IMPACTS OF LANDCLEARING The Impacts of the Approved Clearing of Native Vegetation on Australian Wildlife in New South Wales © Viewfinder

WHEN LAND IS CLEARED, EVERYTHING THAT LIVES IN IT IS KILLED. – AUSTRALIA STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2006

© WWF-Australia. All Rights Reserved. WWF-Australia Head Office GPO Box 528, Sydney, NSW, Australia 2001 Tel: +612 9281 5515 Fax: +612 9281 1060 wwf.org.au Published February 2007 by WWF-Australia. Any reproduction in full or in part of this publication must mention the title and credit the above-mentioned publisher as the copyright owner. The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of WWF. For bibliographic purposes this report should be cited as: Johnson, C., Cogger, H., Dickman, C. and Ford, H. 2007. Impacts of Landclearing; The Impacts of Approved Clearing of Native Vegetation on Australian Wildlife in New South Wales. WWF-Australia Report, WWF-Australia, Sydney. Impacts of Land Clearing ISBN:b 1 921031 17 4 World Wide Fund forW NatureWF-Australia ABN: 57 001 594 074 CONTENTS ABOUT THE AUTHORS 2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 4 1. BACKGROUND 6 2. MAMMALS 12 3. BIRDS 20 4. REPTILES 28 5. CONCLUSION 34 REFERENCES 36

Impacts of Land Clearing WWF-Australia 1 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

DR HAL COGGER PROFESSOR CHRIS DICKMAN REPTILES MAMMALS

Dr Hal Cogger is a leading Australian herpetologist and author of the Professor Chris Dickman is a highly respected scientist with nearly definitive Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia. He is a former Deputy 30 years’ experience of working on the ecology, conservation and Director of the Australian Museum. management of Australian mammals. Since 1990, he has been Director of the Institute of Wildlife Research at the University of Sydney. In 2004, he Dr Cogger has participated on a range of policy and scientific committees, was awarded a personal chair in ecology at the university. including the Commonwealth Biological Diversity Advisory Committee, Chair of the Australian Biological Resources Study Advisory Committee For much of the last 20 years, Professor Dickman has studied the factors and Chair of the Australasian Reptile & Amphibian Specialist Group that influence vertebrate diversity in arid Australia. In this work, he has (IUCN’s Species Survival Commission). He also held a Conjoint identified habitat loss, feral cats and foxes as being particularly detrimental Professorship in the Faculty of Science & Mathematics at the University to the survival of native fauna. of Newcastle (1997-2001). Professor Dickman is a past President of the Australian Mammal Society and He is currently the John Evans Memorial Fellow at the Australian Museum. of the Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, past Chair of the NSW Scientific Committee, and Chair of the Australian Marsupial and Monotreme Hal Cogger’s research interests include the systematics and ecology Specialist Group for the Species Survival Commission of the IUCN. of Australian reptiles and frogs and the role of threatened species in conservation biology and policy development. He is senior author of the Professor Dickman currently serves on the national assessment panel for Action Plan for Australian Reptiles. the Threatened Species Network Community Grants Program, the NSW Biodiversity Research Network, and the Scientific Advisory Committee for For his contribution to Australian herpetology, Dr Cogger has been Earthwatch. awarded an AM, an honorary Doctor of Science from the University of Sydney, and honorary life memberships of the Australian Society of Professor Dickman has written or edited 16 books and monographs and Herpetologists, the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists authored a further 220 journal articles and book chapters. He is a recipient of and The Herpetologists’ League, Inc. He is a recipient of the Whitley a Bolliger Award and Troughton Medal from the Australian Mammal Society. Medal of the Royal Zoological Society of NSW. In 2001, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales. Professor Dickman is a WWF-Australia Governor and former member of WWF’s Scientific Advisory Panel.

Impacts of Land Clearing 2 WWF-Australia PROFESSOR HUGH FORD BIRDS

Professor Hugh Ford is one of Australia’s most senior and respected bird scientists. He has over 30 years of experience in the ecology, behaviour and conservation of Australian birds, especially those of eucalypt forests and woodlands.

Until recently, Professor Ford was Head of the School of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resources Management, University of New England.

Professor Ford is the author of Ecology of Birds: An Australian Perspective. He has edited two books on Australian birds and authored over 100 (book) chapters and journal articles.

In 1980, Professor Ford and Dr Howe published a landmark study of the long-term conservation status of birds in the Mount Lofty Ranges of South Australia. Using island biogeography principles, the two scientists predicted that of the original terrestrial bird fauna of about 120 species, almost 50 would eventually become extinct. This was the first Australian study alerting us to the problem of an ‘extinction debt’. The recently started Mount Lofty Birds for Biodiversity Regional Recovery Project aims to tackle this problem.

In 1993, Hugh Ford was awarded the Serventy Medal for ‘Outstanding Services to Ornithology in the Australasian region’ by the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union.

Hugh Ford conducted a major project on the impact of habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation on birds with Professor Harry Recher, Dr Denis Saunders and Dr Geoff Barrett, which was supported by WWF-Australia in the early 1990s.

Professor Ford is a Governor of WWF-Australia and was formerly a member of WWF’s Scientific Advisory Panel. He is also a member of the Research and Conservation Committee of Birds Australia.

Impacts of Land Clearing WWF-Australia 3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This report uses the amount of land Due to inadequate or uncertain NSW Government approved in New South Wales approved by public data, the figures in this 639,930 hectares for clearing under the State Government for clearing study do not include the numbers its native vegetation legislation. between 1998 and 2005 inclusively of animals killed as a result of to calculate the impacts of land illegal clearing that occurred in NSW’s wildlife is seriously clearing on the State’s wildlife. NSW from 1998 to 2005, or as threatened and under increasing a result of exempt clearing (ie pressure from a range of traditional According to these calculations legally permitted clearing that threats, such as the clearing of more than 104 million native does not require approval) that native vegetation and the impacts mammals, birds and reptiles have occurred during this time. These of exotic pests, as well as more died or will die as a result of the other clearing activities also result recent factors, such as climate clearing of native vegetation in the deaths of many millions change. NSW can stop the loss and in NSW approved between 1998 of native animals. For example, degradation of valuable habitats and 2005. around 5 million mammals, birds immediately by arresting the extent and reptiles would have been killed of clearing and fragmentation of These include: by the amount of illegal clearing native vegetation, particularly west • over 11 million mammals with estimated by the Auditor-General of the Great Dividing Range, and possums and gliders most to have occurred in 2005. by undertaking the level of research severely affected as well as and monitoring that is essential many millions of kangaroos, This study does not include any to managing natural resources at wallabies, bandicoots, koalas estimates of the amphibians, fish sustainable levels. Alternatively, and wombats; and invertebrates that were also NSW can continue to allow native • around 13 million birds killed as a direct or indirect habitats to be lost or degraded comprising mostly woodland result of the approved clearing and experience irreversible regional and forest birds and including of native vegetation. population declines species of honeyeaters and and extinctions. The study used the known record babblers that are under threat of approved clearing of native of extinction in NSW; and vegetation in NSW from 1998 to • more than 80 million reptiles 2005 inclusively that was published such as skinks and geckos. by the Auditor-General in his 2006 These estimates are highly report, Regulating the Clearing of conservative and the true mortality Native Vegetation: Follow-up of is likely to be substantially higher 2002 Performance Audit. Between than those estimated in this report. 1998 and 2005 inclusively, the

Impacts of Land Clearing 4 WWF-Australia According to these calculations more than 104 million native mammals, birds and reptiles have died or will die as a result of the clearing of native vegetation in NSW approved between 1998 and 2005. © WWF-Canon, Martin HARVEY

Impacts of Land Clearing WWF-Australia 5 1. BACKGROUND

In 2003, the WWF-Australia habitats for short-term gains and 1.1 report, Impacts of Land Clearing reduced their diversity, adaptability 1.2 IMPACTS ON on Australian Wildlife in and long-term productivity through PROTECTION Queensland, analysed the impacts loss of species richness. The WILDLIFE of the loss of native vegetation resultant debt is likely to fall due OF NATIVE OF LOSS on key elements of Queensland’s in 20 to 50 or more years’ time and VEGETATION wildlife.4 That report outlined the will therefore be paid by future OF NATIVE profound effects, both immediate generations as local extinctions IN NSW and long-term, of the clearing of gradually become regional until VEGETATION It is almost a decade since a NSW native vegetation on the survival of entire species are made extinct.6 Government recognised through The Australia State of the Australian wildlife, including the As noted by the Australia State of legislation that the loss or clearing Environment 2006 report states that deaths of many millions of native the Environment 2006 report, the of native vegetation causes serious when land is cleared “everything mammals, birds and reptiles. detrimental effects of vegetation loss of biodiversity.8 that lives in it is killed.” 1 When an area of native bushland is change extend “beyond the number In 1997, NSW passed the Native The impacts of the loss of native lost, most of the resident wildlife of hectares cleared or replanted Vegetation Conservation Act 1997 vegetation on Australian wildlife does not simply relocate. In reality, each year”. Any vegetation with the object of conserving and are well recognised. For example, the vast majority of animals will that regrows or replaces cleared managing native vegetation.9 In the 2001 national report, Australia: die. Most will die quickly but others vegetation, whether natural 2002, the Auditor-General found State of the Environment 2001, survive for a time before succumbing regeneration or planted trees, that “the system for regulating the identified the clearing of native to starvation, predation or other is rarely like the communities clearing of native vegetation was vegetation as the biggest threat to fates. This can lead to the local and that were previously cleared. For ineffective” due to deficiencies Australia’s wildlife. The Australia regional extinction of populations example, dense woody shrubs in accountability, planning, State of the Environment 2006 and, through successive cycles of may form a monoculture in place information, enforceability, report identifies the clearing of local impacts and fragmentation, of a naturally occurring, complex monitoring and reporting. As native vegetation as “an ongoing the decline and, in some cases, ecosystem.7 It also takes a very noted by the Auditor-General in threat to Australia’s environment”.2 extinction of entire species.5 long time for some components of 2006, “this regulatory system The 2006 NSW State of the the ecosystem critical to wildlife A further consequence of this continued until December 2005 Environment report also concluded habitat to be replaced, such as tree extinction process is that it can and continued to be ineffective”.10 that the clearing of native hollows, extensive areas of bark take decades or more for the full vegetation, with the associated and large trees. In 2001, NSW formally listed effects of land clearing to appear destruction of habitat, is “the the clearing of native vegetation – a time lag that is referred to as greatest single threat to biodiversity under its Threatened Species an extinction debt. The debt arises in NSW”. 3 Conservation Act 1995 as a “key because we have “borrowed” rich threatening process” that harms

Impacts of Land Clearing 6 WWF-Australia When an area of native bushland is lost, most of the resident wildlife does not simply relocate. In reality, the vast majority of animals will die.

threatened species, populations or in parts of the State over a long ecological communities, or could time.14 Similarly, NSW has not cause other species to become established a comprehensive threatened. At the same time, the system for adequately monitoring Scientific Committee established and reporting changes to the by the Threatened Species State’s vegetation cover. Proper Conservation Act found that the monitoring of all the State’s clearing of any area of native vegetation and a rigorous vegetation in NSW, including areas classification system is essential less than two hectares in extent, to enable future planning and may have significant impacts on management of the State’s biological diversity.11 resources and to ensure that adequate and representative In 2003, the NSW Government protection of our biodiversity takes stated its “commitment to end place. This is crucial for a wide broadscale clearing and maintain variety of reasons, not the least to 12 productive landscapes” and ensure the continued functioning passed the Native Vegetation Act of our landscapes and ecosystems. 2003. One of the main objects of the legislation is to prevent the clearing of any native vegetation that has not been cleared since 1 January 1990 (or 1 January 1983 in the case of land in the Western Division) unless it improves or maintains environmental outcomes. 13 This Act did not become operational until 2005.

It is noted that the NSW legislative regime is not supported by a comprehensive mapping of NSW native vegetation although various studies have been made © Richard McLellan © Richard

Impacts of Land Clearing WWF-Australia 7 1. BACKGROUND

1.3 NATIVE VEGETATION LOSS IN NSW

NSW covers some 800,000 square kilometres of south eastern Australia.

It is a topographically complex region that includes more than one quarter of the nation’s plant species and encompasses almost all of the major environments represented in Australia.

NSW has already lost well over half of its native vegetation. Since 1788, at least 61% of the original native vegetation of NSW has been cleared, thinned or substantially or significantly disturbed. This figure exceeds 90 per cent in the case of some types of native environments such as the south east grassy forests.15

The following map depicts the existing extent of native vegetation in NSW in 2005.

Figure 1. Map of existing native vegetation in NSW, 200516

Rainforests Wet sclerophyll forests (shrubby subformation) Wet sclerophyll forests (grassy subformation) Grassy woodlands Grasslands Dry sclerophyll forests (shrub/grass subformation) Dry sclerophyll forests (shrubby subformation) Heathlands Alpine complex Freshwater wetlands Forested wetlands Saline wetlands

© WWF Canon / Michel DEPRAZ Semi-arid woodlands (grassy subformation) Semi-arid woodlands (shrubby subformation) Arid shrublands (chenopod subformation) Arid shrublands (acacia subformation) Impacts of Land Clearing Cleared land 8 WWF-Australia NSW has already lost well over half of its native vegetation. Since 1788, at least 61% of the original native vegetation of NSW has been cleared, thinned or substantially or significantly disturbed.

During the years 1998 to 2005 Approved clearing has been In February 2007, the NSW inclusively, 639,930 hectares of greatest in areas to the west of the Government reported that, on native vegetation was approved Central Division for agriculture, average, around 16,000-18,000 for clearing in NSW. It is noted and in coastal regions for urban hectares of woody vegetation had that these figures do not include development. The greatest area of actually been cleared in NSW areas of native vegetation subject new clearing of native vegetation during a two year period between to illegal clearing or exempt in NSW since 1997 has taken place 2004 and 2006.20 This compares clearing (i.e. clearing that may be in the central west and north west with the Auditor General’s estimate legally carried out under the Native of the State. Within these western of around 75,000 hectares for Vegetation Act without approval).17 areas, the most intensive clearing 2005 alone. The huge discrepancy has been in the hotspot area around between the Auditor-General’s The table below sets out the Walgett, Nyngan and Tottenham. figures and these latest findings known record of clearing of native New clearing in the State’s western has not been comprehensively vegetation approved by the NSW areas has been attributed to the explained. The NSW Government Government in NSW from 1998 development of new strains of also reported on new clearing to 2005. The Auditor-General also wheat suitable for arid climates approvals for the first six months estimated that 30,000 hectares of which have provided a financial of 2006.21 illegal clearing took place in 2005. incentive for clearing native vegetation in areas previously considered too arid for crops.19

Year Hectares (approvals) 1998 73,735 1999 160,863 2000 74,459 2001 90,786 2002 57,753 2003 63,501 2004 73,951 2005 44,882 TOTAL 639,930

Table 1: Known record of approved clearing of native vegetation in NSW, 1998-2005. 18

Impacts of Land Clearing WWF-Australia 9 1. BACKGROUND

Eighty-two per cent of the The following table sets out the 1.4 terrestrial or non-marine numbers of terrestrial or non- NSW WILDLIFE species had the clearing of marine mammals, birds and reptiles native vegetation listed as a key listed by NSW as threatened UNDER THREAT threatening process under the with Statewide extinction and the FROM LOSS NSW Threatened Species number having land clearing as a OF NATIVE Conservation Act. key threatening process.

VEGETATION No. No. with land Percentage of threatened clearing as species having Significant loss of native vegetation key threaten- land clearing as and the associated destruction of ing process key threatening habitat continues to occur in NSW process despite the fact that NSW wildlife is already under siege. Mammals 57 49 86% (terrestrial) In NSW, 315 animal species or Birds 88 72 82% populations are listed as threatened (non-marine, 22 with Statewide extinction. This not offshore) comprises: Reptiles 36 28 78% • amphibians – 27; (terrestrial) • aquatic invertebrates – 3; TOTAL 181 149 82% • bats – 21; • birds – 115; Table 2: Terrestrial or non-marine mammals, birds and reptiles listed by NSW as threatened with Statewide extinction by the end • endangered populations – 36; of 2006 and the number having land clearing as a key threatening • fish – 12; process under the NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act 24 • invertebrates – 14; • marine mammals – 7; • marsupials – 24; • reptiles – 44; and • rodents – 12.23

Impacts of Land Clearing 10 WWF-Australia 1.5 METHODOLOGY • Information on native vegetation change The calculations in this report are based on the known record of approved clearing of native vegetation between 1998 and 2005 published by the NSW Auditor-General in the 2006 report, Regulating the Clearing of Native Vegetation. Follow-up of 2002 Performance Audit. 25

The figures reported by the Auditor-General are not a complete record of the clearing of native vegetation in NSW for the subject time period. Instead, the Auditor-General’s report figures comprise only the area subject to approvals under the previously applicable legislation (being the Native Vegetation Conservation Act 1997)26 and an estimate of illegal clearing in 2005.

• Calculation of wildlife impacts Given Australia’s megadiversity of species and our comparatively small human population and research base, the density (ie number of individuals in a given area) of relatively few species has been determined with precision. In addition, the number of different species, or species richness, occurring in a given area is not known in great detail for many habitats. Estimates of these values must necessarily be extrapolated from a relatively small number of detailed studies. Therefore the authors have deliberately employed highly conservative estimates in making their calculations. The true mortality is likely to be substantially higher than those estimated in this report. © Bruce Thomson, auswildlife.com

Impacts of Land Clearing WWF-Australia 11 2. MAMMALS

these being extinct Australia-wide. is a lack of detailed information 2.1 An additional 50 species were still on the types of vegetation that 2.2 OVERVIEW present but were threatened with are currently being cleared, the NUMBERS OF extinction in the future. Several available data indicate that large Australia supports a rich and species have since been added areas of the central west and MAMMALS impressive diversity of mammals, to the original stock-take due to Barwon regions are being affected, KILLED BY with over 300 native species more survey work and taxonomic as well as parts of the eastern occupying the land.27 The revisions but the perilous state of catchment of the Darling River. VEGETATION continent is unique in being the majority of NSW mammals Clearing in these areas removes LOSS IN NSW dominated by marsupials, and in remains unchanged. diverse vegetation types that can being the only great land mass to be classified broadly as woodland • More than 11 million contain representatives of the three In general, mammals are more and parkland. Many mammals that native mammals died major groups of living mammals: diverse and abundant in the higher already occur sparsely in these or will die in NSW as the marsupials, monotremes (the rainfall coastal regions of NSW vegetation types are being pushed a result of the clearing egg-laying platypus and echidna) and on the slopes and tablelands to the brink of regional extinction, and placentals. About 244 species, of the Great Dividing Range. These and those with bigger populations of native vegetation or 81% of this distinctive fauna, regions remain the strongholds or broader geographical ranges approved between are found only in Australia, with for many of the tree-dwelling are being reduced, fragmented 1998 and 2005. the others occurring also in the marsupials, rodents and bats, and placed at future risk as more 28 It is conservatively estimated that New Guinea region. Some 27 and provide the major refuges vegetation is destroyed. Clearing over 11 million mammals will die species and subspecies of native for specialist species such as the of vegetation in coastal areas for or have already died as a result of mammals have become extinct in platypus and mountain pygmy- development can also be expected land clearing approved in NSW Australia over the last 200 years, possum. With declining rainfall to have very negative consequences between 1998 and 2005 inclusively. the highest rate of loss for any inland, tree cover becomes more for mammals, but there is no region in the world. 29 sparse and gives way in parts of reliable information on how much As noted previously, this estimate the far west of the State to arid vegetation is destroyed there. does not include the number of A detailed stock-taking in 1992 and semi-arid shrubland and mammals killed by illegal or found records of 130 species of grassland. These drier habitats still 30 exempt clearing. For example, native mammals in NSW. Of provide homes for many species around half a million mammals these, 63 were marsupials, 28 of native mammals, but the low would have been killed by were rodents and 37 were bats; the and uncertain productivity of the the amount of illegal clearing two remaining species were the environment means that these estimated by the Auditor-General echidna and platypus. Disturbingly, species typically survive ‘on the to have occurred in 2005. the stock-take found that 27 of edge’ at lower and precariously the original species no longer variable densities. Although there occurred in NSW, with eight of

Impacts of Land Clearing 12 WWF-Australia It is conservatively estimated that over 11 million mammals will die or have already died as a result of land clearing approved in NSW between 1998 and 2005 inclusively.

Possums and gliders are affected most severely by clearing, with common brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula), ringtail possums (Pseudocheirus © Klein & Hubert peregrinus), feathertail gliders (Acrobates pygmaeus), sugar and squirrel gliders (Petaurus breviceps and P. norfolcensis) suffering the highest rates of mortality. Small carnivorous marsupials are also killed in large numbers each year, with dunnarts (Sminthopsis species) being most at risk in central and western regions and antechinuses (Antechinus species) further east.

Impacts of Land Clearing WWF-Australia 13 2. MAMMALS

native mice and rats, etc. When 2.3 averaged across the broad habitat HOW HAVE types in which the studies had been conducted, mean densities for each THESE of the different mammal groups NUMBERS ranged from 0.01 – 15.5 animals per hectare, with higher values BEEN being obtained usually in studies ESTIMATED? carried out in coastal regions than on the tablelands, western slopes The numbers of native mammals of the Great Dividing Range, killed by approved vegetation and plains. Because the most clearing were estimated by, firstly, clearing occurred in the central and obtaining estimates of mammal western regions of NSW, only the population density in NSW and, lower density estimates were used secondly, multiplying these density in analyses. estimates by the areas of vegetation Estimates of population density approved to be cleared in order to were based on species-specific obtain the numbers of mammals estimates as well as broader survey impacted by the clearing process. studies that survey a range of Estimates of density were obtained species in an area and sample the from published studies of mammals various habitats that are available. in NSW and from studies carried The following table sets out the out in other parts of Australia in estimates of density of native similar habitats to those present mammals from different habitats in NSW (Table 3). Many of these and regions in NSW and total studies targeted just one or a small numbers that have died or will number of species of mammals, die as a result of land clearing and these have been grouped approved in 2005. for simplicity into the broader categories of possums and gliders, © Chris Dickman

Impacts of Land Clearing 14 WWF-Australia Mammal species/ Densities (numbers of animals per hectare) in Numbers killed by eucalypt forests of northern NSW. group forest, woodland and scrub: means are shown approved clearing PhD thesis, University of Sydney: in bold with range, if available, in brackets* per year (2005 data)** Sydney; and numerous chapters in books edited by Goldingay, R.L. Coast and eastern Tablelands, western and Jackson, S.M. (eds). 2004. The ranges slopes and plains Biology of Australian Possums and Echidna 0.01 0.02 898 Gliders. Surrey Beatty & Sons: Koala 0.05 (<0.01 – 4.4) 0.08 (<0.01 – 2.1) 3,591 Sydney; Grigg, G., Jarman, P. and Hume, I. (eds). 1989. Kangaroos, Common wombat 0.5 (0.01 – 1.9) 0.1 (<0.1 – 0.4) 4,488 Wallabies and Rat-kangaroos. Possums and gliders 15.5 (0.5 – 34.0) 7.0 (0.5 – 26.5) 314,174 Surrey Beatty & Sons: Sydney; Kangaroos, wallabies 0.8 (0.1 – 2.6) 0.5 (<0.1 – 1.0) 22,441 Jones, M.E., Dickman, C.R. and and rat-kangaroos Archer, M. (eds). 2003. Predators Bandicoots 2.1 (0.1 – 2.7) 1.7 76,299 with Pouches: The Biology of Carnivorous Marsupials. CSIRO Antechinuses, 9.5 (1.5 – 24.9) 3.8 (0.5 – 52.0) 170,552 Publishing: Melbourne; Lunney, dunnarts and other D. (ed.). 1991. Conservation of carnivorous marsupials Australia’s Forest Fauna. Royal Native mice and rats 2.9 (0.5 – 20.0) 4.3 (0 – 44.0) 192,993 Zoological Society of New South Wales: Sydney; Lunney, D. (ed.). Table 3: Estimates of density of native mammals from different habitats and regions, and total 2004. Conservation of Australia’s numbers to be killed annually by land clearing approvals for 2005. Forest Fauna, 2nd edition. Royal * Data sources: Abensperg- New South Wales. New South Wales decline of a population of the Zoological Society of New South Traun, M. 1990. Patch selection National Parks and Wildlife Service koala, Phascolarctos cinereus, in Wales: Sydney; Lunney, D., and patch use in the echidna, Species Management Report 12: Victoria III. Population dynamics. Urquhart, C.A. and Reed, P. (eds). Tachyglossus aculeatus Shaw 1792 1-149; Dickman, C.R. and Australian Wildlife Research 12: 1990. Koala Summit: Managing (Monotremata: Tachyglossidae), Read, D.G. 1992. The biology 377-385; Skerratt, L.F., Skerratt, Koalas in New South Wales. NSW in Western Australian wheatbelt and management of dasyurids J.H.L., Banks, S., Martin, R. and National Parks and Wildlife Service: reserves. PhD thesis, University of the arid zone in New South Handasyde, K. 2004. Aspects of Sydney; Seebeck, J.H., Brown, P.R., of Western Australia; Barrott, E. Wales. New South Wales National the ecology of common wombats Wallis, R.L. and Kemper, C.M. 1999. Census techniques, habitat Parks and Wildlife Service (Vombatus ursinus) at high density (eds). 1990. Bandicoots and Bilbies. use and distribution of koalas in the Species Management Report on pastoral land in Victoria. Surrey Beatty & Sons: Sydney; Pilliga State Forests. Hons thesis, 11: 1-112; Hartley, M. 2002. Australian Journal of Zoology Smith, A. and Hume, I. (eds). University of Sydney; Dickman, Sarcoptes scabei var. wombati 52: 303-330; Southwell, C. 1987. Possums and Gliders. Surrey Beatty C.R. 1980. Ecological studies of infection in the common wombat Macropod studies at Wallaby & Sons, and the Australian Mammal Antechinus stuartii and Antechinus (Vombatus ursinus). M.Appl. Creek II. Density and distribution Society: Sydney. flavipes (Marsupialia: Dasyuridae) Sci. thesis, University of Sydney; of macropod species in relation to in open-forest and woodland Kerle, J.A. 2001. Possums: the ** Calculated using mean density environmental variables. Australian habitats. Australian Zoologist 20: Brushtails, Ringtails and Greater estimates of each mammal species / Wildlife Research 14: 15-33; 433-446; Dickman, C.R. 1993. Glider. University of New South group from the tablelands, western Tasker, E.M. 2002. The ecological The biology and management of Wales Press: Sydney; Martin, slopes and plains. impacts of cattle grazing, and native rodents of the arid zone in R.W. 1985. Overbrowsing, and associated grazier burning in the

Impacts of Land Clearing WWF-Australia 15 2. MAMMALS

• The densities of several this category, the planigales, 2.3 common species, such as the Planigale gilesi and 2.4 HOW HAVE brown antechinus (Antechinus P. tenuirostris, and Forrest’s DO MAMMALS stuartii), agile antechinus mouse Leggadina forresti). THESE (A. agilis), yellow-footed Although these latter species DIE WHEN NUMBERS antechinus (A. flavipes) and sometimes occur in wooded THEIR NATIVE brushtail possum (Trichosurus habitats, most records in NSW BEEN vulpecula) have been measured are from open habitats that are HABITAT IS ESTIMATED? in several studies, with most not likely to be cleared.33 CLEARED? yielding low to moderate • As noted, the usually lower Continued densities but small numbers densities obtained from studies Does vegetation clearing actually of studies yielding very high carried out in the tablelands, kill mammals, or simply displace Several decisions were taken that estimates. To reduce bias western slopes and plains were them? From an ecological have led to very conservative arising from these rare high used in preference to the higher perspective, clearing of vegetation estimates of numbers being made. values, means for each species estimates obtained in surveys has several immediate effects on Specifically: were first calculated as log- further east. the mammals that use it. Some • Many species were excluded transformed densities and then Despite the uncertainties inherent individuals can be expected to die from estimates because there back-transformed to produce in extrapolating numbers of of injury or trauma sustained during is insufficient information on normal values. This method was animal mortality over large the clearing process. For survivors, their abundance. The largest used also by Cogger et al.32 areas, the above points ensure clearing removes shelter from the omission is the entire NSW bat • Several species were omitted that the estimated numbers are extremes of weather, cover from fauna (37 species), for which from consideration due conservative. Omission of the predators, depletes or destroys food no information on density could to uncertainty about how bat fauna alone will lead to a resources, and disrupts the familiar be found. vegetation clearing would affect substantial underestimation of home range and social environments • Many small mammals in them. Exclusions included red the true impact of vegetation that individuals experienced pre- semi-arid and arid regions kangaroos (Macropus rufus), clearing, even though it is known clearing. The cleared environment exhibit large fluctuations eastern grey (M. giganteus) to be a highly destructive process is therefore inimical to the survival in density depending on and western grey kangaroos for many species34. In addition, of mammals. Some species such the prevailing weather. For (M. fuliginosus), which can habitats near cleared areas are as large kangaroos make use of example, historical accounts of flee clearing operations that usually reduced in quality due open pastures, but still need some the long-haired or plague rat are in progress; rock-wallabies to the effects of fragmentation remnants of scrubbier vegetation (Rattus villosissimus) suggest (Petrogale species), platypus and processes that occur along for shelter. that densities well in excess of (Ornithorhynchus anatinus), the boundary of the cleared area, If mammals cannot survive in 1000 animals per hectare can the water rat (Hydromys including increased access by pests a newly-cleared environment, be attained after years of good chrysogaster) and the dusky and feral predators such as foxes.35 31 can they survive if they move to rain , with the species virtually hopping-mouse (Notomys Although these indirect effects of uncleared areas of vegetation? disappearing again during fuscus), as these species occupy vegetation clearing are less obvious The answer is ‘no’, for several drought. For such eruptive habitats not directly subject to and longer-term, they highlight reasons. Firstly, except for some species, only the low-density clearing; and species that are the conservative nature of the desert-dwelling species most native population estimates were used. largely restricted to arid desert estimates that we provide here. mammals are sedentary, and many country with few trees and will even ‘home’ back to a familiar shrubs (three species were in location if they are displaced.

Impacts of Land Clearing 16 WWF-Australia Within Australia, NSW has a particularly poor conservation record for its mammals, with the worst-affected regions lying west of the Great Dividing Range

Secondly, uncleared areas of regions lying west of the Great were seen as continuing without vegetation will be occupied by 2.5 Dividing Range39. These regions check, and reducing the State’s resident animals. In the FUTURE OF are where much vegetation clearing mammal fauna from its original short-term, residents will often now occurs. Clearing of vegetation 130 species to just 53 species by repel intruders and prevent them MAMMALS IN and subsequent land uses such as 2038. The destruction of some from relocating. In the longer NEW SOUTH grazing and cropping have been 60% of the State’s native mammals term, if displaced individuals identified previously as major would be unprecedented on a world do settle, they will increase WALES threats for mammals in these scale. Continued land clearing has demands on scarce resources in regions.40 Looking to the year the potential to push us closer to As well as Australia having the the reduced areas of uncleared 2038, Dickman constructed three this apocalyptic scenario. world’s highest extinction rate land, and population numbers scenarios for NSW mammals.41 for native mammals in the last in the fragments will decline. The first scenario predicted 200 years, a further 83 terrestrial Thirdly, even if unoccupied land increased mammalian diversity due species and subspecies are is available, there is no guarantee to discoveries in fauna surveys and currently listed as being at risk that it will be suitable for displaced research, and the second foresaw of extinction.38 Within Australia, individuals to use. For example, no change. In both scenarios, no NSW has a particularly poor Tyndale-Biscoe and Smith further extinctions were envisaged. conservation record for its experimentally removed greater In the third scenario, land clearing mammals, with the worst-affected gliders (Petauroides volans) from and other threatening processes a block of forest and then waited to see if gliders from a logged block next to it would use it.36 They did not; animals moved in at the same very low level as they did into fully occupied forest. Finally, a serious problem for mammals displaced by vegetation clearing is that they face a very high risk of being taken by predators such as © WWF / Frédy MERCAY red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), feral cats (Felis catus) and dogs (Canis lupus familiaris). For example, a study of ringtail possums (Pseudocheirus peregrinus) released experimentally into Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, near Sydney, Augee et al. (1996) found that 110 of 118 animals whose fates they could determine were killed by predators. The impacts of predators on displaced mammals have been documented in several studies.37

Impacts of Land Clearing WWF-Australia 17 2.6 CASE STUDIES: THE EFFECTS OF CLEARING ON POSSUMS AND GLIDERS

GREATER GLIDER disappeared had simply moved Surveys in recent years have shown that over (PETAUROIDES somewhere else? In this particular 300 species of native vertebrates use tree VOLANS) study the cleared forest was mostly surrounded by pine plantations hollows for shelter, with 83 of these species Occurring broadly in and open farm land where gliders (31%) being mammals.42 Many more species 1 forest and woodland in cannot live. Searches for marked eastern Australia, this large gliding animals failed to find any there. use trees and shrubs as arenas for social possum depends on hollows in old Greater gliders are typically interactions, to move about in the canopy, trees for shelter and specialises in sedentary and are reluctant to eating the leaves of a small number move even if unoccupied forest is to escape predators and other enemies on of Eucalyptus species. During available. the ground, to search for insects and other clearing operations animals may escape being crushed by gliding The authors concluded that, while foods, or to eat the leaves, buds and flowers as trees fall. In a detailed study by few greater gliders are killed during 45 on the plants directly.43 For slow-moving Tyndale-Biscoe and Smith , near tree fall, over 90% remain in their Canberra, the authors captured destroyed home range and die species, such as koalas and possums, we and marked every glider that soon after. The immediate causes can expect many individuals to be killed escaped tree fall. Although the of death are not known, but most study extended for five years, more likely include starvation, exposure by the trauma of tree fall or by associated than three quarters of the marked and predation. Some animals injuries sustained in the clearing operation.44 gliders were never seen again after can survive, but only if at least being marked. Of the few survivors, part of their home range remains If animals do survive the process of clearing, almost three quarters were uncleared. what prospects do they have afterwards? recaptured within eight days of tree clearing; these had lost weight and Quantitative information from two case the females had lost their pouch studies of possums and gliders shows that young. The very few animals that survived to the following year most will die. typically had home ranges that overlapped a block of forest that had not been felled. Is it possible that the animals that

Impacts of Land Clearing 18 WWF-Australia © Viewfinder

EASTERN boxes again. There was no evidence PYGMY-POSSUM that the missing possums had (CERCARTETUS relocated elsewhere. Apart from NANUS) being surrounded by open pasture, no marked animals were found in 2This diminutive possum other forest remnants around the lives in forest and heath-dominated disrupted one, despite intensive habitats in south-eastern Australia, searching. and visits flowers to obtain nectar, pollen and occasional insects. It There were two other unexpected is listed as a vulnerable species in findings in this study. Firstly, the NSW. In the Dorrigo region on the effects of the clearing appeared New England Tablelands, eastern to be much greater on females pygmy-possums can sometimes than on males. Prior to clearing be found in scattered remnants females comprised about 60% of forest that has otherwise been of the adult animals in the cleared for cattle grazing. Studies population, but in the six months of this species in a small post-clearing the sex ratio fell so (4 hectare) remnant by Bladon dramatically that just one animal et al46 found that possums took out of every five captured was readily to nest boxes that were female. Secondly, females that had placed in trees, and used them been carrying young before the to rear their young. Eighteen clearing event were not seen again, months after the studies began, a and recruitment of young to the substantial portion of the remnant population over the breeding season (1.4 hectares, 35%) was cleared was zero. These results suggest that without warning by the land’s new even partial clearing can have large owner. Although two-thirds of the and disproportionately negative original habitat remained, monthly effects on pygmy-possums and capture rates of pygmy-possums (to quote the authors) “support fell from 33.5% to just 7.8%, and concerns that the long-term survival the population from 15-20 animals of the eastern pygmy-possum in to only 5-8. In percentage terms, New South Wales is threatened by these population reductions were continued land clearing throughout much greater than might have much of its present range.” been expected from the loss of habitat. The authors concluded that the population crash was due to immediate losses of possums (i.e., deaths), loss of habitat, and time taken for surviving pygmy-possums to relocate and begin using nest

Impacts of Land Clearing WWF-Australia 19 3. BIRDS

3.1 3.2 OVERVIEW NUMBER OF BIRDS KILLED BY

Some 450 species of birds regularly occur in NSW and about half of NATIVE VEGETATION LOSS IN NSW these may be found in the eucalypt forests and woodlands of the Great Dividing Range, western slopes and plains. Some 115 species of birds • Some 13 million native birds died or will die in (i. e. about 25%) in NSW are considered to be threatened with extinction NSW as a result of the clearing of native vegetation in the State. Twenty seven of these threatened species may be found in the approved between 1998 and 2005. woodlands and open forests west of the Great Dividing Range, that is in It is conservatively estimated that around 13 million birds have died or will the habitats that have been most extensively cleared in the last 10 years. die as a result of the clearing of native vegetation approved between 1998 Most significantly, the loss and fragmentation of habitat, due to clearing, and 2005. has been listed as a key threatening process for all of these species. Many of these birds are characteristic of the western slopes woodlands, such As noted previously, this estimate does not include the number of birds as the endangered regent honeyeater (Xanthomyza phrygia), swift parrot killed by illegal or exempt clearing. For example, over half a million birds (Lathamus discolor) and black-throated finch (Peophila cincta). The box- would have been killed by illegal clearing in 2005 as estimated by the ironbark forests of the slopes are also the major habitats for vulnerable Auditor-General. species such as the grey-crowned babbler (Pomatostomus temporalis), diamond firetail (Staganopleura guttata) and black-chinned honeyeater Although the birds that have died or will die will of course include (Melithreptus gularis).47 numerous common species, such as noisy miners (Manorina melanocephala) and striated pardalotes (Pardalotus striatus), they In addition to these threatened species there is accumulating evidence will include a number of species that are threatened in NSW such as that many other birds of the inland woodlands and forests are declining regent honeyeaters (Xanthomyza phrygia) and grey-crowned babblers and disappearing locally. A continuation of broad-scale clearing of native (Pomatostomus temporalis). Furthermore, an increasing number of vegetation will mean that they may soon join the list of threatened species woodland birds in NSW are known to be declining, with a likelihood in the State. that they will become threatened in the near future, if current threatening processes, such as loss of their habitat, continues.

Impacts of Land Clearing 20 WWF-Australia It is conservatively estimated that around 13 million birds have died or will die as a result of the clearing of native vegetation approved between 1998 and 2005. © Andrew Cochran/ Taronga Zoo Cochran/ Taronga © Andrew

Impacts of Land Clearing WWF-Australia 21 3. BIRDS

studies have been sought that birds in these sites range from 3.3 estimate the densities of birds in under 10/ha in degraded woodlands HOW HAVE a range of vegetation types that in Victoria, poplar box woodland occur in the region of NSW where and tablelands woodland after a THESE clearing has been most prevalent. severe drought, to over 30/ha in NUMBERS white box (E. albens) remnants Table 4 lists the results from a and mixed open forest with many BEEN range of locations, mostly in ironbarks near Bundarra. The NSW, where bird densities have overall mean value is 20.7 birds/ha. ESTIMATED? been estimated. These range from the Tablelands to the eastern part Therefore some 13 million The estimates have been calculated of the Western Plains, and from woodland and forest birds have by multiplying a mean value south of the Murray in Victoria to been or will be affected by the for bird density by the number central Queensland. They include clearing of all vegetation that of hectares known to have been all of the major vegetation types had been approved by the NSW approved for clearing by the NSW in the region, from woodland to Government from 1998 to 2005 Government.48 forest, and dominated by gums, (640,000 x 20.7 = 13,250,000). Birds occur at different densities in boxes, stringybarks and ironbarks The following table lists the results different natural habitats, reaching (Eucalyptus), as well as Callitris of estimates of bird densities from their highest densities in wet and Casuarina. The density of a range of locations. forests and their lowest densities in grassland. The available evidence suggests that most recent clearing has been in the Barwon and central west regions of NSW and the eastern parts of the far west. Broadly, this consists of woodland and parkland. In actual fact, vegetation in this region ranges from open eucalypt forests and woodlands, as well as open forest and woodland with varying amounts of Callitris pine and Casuarina, plus small areas that are dominated by Acacia. Some woodlands, for instance those with poplar box (E. populnea) contain quite low densities of trees. Generally, birds become less abundant as the density of trees and shrubs declines. Consequently, © Klein Hubert

Impacts of Land Clearing 22 WWF-Australia Habitat Region Density - Birds/ha Reference Notes Coastal and Range Mean = 30.4 Forests Open forest and woodland SE Queensland 9.9 summer, 25.5 winter Catterall et al. 199849 Dry sclerophyll forest Coastal NSW 23.6-51.3 Milledge and Recher 198550 Wet sclerophyll forest Coastal NSW 36.8-54.1 Milledge and Recher 198551 Dry sclerophyll forest Coastal NSW 31.5 Shields et al. 1985 52 Wet sclerophyll forest Coastal NSW 25.9-35.5. Shields et al. 1985 53 Open forest Sydney 23.3 Keast 1985 54 Silvertop ash, stringybark Eden 25.6 Kavanagh and Stanton Unlogged sites only 2003 Tableland Woodlands Mean = 19.5 Stringybark woodland New England 21.5-23.6 Ford and Bell 1982 55 Large remnant Stringybark woodland New England 9.7 Ford et al. 1985 56 Same as above but after severe drought Stringybark, gum, box New England 18.2 breeding, 32.5 winter Howe 1984 57 Continuous forest woodland/ open forest Stringybark, gum, box New England 16.1 breeding, 16.6 winter Howe 1984 58 Remnants woodland/ open forest Tablelands woodland S NSW 16.4-20 Recher and Holmes 198559 Tablelands open forest S NSW 15-27.6 Recher and Holmes 1985 60 Blakely’s red gum, yellow ACT 22.8 Er and Tidemann 1996 box Slopes Woodland and Mean = 35.1 Open Forest Open forest NW Slopes of NSW 42.8 Oliver et al. 1999 61 Box, stringybark, gum, pine Pilliga Scrub 25.9 Date, pers comm White box woodland Gunnedah 36.6 Martin et al. 2004 Plains Woodland and Mean = 13.8 Scrub Box, gum, pine woodlands Northern Plains, Victoria 8.2 Antos and Bennett 2004 Box, gum, pine Murray Plains 19.7 Oliver and Parker 2006 Mature only – excl. replanted Eucalypt woodland, Emerald, Queensland 21.7 Woinarski et al. 2006 Average of 1973-6 brigalow and 2001-2 counts Poplar box Central Queensland 9.2 Gilmore 1985 62 Number of pairs x 4 Gidgee Central Queensland 10.2 Gilmore 1985 63 Number of pairs x 4 Grassland Mean = 1.3 Grassland New England 0.8 Ford and Bell 1982 64 Native grassland, scattered trees Grassland New England 1.9 Barrett 1995 65 Native or Exotic Pasture, Scattered Trees Rainforest Mean = 33.0 Rainforest Coastal NSW 33.0 Shields et al. 1985 66

Table 4: Estimates of the density of birds from a variety of habitats.

Impacts of Land Clearing WWF-Australia 23 3. BIRDS

of chaining of Allocasuarina though some may stay for some 3.4 shrubland in the Western Australian time. We can only surmise what 3.5 WHAT Wheatbelt. They compared sites happens to birds that leave when FUTURE in uncleared shrubland, in chained their home ranges are destroyed. HAPPENS TO but unburnt shrubland and in dead Those that survive may move IMPACTS OF BIRDS WHEN stubble. Again, most woodland into neighbouring habitat or cross CLEARING birds declined or disappeared open areas to other remnants. This THEIR HABITAT after chaining, including two may put them at greater risk of OF NATIVE IS CLEARED? species that are regarded as near predation (see section 3.4). If they VEGETATION threatened, the crested bellbird reach suitable habitat this is likely Somewhat surprisingly, there (Oreoica guttaralis) and the white- to be occupied by, and defended ON BIRD seem to have been few studies on browed babbler (Pomatostomus by, other members of the same POPULATIONS the direct impact of vegetation superciliosus). A few species species. More likely, they will clearance on birds. Birds are became more common in the have to settle for inferior habitat. Whereas, there may be a direct considerably more mobile than chained site or stubble, for example Although they may survive here decline in the populations of most mammals and reptiles, and the willy wagtail (Rhipidura for some time, they are unlikely woodland birds due to loss of their many will survive the immediate leucophrys), and the Richard’s pipit to breed successfully and replace habitat, what is now becoming clearing and even the burning (Anthus novaeseelandiae) which themselves before they die. This clear is that for many species the of wind-rowed vegetation. Eggs only moved in after chaining. could be because safe nest sites decline in these populations is and nestlings, and most recently such as tree hollows or dense actually far greater than simply the The longer term effects of clearing fledged young will probably die shrubs are lacking or because proportion of habitat that has been or chaining of woodland, burning immediately. Ludwig et al. (2000)67 predators are more common. Also, lost.69 Clearing of native vegetation, of the debris and conversion to studied the impact of clearing important foraging sites or foods, especially in those regions where pasture of crops can be seen from of eucalypt woodlands near such as large tree trunks and nectar only a small proportion is left, examining birds in grassland (Table Emerald in central Queensland. may be scarce. Consequently, even will lead to remnants that are 4). There are typically only one Four of the six most common bird though clearing may not kill the smaller, and more isolated from or two birds per ha in grassland, species were significantly less majority of the woodland birds each other, and also, because they i. e. 90-95% fewer than in intact common in cleared land, and a directly, over the longer term they have more edge are likely to be woodland. It should also be noted fifth probably was also negatively will be lost from the landscape. more degraded than continuous that these are mostly not woodland affected by clearing. Only the woodland. Many woodland birds species, such as the pipit. red-backed fairy-wren (Malurus avoid, or soon disappear from, melanocephalus) increased in Therefore, it is reasonable to smaller patches. Furthermore, they cleared sites, because it prefers conclude that almost all woodland may be unwilling to disperse to dense grassy habitat. Fulton and birds either die or leave the isolated remnants. Most species 68 Majer (2006) looked at the effect area after it has been cleared, are absent from sites smaller than

Impacts of Land Clearing 24 WWF-Australia It is reasonable to conclude that almost all woodland birds either die or leave the area after it has been cleared, though some may stay for some time.

10 ha, but also quite a few species 90% of the native vegetation is tend to be less frequent in sites also clear in the Western Australian less than 100 ha in area. There Wheatbelt, and parts of Victoria. are many reasons for this, and Within NSW, critical levels of they interact in complex ways. habitat loss have been reached on As well as the chance loss of parts of the Tablelands. Although small populations and difficulties we may not yet have reached these experienced in dispersing, birds in critical levels throughout parts of highly fragmented and degraded the western slopes and adjoining landscapes may suffer higher rates plains, if we continue to clear at of predation, especially on their current rates, we shall soon reach nests, and also competition from the point at which many bird aggressive species, such as noisy populations move into regional miners. We perhaps know best decline and extinction. It is what is happening in the case of the imperative that we limit the amount robins (see case study). of clearing of native vegetation in NSW to prevent any further Taken overall, the impact of declines and extinctions of our clearing and loss of a substantial native birds. Unless we do this, any proportion of the native vegetation efforts to revegetate will be in vain. may lead to the decline of many woodland birds, and even the regional extinction of some species. This is most evident when only about 10% of the native vegetation remains. This is the case in the Mount Lofty Ranges of South Australia, where the long- term effects of extensive clearing over a century ago are still being felt. As a result, as many as 50 of the 120 native bird species are predicted to eventually disappear as a result of the reduction of habitat area to ten per cent of its former extent.70 The impact of removing WWF-Canon, Martin HARVEY ©

Impacts of Land Clearing WWF-Australia 25 3.6 CASE STUDY: WHAT IS HAPPENING TO ROBINS?

Robins are a brightly coloured robins to one patch, which had Species Decline in Decline in group of birds with two or three lost the species in the early 1990s. Australia NSW species often found in most Some of the birds stayed and even Flame robin 51% 56% wooded areas. They have been the bred successfully, suggesting that subject of many studies and these the habitat was satisfactory for Scarlet robin 31% 55% together provide a clear indication them, but that they had not been Hooded robin 27% 41% of how the loss, fragmentation able to reach it. However, two birds Jacky winter 19% 21% and degradation of habitat can travelled 7 km to the reintroduction Crested shrike-tit 25% 18% affect our woodland birds. Birds site from another patch unaided. Australia conducted its second So yellow robins can move Dusky woodswallow 28% 41% bird atlas from 1998 to 2002, between remnants. Scarlet robins White-browed woodswallow 38% 61% some 20 years after the first atlas also arrived in another site every Black-faced woodswallow 36% 65% was completed.71 The atlases have spring, probably from over 10 km provided one of the few sources of away. Further translocations have Masked woodswallow 22% 46% quantitative information on how provided less clear-cut results. Bush stone curlew 63% the abundance of some woodland Few birds stayed in their new Table 5. Declines in recording rates of robins, and some other birds has changed. The robins locations for long, and in fact, woodland birds, in Australia and NSW, between the first and have fared worse than most, with several translocated birds were second bird atlas. 75 several species showing a decline killed by predators, probably in detection rate of 40% or more in grey butcherbirds (Cracticus currawongs (Strepera graculina), scarcity of leaf litter and perhaps NSW (Table 5). torquatus). So robins can disperse, which have increased due to the because there is less fallen timber. but it is a risky exercise, and winter supply of exotic berries. To some extent this is natural, and Studies in Western Australia, perhaps they often choose not to However, there are plenty of other to some extent because people have Victoria and NSW have cross cleared country. nest predators from possums to collected firewood. documented the loss of hooded shrike-thrushes and kookaburras. and yellow robins from vegetation Whether or not robins can disperse So, robins are affected by a host of remnants. The Armidale area among vegetation remnants may Even if they manage to escape problems as they struggle to survive provides an excellent example. be irrelevant if there are too few nest predators, robins may still in their highly modified landscapes. Hooded robins had gone from young birds available to disperse. struggle to feed their babies. Quite likely other birds, which three patches in the early 1980s, Debus found that young fledged Zanette found that there are fewer have not been studied as well, are and from three more by 2006. from only about 9% of scarlet ground invertebrates in some influenced in the same way. Eastern yellow robins in this time robin nests in one woodland smaller remnants, and chicks and had vanished from two patches. remnant, a figure very similar to incubating females were fed less It is noted that for almost all species Although these are probably that found by Robinson in more often in such sites.74 Fertilised soils the decline has been greater in NSW random losses of very small continuous woodland in southern also may mean denser grass cover, than in Australia as a whole. populations – often single pairs, NSW.73 Yellow robins were more which can make capture of food what is worrying is that they are than twice as successful, but even difficult for the pouncing robins. not rescued by immigrants from so they barely produced enough other patches. young to replace local deaths, Robins even in extensive eucalypt let alone provide new dispersers. woodlands are found in much So, are robins unable or unwilling Scarlet robins only maintained lower densities than in rainforest. to disperse among isolated patches? themselves due to the immigrants. This is probably due to lower food 72 Debus moved eastern yellow The main nest predators were pied abundance, most likely due to the

Impacts of Land Clearing 26 WWF-Australia © John Courtney 4. REPTILES

It is conservatively estimated estimated by the Auditor-General 4.1 4.2 that more than 80 million reptiles to have occurred in 2005 would OVERVIEW NUMBER OF have died or will die as a result of have resulted in the deaths of more the clearing of native vegetation than 3 million reptiles. About 830 species of non-marine REPTILES approved in NSW between 1998 reptiles are found in Australia - of KILLED BY and 2005. In 2005 alone, it is In NSW the highest numbers these, 227 (27%) occur in NSW. estimated that at least 9.7 million of reptile species are found in THE CLEARING reptiles perished. the moister forests of the coast and ranges. This region suffered OF NATIVE However, the actual mortality is high levels of clearing of native VEGETATION likely to be much higher because a forest in the nineteenth and conservative population density has early twentieth centuries, so that • 80 million reptiles died been used. current clearing rates represent a or will die in NSW as relatively small proportion of the Furthermore, as noted previously, total native vegetation clearing a result of the clearing this estimate does not include the of native vegetation being undertaken in NSW at the number of reptiles killed by illegal present time. Consequently, though approved between or exempt clearing. For example, estimates of the number of reptiles 1998 and 2005. the level of illegal clearing perishing as a result of native land clearing in the State have been estimated for all of NSW, the highest annual levels of clearing, and thus the greatest numbers of reptile deaths, are occurring in the approximately three quarters of NSW extending from the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range © Digital Stock

Impacts of Land Clearing 28 WWF-Australia It is conservatively estimated that more than 80 million reptiles have died or will die as a result of the clearing of native vegetation approved in NSW between 1998 and 2005.

20 species with a mean density per NSW were later aggregated by 4.3 species of 10 individuals/ha. Williams78 into nine broader HOW HAVE associations. The approximate However, because an Australia- areas in which each of these plant THESE wide estimate must take into associations occur within NSW NUMBERS account large areas of reptile-rich were estimated, together with the desert lands and those of the wet total number of species of reptiles BEEN and seasonally-wet tropics, this occurring in each association approach has been modified here (Table 6). ESTIMATED? to take into account the known distributions of NSW reptiles The resulting species-richness In the absence of any reliable across various vegetation zones and numbers were then weighted to take studies of the total numbers of all to estimate the number of species into account the total areas of each reptiles occurring in any given occurring in each zone. zone in order to arrive at a mean site in Australia, estimates were species richness per zone, with the made by modifying the method First, each of the major plant further assumption made (based on developed by Ehmann & Cogger76, associations found in NSW qualitative observations) that in any in which they concluded that, and their original geographic given hectare of any zone, at least on average across Australia, the distributions were extracted from 25% of the species found in that density of reptiles in any given a vegetation map in which the zone are likely to be present. area was about 200/ha, based on 17 vegetation associations defined the average presence of about by Williams77 that occurred in

Table 6: Major vegetation associations in NSW and the number of species of reptiles recorded from each association

Vegetation Association Area of potential Reptilian Species Richness Area x richness weighting occurrence (ha approx) 1. Rainforest 1,200,000 33 39,600,000 2. Evergreen sclerophyll forest 14,500,000 124 1798,000,000 3. Woodland & parkland 31,600,000 116 3665,600,000 4. Grassland & savannah 3,000,000 64 192,000,000 5. Malee Scrub & heath 3,300,000 58 191,400,000 6. Mulga & other arid scrub 20,200,000 100 2020,000,000 7. Saltbush & other shrub steppe 7,500,000 71 532,500,000 8. Semi-desert steppe 200,000 56 11,200,000 Total 81,500,000 622 8,450,300,000 Mean 10,187,500 77.75 1,056,287,500 Mean species richness = 77.5 Mean weighted species richness/vegetation type (mean area richness weighting/mean area of potential occurence) = 103.7 Mean weighted species richness/ha = 25.9

Impacts of Land Clearing WWF-Australia 29 4. REPTILES

And so, unlike birds (and other 4.3 4.4 flying organisms), the vast majority HOW HAVE THESE NUMBERS WHAT of reptiles whose habitats are disturbed by clearing of native BEEN ESTIMATED? HAPPENS TO vegetation have nowhere to go Continued REPTILES unless the area cleared is part of a larger, continuous patch. In this Finally, to take into account the lower productivity of NSW’s temperate WHEN THEIR case, some of the displaced reptiles climatic zone, the mean individual species density/ha was reduced from HABITAT IS may be able to make their way into 1079 to 5. This reduction is arbitrary, but is intended to demonstrate that the remaining remnant. when using a very conservative estimate, the deaths of large numbers of CLEARED? reptiles have resulted from the clearing of native vegetation in NSW during However, if the area being cleared the past decade (Table 7). It is commonly, but erroneously, is an isolated patch that has no believed that reptiles (and many direct link - a habitat corridor Year Approved clearing (ha) Reptile mortality other animals) displaced by – to other patches of the same clearing native vegetation will habitat, the majority of reptiles will 2005 45,000 5,827,500 simply ‘move on’ to the next simply die or be eaten immediately 2004 74,000 9,583,000 available patch of suitable habitat. after clearing has occurred. The 2003 64,000 8,000,000 However, reptiles are surprisingly exceptions are those few species 2002 58,000 7,511,000 sedentary. Smaller lizards such that might have been exploiting as many skinks, geckos and disturbed sites in the original 2001 91,000 11,784,500 dragons usually have home ranges habitat (road, track and stream 2000 74,000 9,583,000 measured in the hundreds of edges, patches of invasive weeds, 1999 161,000 20,849,500 square metres or less. Even many clearings caused by humans or tree falls) and which may not 1998 74,000 9,583,000 snakes and larger lizards have similarly small home ranges and only survive but also thrive in the Total 641,000 82,721,500 it is only individuals of some of remaining habitat. If the clearing is the larger goannas, snakes, undertaken in stages, some species Table 7: Estimates of reptile mortalities resulting from the approved turtles and crocodiles that may may survive for a time in windrows clearing of native vegetation in NSW, 1998-2005. Clearing rates, range over many hectares or even prior to burning, but their reprieve to the nearest thousand, are those recorded by the NSW Auditor- square kilometres. is likely to be temporary. General.80 Mortality numbers were calculated using the formula N= total area cleared (ha) x mean species richness (25.9) x mean Following clearing of native individual species density (5) vegetation, crossing areas of hostile habitat to reach other patches of suitable vegetation is therefore not an option for most reptiles. Few would attempt it and those that did will quickly die from predation or exposure to unsuitable climatic conditions.

Impacts of Land Clearing 30 WWF-Australia Further, it is often argued that wave of consuming migrants biodiversity loss resulting without serious impacts on its 4.5 from native vegetation clearing ecological integrity. Therefore new THE FUTURE is a reversible process – that immigrants, if they survive, will natural regeneration or active do so at the expense of existing OF REPTILES rehabilitation by humans can residents. The net effect will be the The majority of reptiles are result in recolonisation by those deaths of old and new residents declining in numbers, but those species that constituted the original roughly equivalent to the numbers at the greatest risk of extinction biodiversity of an area. In reality migrating from the original are those whose declines are it is nearly always only a smaller clearing event. Those individuals driven largely by the loss of native subset of the original species that that fail to migrate to nearby vegetation and the consequent can successfully recolonise the area, suitable habitat will die. fragmentation of their populations. and then only if the rehabilitated vegetation is continuous with an intact, uncleared area of the original habitat. The latter is essential as a source of recruitment of the species originally present. Consequently, the clearing of any isolated remnants of native vegetation permanently reduces or eliminates most of their reptile fauna.

Thus, for the great majority (ca. 90%) of native reptiles clearing is a death sentence. Even for those individuals that can make their way to adjacent areas of suitable habitat, the carrying capacity of that habitat is more or less stable and relatively inflexible. Despite seasonal variations in its carrying capacity (for example, as a result of flowering events or drought), it can rarely accommodate a new © Klein & Hubert

Impacts of Land Clearing WWF-Australia 31 4.6 CASE STUDY: MALLEE/ SPINIFEX – A CASE STUDY IN PERMANENT LOSS OF SPECIES FOLLOWING CLEARING

In a long-term study commenced in 196781 and monitored periodically Reptile Species Regional Regional Exploits to the present, Cogger studied trends in a population of mallee dragons Generalist Specialist disturbed (Ctenophorus fordi) at Round Hill Nature Reserve in mid-western NSW, (post-clearing) an area dominated by a rich mallee/spinifex plant community.82 Other habitats species of reptiles were concurrently recorded within the reserve and, more intensively, in the 3 hectares study plot. Over this same period, large Mallee dragon * tracts of mallee on adjacent private lands were cleared (mostly for cereal (Ctenophorus fordi) production) and provided an opportunity to study the effects of clearing on Painted dragon • the original reptilian residents of the cleared land. (Ctenophorus pictus)

Central bearded dragon • • Reptile Species Regional Regional Exploits (Pogona vitticeps) Generalist Specialist disturbed Gould’s goanna • • (post-clearing) (Varanus gouldii) habitats Lace monitor • • Byrne’s gecko • (Varanus varius) (Diplodactylus byrnei) Carnaby’s snake-eyed • • Southern spiny-tailed • skink (Cryptoblepharus gecko (Strophurus carnabyi) intermedius) Ctenotus allotropis • Eastern stone gecko • (Diplodactylus vittatus) Ctenotus atlas •

Beaded gecko • Robust ctenotus • (Lucasium damaeum) (Ctenotus robustus)

Beaked gecko • Schomburg’s ctenotus • (Rhynchoedura ornata) (Ctenotus schomburgkii)

Dtella (Gehyra variegata) • • Desert skink (Egernia • Thick-tailed gecko • inornata)

(Underwoodisaurus milii) Tree skink (Egernia • • Unpatterned delma • striolata)

(Delma inornata) Mueller’s lerista (Lerista • Burton’s snake-lizard • muelleri)

(Lialis burtonis) Spotted lerista (Lerista • Eastern hooded scaly- • punctatovittata)

foot (Pygopus schraderi) Gray’s four-toed skink • Common scaly-foot • (Menetia greyi)

(Pygopus lepidopodus) Boulenger’s morethia • • Nobbi (Amphibolurus nobbi) • (Morethia boulengeri)

Table 8: The reptile species permanently extirpated from native mallee/spinifex plant communities following clearing for cereal production – vicinity of Round Hill Nature Reserve, NSW.

Impacts of Land Clearing 32 WWF-Australia Of the 39 reptile species recorded their calculations on Williams’ from the reserve (Table 8), 7 (18%) 1955 vegetation map of Australia) are essentially mallee specialists estimated the area of semi- that were not or rarely encountered arid mallee in NSW as 25,000 outside intact mallee/Triodia km84. These differences reflect habitats within the region. A differences in both the vegetation further 32 species were regional classifications used over time generalists in that they also and the unreliability of available occurred in a range of vegetation estimates of mallee distribution associations – Callitris and other and clearing rates. native parklands and woodlands, and in rocky outcrops, stony hills This case study is not intended and lightly-wooded grazing lands to imply that no mallee should within the region. ever have been cleared, or should not be cleared in the future, for Only 10 species – generally commercial production. Rather, snakes and larger lizards such it is argued that the long-term as the western brown snake impacts of clearing of any native (Pseudonaja nuchalis), shingle- vegetation can vary widely in its back lizard (Tiliqua rugosus) and impacts on regional and national Gould’s goanna (Varanus gouldii) biodiversity. Such clearing should – readily exploited cleared land be part of a well-developed Reptile Species Regional Regional Exploits and regrowth. Some of the arboreal regional plan that aims to optimise Generalist Specialist disturbed generalists – for example the the retention of viable wildlife (post-clearing) Dtella (Gehyra variegata) and corridors and to set aside other habitats the tree skink (Egernia striolata) areas for sustainable biodiversity Dull morethia • - continued to occupy isolated trees conservation. In other words, every (Morethia obscura) and copses left after clearing has hectare of surviving mallee is not occurred. This group represented of equal value for biodiversity Western blue-tongue • (Tiliqua occipitalis) 26% of the species present in the conservation purposes. Cairnes undisturbed mallee. (1989) suggested a set of land Eastern blue-tongue • • use planning policies for mallee (Tiliqua scincoides) But for the majority of species ecosystems in NSW that could as Shingleback (Tiliqua rugosa) • • in this study, clearing resulted in well serve as a guide for all native their permanent extirpation from 85 Southern blind snake * ecosystems. the areas in which they originally (Ramphotyphlops australis) occurred. Twenty-nine species However policies to date, even Prong-snouted blind • (74% of the 39 species found in the when developed and implemented snake (Ramphotyphlops intact mallee/spinifex community) through legislation, have been bituberculatus) were lost. Using the conservative shown by the NSW Auditor- Carpet python • calculation shown above/below General86 to fail miserably unless (Morelia spilota) (assigning a mean density per the Government of the day is

Western brown snake • • species of 10 individuals/ha) prepared to rigorously police its (Pseudonaja nuchalis) indicates that at this study site own legislation. at least 290 reptiles are killed Coral snake • for every hectare cleared for (Simoselaps australis) commercial production, and that Dwyer’s black-headed • the ‘standing crop’ or biomass snake (Parasuta dwyeri) of each of these native species is Bandy-bandy • not only permanently reduced, (Vermicella annulata) but the ecosystem services and productivity of the cleared land are also permanently compromised.

Species present = 39 Accurate figures on past and Mallee specialists = 7 (18%) recent mallee clearing rates in Regional generalists NSW are unavailable, although (found in a range of regional vegetation associations) = 32 (82%) the Australian Natural Resources Atlas83 estimates that of the Exploiters of post-clearing habitats = 10 (26%) 36,746 km2 of mallee woodlands and shrublands present in pre- European NSW, 92% (33,889 km2) remained uncleared in 1997. Table 8: The reptile species permanently extirpated from native mallee/spinifex plant communities following clearing for cereal production Yet in 1974 Specht et al. (basing – vicinity of Round Hill Nature Reserve, NSW.

Impacts of Land Clearing WWF-Australia 33 5. CONCLUSION

WWF called on a team of These impacts are additional to the specialists to provide this estimate many millions of native animals of the impact of the rates of that have died or will die as a clearing of native vegetation in result of other clearing activities NSW on mammals, birds and in NSW, such as illegal clearing reptiles approved between 1998 and exempt clearing during this and 2005 inclusively. The figures period. Furthermore, enormous are clearly dire and show that the loss of native wildlife has occurred long-term impacts of clearing in NSW as a result of the clearing native vegetation are disastrous of native vegetation prior to 1998 for wildlife in NSW. and since European settlement. For example, figures for the previous More than 104 million native decade 1988-1998 suggest that mammals, birds and reptiles have annual native vegetation clearing died or will die as a result of rates have long been substantial, the clearing of native vegetation though variable, and of a similar approved by the NSW government order to those that occurred in the between 1998 and 2005. period 1998-2005.

Despite a decade of native In addition, the full impact of vegetation legislation, NSW has NSW’s past land clearing on implemented no Statewide system native animal populations is still of monitoring changes to its to be felt. The native vegetation vegetation, recording the amount already lost in NSW has created an of vegetation being lost or even extinction debt that is yet to be paid comprehensively classifying its and has set in train a process of vegetation types. regional and ultimately Statewide extinctions of entire populations. ©WWF-Canon / Michële_DEPRAZ

Impacts of Land Clearing 34 WWF-Australia ...the long-term impacts of clearing native vegetation are disastrous for wildlife in NSW.

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