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Introduction Notes Introduction 1 Foreign population figures, Asahi Shimbun, Japan Almanac 1998, Tokyo 1997, p. 63. In his 1979 article ‘The Ethnic Japanese in Brazil’, Journal of Japanese Studies, vol. 5-1, winter 1979, p. 53, Robert J. Smith gave the entire ethnic Japanese population of Brazil as 750 000. However, 1990s figures showed a total of 1.3 million, with 326 000 ethnic Japanese in Sao Paulo city alone, another 170 000 in its immediate environs, and a further 391 000 elsewhere in Sao Paulo state, Kaigai Iju, 571, September 1996, pp. 24–5; see also p. 25 also for the status of ethnic Japanese in 1990s Brazil. 2Alan Takeo Moriyama, Imingaisha: Japanese Emigration Companies and Hawaii, 1894–1908, Honolulu 1985, p. xv; Maeyama Takashi, Esunishiti to Burajiru Nikkeijin, Tokyo 1996, p. 490, reproducing his essay of 1988, ‘Burajiru, Nihon, Nikkeijin’. 3 Prefectures publishing book and chapter-length studies of local emigrants at this time are listed in Imin Kenkyukai (ed.), Nihon no Imin Kenkyu: Doko to Mokuroku, Tokyo 1994, p. 18. See Mita Chiyoko, p. 35, in the same work for the focus of Japanese scholarship on emigration to the US, 1880s– 1910s. 4 Leading examples of English-language studies of ethnic and cultural diversity within Japan include: David Howell, ‘Ethnicity and culture in contemporary Japan’, Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 31, 1996, pp. 171–90, one of the best introductions to the subject; and the essays in Michael Weiner (ed.), Japan’s Minorities: The Illusion of Homogeneity, London 1997. The enduring study of the Japanese in Brazil (although, as its title indicates, this was only a secondary concern) is J.F. Normano and Antonello Gerbi, The Japanese in South America: An Introductory Survey with Special Reference to Peru, NY 1943. Given the time and circumstances in which it was written, it is a remarkably accurate, informative and objective account. 5 Hosokawa Shuhei, Sanba no Kuni ni Enka wa Nagareru: Ongaku ni Miru Nikkei Burajiru Iminshi, Tokyo 1995, p. 4. 6 For example, Maeyama 1996, p. 11 (original article from 1987: ‘Ibunka sesshoku to bunka hendo’ ), and ‘Ethnicity, secret societies, and associations: the Japanese in Brazil’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 21, 1979, p. 607. 7 Yen exchange rates, Kodo Hisaichi, Burajiru no Jisseikatsu, Tokyo 1928, pp. 22–3; US rates, Richard Morse, From Community to Metropolis: A Biog- raphy of Sao Paulo, Brazil, 2nd edn, NY 1974, p. vii. 173 174 Notes 1 Leaving: Japan’s Entry into a World of Migration, 1885–1905 1 Foreign population of Tokyo, Alan Takeo Moriyama, Imingaisha: Japanese Emigration Companies and Hawaii, 1894–1908, Honolulu 1985, p. xviii. 2 Takahashi Yukiharu, Nikkei Burajiru Iminshi, Tokyo 1993, p. 10. 3 Hawaiian migration promises, Moriyama 1985, p. 20. 4 Thomas Sowell, Migrations and Cultures: A World View, NY 1996, p. 22. 5 On Hawaiian migrant ambitions and experiences, Moriyama 1985, pp. xix, 16–18, 26–31; Ichioka, Yuji, The Issei: The World of the First Generation Japanese Immigrants 1885–1924, NY 1988, p. 40. 6 1894 regulations, Konno Toshihiko and Fujisaki Yasuo, Iminshi 1: Nambei- hen, Tokyo 1994, pp. 19–20; Moriyama 1985, pp. 33–7; Ichioka 1988, p. 47. 7 Ichioka 1988, pp. 7–9, 16–22, 29, 36–9. 8 John Morgan, senator for Alabama, open letter to the Independent, 16 October 1897, contained in Gaimusho (ed.), Nihon Gaiko Bunsho, vol. 30, pp. 1050–2. 9 Migrants from Hawaii, Ichioka 1988, pp. 51–65, and on rejection of Japanese consul’s claim, pp. 67–8. 10 Early migrants to Peru, Irie, Toraji, ‘History of Japanese migration to Peru’ (parts 1 and 2), The Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 31, August 1951, pp. 443–8, November 1951, pp. 648–53; C. Harvey Gardiner, The Japanese and Peru 1873–1973, Albuquerque 1975, pp. 23–7. The Japanese regional newspaper, Gifu Nichi Nichi Shimbun, 1 March 1908, contained a report that the Peruvian government was about to impose an extra heavy tax on Chinese immigration but not on Japanese migrants. 11 1803 sailors, also 1869 suicide, Tsunoda Yoshizumi, Burajiru Hiroshima- kenjin Hattenshi Narabi-ni Kenjin Meibo, Sao Paulo 1967, p. 27. 12 Japanese circus, San Pauro Jimbun Kagaku Kenkyujo (ed.), Burajiru Nihon Iminshi Nempyo, Akita 1997, p. 14. 13 Mita Chiyoko, ‘Burajiru no imin seisaku to Nihon imin: Beikoku hai-Nichi Undo no hankyo no ichi jirei to shite’, Miwa Kimitada (ed.), Nichi-Bei Kiki no Kigen to Hai-Nichi Iminho, Tokyo 1997, p. 435. 14 Jeffrey Lesser, Negotiating National Identity: Immigrants, Minorities, and the Struggle for Ethnicity in Brazil, Durham 1999, pp. 15–35, quotation on p. 19. Some went even further. Lesser, p. 28, adds a quote from one member of the Bahian state legislative assembly in the 1870s describing the Chinese as ‘deformed both physically and morally; [who] use opium, kill their children, are disloyal, egotistical and are given to begging; their only virtue is patience’. 15 Lisboa speech, the Japan Times, 21 December 1897. 16 Tsunoda 1967, p. 28. 17 Population and migrant figures, Boris Fausto, ‘Brazil: the social and polit- ical structures of the First Republic, 1889–1930’, Leslie Bethell (ed.), Cam- bridge History of Latin America, vol. 5, c. 1870 to 1930, Cambridge 1986, pp. 779, 786; E. Bradford Burns, A History of Brazil, 2nd edn, NY 1980, Notes 175 pp. 242, 264–5; ‘whitening’ and European migrants, George Reid Andrews, ‘Brazilian racial democracy, 1900–90: an American counterpoint’, Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 31, 3, 1996, pp. 485–6; also Mita 1997, p. 436. 18 Gilberto Freyre, Order and Progress: Brazil from Monarchy to Republic, NY 1970, pp. 256–7. 19 Peter Duus, The Abacus and the Sword: The Japanese Penetration of Korea, 1895–1910, Berkeley 1995, pp. 295–6. 20 Migrants to Hokkaido, Gifu Nichi Nichi Shimbun, 6 June 1907; to Hawaii, Moriyama 1985, p. 52. 21 Sugimura and Brazil, Takahashi 1993, pp. 17–18; Konno/Fujisaki 1994, p. 28; Tsunoda 1967, p. 28. Amazonas press and Russo-Japanese war, Tsuji Kotaro, Burajiru no Doho o Tazunete, Tokyo 1930, p. 279. 22 On Mizuno’s views of Brazil and the assistance given by Minister Sugimura, see also Mizuno Ryo, ‘Waga imin no dai hattenchi Nambei Burajiru ni okeru Nihon rodosha no kangei’, Jitsugyo Kurabu, no. 2, April 1908, pp. 44–7. On Mizuno and ex-soldiers as emigrants, Takahashi 1993, pp. 20–1; Handa Tomoo, Imin no Seikatsu no Rekishi: Burajiru Nikkeijin no Ayunda Michi, Sao Paulo, 1970, p. 82. On the decline of Italian labour conditions circa 1899–1900, Takahashi 1993, p. 15; Konno/Fujisaki 1994, p. 22. 23 On the Fujisaki Trading Store, see Konno/Fujisaki 1994, pp. 33–4; Tsunoda 1967, p. 28. On Mizuno, see Takahashi 1993, p. 20. 24 Nambei Toko Shoken Kaisha advert, Gifu Nichi Nichi Shimbun, 23 April 1908. 2 Arriving: the Early Japanese in Brazil, 1908–19 1 Takahashi Yukiharu, Nikkei Burajiru Iminshi, Tokyo 1993, p. 25, quoting from Asahi Shimbun (Osaka), 29 April 1908. 2 Mita Chiyoko, citing works of Ono Kazuichiro, in Imin Kenkyukai (ed.), Nihon no Imin Kenkyu: Doko to Mokuroku, Tokyo 1994, p. 37. 3 Takahashi 1993, p. 29. 4Tsuji Kotaro, Burajiru no Doho o Tazunete, Tokyo 1930, p. 3. 5 Details of the 1908 voyage, Takahashi 1993, pp. 31–9; Aoyagi Ikutaro, Burajiru ni okeru Nihonjin Hattenshi, Tokyo 1941, p. 271. 6 Takahashi 1993, p. 43 for details of migrant age and literacy levels. Migrant statistics also in Aoyagi 1941, p. 269; Handa Tomoo, Imin no Seikatsu no Rekishi: Burajiru Nikkeijin no Ayunda Michi, Sao Paulo 1970, p. 53. On the Sao Paulo government system of subsidised migration from the 1890s, Thomas H. Holloway, Immigrants on the Land: Coffee and Soci- ety in Sao Paulo, 1886–1934, Chapel Hill 1980, pp. 45–9. 7 A complete list of the regional breakdown of the 1908 migrants is in Takahashi 1993, pp. 24–5. 8Toyama Ichiro,‘“Kominka” to imin: kindai Okinawa no kuno’, Sasaki Takashi and Yamada Akira (eds), Shin-shiten Nihon no Rekishi, vol. 6, Tokyo 1993, p. 247. Peruvian case, John K. Emmerson, The Japanese Thread: A Life in the U.S. Foreign Service, NY 1978, p. 131. 176 Notes 9 Differing causes in west and east Japanese migration, Imin Kenkyukai 1994, pp. 22–30; Yoshida Keiko, ‘Higashi Nihon ni okeru Meiji-ki dekasegi imin no jittai: Meiji 31-nen-45-nen no Fukushima-ken dekasegi imin ryoken deeta kara’, Iju Kenkyu, 29, March 1992, pp. 75–81. On the role of precedent in influencing clusters of migration even in a largely non- agrarian region, see Burajiru Fukui Kenjinkai Kaiho Henshubu, ed., Bura- jiru to Fukui Kenjin, Sao Paulo 1961, p. 269. 10 Rodrigues Alves speech 1901, plus journalist’s quote, Jeffrey D. Needell, ‘Rio de Janeiro and Buenos Aires: public space and public consciousness in fin-de-siècle Latin America’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 37-3, July 1995, pp. 532–3. On the reconstruction and hygienic improvement of Rio, see also Frank G. Carpenter, Along the Parana and the Amazon, NY 1925, pp. 211–13; E. Bradford Burns, A History of Brazil, 2nd edn, NY 1980, pp. 314–5. 11 Correio Paulista, 25 June 1908, quoted in Konno Toshihiko/Fujisaki Yasuo, Iminshi I: Nambei-hen, Tokyo 1994, pp. 43–4; also Takahashi 1993, pp. 43–7; Aoyagi 1941, pp. 271–4. Carpenter 1925, p. 186. 12 Konno/Fujisaki 1994, pp. 35–42, excerpt at great length from the pamph- let. Quote on racial equality, p. 37. 13 George Reid Andrews, ‘Brazilian racial democracy, 1900–90: an American counterpoint’, Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 31, 3, 1996, p. 485.
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