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Ghide Habtetsion Gebremichael the History and Discourse of Kachung

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Ghide Habtetsion Gebremichael the History and Discourse of Kachung Ghide Habtetsion Gebremichael The History and Discourse of Kachung Forest View of Kachung plantation forest in 2016. Photo: Ghide Gebremichael Master’s thesis in Global Environmental History 1 “If we can really understand the problem, the answer will come out of it, because the answer is not separate from the problem.”(Jiddu Krishnamurti) 2 Abstract This study examined the history of the Kachung forest plantation in northern Uganda and associated environmental discourses. The forest, a project aimed at environmental protection and carbon offsetting, was designated a forest reserve in 1939 by the colonial government, as part of wider efforts to promote Ugandan timber for export and ensure their regeneration as a renewable resource. Since then, Kachung forest has been attributed different environmental significance by various actors, such as by the Uganda Forest Department, the Norwegian Agency for Development and Cooperation (NORAD), the Norwegian Afforestation Group (NAG) and presently by the Norwegian-based Green Resources company (GRAS). Between 1939 and 2006, the forest reserve underwent only limited changes in terms of management and composition. More radical change began in 2006, when GRAS started large- scale tree planting. In 2012, Kachung Forest was certified as a Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project in accordance with the Kyoto Protocol. Since then, people living in and around the forest have been prevented from using forest resources for their livelihoods. They have expressed resistance to this by encroachment, setting fires in the forest and mounting angry protests against GRAS. One possible reason for this resistance is that afforestation took place with little prior knowledge of the forest’s history and value for local communities. The present analysis of the history of the forest and the associated environmental discourse throughout the 20th century was conducted using empirical data collected through interviews and from forest records, aerial photographs and GIS maps. Actor-Network Theory (ANT) was used as a theoretical framework to examine how the different actors are connected and their role in shaping the landscape. The study focused on four key areas: the status of Kachung Forest when the commercial forestry project began, evidence of recent environmental degradation, its location, and how the discourse about Kachung Forest was shaped by a broader environmental discourse about East Africa. The data showed that all external factors involved in past and ongoing afforestation processes had little knowledge of the longer-term human and land use history of the forest, and often repeated ambitions by the former colonial government. Interviews with local communities living close to Kachung and other empirical material revealed that the area maintained its savannah woodland and tropical high forest nature until 1996, and since late 2000 the vegetation and land use system changed very significantly. Encroachment by local communities was identified as arising from lack of land for hunting, grazing, cultivation and cultural activities and lack of access to water. Thus successful afforestation can only be achieved with prior knowledge of land use history and by consulting local communities. Empowering the local community’s traditional environmental conservation practices could be a better way than CDM for tackling the wider environmental crisis. Keywords: Actor-Network Theory, GIS, CDM, Africa tropical forest, human settlement, land use history. Master’s thesis in Global Environmental History (60 credits), supervisors: Anneli Ekblom and Paul Lane, defended and approved autumn term 2016 © Ghide Habtetsion Gebremichael Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala University, Box 626, 75126 Uppsala, Sweden 3 Acknowledgments This study formed part of a larger project funded by the Swedish Energy Authority (SEA) headed by Flora Hajdu (Department of Urban & Rural Development, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Uppsala). Funding was provided by STIFTELSEN ÅFORSK and the British Institute in Eastern Africa (BIEA) for field work between March and April 2016. This work would not have been possible without the support and assistance of many people and institutions. First and foremost, I would like to express my deep gratitude to my outstanding advisors, Dr Anneli Ekblom and Professor Paul Lane, who always inspired me and instilled in me the passion and belief that ‘you can do it’. Anneli always energised me and pushed me to go further, while Paul directed me to find the exact literature and linked me to other researchers at Cambridge and Oxford University and the Resilience in East African Landscapes (REAL) ITN. I would also like to thank them for their patience in editing my poorly arranged grammar and spelling, even during their weekends. I also would like to acknowledge Dr Flora Hajdu and Dr Klara Fischer from the Department of Urban & Rural Development at SLU who first proposed the idea of researching the subject of Kachung forest. In particular, I would like to thank Klara for also following and supporting me during my fieldwork in KCFR. Her supporting letter connected me to my local advisor at Makere University, Professor David Tumusiime, and linked me to the wonderful SLU University agronomists Lovisa Neikter, Tove Ellingsen and Filippa Giertta, who at the time of my field work were doing their research in Kachung forest. Moreover, all the data and results in this thesis are based on the story of the local communities of Kachung and their forest. Therefore I would like to thank all the individuals I interviewed and who participated in this research in one way or another. I also want to thank LFC for providing me with an office, a car and accompanying me during my field observations in KFCR. Thanks also to the NFA staff who accompanied and provided me with a car for my field study. I would like to thank my two patient translators who helped me to find as correct information as possible. My appreciation also goes to the DFO officers who provided me with valuable information. Last but not least, I could not have stayed so long in the cold winters of Sweden without the comfort, love and encouragement of my lovely wife Rahwa Melake. She always gives me love, strength, endurance and lifts me up whenever I feel down. The thesis would never have been finished without her standing by my side. 4 Contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................................... 4 Contents ...................................................................................................................................... 5 List of Figures. ........................................................................................................................... 7 List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................. 8 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 9 1.2. Aim of the study ............................................................................................................ 11 1.3. Structure of the Thesis .................................................................................................. 11 1.4. Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 12 2. Methods and Theoretical Framework .................................................................................. 14 2.1. Methods ......................................................................................................................... 14 2.1.1 Quantitative and qualitative methods ..................................................................... 14 2.1.2. Interviews............................................................................................................... 15 2.1.3. Place names............................................................................................................ 16 2.1.4. Geographic Information System (GIS) .................................................................. 16 2.1.5. Forest record documents ........................................................................................ 17 2.1.6. Pollen analysis ....................................................................................................... 18 2.1.6. Study area ................................................................................................................... 21 2.2. Theoretical framework .................................................................................................. 21 2.2.1. Actor-Network Theory (ANT)............................................................................... 21 3. Background .......................................................................................................................... 25 3.1. African tropical forest –the attraction of colonialism ................................................... 25 3.1.1. The emergence of forestry ..................................................................................... 26 3.1.2. Emergence of conservation .................................................................................... 26 3.1.3. Legacy of
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