o'a The \Mhiskey Rebellion: Is liffle rebellion a goo d thing?"
Laura Farris
Senior Historical Division Perhaps one of the most influential internal rebellions prior to the Civil War, the Whiskey
Rebellion proved to have a monumental impact upon the future ideals of democracy in the
United States. After Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton, introduced a set of taxes
upon whiskey, poorer citizens, especially rural farmers, took up anns to protest the series of
taxes. As the insurrection grew in size and scope during lTg\,President George Washington felt
forced to call upon the militia to crush the insurrection. The political ramifications of the
whiskey rebellion contributed to the downfall of Hamilton's excise tax, the founding of political
parties and helped define the federal government's relationship to the states until the Civil War.
Ultimately, it could be argued, the Whiskey Rebellion led to a reaction focused on a political discussion and movement that better coincided with the Founding Father's original intent-a govemment for the people.
Hamilton's upbringing proved influential in his political ideology and beliefs on the proper role of the federal and state governments during his career. Throughout Hamilton's childhood, he incurred tragedy and difficulty. After the death of nearly all of his close family,
Hamilton, orphaned and only later taken in by merchant Thomas Stevens, expressed his feelings of despair and loneliness through his penmanship, which acted as a catalyst to his later political fame.l Only furthering Hamilton's feelings of childhood denunciation, Princeton rejected his
Pg. I Pe.2
admission to the school. Instead, Hamilton attended King's College, where he studied under
Tories.2 This education became the foundation for his later political career, leading
him to admire Britain and one day model the new government's national bank after Britain's
own. During the American Revolution, Hamilton became an aide and friend of George
Washington, who fought for the Revolution when Britain imposed tixes upon his beloved Mt.
Vemon.3 When Hamilton grew prominent as a Federalist, he adamantly fought for ratification of
the Constitution, describing this new form of government as one that defied the very principle of
Republican government. However, he claimed, this govemment still proclaimed the need for
strong rulers who could prevent the downfall of the American government.a Ironically, Hamilton
in his role as a strong leader later set in motion taxation that nearly caused the downfall of the
government and led to a rebellion so egregious that the federal government called on Washington to crush it.
Even during his eady career, Hamilton demonstrated an affrnity toward the wealthier
classes, and likewise modeled his tax system favorably towards the more affluent classes. In
1790, he displayed a cynical view against poor citizens who sold their IOUs to wealthier
gamblers in his Report on Public Credit.s He claimed that poor citizens who sold their debts
(often because they could not afford to wait for compensation) showed a distrust for the future of the national government and instead gave buyers of those debts full reimbursement.Ir |TST
Hamilton introduced a taxing system, intending for it to repay debts to foreign countries incurred
during the Revolutionary War and re-establish American credit. On February 12,1788 Hamilton resolved in Congress that the Treasury needed more revenue in order to repay the debt and, thus,
instituted a tax that collected 5 percent on importations, a dollar for every hundred acres of land, and a half a dollar for each house.6 These taxes met relatively little opposition: British citizens Pe-3 had often met with land or import taxes. On the other hand, British citizens had not often encountered excise taxes.T Arguably, if Hamilton had established the whole of his taxation system on land or imports, a rebellion of the Whiskey Rebellion's magnitude might never have taken place. However, in March of lTgl,Congress passed Hamilton's excise tax into law.8
Seeking political gain with wealthy citizens, Hamilton showbd little sympathy toward small farmers and poor distillers who faced enonnous economic debts to repay after the
Revolutionary War. In response to objections about the government's debt reduction, Hamilton claimed that Americans' dissatisfaction with his legislation caused the govemment's inability to repay the taxes; therefore, responsible for the debt itself.e His motives for the excise tar lay in both his ideology of a stronger, more centralized federal government and the large political influence asserted by the eastern business interests. Up against such a concentrated political interest, poor western farmers hardly had a shot. Hamilton desired to seek a source of revenue, through his ta The excise tax outraged poorer citizens, who had converted their grain into whiskey for ease of transportation, since many alleged Hamilton purposefully targeted the impoverished classes. Unlike Shay's Rebellion, the Whiskey Insurrection gathered a large number of rebels, nearly 7,000 in Pittsburgh alone.ll Though some rebels fought for the sake of fighting, most found the tax unreasonable and against fundamental American rights. In response to the tax, in an inhumane demonstration of indignation, small farmers banded together to tar and feather tax collectors.l2 Another group of thirty to forty people raised arms and marched nearly twelve miles to tax collector General John Neville's home.13 Their outrage lay in their belief that Hamilton imposed the excise tax on whiskey and distilled spirits in order to affect the tax on the most Pe.4 people possible, regardless of wealth and the people's ability to pay such a tax. They also believed that the federal govemment purposefully refused to listen to their complaints. As a result, whiskey rebels resorted to rebellion tactics reminiscent and likely influenced from the experiences of the French and American Revolutions. In an attempt to avoid the ta<, small farmers used a variety of violent tactics based on experiences bf other countries.14 These strategies, gleaned from the dangerous actions of French Revolutionaries proved that the people's dependence on violence continued even after the formation of a new govemment. Translated from a French paper for the National Gazette, one article read that the French people's principal business lay in defending their liberty by taking up arms, with a "noble pride of soul, and a more than Roman love of their country.''ls News of revolution occurring in France, during which the lower classes fought against government taxes with a renewed sense of nationalism and pride, greatly affected the opinions of rebels. Ironically, rebels used similar ploys to those they engaged during the Revolutionary War, taking up anns against their own country. While some took up arrns against the excise tax, the most influential consequence of the Whiskey Rebellion centered on the manner in which rebels' strove to inforrr the government of their displeasure through commiuee meetings. While some rebels rioted dangerously, a more peacefirl goup of 2l protestors formed "Committees of Correspondence" for the counties of Washington, Fayette and Allegany in order to meet with representatives sent by President Washington.l6 They intended to peacefully declare their disagreement with the federal govenrment's tax, serving to further the belief in the rights of freedom of speech and assembly written in the 1791 Bilt of fughts. With govemment representatives, committees discussed not the riots but those farmers suffering from the imposed taxes. ln one such instanceo the Federal Pg.5 Sheriffforced farmers to travel over 300 miles in order to attend court for not complying with the ta:r.r7 Despite the Virginian Representative in the House of Representatives proclaiming that the tax bestowed an unequal burden on westemers, wealthier eastern distillers declared their own different views of the excise tax.l8 In contrast, the reaction of eastern traders and distillers to thb Whiskey Rebellion proved the wide separation of wealth between western fanners and eastern merchants, which Hamilton advanced by catering politically to wealthier citizens. In response to an article written by "Sidney," a campaigner against the excise tax, a wealthier man by the penname of "Mum" claimed in the National Gazette that all those opposed to the excise tax appeared both unreasonable and non-genteel, for he viewed whiskey as plebian liquor. "Mum" also asserted that the plebian liquor produced on small farmers' "redundant" fams was worthless.le Moreover, he believed that rebels should have paid the tax, with no concern towards their ability to afford such a tax. This man's view of farmers' ability to pay the excise tax contrasted sharply wittr the actual reality economically for many small farmers. By taxing whiskey, a central profit for small farmers, Hamilton worsened economic faire for poorer merchants, especially since regulations on the tax tended to favor wealthier citizens. In fact, the poor paid nearly twice as much as wealthier distillers under the excise trur. Wealthier distillers also could raise prices on their whiskey, as opposed to smaller farmers, because they produced more and their customers would pay for higher prices.20 Furthermore, larger farmers in the East could pay the tax later than poorer farmers, whom the government forced to either pay upfront or shut productions down. This government ultimatum made the payment of the excise tax significantly more difficult than "Mum" led many to believe.2l Pg.6 By crushing the rebellion, Washington responded to the insurrection and prevented anarchy and the dissimilation of the new govemment. Leading those in opposition to the Whiskey Rebellion himself, Washington held pride in the young nation's anny, claiming that his militia marched for the "Constitution and the law." In order to preserve the Constitution's right to suppress uprisings against the government, Washington arrived iir Pennsylvania during September of 1794. Many in Washington's army believed rebels anarchists and compared the Whiskey Rebellion to a disease that would harm America if notprevented.22 Having no political afifiliation, Washington acted not on behalf of a "pafiy* but on beha]f of citizens of the United States. Thus, he did not crush the insurrection for political gain with either eastern whiskey merchants or consumers of whiskey. In fact, crushing rebels remained miraculously peaceful since only two people died in the insurrection, both accidental.23 Rather Washington's interest remained primarily in uniting America because following the rebellion, in attempt to show tendemess rather than tyranny, Washinglon gave pardons to many offenders.2a Yet, his actions led to greater western expansion and an increased conviction in the fundamental rights enacted in the new Constitution. Doubtful that the govemment upheld their best interestso many rebels moved to the Ohio counfiry.25 Lik"*ise, rebels must have found the Ohio country perfect for escaping government taxes and acquiring increased freedom from govemment and laws-much like colonists found colonies free from laws and taxations of the British government. At the same time on a national level, the Federalist Party sank primarily due to increasing evidence of infringement upon basic Constitutional rights throughout and subsequent to the Whiskey Rebellion. As negotiations with Europe grew heated, the federal government attempted to create an anny for use against a possible war with threats overseas. However, many people believed that the government intended the army for use against whiskey rebels instead.26 The Pe.7 idea of an army made for use against its own citizens incited anger from rebelg who now believed that the federal govemment deliberately attempted to take away civil liberties by forcing them to pay the excise tax. After Washington and his army crushed the rebellion, Washington decided to keep the federal militia there until the following spring, resulting in fi,rttrer angst.27 Rebels, typically Anti-federalists in favor of a small'federal and strong state government, already distrusted the federal administration. As a result, Anti-Federalists formed the Republican Party. When the Alien and Sedition Acts passed in 1798 making it illegal to publish anything slanderous against the Federalist govemment, Republican outrage erupted over the unconstitutionality of the Acts.28 The idea of forcible suppression of the civil rights of the rebels dwing the Whiskey Rebellion as well as the Alien and Sedition acts passed years later contributed to the outlook of the Federalist government as tyrannical. Due to Federalist infringement upon rights, the Republican Party rose to power on the heels of Americans' desire for reform.Later, head ofthe Republican Party, Thomas Jefferson, opposed Alexander Hamilton's opinions on the role of government, from the national bank to the whiskey tar<, from very eady on. He famously claimed that "A little rebellion is a good thing," an attitude which definitely appealed to whiskey rebels who believed they exercised their basic liberties. Jefferson even compared rebellions to medicine for a sound government; without them, he claimed, government would take the form of a monarchy.2e A great adversary of the Alien and Sedition Acts passed under a Federalist government, Jqfferson co-wrote the Virginia and Kentucky Resolves, which declared the acts unconstitutional and an infringement upon the rights of citizens.3o Jeffersonos words likely found a haven in the hearts of those opposed to the strong central government, such as prior whiskey rebels. His election in 1800 proved a major victory for the emerging Republican govemmprrt. For those who elected him, Jefferson reversed the Pg.8 whiskey tax as president in 1802, declaring it unconstitutional.3r Similarly, Albert Gallatin, a chief leader in rebel committees during the insurrection, rose to political power as a result of his leadership. A Republicaru he served in Congress and later became Secretary of the Treasury.32 By unfairly taxing poor western distillers, Alexander Hamilton contributed to the downfall of his Federalist Party and the subsequent resurrection of dbmocratic and states-rights ideals in the United States of America. When he instituted tares that benefited politically well- connected eastern farmers at the expense of the smaller westem farmerso Hamilton weakened the Federalist Party and strengthened the ideals of democracy and small government in rebels. Meanwhileo eastern distillers and merchants believed rebels capable of paying the tax and disagreed greatly with their protest. These protests came in the form of committees, ignored for the most part by the federal government and an increasing reflection of the increased importance in freedom of speech and assembly. When Washington and Hamilton crushed the rebellion with the federal militia many settlers reacted by removing themselves even further westward to avoid the hand of the ever expanding Federal government. Ultimately, Washington's actions provided a platforrr on which Jefferson rose to power-that no govefirment should suppress the liberties of the cofilmon people. Despite this fundamental basis of American Democracy in place, many of the same political and underlying issues of the Whiskey Rebellion echoed in the last congressional election cycle. Rhetoric between the Republican and Democratic parties about the proper role of the federal government in state affairs only proved similar issues still exist in the governmental system today. (Word Count:2,412) Pg. 9 I Ron Chernow, Alacander Hamilton (New York Penguin Press, 2004), 26-28. 2 Ron Chenrow, 39, 41, 49. 3 Alexander Hamilton, comp., The Works of Aluander Hamilton; Comprising His Correspondence, and His Politicsl and Officiol Writings, Exclusive of the Federolist, Civil and Military Yolumel, Edited by John C. Hamilton. (New York: Charles S. Francis & Company, n.d.), 12-13. a James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay, comps., The Federalist Papers,the classical original ed. (n.p.: SoHo Books, n.d.), 165. 5 Alexander Hamilton, "Alexander Hamilton, Report on the Public Credit," inGreat Issues in American History: From the Revolutionary War to the Civil War 1765-1865, by Richard Hofstadter (New York Vintage Books: Random House, 1958), 2: 14 l-153. 6 Hamiltorg The Worlrs of Al*ander Hamilton; Comprising His Correspondence, and His Political and fficial Writings, Exclusive of the Federalist, Civil and Military Volume 2, Edited by John C. Hamilton. (New York Charles S. Francis & Company, n.L),239-241. t Thomas P. Slaughter, The Whiskey Rebellion: Frontier Epilogue to the American Revolutiorz (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 12. I Thomas Slaughter, 105. e Alexander Hamilton, comp., Ihe lltorks of Alexander Hsmilton: Cabinet Papers. 1789-1794., Edited by John C. Hamilton. (New York: John F. Trow, n.d.), 4:249. to Hamilton, The Worl 12 "Famous Whiskey Insurrection in Pennsylvania [graphic].," 1794, Library of Congress, accessed October 29, 2 0 I 1, http :i/hdl. loc. gov/loc .pnp / cph.3b22824. t' Thomas McKean and William kvine, "Extract of a Letter from Pittsburgh, Aug.22, 1794," The Morning Chronicle (London), October 11,1794, n. pag. 14 "America, From tfie New York Diary," British Evening Posl (London, England), October 9, 1794, n. pag. t5 "France. August 25- 30, 1791," National Gazette, (Philadelphia), November 3, 1791,7 . 16 "America, From the New York Diary". 17 Thomas McKean and William lrvine, "Extract of a Letter from Pittsburg[ Aag.22,1794- . tt *On ttre Injustice of the Excise Law and the Secretary's Repo.!" National Gazette @hiladelphia),May 17,1792. 229 tn "To Sidney and the Whiskey Drinkers," Nqtiondl Gazette @hiladelphia),May 14,1792,226. Pg. 10 20 Michael Hoover, "The Whiskey Rebellion," Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau: U.S. Deparment of the Treasury, accessed October 29,2011, http://www.ttb.gov/public_info/whisky_rebellion.shbnl. 2t Steve Simon, "Alexander Hamilton and the Whiskey Tax," Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau: U.S. Department of the Treasury, accessed October l0,20ll,http://www.ttb.gov/public_info/special_feature.shfinl. 22 "American Republic, Bedford," Courier and Evening Gazette (London, England), December 3,1794, n.pag. 23 Alexander Hamiltoq "Alexander Hamilton to Thomas Mifflin," in The Papers-of Alexander Hamilton,ed. Harold Coffin Syrett (New York Cglumbia University Press, 1976), 27:315'318. tn George Washington, "Seventh Annual Message of George Washington" (State of the Union Address, Congress, December 8, 1795), Yale Law School: Lillian Goldman Law Library, accessed October29,20ll, http://avalon. law.yale.edu/1 8th_century/washs07. asp. 25 Anthony Wa5me, "Statement from Anthony Wayne to Native American Chiefs and Warriors," September 12, 1794, Ameican Memory, The Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. tu "Military Establishment," May 30, 1794,735-738, Annals of Congress, Library of Congress, Washington D.C. 27 Michael Hoover, *The Whiskey Rebellion". 28 The Virginia Report of 1799-1800, Touching the Alien and Sedition Laws; Together with the Virginia Resolutions of December 21, 1798, the Debate and Proceedings Thereon in the House of Delegates of Virginia, and Several Other Documents lllustrative of the Report and Resolutions (Richmond: J. W. Publisher, 1850),17-21, accessed acbber 29, 201 l, hW thdL loc. govAoc.gdc/scd000 1.00 I 20508933. 2n Thomas Jefferson, "A Little Rebellion Now and Then Is a Good Thing: A Letter from Thomas Jefferson to James Madison," Archiving Early America, accessed October 29,2011,h@://www.earlyamerica.com/review/summer/ letter.html. 3o The Virginia Report of 1799-1800, Touching the Alien and Sedition Laws; Together with the Virginio Resolutions of December 21, 1798, the Debate and Proceedings Thereon in the House of Delegates of Virginia, and Several Other Documents lllustrative of the Report qnd Resolutions,22-23. '1 Steve Simon, "Alexander Hamilton and the Whiskey Tax". tt "Congress--Extra Session ," Oracle and Public Advertker (London), August 25, 1797 . Pg. ll Bibliography: Primary Sources: Brackenridge, Hugh Henry. Incidents of the Insurrection in the Western Parts of pennsylvania, in the Year 1794. Philadelphia: John M'Culloch,1795. Accessed October 29-,2011.' http ://www. archive. org/details/ Mr. Brackenridge, founder of the University of Pennsylvania, wrote this account from his first hartd knowledge of the details of the insurrection. Brackenridge lived from 1748 to l816 and, thus, witnessed the actions of whiskey rebels as they strove for revocation of the excise tax. He wrote the book chronologically so that the events unfolded first-hand as he himself saw them. His detail especially concemed soldiers in the rebellion, giving an extraordinarily detailed picture of the suppression of the rebellion, despite his affiliation with the whiskey rebels. Instead, he acted as a mediator during the rebellion and attempted in his writing to appear unbiased. This, however, only resulted in anger from both sides-Federalists and Rnti-Federalists. In theory, though, he managed to complete a book that appealed to both sides either way. "America, From the New York Diary." British EveningPosl (Londorq England). October 9, 1794. The British Evening Post provided a series of letters written by rebels and committee members. Written by committee mediators Thomas M'Kean (also referred to as McKean) and William Irvine, one letter portrayed the dire eflects the whiskey rebellion placed upon poor distillers as they struggled to maintain their farms. As part of the Committees of C-onespondence, they met with representatives sent from Congress and attempted to display the depth of the plighi of farmers in order for Congress to overturn the whiskey tax. Significantly l"rr radical than most rebels, they intended to repeal the law legally, ironically withoui rebellion and disaster. Their tone likely touched the hearts of rebels, while still acknowledging representatives sent by Congress. Though they desired to obstruct the law in all legal wayr, th"y also amended that rebels acted perhaps with a little too much vigor. In the end, M'Kean and Irvine wrote that the President offered to pardon rebels for their acts of treason. In another letter posted in the article, Thgmas Mifflin promised to respect the rights of the whiskey rebels and protect them. Mitrlin definitely wrote to rebels and appeared partial to the whiskey rebels and their cause. "American Republic, Bedford." Courier and Evening Gazette (London, England). December 3, 1794. In three letters, George Washington wrote to Henry Lee and described both obstacles and proceedings of his militia taveling to Pennsylvania. As General of the militia during the Revolutionary War, Washington once again became commander of the armed forces as he marched to prevent an uprising in the west. He intimately described the situation of soldiers such Ps.12 as the hunger and cold they underwent. In describing his militia, he appeared very affectionate and fond of them, more than once expressing wishes for their health and happiness. In describing his own journey, Washington seemed especially excited and even expressed a lack of regret for leaving his seat in the government. In another letter extracted in the newspaper, a soldier under Washington expressed his cold indifference to the whiskey rebels' cause. His tone depreciated the rebels cause and upheld his own "gold" cause-suppression of the rebellion. Calling insurgents "Whiskey boys," the soldier expressed an unmerciful attitude towards rebels, but also displayed a deep patriotism for the country and Washington. "Famous Whiskey Insurrection in Pennsylvania [graphic]." l794.Library of Congress. Accessed October 29, 2011 . http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3b22824. Created by an anonymous source, this wood engraving expressed the outright radicalism some rebels showed towards tax collectors as enemies from the government. In the center of the image, a tax collector rode on a rail, covered with tar and feathers. Meno presumably the whiskey rebels, surrotrnded him and pointed tauntingly while one man carried aflag, much like the flag of the French Revolutioq through the crowd. Drawing boys dancing in the crowd of people, the artist appeared favorable toward the rebellion and possibly celebrated it, like the little boy. This source described many instances of the tar-and-feathering of tax collectors occurring and seemed mostly truthful in portraying the reality of the rebellion. Hamilton, Alexander. "Alexander Hamilton, Report on the Public Credit." In Great Issues in American History: From the Revolutionary War to the Civil War 1765-1865,by Richard Hofstadter,145-151. Vol. 2. New York: Vintage Books: Random House, 1958. A leading Federalist politician, Alexander Hamilton published lis Report on the Public Credit in response to Congress' appeal for discussion on America's financial policy. A firm believer in British government, Hamilton modeled much of his financial and political policies after that of Britain-including his ideas for the National Bank. In his report, Hamilton addressed the argument of debt holders and the possessors who bought the securities from them. In saying that current possessors deserved reimbursement, Hamilton advocated for not the poorer, less educated population, but for wealthier citizens. His tone towards poorer citizens reflected a bitterness of spirit: he claimed that if the original holders had faith in the future of the country, they would not have sold the debts. ln his report, Hamilton also claimed that the government must impose tares in order to pay offthe national debt. He believed wholeheartedly in the need to reform the national economy, expressing his words with great faith in the future government. "The Report on the Public Credit" presented Hamilton, who refened to himself in the third person, as a stoic politician. comp. "Alexander Hamilton to Thomas Mifflin." InThe Papers of Alexander Hamilton, edited by Harold Coffin Syrett, 315-318. Yol.27. New York: Columbia University Press, -, 1976. Pg. 13 In response to Washington's request, Hamilton wrote to Governor Thomas Mifflin to discuss political matters. In this leffer, Hamilton expressed his sorrow that the two deaths in the whiskey rebellion, both accidental, even occurred. However, Hamilton pressed that the government needed to enforce the tax with the use ofthe militia. This militi4 he claimed, *authority" applied the of the laws. Hamilton also attempted to clear up nrmors regarding the government's possible use of the militia against a war with the British. He even asked Mifflin to "declare in his name" that the troops' sole use was for that of the whiskey insurrection. Finally, he closed his letter by promising that rebels would have access to available rations of beef, increased by a quarter of a pound. Likely an attempt at placating all'involved with the rebellion after its sudden cease, Washington wrote with a compromising and sorrowful tone from beginning to end of the letter. When he spoke of the militia's use, however, he insisted that Mifflin see through his plan. C. Hamilton. Vol. 4. New York: John F. Trow, n.d. Hamilton's cabinet papers provided a unique view into letters wriffen between Hamilton and many influential politicians of the day. Written very legalistically, Hamilton's works dealt heavily with legislation and papers that he transferred between himself and powerful figures such as Washington. However, beneath the surface of formality expressed between Hamilton and the other governmental figures, Hamilton showed true attachment to several correspondents. For example, the papers displayed Hamilton and Washington's amiable friendship: Hamilton often *the ended letters with highest respect and truest attachment" for Washington, while Washington replied with*very great esteem and regard" towards Hamilton. The equality of their friendship also grew clear throughout the correspondence between the two. In their correspondence, Washington left a great many decisions to the hands of Hamilton-showing a trueness of faith in his Secretary of the Treasury. Venting through his correspondence with his friend, Hamilton disagreed blatantly with the Whiskey Rebellion and wrote to Washington of his outrage over the incident. Hamilton flavored his letters wittr initatiorg occasionally using completely capltaliznd *LEGAL" words such as to further impress his message-a tone not likely lost upon Washington. Hamilton, Alexander, comp. The Works of Alexander Hamilton; Comprising His Correspondence, and His Political and Official l(ritings, Exclusive of the Federalist, Civil and Military. Edited by John C. Hamilton. 3 vols. New York: Charles S. Francis & Company, n.d. Composed of letters, resolutions, and proclamations, The Worles of Alexander Hamilton addressed many major events in Congress in the years prior and subsequent to the Whiskey Rebellion. Several papers included resolutions Congress took in regard to taxes and also incorporated speeches given by Alexander Hamilton on the usefulness of those taxes. In such a speec[ Hamilton pictured the Constitution as a wall preventing the American people from experiencing true liberty. In many passages, Hamilton wrote in a fairly sarcastic tone. In fact, Hamilton ridiculed many American's fear of a strong central government as unreasonable. When Pg. 14 he also wrote of America's dependence upon small state governments, Hamilton's biases grew prominent. When he wrote about state governmentso he expressed disdain with them, likely viewing states as burdens. Throughout his letters and proclamations, Hamilton expressed his desire for a strong federal power, composed of wealthier and more educated men, to rule over the common man. Jefferson, Thomas. "A Little RebellionNow and Then Is a Good Thing: A Letter from Thomas Jefferson to James Madison." Archiving Early America. Accessed October 29,2011. http ://www. earlyamerica. com/reviedsummer/letter. hfrnl. Thomas Jefferson's letter to James Madison especially expressed the platform that Jefferson took towards small, western farmers. In his letter, he spoke in favor of rebels rather than eastern distillers, as Hamilton had done. He claimed that turbulences better informed the people of governmental affairs. He also wrote that it prevented the formation of a monarchical government system, explaining that even rebellions appeared useful at times: "Malo periculosam libertatem quam quietam servitutem. Even this evil is productive of good." His idea that "A little rebellion now and then is a good thing" exuded his political ideas that even the poor, uneducated of society deserved a say in political matters. This contrasted with Hamilton's ideology that only wealthy, educated men should hold the most power in govemment affairs. Jefferson wrote optimistically: he foretold of the government's responsibihty to protect the interests of the citizens. As a final note, Jefferson described the events occurring in Mississippi, New Orleans and Louisiana and examined the relationship between the America citizens living there and Spain. Madison, James, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay, comps. The Federalist Papers.The Classical Original ed. N.p.: SoHo Books, n.d. Under the penname "Publius,'o John Jay, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison fought adamantly for the Federalists and ratification of the Constitution through their writings. Throughout the letters, Hamilton, Jay and Madison displayed a passionate hope for the growth of the fledgling country and a desire for reform. Hamilton discredited the idea that the Constitution promoted an oligarchy and wealth of the rich, concerns which came mostly from Anti-Federalists such as Jefferson. ln 1788, he spoke assuredly of the success of the Constitution if ratified, describing the process of creating it as long and laborious. They also addressed potential issues to resolve and suggested that even in disagreement, leaders found a solution. Discussing these issues with great passion, they remained proactive throughout the letters, commenting on activities of government. At times, however, the authors came across as uncompromising: they believed the Constitution as the only correct form of legislation and disagreed with criticism involving the Constitution. They typically flaffered those who agreed with them as intelligent and those who disagreed as impatient. uExtract McKean, Thomas, and William lrvine. of a Letter from Pittsburgh, Aug. 22,1794." The Morning Chronicle (London), October ll,1794. Pg. 15 Thomas M'Kean and William Irvine's letter on August 22,1794 expressed the proceedings which occurred in committee meetings between govemment representatives and the whiskey rebels. They both wrote extremely passionately: they believed ardently in the rights of the rebels. In a pitying manner, Irvine and M'Kean described rebels as 'oneglected" and "oubaged" by the government. They forthrightly declared that the pu{pose of the meeting as not discussing the riots, but instead of those suffering on behalf of the government. They furthered their argument with evidence of the people's neglect: the federal sheriff, for example, forcing rebels to travel300 miles to a court proceeding. In the letter, they also described some of the most monumental events during the rebellion: the storming of tax c6llector General Neville's house, for example. However, attempting to remain slightly unbiased, the authors included a note that Major Lennox applauded some rebels for finally paying the tax and persuaded the courts to drop prosecution against those rebels. This account showed a more compromising view of the govemment offrcials, likely to give incentives to rebels to pay the tax peacefully until committees could revoke the law. This letter provided a thorough view of the proceedings in committee meetings and responses of government offrcials to the more peaceful rebels. "Military Establishment." May 30,1794.735-738. Annals of Congress. Library of Congress, Washington D.C. The "Military Establishment" debate occurred between many senators about the foundation of the military force in the United States. Many senators, such as Mr. Smilie and Mr. Giles, greatly discouraged the military force and even insinuated that the govemment held ulterior motives for creating it. Mr. Smilie disagreed with the bill on principle, claiming that he saw no other use for the military at the time. Mr. Giles seconded him by sayrng "that the bill ought to be named 'A bill authorizing the President to pass a lail for raising ten thousand men."' Other senators remained indecisive. Mr. Madison took a unique standpoint by claiming that he agreed with the checks and balances of the system, that the legislative check the executive. Since the president summoned an anny without the consent of the legislature, Madison disagreed with the bill. Overall, senators (with the exception of those who remained indecisive) took a strong stance against the bill. The tone of the debate consisted of very matter-of-fact language and lacked flowery words or detail. However, it provided a useful source on the government's firm belief in the upholding of the Constitution. "On the Injustice of the Excise Law and the Secretary's Report.o' National Gazette (Philadelphia). May 17, 1792. Mr. Moore pointed out that in Virginia no people violently opposed the excise law, almost as a disclaimer. Describing Virginian rebels, Mr. Moore observed that the people did not oppose the law because they simply did not want to pay the tax. Instead, he then went on to say that the excise law "was made to oppress and discourage distillation from materials, the products of the U.S.' Furthermore, he claimed that the excise law caused a separation in the union in terms of ability to distill materials (referring to monetary differences between eastern distillers and western distillers). His arguments laid the groundwork for the legislative debate in the House of Representatives. The debate provided the argument which Hamilton used to excuse the excise Pg. 16 tax: the govemment needed the tax for use in the defense department. In response to this claim, Mr. Moore asserted that the people should not suffer in order for their own defense. Moreover, the excise law intruded upon their basic rights if the inequality between the eastem and western distillers continued, he asserted. Throughout the debate, Mr. Moore appeared very passionate about his topic and used logic and reason to point out the irony of the tor as a means of defense. "France. August 25- 30,1791.* National Gazette (Philadelphia). November 3,1791. In this passage, adopted from a French newspaper, the author spoke with a deeply rooted love of France and its people. The author endeavored to end rumors that the revolution ruined France as a country. Also, the author disagreed with the observation that French citizens suffered without the most cornmon needs in life. In fact, the author claimed that those nrmors appeared in American newspapers to dampen spirits so that America received no inklings for revolution and despotism. The letter instead focused on the spirit of the people in Paris-a soulful, loving pride that the author seemed to greatly admire. With this love, the people of Paris remained happy and joyfirl, something the author claimed to never see before the revolution. The author obviously held a biased opinion for the insurgents in the French revolution by downplaying the violence of the revolution. Thus, it appeared likely that the author was himself an insurgent in the revolution. "To Sidney and the Whiskey Distiller.' National Gazette (Philadelphia). May 14,1792. The unnamed author of this letter held a contrasting belief with that of the rebels: westem farmers should, in fact, pay the tax. Throughout, the author chastised rebels for silly and unreasonable behavior in rebelling against the excise tax. To further demonstrate his disagreement with rebels, the author used loud punctuation and italics, which confibuted to the author's irritated and uncompromising tone. Neither a distiller nor someone who might converse with such people, the author drew a definite line between himself and whiskey rebels. The heading of the letter "To Sidney and the Whiskey Drinkers" implied that the author, as opposed to the rebels, did not drink whiskey which also contributed to his condescending tone. The authoros use ofthe words'Vulgar," "plebian," "genteel well-bred," and "ungrateful" in terms of the whiskey and rebels also provided the letter with a haughty tone. At one point, the author even o'Take claimed a hint from a friend,oo which displayed great irony since the author continually thrashed rebels and their ideologies about the whiskey tzxo proving the writer as most hkely not a friend. Despite biases against rebels, this source supplied a valuable perspective-that of a wealthier or eastern merchant-since rebels wrote many of the letters at the time. "Congress--Extra Session." Oracle and Public Advertiser (London). August 25,1797. Congress discussed the practicality of paying for ambassadors to travel overse:N in this debate. Albert Gallatin played an influential role in the debate with his vote against payments for ambassadors. Gallatin appeared firm and practical; he left no doubts that he disagreed with the payments and called the action "absurd." He also revealed his firm belief in the Constitution and Ps.17 the implementation of checks and balances between the legislative and the judicial branch. This source provided a peek into Gallatin's career in Congress and the influence he provided there. The Virginia Report of 1799-1800, Touching the Alien and Sedition Laws; Together with the Virginia Resolutions of December 21, 1798, the Debate and Proceedings Thereon in the House of Delegates of Virginia, and Several Other Documents lllustrative of the Report and Resolutions. Richmond: J. W. Publisher, 1850. Accessed October 29,2011. http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/scd0OO I .00 12050893 3. The Alien and Sedition Acts along with the Virginia and Kentucky Resolves presented an instance of revelry between the Federalist Party and the Republican government. The Alien and Sedition Laws, immediately from Section 1.1, gave power, reminiscent of an oligarchy, to the executive branch. Section 1.1 claimed that the President chose aliens to discriminate against "as the President shall judge" without mentioning any check by the legislative branch. Since Federalists tended to endorse the document, fears of oligarchy and monarchy likely flourished after the publication of this law. In response, Jefferson and Madison wrote the Virginia and Kentucky Resolves which declared the Alien and Sedition Acts unconstitutional. Jefferson and Madison's tone seemed disappointed in the actions of the government in passing such a law and firm in the belief of its injustice to Americans. Together, the two documents presented a perspective on politics after the whiskey rebellion as Adams became president and the Federalist Party dissimilated. Washington, Georgeo comp. "Seventh Annual Message of George Washington." State of the Union Address, Congress, December 8,1795. Yale Law School: Lillian Goldman Law Library. Accessed October 29,20ll.http:llavalon.law.yale.edu/l8th_century/washs07.asp. Given by President George Washington" Washington's Annual Message explored his thoughts on the fledgling country in1794, one year after the demise of the whiskey rebellion. He began with his thoughts on foreign affairs fnst, describing the atmosphere between the Creek and Cherokee Indians. This speech reflected hope that one day Indians and westem settlers might find resolutions to their problems and live together harmoniously. He then spoke of the Emperor of Morocco and the Court of Madrid-both foreign affairs-before he finally spoke of intemal affairs. He appeared disappointed in previous actions of the rebels, but thankful that a new era of quiet followed. Extending pardons to rebels in the whiskey rebellion, Washington displayed mercy towards westerners who "have abandoned their errors,o'in his opinion, and sought forgiveness. He applauded the country that once again the law and the Constitution reigned supreme over "disorder and insurrection." Wayne, Anthony. "Statement from Anthony Wayne to Native American Chiefs and Warriors." September 12,1794. American Memory. The Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. Wayne's statement at the Battle of Fallen Timbers solidified the ability of Americans to *Mad expand westward into Ohio. Called Anthony Wa;me," Wayne pressed training and Pg. 18 discipline into his soldiers, which resulted in his win at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. After he fought against tribes such as the Shawnee and Ojibwa Indians, he called for peace between the Indians and Americans who expanded westward. This document provided a more thorough perspective on other important events occurring in America during 1794 without the biases typically found in newspapers. Secondary Sources: Chernow, Ron. Alexander Hamilto,re. New York: Penguin Press, 2004. In his book, Ron Chernow observed Hamilton's political views on capitalism as relevant to curront day politics. Throughout the book, Chernow definitely admired Hamilton and saw him as a sort of 'tisionary" of his day, who led the country into a democratic era. The author also viewed Hamilton as a messenger for people expressing futuristic ideals about govemment. A great fan of Hamilton, Chernow described his entire life from birth to early career in a very detailed marurer, lingering on Hamilton's impressive qualities. He then spent much of the book describing the works of Alexander Hamilton-50 previously unpublished papers-and detailed the writings. In order to do so, however, Chernow frst provided great detail in background information on the era which inspired Hamilton's impressive volumes of works. Due to such expansive background information, Chernow divided the book, over 725 pages long, into forty three chapters and an epilogue and also included an extensive bibliography. Hoover, Michael. "The Whiskey Rebellion." Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau: U.S. Department of the Treasury. Accessed October 29,20ll.http://www.ttb.gov/public_info/ whisky_rebellion. shtml. A member of the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau, author Michael Hoover described the whiskey rebellion concisely, yet provided background and an "epilogue" to the rebellion as well. The author appeared weary of the tax, even claiming the excise law as cause for "concern." He then described the plights of whiskey rebels, typically small farmers and distillers, and his tone reflected the prty he felt for them. Relating Washington's actions in response, Hoover provided a detailed outline to the events preceding the actual march in Bedford. At the end, he sought out many individuals-such as Gallatin, Brackerridge, and Finley-who supported whiskey rebels and later became influential political leaders. After his "epilogue," Hoover included aparagraphon visiting sites where the whiskey rebellion occurred and brief sentences on the history of each area. He also included links to the George Washington Papers and biographies on Alexander Hamilton as further reading, before citing his own bibliographical information. Simon, Steve. "Alexander Hamilton and the Whiskey Tax." Alcohol and Tobacco Tu and Trade Bureau: U.S. Deparhnent ofthe Treasury. Accessed October 10,2011. http://www.ttb.gov/public_ info /special*feature.shtml. 7 Pg. 19 Simon detailed mostly the life of Alexander Hamilton and the effects of the whiskey tax. Simon wrote an article that, while short, he researched exhaustively. Throughout his writing, Hoover displayed an affinity towards Hamilton, believing him a strong and correct choice for Secretary of the Treasury. Along with his description of Hamilton as a politician, Simon included a section on the background of the govemment and the legality of taxes. He said that government often incurred debt, but Congress reserved the right to pass taxes on the people under the Constitution. Explaining direct and indirect taxes, Simon attempted to explain the problem the government faced in implementing an excise tax against the public. He later defended Hamilton's use of the excise tax as a means of bringing money intothe treasury and presented Hamilton in a good light. Slaughter, Thomas P. The Whiskey Rebellion: Frontier Epilogue to the American Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. Slaughter's book "The Whiskey Rebellion" accounted the whiskey rebellion in great detail, and many academic sources cite his book in their papers or books as a result. Slaughter focused extensively on the background during the 1 780s- 1 800 so that events occurred in chronological order. In this background information, Slaughter reflected on the economic and political events that occurred during the time period, providing a platform on which the rest of the paper formed. He also detailed the social classes, distinctions at the time and how they played a role in the Whiskey Rebellion. Slaughter cited not just facts and statistics, but provided the broad view of society, rather than an outline of specific events. He broke the book into tlree parts: context, chronology, and consequence, in which he examined the background, the major actions by the rebels and the govemment, and lastly the impact of the rebellion. In the conclusion, Slaughter ties the whiskey rebellion farther even into the mid nineteenth century.Hugh Henry Brackenridge, Incidents of the Insurrection in the Western Ports of Pennsylvanis, in the Yeqr 1794 @hiladelphia: John M'Culloch, 1795), 66, accessed October29, 20ll,httpl/www.archive.orgldetails/ incidentsofi nsuro0inbrac.