princeton University Press, good people involved but then staying tational Waves and General Relativity,” 2007). out of the way (which Isaacson called chaired by Kameshwar Wali. About Richard Isaacson (formerly of the “trust but verify”), and acceptance of 150 people attended. National Science Foundation) deliv- the argument that solving cosmic mys- The session began with a talk titled ered the next talk, “Development of teries is a good justification for allocat- “Traveling at the Speed of Thought: LIGO: A View From Washington,” in ing scarce resources to such a risky Proving the Existence of Gravitational which he painted an interesting picture new endeavor. He concluded that such Waves,” by Daniel Kennefick (Univer- of the life and challenges of a large a high-risk, high-cost project could sity of Arkansas). He pointed out that project, the Laser Interferometer Grav- probably not be brought up this way gravitational waves (GW) represent an itational-wave Observatory, as viewed in today’s constricted environment. almost unique instance of unfinished from inside the federal funding system. The final talk in this session was business in the history of modern LIGO is an audacious project attempt- titled “Anecdotes, Facts, Opinions and physics. One of numerous novel con- ing both to confirm the existence of some History of the Theory of Relativ- cepts that arose in the revolutionary gravitational waves and to harness ity,” by Ezra T. Newman (University of period of the early 20th century, gravi- them as a new probe of the cosmos. Pittsburgh). He gave a brief summary tational waves retained their place in Achieving its demonstrated sensitiv- of the history of relativity, including the new physics for nearly a century in ity required that many technologies well-known and some less-known facts the complete absence of experimental be advanced orders of magnitude about this history. Newman mentioned confirmation. Thus it was only natu- beyond the state of the art when the two footnotes on special relativity: ral that their theoretical development project began. The development of the that Jean Eisenstadt has claimed that was marked by repeated debate over LIGO project transformed gravitational in 1786 Robert Blair proposed what whether they really existed or played physics from a small-scale, individual- later became known as the Michelson- any kind of role in astrophysical sys- investigator effort into a major new Morley experiment; and that Woldemar tems. He explored how physicists international big-science collaboration. Voigt demonstrated the Lorentz trans- came to accept the theoretical rationale For three decades, the participant com- formation and stated a universal speed for this phenomenon in the absence of munity experienced all the struggle of light in an 1887 article. Newman experimental evidence—until recently, and pain that normally accompany referred to the Einstein-Cartan letters for example, in the case of binary stars. such a transition. The small-science as sources for understanding Einstein’s The name “gravitational wave” was phase began in the early 1970s with many attempts to generalize general coined by Henri Poincaré, in a posi- a $53,000 NSF grant to Rainier Weiss. relativity (GR) to unified field theories. tive use of the electromagnetic analogy. The transition to big-science funding An early success of GR was Schwarz- But Max Abraham noticed that dipole occurred in 1993 with a multi-year schild’s spherically symmetric solution waves did not exist and suggested that $271,900,000 commitment. In 2007 the in 1916. No one initially understood the electromagnetic analogy therefore LIGO laboratory employed 180 people, the nature of the Schwarzschild singu- argued against GW. In 1916 Einstein and a total of 540 are participating larity, said Newman, but Kruskal, Fin- claimed in a letter to Schwarzschild in the LIGO Science Collaboration. kelstein, and Wheeler cleared this up that GW did not exist, but by mid-1916 LIGO has become NSF’s most expen- in a way that led to modern black-hole he had changed his mind due to the sive project. It has been a high-risk, physics. Newman mentioned Einstein’s linearized approximation to general high-reward gamble, always full of argument with de Sitter that led to the relativity, and in 1918 he produced the high promise that has yet to pay off. cosmological constant and its relevance quadrupole formula. Skeptics tended Construction of this frontier facility to modern cosmology. The period from to focus on points of dis-analogy with required a 100-fold expansion of the 1930 to 1950 was one of stagnation in electromagnetism, while GW advocates annual NSF budget for research in this GR, he observed. Around 1935 Einstein hewed to the positive points of analogy. subfield. In the face of this challenge doubted the possibility of observing In 1936 Einstein and Rosen became and opportunity, the U.S. government gravitational lensing, except from convinced that GW did not exist; their invested scarce research funds with the sun, but the following year Fritz paper submitted to Physical Review gen- vision and patience, according to Isaac- Zwicky argued that it could and must erated critical comments from the ref- son, and managed a new, long-term, be observed or the theory was wrong. eree and a controversy when Einstein risky, and expensive investment with In the early 1950s, there was a renais- objected to having his work reviewed! wisdom. Hallmarks of the project’s sance in GR, as Bondi’s mathematical Kennefick discussed the course of development have been bottom-up set- clarifications opened up the field again these controversies (including the ting of priorities, long-term continuity and brought great support for the idea quadrupole-formula controversy). For at the NSF, a small core of expert NSF of gravitational waves. n

Volume X, No. 3 • Fall 2007 • History of Physics Newsletter 11 March Contributed-Paper Session I Continued from page 7

Its acceptance was largely due to the correspondence principle. But it was middle decades of the 20th century. astronomy community, which under- almost forty years later, in 1963, that Redington reviewed their efforts and took precise measurements to test Ein- Glauber put these states to use in what the reception of these ideas by the stein’s astronomical predictions. The is now known as the quantum theory physics community. well-known 1919 eclipse measurements of optics, giving them the name used The final talk was “On the Origins that made Einstein famous still did today, “coherent states.” Soon there- of the Raman Effect” by Somaditya not convince most scientists to accept after, Sudarshan completed Glauber’s Banerjee of the University of Minne- relativity, said Crelinsten. The 1920s unfinished work in achieving the full sota, recipient of a Bardeen Student- saw numerous attempts to measure theory of quantum optics. Crucial ship. He reviewed the events that led the gravitational bending of light, as mathematical work had been done to the discovery of the Raman effect by well as solar line displacements and in the intervening years so Glauber C. V. Raman and K. S. Krishnan at Cal- even an aether drift. He discussed how could make use of these states. Modi cutta in 1928. He presented evidence astronomers approached the “Einstein discussed what Schrödinger had been that although the effect was generally problem” in these early years before trying to do, why Glauber was attract- seen as providing strong evidence for and after World War I, and how the ed to these states, and why they were the quantum nature of light, Raman public reacted to what they reported, forgotten for almost forty years. himself was a staunch supporter of the as well as how this work helped to Norman Redington spoke on “The classical wave theory of light. Banerjee shape attitudes we hold today about Reception of the Kaluza Theory in placed this historical analysis in the Einstein and his ideas. Britain, 1921–1958.” Kaluza’s five- context of a larger project seeking to “Forty Lost Years of Coherent dimensional unified theory was part understand the role of Raman scat- States” was the topic addressed by of a wider program to geometrize tering in the experimental verification Kavan Modi University of Texas, Aus- physics that was largely abandoned in of the quantum dispersion theory of tin, recipient of a Bardeen Student- the wake of the mid-1920s successes of Hendrik A. Kramers, which formed a ship. He pointed out that Schrödinger quantum mechanics. However, a small conceptual bridge between Bohr and introduced the minimum-uncertainty group of British physicists continued Sommerfeld’s “old” quantum theory state in 1926 in his effort to satisfy the to work on the subject through the and Heisenberg’s matrix mechanics. n

Condensed Matter Physics at Synchrotron Facilities

Continued from page 7 realization that X-rays could probe between the atomic, orbital and mag- in this field has been enormous, mak- the magnetic properties of materials. netic ordering in materials. Future ing it possible to deliver intense beams In addition to magnetic X-ray scatter- possibilities include further develop- of highly coherent X-rays and enable ing, most magneto-optical effects have ment of the spectroscopic aspects of many new applications of X-ray scat- been extended from the visible to the magnetic scattering and probing mag- tering. In particular, the technique soft X-ray region. Because both beam netism on smaller length scales and at of X-ray photon correlation spec- energy and polarization are tunable, shorter time intervals. troscopy (XPCS), the X-ray analog of synchrotron sources are element- and The final talk was on “The Use of dynamical light scattering, has now site-specific probes—and there are Coherent X-Ray Beams to Study the become an exciting new research area large resonant enhancements in the Dynamics of Soft Condensed-Matter with primary applications in soft con- scattering or absorption cross sections Systems” by Sunil Sinha of the Uni- densed matter. The first observation at atomic absorption edges. Synchro- versity of California, San Diego. One of speckle by diffraction of coherent tron radiation is routinely used to of the most powerful techniques for X-rays was reported in 1991, and a study the magnetic polarization of dif- studying dynamics in soft condensed- rapid expansion of this field followed. ferent components of a material and to matter systems has been dynamical Current applications include studies of separate their spin and orbital angular light scattering. Over twenty years ago, dynamical fluctuations in colloids and momentum densities. It allows one to it was recognized that a similar appli- polymers and of surface fluctuations probe magnetic polarization level-by- cation of X-rays (in order to achieve in liquid films and membranes. XPCS level (p, d, or f) and component-by- shorter length scales and avoid prob- has yielded interesting new results on component using resonant scattering. lems of multiple and stray particle these systems, which are difficult if It has also been used to determine the scattering) could open up whole new not impossible to obtain by other tech- magnetic polarization at interfaces and areas of research. But the potential of niques. In the future, physicists antici- surfaces and magnetism in extreme coherent X-rays was not anticipated pate XPCS with completely coherent environments using small samples. In when high-brightness third-generation beams and time resolutions down to addition, synchrotron radiation can synchrotron radiation sources were nanoseconds. n be used to determine the interplay planned! Nevertheless, their usefulness

12 Volume X, No. 3 • Fall 2007 • History of Physics Newsletter Sputnik, 1957: Its Effect on Science in America By Bill Evenson

On Monday, April 16, the Forum “Sputnik’s Impact on Science Edu- of the IGY: Eisenhower, Sputnik, and presented a symposium on “Sputnik, cation in America” was the subject the Founding of NASA.” The circum- 1957: Its Effect on Science in America,” addressed by Charles Holbrow (MIT stances that resulted from the Soviet in recognition of the upcoming 50th and Colgate University). Before the launch of Sputnik (an International anniversary of this pivotal event in the launch of Sputnik in October 1957, Geophysical Year, or IGY, scientific history of the Cold War. It was chaired pressure had been rising to mobilize satellite) led to numerous actions in by Bill Evenson, with about 250 people America’s intellectual resources to the United States aimed at “remediat- in attendance. be more effective and useful in deal- ing” the resulting Cold War crisis. This John Rigden (Washington Uni- ing with the Cold War. Sputnik sud- included the establishment of NASA, versity, St. Louis) led off the session denly released that pressure by stirring a civilian space agency charged with with a talk on “Eisenhower, Scientists, up a mixture of American hysteria, conducting an official program of sci- and Sputnik.” On October 4, 1957, the wounded self-esteem, fears of missile entific and technological space explora- Soviet Union launched a 184-pound attacks, and a deep questioning of the tion, consolidation of Department of satellite, Sputnik, into earth orbit. This intellectual capabilities of a popular, Defense space activities, the passage surprising event had a tremendous democratic society and its educational of the National Defense Education Act, impact on Americans, for it called into system. After Sputnik, the federal plus a host of other actions. Launius question the capability of U.S. science government took several remarkable discussed the fascinating politics of vis-à-vis that of the U.S.S.R. President actions. Besides Eisenhower’s estab- these changes, which have been inter- Dwight D. Eisenhower called “his sci- lishment of PSAC and the Presidential preted as an appropriate political entists” to the Oval Office on October Science Advisor, the House and the response to a unique crisis situation. 15, and a meeting took place that Hans Senate reorganized their committee Interest groups, for differing reasons, Bethe called an “unforgettable hour.” structures to focus better on science prodded national leaders to undertake I. I. Rabi, Chairman of the Office of policy. Congress created the National large-scale efforts, something the Presi- Defense Mobilization Science Advisory Aeronautics and Space Administration dent thought unnecessarily expensive Committee, made several proposals (NASA) and charged it to develop a and once set in place would be almost that the President accepted immedi- civilian space program. It also tripled impossible to dismantle. But was the ately. Rigden reviewed those initiatives, the funding for the National Science Sputnik “crisis” truly a crisis in a real which were intended to raise the stan- Foundation to support basic research sense? Or was it blown up into one by dards of U.S. science and to reassure and to improve science education and interest groups who used it for their the American public that the country draw more young Americans into sci- own ends? Launius briefly traced some was not falling behind the Soviets. ence and engineering. And Congress of the major themes associated with These measures included appointment passed the National Defense Education the IGY and Sputnik, and described the of a full-time, cabinet-level Science Act, which involved the federal govern- political construction of the crisis as it Advisor to the President, formation of ment to an unprecedented degree with emerged in late 1957 and early 1958. the President’s Science Advisory Com- all levels of U.S. education. Holbrow He also discussed the transformation mittee (PSAC), and undertaking an closed by reviewing the important of federal science and technology that intensive study of ways to strengthen effects of these post-Sputnik changes. took place in the aftermath of Sputnik U.S. science. Today, we can still feel Roger Launius (Smithsonian Institu- and how it set in motion a series of the legacy of Sputnik and of the wise tion, National Air and Space Museum) processes and policies that did not actions of President Eisenhower and wrapped up the session by address- fully unravel until the end of the “his scientists” in response to it. ing “An Unintended Consequence Cold War. n

Building the Elements

Continued from page 10 cosmology (including the discovery helium, the resulting energy density though it goes back at least to Planck of the 2.3 K temperature of interstellar comes quite close to that of the 2.7 K and perhaps Maxwell); sometimes peo- space by McKeller and Adams, though CMB radiation, about 4.5 x 10-13 erg/ 3 ple change their minds (well, Dennis not Herzberg’s spectacular misjudg- cm —a fact he regards as a key to Sciama did, though he remains nearly ment of it). But he reiterated his opin- understanding the universe today. unique); and sometimes a new synthe- ion that the best places to make helium Science is a self-correcting process, sis appears that reveals truth in each of are in known objects, such as stars and though the time scale is occasionally two or more opposing views—think of active galaxies, and he reminded the very long. Sometimes the last support- mantle convection and plate tectonics audience that, if you flash one-quarter ers of an idea die, leaving no heirs of the hydrogen in the universe to (a suggestion Geoff attributed to me, Continued on page 16

Volume X, No. 3 • Fall 2007 • History of Physics Newsletter 13 April Contributed-Paper Session I By Paul Halpern

On Saturday afternoon, April 14, (both from the University of Central spectroscopists’ efforts in the 1930s and the Forum sponsored the first of two Florida), addressed the “History of 1940s to expand the boundaries of their contributed-paper sessions on the the Heisenberg Uncertainty Relation.” field beyond conventional applications history of physics. It featured a wide Maronde detailed the story of how in atomic physics and physical astrono- range of topics, focused on 20th century Werner Heisenberg came to propose my. As Park pointed out, the enormous elementary particle physics, quantum the well-known inequality involv- success of quantum mechanics in physics and astrophysics. In all, seven ing pairs of observables in quantum theoretically modeling atomic spectra contributed papers were delivered, mechanics. reduced the need for spectroscopy including two by promising young In the fourth presentation, “Heisen- in that domain. Spectroscopists then undergraduates who received Rolf berg: Paralleling Scientific and Histori- turned to spectrochemical analysis as Glover studentships to support their cal Methods,” Calla Cofield (University a new avenue for research, a change travel to the APS meeting. of Massachusetts, Amherst), another also motivated by spectroscope mak- The session began with a talk by recipient of a Rolf Glover student- ers’ need to find novel applications for Michael Riordan (University of Califor- ship, examined questions related to their products. nia, Santa Cruz), “Toward the Standard the gathering of information about the Finally, Michael Nauenberg (Uni- Model: The Transformation of Par- history of science and speculated about versity of California, Santa Cruz) talk- ticle Physics Experiments, 1964-1979,” whether these historical methods could ed about “Who First Discovered the detailing how collider experiments in be rendered as rigorous as those used Mass Limit of a Degenerate Star?” the 1970s unraveled the substructure to validate scientific hypotheses. She He explored the work of University of hadrons. He described the gradual framed her arguments in the context of of Leeds physicist Edmund C. Ston- steps by which experimenters used the controversies surrounding the life er, who became interested in Ralph colliding-beam machines to create of Werner Heisenberg, described how Fowler’s application of the exclusion high-energy collisions, examining the very few historians have interviewed principle to highly dense white-dwarf by-products using electronic detectors members of Heisenberg’s family, and stars, for which classical physics was that increasingly surrounded most of spoke about her own interview with inadequate. In the early 1930s, Stoner the solid angle around the collision site. Jochen Heisenberg, the late physicist’s developed several critical papers on From the hard-scattering events that son and a professor of physics at the white-dwarf mass limits. As Nauen- were observed, they concluded that University of New Hampshire. berg pointed out, Stoner’s publica- protons, neutrons and other hadrons Next, Virginia Trimble (University tions preceded Subrahmanyan Chan- possessed internal components, then of California, Irvine) presented “Early drasekhar’s better-known work on called partons. Physicists came to iden- Photons from the Early Universe,” a this subject, and Chandrasekhar used tify these constituents with the quark history of various twentieth century Stoner’s relativistic equation of state in model, proposed in 1964 by Murray efforts to detect and interpret the iso- his work. Hence, the “Chandrasekhar Gell-Mann. Hence collider experiments tropic background electromagnetic limit” was probably anticipated by of the 1970s offered the major evidence radiation of the universe—stemming Stoner’s results. for the emerging Standard Model of from both cosmological and non-cos- Overall, it was a very successful particle physics. mological sources. She focused on the session with excellent attendance and The second presentation, “H. J. confusion caused by background star- many intriguing questions raised by Bhabha and the Birth of the Second light having an equivalent temperature audience members, who packed the Family of elementary particles,” given near 3 K (close to the 2.7 K cosmic room. The talks offered a splendid by Ramanath Cowsik (Washington microwave background radiation), overview of some of the highlights University), concerned physicist Homi the lack of appreciation of the discov- of 20th century discoveries in physics, Jehangir Bhabha’s explorations from ery by Canadian astrophysicist Andrew from the postulation of uncertainty in December 1936 until October 1937 McKellar that interstellar molecules quantum mechanics and the develop- of the properties of the particle now are at about the same temperature, ment of the standard model of particle called the muon. He demonstrated and two (of about seven) likely radio physics to formulation of theories of how Bhabha cleverly anticipated the pre-discoveries of the cosmic back- stellar collapse and the analysis of muon’s existence as a charged particle ground radiation from France and the cosmic background radiation per- similar in many ways to the electron Bell Laboratories itself, the latter by meating the universe. We commend, but much more massive. In the 1940s, Edward Ohm. in particular, the student presenters Bhabha’s hypothesis would be verified The sixth talk, “From Spectrum who demonstrated exceptional promise by the muon’s experimental discovery. Analysis to Spectrochemical Analysis: in their research, and wish them well The third paper, by Rolf Glover Stu- Redefining the Boundaries of Spec- in further explorations of the history dentship recipient Dan Maronde (who troscopy,” was presented by Mina Park of physics. n delivered it) and Costas Efthimiou (Seoul National University). It detailed

14 Volume X, No. 3 • Fall 2007 • History of Physics Newsletter April Contributed-Paper Session II By David C. Cassidy

A lively round of seven 12-minute relation,” his 1906 formula (revised free exchange of information and contributed papers and one 24-minute in 1911) for the viscosity coefficient protection of people reporting viola- paper kept the audience on its toes of fluids containing small colloidal tions would provide adequate controls, on Monday, April 16, during the APS particles. In the letter, he offered sug- Fermi believed, but some governments Jacksonville meeting. gestions about a possible extension of would almost certainly not abide by Clayton A. Gearhart (St. John’s his formula to larger particles with these conditions. University, Minnesota) opened the more complex interactions. Halpern William Mendoza (Defense Trade session with the longer paper on observes from this episode not only Controls Policy, U.S. Department of “Walther Nernst, Albert Einstein, Otto Einstein’s “free-flowing generosity” State) delivered “Physics in the Inter- Stern, and the Specific Heat of Hydro- toward students, but also his continu- national Arms Control Effort: A His- gen.” In 1911, following Einstein’s ing interest in this practical topic while tory and Introduction,” co-authored 1907 quantum theory of specific heats working intently on the theoretical with Ann Ganzer and Amy Westling. of solids, Nernst suggested a related problem of unifying gravitation and Mendoza reviewed the history of US theory for the specific heat of hydro- electromagnetism. arms control, going back as far as 1775, gen gas in which, surprisingly, the James Beichler (West Virginia Uni- up to the Arms Export Control Act of rotational energies were not quantized. versity at Parkersburg), “The Unfin- 1976, the U.S. Munitions List, and the Two years later Einstein and Stern ished Revolution: Einstein’s Revenge,” Missile Technology Control Regime published an improved treatment of offered a thought-provoking extension Annex, all of which involve strong the problem, in which they suggested, of Thomas Kuhn’s theory of scientific connections to physics in both theory even more surprisingly, that Planck’s revolutions. According to Kuhn, revo- and measurement. These laws defined newly introduced zero-point energy lutions follow from crises, yet, Biechler various categories of weapons under might eliminate the need to quantize notes, crises are often recognized only control as technologically advanced, physical systems. Gearhart’s paper after the revolution has occurred. from nuclear weapons and missiles to brought together a number of previ- Instead, Beichler argues, revolutions the hardening of electronics and the ously explored facets of quantum his- arise from the success of the previous development of night-vision devices. tory, showing in the end how unsettled science, which carries in it the seeds Ruprecht Machleidt (University of quantum theory was at that time. of revolution in the form of unsolved Idaho) presented “Evolution versus Danian Hu (City College of New problems. He pointed to the exam- Creation in the Public School Cur- York) described in his paper “Einstein ple of Newtonian science, which— riculum: History of the Legal Battles.” in the City” Einstein’s first visit to although hugely successful—never These battles have been centered on the United States in April 1921, when resolved the dichotomy of mind and th the Establishment Clause in the First he appeared at an American scien- matter. While the 20 century revolu- Amendment to the Constitution, he tific gathering at City College. He had tions in physics and psychology have noted, dividing the history into three chosen that venue for its role in the weakened the dichotomy, he said, they phases. The first extended from the education and Americanization of have not removed it, thereby sowing Scopes Trial in 1925 to the 1968 nega- many of the impoverished immigrants the seeds of the next revolution. tion of the Butler Act banning evolu- from Eastern Europe. Einstein began In a joint paper with Catherine tion; the second, 1970–1987, entailed his long-time association with phi- Westfall (Michigan State University) the mandate of equal time for evolu- losopher Morris Cohen and physicist entitled “Fermi’s Conundrum: Prolif- tion and creationism. The third phase, Reinhart Wetzel at City College. More eration and Closed Societies,” Wendy from 1990 to 2005, saw rise of the broadly, the reception he received in Teller examined a letter of 4 January intelligent design movement, which the United States indicated the lagging 1946 sent by Congresswoman Emily attained particular success in the Dover, acceptance and comprehension of his Taft Douglas to Enrico Fermi. As the PA, school district. After a six-week relativity theories there, as compared result of lobbying efforts, Douglas was trial, the movement was so soundly with Europe, at that time. attuned to the emerging problems of defeated that it did not appeal to the Paul Halpern (University of the science and international relations. In Supreme Court. Although creationism Sciences in Philadelphia), in “Ein- the wake of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, in schools has been defeated in each stein’s Viscous Advice Flowed Freely she was among the first to realize the instance, he said, a fourth phase is Nonetheless,” examined a letter from danger of proliferation through the likely to appear. Einstein to a mysterious J. Lens, dated clandestine diversion of nuclear mate- In his well-researched paper, 13 November 1930. Halpern’s detec- rials. She was also among the earliest “Founding The Physical Review: Ameri- tive work revealed the recipient as Jan to recognize the need for inspections can Physics in the 1890s,” Guy Emery Lens, a medicinal chemistry student to maintain international control, and (Bowdoin College) offered an insight- in Utrecht who had asked Einstein wrote to Fermi for advice. His pessi- ful account of the early years of the for advice for his doctoral thesis on mistic response revealed the position journal, founded at Cornell by Edward the properties of lyophilic colloids. of one of the key figures in American The problem concerned the “Einstein nuclear policy at that time. Only the Continued on page 16

Volume X, No. 3 • Fall 2007 • History of Physics Newsletter 15 Building the Elements The Seven Pines Symposium Continued from page 13 By Roger Stuewer as an umbrella under which Neptun- ists and Plutonists, uniformitarians and The eleventh Seven Pines Sympo- and Manfred Laubichler (Arizona catastrophists could all have lived (and sium was held May 2–6 on the subject State University) on biology. On the if you don’t know what they thought, of “Emergence: From Physics to Biolo- morning of Friday, May 4, speakers you should, as we are after all a history gy.” This annual gathering is dedicated addressed the question “Can Chem- forum!). So perhaps some day, some- to bringing prominent historians, phi- istry be Fully Reduced to Physics?” thing coming out of the multiverse losophers, and scientists together in a with Jeffrey Ramsey (Smith College) concept, or branes, or string theory, collaborative effort to probe and clarify and Eric Scerri (UCLA) offering two or eternal inflation, or. . .will be able significant foundational issues in sci- different perspectives. That afternoon to reconcile seemingly diametrically ence, as they have arisen in the past Kenneth Waters (University of Min- opposed concepts of cosmology. That and continue to challenge our under- nesota) examined the question “Can multiple ideas continue to be heard is standing today. The meetings occurred Biology be Reduced to Physics and a vital part of that process, so it should at the Outing Lodge at Pine Point near Chemistry?” while Lee Gohlike gave not surprise those who were not there Stillwater, Minnesota, a beautiful facil- a fascinating talk on “The Evolution of to hear it that Burbidge received the ity surrounded by spacious grounds the Mercedes Racing Car, 1901–1914.” longest and loudest of the rounds of with many trails for hiking and bird- The morning of Saturday, May 5, was applause in the sessions, though most ing. This idyllic setting and the superb devoted to the topic of “Emergence of us firmly disagree with him! n cuisine available make the Lodge an and Reductionism,” with Leo Kadanoff ideal location for small meetings. Lee (University of Chicago) concentrating April Contributed-Paper Gohlike, its owner and the founder of on physics and Ricardo Azevedo (Uni- Session II the Seven Pines Symposium, outlined versity of Houston) on biology. That its goals in his opening remarks. afternoon the topic was “Complex Net- Continued from page 14 Unlike in typical conferences, the works,” with Stuart Kauffman (Univer- talks are limited to 30 minutes, with sity of Calgary) focusing on physics L. Nichols in 1893. Emery noted that twice as much time devoted to dis- and Michael Travisano (University of PR originally carried advertising cussions following the talks and long Minnesota) on biology. Roger H. Stu- and included obituaries, book reviews, midday breaks to permit small groups ewer (University of Minnesota) chaired and letters of correspondence. In addi- to assemble at will. As preparation for the closing discussion on Sunday tion, 6 percent of the articles were the talks and discussions, the speakers morning, May 6. written by women, reflecting the large prepare summarizing statements and The twelth annual symposium number of women physicists then at background reading materials that are founder Gohlike has had a lifelong Cornell. In his analysis of their con- distributed in advance to all partici- interest in the history and philosophy tent, Emery identified three themes of pants. This year 22 leading historians, of science. To plan the annual sympo- contrast, circa 1900: elitist physicists philosophers, and scientists were invit- sia, he established an advisory board versus the non-elite (the PR then had ed to participate in the symposium. consisting of Stuewer, Chair; Michel a relatively non-elitist attitude); the Each day the speakers set the stage Janssen (University of Minnesota), United States versus Europe; and clas- for the discussions by addressing major Vice Chair; John Earman (University sical versus modern physics. He is historical, philosophical, and scientific of Pittsburgh); Geoffrey Hellman presently exploring all these themes in issues pertaining to the central subject (University of Minnesota); Don How- greater detail. n of the symposium. Thus, the morn- ard (University of Notre Dame); and ing of Thursday, May 3, was devoted Robert M. Wald (University of Chi- to the general topic of “Conceptual cago). Also participating in the elev- Student Travel Grants Framework: Concepts of Emergence,” enth annual Seven Pines Symposium with Jeremy Butterfield (Cambridge were Mark Borrello, Alan Love, Anti- The Forum on History of Physics University) speaking on “Illustrations gone Nounou, and Serge Rudaz from announces the availability of a from Physics” and Kenneth Schaff- the University of Minnesota, and small number of travel grants for ner (University of Pittsburgh) talking Philip Stamp and William Unruh from students presenting contributed or about “Illustrations from Biology.” the University of British Columbia. invited papers in Forum-sponsored That afternoon the general topic was The twelfth annual Seven Pines sessions during the March or April “History of Concepts of Emergence,” Symposium will occur May 7–11, 2008, 2008 APS meetings. For more infor- with Michael Silberstein (Elizabeth- on the subject, “The Known and mation, contact David C. Cassidy, town College) concentrating on physics Unknown Universe.” n [email protected]. n

16 Volume X, No. 3 • Fall 2007 • History of Physics Newsletter New Books of Note Out of the Shadows: Contributions of Twentieth-Century Women to Physics Edited by Nina Byers and Gary Williams Cambridge University Press, 2006, 471 pages, illustrated, $35.00.

Reviewed by Eugenie V. Mielczarek were seated segregated by gender, but her first name was genderless and she Out of the Shadows is a compilation found herself among the men. After of the scientific contributions made discovering this, the professor quickly by forty women physicists and of the reorganized the class so she was seated suffocating discrimination they experi- among the women. And upon meet- enced. Compilations are an important ing her embarrassed male advisor condensed archival source tracing from the physics department, he at history and providing references. The first explained that he did not accept strength of this book is as a historical female advisees, but he reluctantly record of this discrimination. made an exception in her case. It’s all here: nepotism rules or skit- Among the successes of Out of the tering around them, which left women Shadows are the selection of contrib- employed but unpaid for as long as uting authors and a seamless edito- thirty years; denial of tenure until rial transition from chapter to chapter. elected to the National Academy of These forty sketches, each about 3000 Sciences, awarded the National Medal words long, are written with obvious of Science, or recognized with pres- endearment by a cross section of col- tigious honors from foreign scientific leagues and family members. Each societies; and exclusion from the Nobel woman’s life and scientific contribu- Prize. Even the benign announcement tion are described, with excellent ref- of an impending marriage was enough erences to her publications and other to bring the Dean of Barnard to request hired several girlfriends and me as biographical material. Compilations Harriet Brooks, who had worked with summer employees to straighten out can be dry and hurried. Starting with Ernest Rutherford and J. J. Thomson, the membership and journal subscrip- excellent informative introductions, to resign. tion lists. Often a supervisor would Byers and Williams have produced a More than a record of historical announce that someone like Fermi lively, important historical record. All facts, biography is a celebration of or Oppenheimer was in the building, scientists will find it useful and fun human endeavor. For women who and I could glimpse these famous to read. dreamed about studying physics, the men on the grand wooden staircase However, there are a few surprises, exemplars of physical scientists were of the AIP’s New York offices. One including a curious comment by Free- all men. There were few mentors but morning I met Melba Phillips on these man Dyson in foreword. He divides lots of anti-mentors, men who actively stairs; she was tall and standing very women into those who dedicate their discouraged women. In the 1960s a straight. Although we exchanged few lives to science, giving Emmy Noether dean of students confided that “I words, this chance meeting strength- and Marie Curie as examples, and always try to talk them—prospective ened my resolve. Here was a woman those “who worry about making a liv- women science majors—out of it.” physicist, and I was thrilled to meet ing and raising a family under modern Women reading these stories will expe- her. Although her life was an inspira- conditions.” Would anyone preface a rience painful déjà vu. tion to many physicists like me, she compilation of biographies of male sci- As a child I was inspired by a biog- was not included in this volume. entists with these constraints? Dyson raphy—of Louis Pasteur. I imagined The barriers chronicled in this partly redeems this gaffe by describ- how wonderful it must be to spend a book seem unbelievable in 2007 but ing with heart-warming prose several life deciding what mysteries of science how far are we removed from them? women physicists, including his men- were the most important and solving While writing this review, I told a tors Mary Cartwright, Vanna Cocconi, them. Later as a teenage in the 1940s, I friend how Lise Meitner was required and Cecile DeWitt-Morette. But in was warned that thinking about phys- to hide under a seat in the physics describing Cocconi he explains that for ics or even worse attempting to make lecture hall. She responded with some “any young woman who chooses Vanna a living at it, was socially unsuitable of her own experiences as a science as a role model, the first priority for a woman. But my father Theo- major at a large public northeastern should be to find a husband like dore Vorburger, who was comptroller university during the mid-1950s. Stu- Giuseppe.” of the American Institute of Physics, dents in a required chemistry course Continued on page 18

Volume X, No. 3 • Fall 2007 • History of Physics Newsletter 17 Out of the Shadows We Hear That. . . Continued from page 16

And for whom is this book intend- Spencer Weart will be stepping Forum member Luisa Bonolis ed? Before reading it, I expected it had down from his position as Director writes to say that her history of the been written to inspire women age of the AIP Center for History of Phys- Italian electron-positron collider AdA 16 and older—the formative years of ics when someone can be found to (Aniello di Accumulazione), “Bru- learning and career decision-making, replace him, according to reliable no Touschek versus machine build- an age when such a compilation would sources at AIP. That may take awhile, ers: AdA, the first matter-antimatter have been very important to me, for however. It’s difficult to imagine the collider,” was recently published in one. Pioneering can be a lonely and Center without him—especially as he’s Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, Vol. 28, daunting endeavor. I would have headed it for more than three decades. No. 11 (2005), pp. 1-60. Conceived loved to study such a record when I As a teacher of the history of physics by Touschek in the 1950s, AdA was was in high school. But for the most at Stanford and UC Santa Cruz, I espe- the immediate precursor of the much part, the level of scientific description cially appreciate the award-winning larger machine ADONE (“big AdA”) in each chapter presupposes a fair web site on the subject that Spencer at Italy’s Frascati laboratory. Electron- knowledge of physics. The scientific was instrumental in creating and positron colliders have long since contribution of each woman is written developing. The best source on the his- become one of the principal work- for other scientists. A younger audi- tory of physics available on the web, I horses of high-energy physics. ence will come away mystified. tell my students. He’s also played a big . . . I reluctantly concluded the book role as a member of many Forum was written for working women sci- committees, and we hope he will On the solid-state physics front, entists, as a celebration of women’s continue participating after he leaves watch for my two articles on the cen- contributions to physical science—and the Center. tral role of Fairchild Semiconductor not primarily to inspire scientifically . . . Corporation in the development of the unsophisticated youth. Thus I strongly silicon microchip and the establishment encourage Byers and Williams to The long-awaited history of Fermi- of Silicon Valley. The first, titled “From consider selecting perhaps twenty of lab, The Ring of the Frontier: The Rise of Bell Labs to Silicon Valley,” appears these women and to publish an edition Megascience at Fermilab, by Lillian Hod- in the Fall 2007 issue of INTERFACE written for high-school level readers. deson, Adrienne Kolb and Catherine magazine, while another will be pub- It is important to open this record to Westfall, has been accepted for publi- lished in the December 2007 issue of them, too. For as Chen-Shing Wu once cation by University of Chicago Press. IEEE Spectrum on the planar processing said, “Never have so few contributed But given the pace of university-press technique that made it all possible. so much under such trying circum- publishing, it will probably be another Physicists Robert Noyce, Jean Hoerni stances.” (quoted by Sharon Bertsch year before the book is in print. Watch and Jay Last made crucial contribu- McGrayne in Nobel Prize Women in for a review in these pages. tions to silicon microchip technology, Science, 2nd edition, Citadel Press, . . . which has had such a tremendous 1998, p. 8). n impact on modern society. We also suspect that Robert Crease . . . Eugenie Vorburger Mielczarek is of SUNY Stony Brook is getting close emeritus professor of physics at George to publishing the second volume in his Finally, we sadly note the passing Mason University. With Sharon Bertsch series on the history of Brookhaven on 12 August 2007 of Ralph Alpher, McGrayne, she has written a popular National Laboratory, to accompany who with George Gamow and Robert science book, Iron: Nature’s Universal his excellent 1999 book, Making Physics, Herman wrote the famous 1948 Physi- Element. She has also reviewed four but have not heard anything defi- cal Review paper, “The Origin of Chem- biographies of women scientists for nite along these lines. Crease has ical Elements,” which adumbrated Physics Today and the American Journal been nominated by the Forum as an the modern Hot Big Bang theory that of Physics. APS Fellow. dominates cosmology today. n

—Michael Riordan, Editor

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Volume X, No. 3 • Fall 2007 • History of Physics Newsletter 19 Presorted First Class US Postage PAID Forum on History of Physics Bowie, MD American Physical Society Permit No. 4434 One Physics Ellipse College Park, MD 20740

OFFICERS & COMMITTEES 2007-2008

Chair: William Evenson Chair-Elect: David Cassidy Vice Chair: Gloria Lubkin Secretary-Treasurer: Thomas Miller

Forum Councilor Roger Stuewer

Other Executive Committee Members Paul Halpern, J. David Jackson, Gordon Kane, Peter Pesic, Virginia Trimble, Catherine Westfall, George Zimmerman, Michael Riordan (non-voting), Spencer Weart (non-voting)

Program Committee Chair: David Cassidy Benjamin Bederson, Jeffrey Dunham, Clayton Gearhart, Michel Janssen, Virginia Trimble, George Zimmerman

Nominating Committee Chair: Virginia Trimble Danian Hu, Harry Lustig, Ronald Mickens, Peter Pesic, George Zimmerman

Fellowship Committee Chair: Gloria Lubkin David Cassidy, Gordon Kane, Noemie Benczer Koller

Editorial Board/Publications Committee Chair: Michael Riordan Benjamin Bederson, William Evenson, John Rigden, Robert Romer, Spencer Weart

Membership Committee Chair: Thomas Miller

Pais Prize Selection Committee Chair: Daniel Siegel Vice Chair: Paul Halpern Max Jammer, Spencer Weart, Catherine Westfall, Laurie Brown (alternate)

Historic Sites Committee Chair: John Rigden Gordon Baym, Katharine Gebbie, Gerald Holton, Spencer Weart, Steven Weinberg