The Role of the Soviet Union

CEU eTD Collection A T D T THE HEORETICAL OMAIN OF HE S S OVIET OVIET Matilda-European Master in Women’s and Gender History In partial fulfillmentthe requirements of for the degree of Supervisor: Professor Francisca de Haan de Francisca Professor Supervisor: W W U Department of Gender Studies Department of OMEN Central European University F NION AND THE OMEN RAMEWORK AND A AND RAMEWORK Budapest, Hungary Yana Knopova Submitted to ’ S ’ S 2011 R By C IGHTS AND OMMITTEE I NTERNATIONAL C S ASE (1941-1991) TRUGGLES S TUDY OF : CEU eTD Collection that this idea had never crossed my mind before… contribution the women’s herto thedevelopment exile, movement but of stunned at the place torealize of hadasignificant Kollontai Alexandra fact that the not about certainly stunned, indeed and Iwas I answered, amazing,” "That's part". significant avery ourlegacy, of part an integrative as historiography sightseeing in Stockholm's islands. "Yes,”Anna told me, toin “she isSwedish referred feminist the depth herof engagement,Given in1927. Party Bolshevik bythe Sweden in ambassador a Soviet become to away" "sent been in fact, it is reasonable to assumedomain, and a valuable gender philosopher thatfor Russian feminist movements and beyond. I knewshe that she had, wasn’t spendingAlexandra Kollontaiher time(1872-1954) in wasSweden the motherstatement. an intriguing was much It that". theheard of“I never I said, no,”ofSoviet "Actually, justin Sweden." movement legacy within the women's rights women’s century twentieth early the of pillars the of wasone “AlexandraAnna said, Kollontai know,” before. We women’s werediscussing cross-national mythesis, struggles. "You and of history the richness of months few in Istanbul in Belgrade Center Trafficking Anti- the of director deputy the Jelena Djordjevic, with co-facilitated Ihad which aseminar for upsession afollow- for activists women andJewish Palestinian Swedish, We together, had come in Nazareth. hotel Christian apastoral of balcony on the me with was sitting foundation, Kvinna till in Kvinna department Israeli-Palestinian the of head the Anna Levin, ii Nazareth, Palestine-Israel,Nazareth, October,2010. CEU eTD Collection In order toanswer the main research question, Ifocus onthe positive, impact withinthe international the history women’s of domain of rights and struggles. the socialist super power, its actions had the real,potential although of not necessary always Women’s Committee. few additional interviewsshort with women who were familiar withthe Soviet thework of organization that was closely related to the SWC and which still operates in Israel, along witha interviews,Soviet Woman most archives.importantly My secondary sources with includewomen’s organizations. materialsSamira issued thatKhoury, we need a significantlyby morecomplex approachsocialist tothe Soviethistory state-supported of sources, argument their Popa, supporting RalucaMaria scholar Romanian the Wang and scholar a Zheng suchlife as the journallongCommittee. Myresearch aims tocontributethe Chinese-American tothe critical insights of leader discuss indepth the mechanismsof employed by the SU and its actor, the SovietTandi, Women’s a women’s use the concept of active dimensions. Theactive dimension, in turn, consisted of women’sdomain of rights and struggles can beconceptualizedmotivational as consisting of and Committee (1941-1991).mechanisms I suggest conceptualized?’thatof the the roleSU’s of the within theinternationalwomen’s direct domain of SU rights and struggles, and how can thisin role be the historyengagement of the international asThe the imaginativerevisionthis of international mapping of women’s history. subsequent was a suggests It Haan. de Francisca carried academic European Central work of bythe influenced and out by theresearch Soviet Women’s question is, ‘What were the specific ways and My research is based on primary archival materials found in both traditional and online and traditional inboth found archival materials primary on is based research My The researchThe addresses the question, ‘What role was played by the Soviet Union (SU) This research is inspired Third Worldby thework of feminist Chandra Talpede Mohanty , as well as various other brochures and books. Ialso base my research on three engagement to encompass the idea that regardless of the exact motivations of motivations exact the of regardless idea that the toencompass Abstract iii direct active engagement direct and indirect engagements. I of the SU and of CEU eTD Collection This work is dedicated to them. dedicated workis This occupation, among them dear friends and comrades. I miss them deeply. While I was writing and moving around the globe, hundredsThere are no possible words and I couldlost not express in theira hundred pleasure. pages and my eternal learning beyond gratitude was livesmentorship your Workingto under it. in joy You.love and me the taught you in the struggle against Israelirequired. Youhow hard it is tohave supervise a student with ADHD, howgivenmuch effort, patience, generosity and kindnessmeAbove this all allof it and and before beyond.inspiration. all I am Youindebted honorand was ahighest yourlife about Khoury, learning Samira comrade taught and To my interviewee to my mesupervisor historicaldescribe the gratitude professorI feel towards you for supportingcraft, me at the hardest myperiods life.Francisca of wife but more deJudit Haan importantly - I Irina am Knopova, Kirshnerfully was supportive, humoristic and caring.aware journey.mother, this My My through mentor loyalty and dignity, and dedication belovedof a symbol friend Knopovawas Raya GilaMy sister Svirsky and her were the my dayslight with you werejoy. full of I did not deserve your kindness andof generosity. kindnessGender Studies in Sofia and Universityemotional generosityand - intellectual your Maya department, richness of Lukic,Head Bogdanova, the ’Jasmina toprof above all and scholarship, quality asPolly a to wellme forintroducing andMukanova Zimmerman ’Susan as prof humor to indebted Iam care challenging. were andinsights political prof’and Krassimira sincere- words Daskalova, care – prof’werewill Erzsébet beyond everBarát, valuable. your your knowledgelessonsfall and advice enormously. I willwere I also cherishamshort gratitudea beyondtopolitical the DepartmentGender Studiesof Trencsényi, Balazs Ienjoyed ConstantinIodarchi, Siefert, Marsha Hall, Kontler, professors László Karl gratefulvacationto for to mythe mind,indebted prof’ Hadley Z. Renkin, to the yourI amCEU grateful History MichaelDepartment. Szporlukto and Ihor TsymbalistyDisabilityCentral of Rights Foundation and beloved Jelena Djordjevic. PeaceFirst European ofall and to to thesupport Universityall wasone enormous my andand valued.colleges I onlyam gratefulTo to for theAnikóHatfaludi women Fora of the andand theMolnár, Coalition fullJuditfriendsWomen of comments, for advice, fellowshipand editingas suggestions andwellthe technical supportinqueer were extremelytheas valuable. tocommunityDina many I enjoyed projects in Israel-Palestine extraordinary Alterman,during gave materials I the raw was contextualizing and conceptualizing my understanding, with involved help your – you journalists, and studies. made support me laugh in I parallel,andresearchorganization am of materials to werecry indispensable. my in Vera joy, Reiderwork. and MichaelMaria Dorfman, beloved you amongfriendsand Dr.beauty. themYali Elisha Hashash,KimDion, Yuval, Alexander I felt your love and(Shuki) dr.care.made Ron Kordonsky Chrissand andmedr’Joana Sejla your humor Sehabovic,going, Echevskaya, Olga essential. was passion your (Joe) Corrin, Abramovish, me. Dorit for youwas inspiration kept Maoz,remindingyourAdi me Art yourof Eslisha valuable friendship I cherishKuntsman Baskin, andourcomments, also friendship youressential. AdrianaIrina Qubaia, youhelp love and support wereand beyondwith gratitudeadvice Costache, I I can possibly am express;the Abirgrateful Kopty,and mutual learning were beyondand significant. Sarah Tamarfor growth Lippek,our Istoshina your Assia wisdomhelp smile. and andyour criticalme going insights kept were support generous most help and yourkind Traubman, with with archivalthe bodyFreed, materials; of the thesisIvy Sichel, were yourElisha wisdominvaluable. Baskin, Yi-Xing Hwa, your María Lis Baiocchi,had together Ali Abdi,support made me going, our gavefriendshipL made me happy; lovely Elena Panican andme Asim Jucic the time we powerBelyakov and Karina Worku, you made mymore journey loving and joyful; Rédai Dorottya,than your spiritualhardest I can express. Naamaof Nagar,all Friends youtimes; broughtMy gratitude to You all is eternal. andme to thecomradesmy my community,lightof friends, dear family,ofthis colleagues and comrades day; has beenVeronika to the accomplishment this thesis.chosenKhulood of This was among theBadawi, longest Kozma journeys youin myfamily life. stood Thereand are no withwordsJD, to expressme duringhowin essential Budapestthethe support - Karina Gavrikova, Azra Causevic, Zhenya ŋ rincz Péter, you didn’t let me forget the political world around; Tamara A CKNOWLEDGMENTS iv CEU eTD Collection AND STRUGGLES AND WOMEN’S RIGHTS AND STRUGGLES ON BEHALF OF THE SOVIET STATE ...... 33 ...... AND STRUGGLES AND INTRODUCTION OF ABBREVIATIONS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS LIST WOMEN’S RIGHTS AND STRUGGLES, AND OF THE COLD WAR COMPETITION CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER CHAPTER 1: THEHISTORY 1: HISTORIOGRAPHYOF OF CHAPTER THEINTERNATIONAL DOMAIN AND THE HISTORY OF THE INTERNATIONAL DOMAIN OF WOMEN’S RIGHTS AND STRUGGLES CHAPTER 3 THE STORY WHICH WAS NOT TOLD – THE SOVIET WOMEN’S COMMITTEE IN WOMEN 5.1 POLICIES AND DIPLOMACY OF 4.3 DOMAIN DOMAIN WOMENOF 4.2 4.1 3.1 RIGHTS AND STRUGGLES IN THE COUNCIL OF COUNCIL THE IN STRUGGLES AND RIGHTS RIGHTS AND STRUGGLES AND RIGHTS 2.1 THE 1.1. CHAPTER 2 RETELLING THE STORY WHICH WAS TOLD – CONCEPTUALIZING THE ROLE 5.2 3.2 FOR THE RESEARCH THEOF ROLE PLAYEDTHE BY 1.2 OF THE SOVIET UNION WITHIN THE INTERNATIONAL DOMAIN OF WOMEN'S RIGHTS OF THE SOVIET UNION WITHIN THE INTERNATIONAL DOMAIN OF WOMEN’S RIGHTS 2.2 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF ITS DIRECT PRO-ACTIVE ROLE WITHIN THE DOMAIN OF 3.2.1 hegemony “Neutrality”of 4.1.2 Soviet Women’s Anti-Fascist Committee-the beginning 4.1.1 The Second World War and the establishment the InformationSoviet Bureau (SIB) of of oko SWC work of paradigms”within the historiography local and international of women movements 3.1.1 The women – Party tools narrative 1.2.1 The Short twentieth century, the Cold War and the Iron Curtain women's rights and struggles rightsand women's 2.1.2 The international the the Sovietinternalimpact policy Union-general of of lines 2.1.1 The Bolshevik platform and the internal the Soviet policies Union of on the woman question I T O B W T .. h ot f women-Party3.1.2 The roots of tools narrative-between “the lingering Iron curtain in our minds”and “the continuing Cold War CHAPTER 4: THE SOVIET WOMEN’S COMMITTEE, ITS HISTORY AND STRUCTURE AND 4.4 T 1.2.2 the The Coldrelevance War of competition and the Soviet Union’s role within internationalit to the historydomain of of NTRODUCTION S T M HE ORN WITHIN THE NATIONAL INTEREST NATIONAL THE WITHIN ORN HE INTERNATIONAL IMPACT OF THE IMPACT OF INTERNATIONAL HE L RGANIZATIONAL 2.3 HE OMEN OVIET A HE WAYS ANDTHE MECHANISMS OF ENGAGEMENT THE OF OST BEHIND THE BEHIND OST OVING BEYOND HEGEMONIC PERSPECTIVES P CTIVE ROLE OF THE OF ROLE CTIVE ' 3.2.2 Identifying hegemonic assumptions and moving beyond them– toward a new theoretical approach for the the research of S RIGHTS AND STRUGGLES AND S RIGHTS P ROSPECTS FOR THE RESEARCH ON THE ROLE OF THE OF ROLE THE ON RESEARCH THE FOR ROSPECTS T T RINCIPLES OF THE OF RINCIPLES WENTIETH HE DIRECT ENGAGEMENTTHE OF T – U HE MECHANISMS OF THE DIRECT ACTIVE ROLE PLAYED BY SWC ON BEHALF P NION IN THE HISTORY OF THE INTERNATIONAL DOMAIN OF WOMEN OF DOMAIN INTERNATIONAL THE OF HISTORY THE IN NION ARTY TOOLS NARRATIVE AND ITS ROOTS ITS AND NARRATIVE TOOLS ARTY ...... 43 ...... 1 ...... 90 ...... 15 ...... 90 ...... ’ S RIGHTS AND STRUGGLES AND RIGHTS S C S ENTURY AND THE AND ENTURY TRUCTURE AND TRUCTURE I ...... 23 ...... RON ...... 12 ...... S I ...... VII OVIET ...... VIII ...... NTERNATIONAL C SU ...... 39 ...... URTAIN OF OUR MINDS OUR OF URTAIN ...... 86 ...... 94 ...... U NION WITHIN THE HISTORY OF THE INTERNATIONAL DOMAIN OF WOMEN OF DOMAIN INTERNATIONAL THE OF HISTORY THE WITHIN NION ...... 35 ...... F SU’ INANCING al f Contents Table of I NTERNATIONAL ...... 53 ...... S S INTERNAL POLICIES UPON THE WOMAN QUESTION WOMAN THE UPON POLICIES S INTERNAL U W OVIET ...... 39 ...... NITED ORK OF : TOWARDS A MODIFICATION OF THE THEORETICAL APPROACH S ...... 65 ...... OVIET U N v ...... 54 ...... : NION WITHIN THE INTERNATIONAL DOMAIN OF WOMEN OF DOMAIN INTERNATIONAL THE WITHIN NION T ...... 35 ...... ATIONS SWC OWARD A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE ROLE OF ROLE THE FOR FRAMEWORK OWARDTHEORETICAL A D W SWP OMAIN OF ...... 72 ...... OMEN ...... 28 ...... 10 ...... SWC WITHIN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOREIGN THE OF DEVELOPMENT THE WITHIN ’ S C WITHIN THE INTERNATIONAL DOMAIN OF DOMAIN INTERNATIONAL THE WITHIN OMMITTEE WITHINTHEINTERNATIONAL W ...... 37 ...... OMEN ...... 21 ...... ’ S ’ R S RIGHTS AND STRUGGLES AND RIGHTS S IGHTS AND ...... 53 ...... 15 ...... 52 ...... 7 ...... S ...... 15 ...... TRUGGLES ..7 ...... 9 ’ ’ S S CEU eTD Collection BIBLIOGRAPHY FURTHER RESEARCH FOR ANDSUGGESTIONS CONCLUSIONS P 5.3 RIMARY SOURCES .. elbigo women Well-being5.2.6 of 5.2.5 women’s Invitation delegationsof and individual women visits-leaders of to the Soviet Union 5.2.4 Travel expenses for the major International congresses on women's rights 5.2.3 Scholarships 5.2.2 Financial support to women, women’s movements and women activists in the Third 5.2.1World, Distribution printed materialscolonial of and dependent states E NGAGEMENT IN NGAGEMENT ...... 136 ...... 136 ...... 100 ...... WIDF ...... 109 ...... 112 ...... 94 ...... vi ...... 105 ...... 127 ...... 107 ...... 98 CEU eTD Collection Nina Popova, Valentina Tereshkova, Kapila Khandwala. 25.06.1963 125 Dolores Ibarruri, pilot cosmonaut Valery Bykovsky, Eugenie Cotton, the KremlinCongresses. Palace of Pilot cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova at the World Women's Congress, 01.10.1987. Moscow region, Ria-novosti 104 Marceline dos Santos in a quick exercisesports with her pupils. a Soviet Women’s Comittee scholarship, A female student from Guinea-Bissau, holder of Moscow. 1983. 01.07.1983 95 The”Soviet Woman” magazine in 14 languages. The Soviet delegation at the WIDF’s founding congress 84 for Strengthening Peace among Nations. 26.05.1964,Moscow, Ria-Novosti 75 on thethe award International of Lenin Prize the Communist Spainof Party (in 1944-1960), of Secretarycongratulating former DoloresIbarruri, General Nina Popova,the the chairPresidium Soviet of of Women's Committee), 03.06.1954. Moscow, Ria –novosti 74 thePresident Women's of International Democratic Federation (from left to right). andthe Laureate International of Lenin Peace Prize with Eugenie Cotton, Nina Popova,the Soviet Chairman of Women's Committee 67 Moscow, Ria-novosti 02.07.1968. meeting. SWC plenary the at Soviet cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova, left, making aspeech Chairwomanthe thePresidium Soviet of Women's of Committee (SWC), at the 27ththe CPSU. congress of 26.11.1986. Moscow, Ria-novosti 62 the SovietandCommittee head Womenof of Valentina Tereshkova Cuban leader Fidel Castro and cosmonaut,the HeroSoviet of Union PrivateRenita collection Grigoryeva of 59 Indira Ghandi and Nina Popova. Date unknown. PrivateRenita collection Grigoryeva of 57 Nina Popova and her daughter Renita. Date and place unknown. Nina Popova at the XX Party Congress 44 L IST OF IST I LLUSTRATIONS vii CEU eTD Collection SCSSAA WIDF FOR VOKS UFF SWC SWAFC SPF SIB PWM-P IWY-I ICW IAW HUAC Ǟ CP- W CEDAW CC L SW IST OF IST OMEN – – C C – – – – – C – S OMMUNIST ULTURAL NTERNATIONAL S [U I – I ENTRAL OVIET - S – [U OVIET ALESTINIAN NTERNATIONAL NTERNATIONAL . OVIET – [ W H -S V NION DES NITED – A S OMEN OUSE OVIET SESOJUZNOE OVIET BBREVIATIONS C ONVENTION ON THE B P W UREAU OF R C EACE N U ELATIONS WITH ’ OMMITTEE P OMEN S C W ARTY N ATIONS OMMITTEE OFOMMITTEE F I -A OMEN W NTERNATIONAL EMMES F OMEN W MERICAN UND . ’ S A O C OMEN C I LLIANCE OF OUNCIL OF OUNCIL BSCHESTVO ] ’ NFORMATION S . OMMITTEE C A F OMMISSION ON THE M RANCAISES NTI ’ OVEMENT S A Y F - S CTIVITIES FASCIST OREIGN EAR OLIDARITY WITH E D W LIMINATIONALL OF FORMS OF . K W . EMOCRATIC OMEN UL . OMEN . ] ’ U C TURNOY C C OMMITTEE NION OF NION OUNTRIES . OMMITTEE . viii S TATUS OF TATUS F S S EDERATION VYAZIZAGRANITSEY S TATES OF TATES F . RENCH . . W OMEN W A . OMEN FRICA AND . D . ISCRIMINATION AGAINST ] A A LL SIA -U NION S OCIETY CEU eTD Collection dimension in the history of womendimension in and the women’shistory of movements in the twentieth century. In de Haan (2009, 2010)This thesis is intended to support the broader argument by Central European academicand Francisca UK academicanother, producing both advances and setbacks in women’sHelen rights and their position world-wide. Lavilleon the ways in which women’s (2002) movements and global politics and economics interfere with one that thebroader political circumstances.Cold The present work aspires to contribute toknowledge the body of War is a crucial aconvergenceoutcome of between activismswomen’s of movements andthe changes of internationalwomen’s history (Smith 2004-5). Itis based on the proposition that thedomain changes within the of women’s rightswomen’sof rights and struggles suggests a more descriptive analytic framework. and struggleseven within national boundaries” (Antrobus 2004, p.1). Ihope that the term international domain duringcultures and contexts,” which might“profound lead todifferences a disregard of among women the twentiethminimize cultural and contextual differences thatare valued by women’s movements in different centurythe term islimits highly of problematic. In her words, “the adjectivewereappears global toitself an women’sAntrobusacademic thattheattempt Peggy withinthe toaccess of struggles thehistory ‘global women’sterm movement,’ as I agreewith Caribbean women’s rights advocate and encompass collective action insocial pursuit and of political goals” (Molyneux 2010, p. 3) worldwide. second areaincludes international and local women’s movements, defined here as“female formal andwomen informal andrights other of factors that determine their social positions. The international and local of consists area first twoareas. The main of as acombination domain rights and struggles during thetwentieth century. thisFor thesis thepurpose I define of the The The research aspires to contribute to the growing effort to create world accounts of Thus, the term international domain of women’s rights and struggles is used as well to well as isused women’sstruggles and rights of domain international term Thus, the This research contributes to the historiographythe international women’s of domain of global collectivewomen. actions The term is of deployed to abstain from using the I NTRODUCTION 1 CEU eTD Collection engagement as this was carried out by the Soviet Women’s Committee (1941-1992)?’. SU’s the direct of mechanisms waysand specific the were ‘What is question research subsequent internationalwomen’s domain of rights and struggles, and how can it beconceptualized?’. The such an account, addressing the question ‘What role was played by the Soviet Union within the toward isastep paper This accomplished. yet been not has account a systematic underestimated: silenced orRussian Womenof was established on the its remainsinfrastructure. of utterlystate (ibid, p.74). It was dissolved in 1991, when, followingthe the Sovietfall state,of The Union forgotten,international network, whichutmost wassignificance of for the people’s diplomacythe Soviet of See 1997, pp. provided Soviet72-75) women withbut an accessible institutional infrastructure (Racioppi and O’Sullivan- and, It pp. 135-170). 1978, rather Lapidus (Warshofsky apparatus Party Communist the in careers morelaunched pertinently Women’s Committee instudied 1956. women,thousands For the SWC tens of of opened doors and for our topic,Committee it created in(SWAFC)Women’s Soviet 1941 asthe in was Anti-Fascist established organization The (SWC). Committee a andfragmentary asmanaged a partthe rolethe of Soviet of Union a and thethe vibrantstate-supported SU’s war effort andfashionwomen’s movements”its (De Haan, 2010b, p 564). name was changed or to Sovietsimply Cold War: what do‘wenow know’, book project, ‘Not1 Knowing: forms ofprivacy in the postwar southern novel’; and Melvyn P. Leffler (1999) The not known remains War’s history the Cold in their andthat as located imagined is neglected are East which (WIDF) Federation Democratic Women'sInternational the of case the Women'sOrganisations: Transnational of Historiography deHaan’sI jointheaddition centralargument of The role of the SWC and the Soviet Union in the history of the domain has not been Within the women’sbroader field of historiography and the Cold War, the work focuses on I borrow the formulation from the Haan (2010b), who notes that she was inspired by Florence Dole’s Florence by was inspired she that notes who (2010b), Haan the from formulation the borrow I 1 due to“continuing Cold War paradigms within historiographytransnational of (de Haan,2010b) American Historical Review that research into the contributionwomen’s of movements 2 , 104(2), pp. 501–524. Komitet Sovetskikh Zhenschin Continuing Cold War Cold Continuing Paradigms inWestern -Soviet Women’s CEU eTD Collection Russian Federation (GARF), fond movements. the Soviet Unionof which were specifically targeting to influence women and women’s movements but nevertheless had impact upon them,and active direct engagement, the activities indirect engagement, which was notdirected solely orprimarily toinfluence women or women’s active internationalUnder the definition ofthe activeimpact which theSoviet Union‘s internaldimension policy concerning woman question had internationally.engagement. ofthe SU’s role I can bedividedinclude todirect and indirect engagement. I define the motivational dimensionthe as the impact Within ofthe SU’sactive the dimension while active and dimensions, motivational of asconsisting conceptualized the activeSWCthe international in thehistorywomen’s of domain of rights and struggles can be dimension I differentiatedomain. demands, SU’s the impact involvementof highbetween practical was of significance forthe the history of activeplatform on the woman question, was in compliancewomen’s with many of and feminist women’s history inthe twentieth century. On the contrary, for instance since the Marxist-Leninist for insignificant historically were impact its that automatically imply donot and not shall state, that the merethe impact fact were that somein of compliancethe with Soviet the interests of compliance with original motivations or the direct intereststhe actors. of Furthermore, I argue super power socialist the of andactions that demonstrate women’s I and struggles. rights of domain international the SWC had potentialactions had thereal potentialalthough notof necessary positive impact withinthe the history of for multiplethe socialist theexact superpower,motivations its encompass the of idea that regardless of effects not exclusively or inherently in this involvement. Inthe regard I suggest a concept of My research relies on analysisarchival of documents from the State Archivesthe of Systematizing extant research and adding my own, I suggestthe thatSU the roleand the of I argue that there is researcha need to inthefieldmove toactual thefocus impact of of P7928 Komitet Sovetskih Zhenschin 3 engagement [Soviet Women’s Committee]. . Engagement comes. Engagement to CEU eTD Collection dimension of the historicaldimensionthe socialist of role super of power. Yet anotherthe component of amotivational ideasrepresents of transmission the Isuggest its promotion, in engaged by the Soviet Union’s whether the socialist example, superpower regardless had of actively motivated were states movement’sand Leninist parties theMarxist Since worldwide. had policies that thethe effectsBolshevik of platform are theexamples impact which of SU’s internal thesocialist policies and communistpart of of states.my main Inlight hypothesis, of Isuggest Communist parties’part of agendas and Marxist revolutionary movements as well as asignificant the Bolshevik platform on ‘the woman question’ had traveled world-wide, becoming an integral presented, for instance, by sociologist Maxine Molyneux (2001), that during the twentieth century the thesischapter by debatingof the meaningsthe and historicalthe outcomes of evidence women’s history as well as in relation to the latest developments in the field. I begin the second 3 the foundation called by his name. career he was a member respectedofpolitburo and ofthe secretaryis amongcolleges. ofthe CCCP rare his personal collections archive 2 Alexander is uploaded available online by Yakovlev from the archives (1923-2005) ofCentral Committee was a high ofthe Communistprofile PartySoviet and used official. by Among other posts in his women. and commitment to aclass struggle” brought her to alife long struggle for emancipation of persistent activists for women rights in the region, whosethe “love Palestinian of motherland The Democratic Women’s Movement in Israel (Tandi). Born in 1920,the Khoury most is one of – Fi Isra'il al-Dimokratiyat al-Nissa' Harakat of Khoury, aleader Samira 2010with October in (electronic) archiveAlexander of Yakovlev. materials from an electronicZhenshina archive uploadedabout theSWC’s work, including various brochures and books as well as the journalby Vladimirsources Soviet other by issued materials and SWC bythe Bukovsky issued materials printed analyze I also and documents from the In the first chapter I locate the argument of the thesis within the field of gender and In addition, Iderive evidence and ideas from interviews, most significantly the one I held SamiraKhoury, Interview, 8/10/10, Nazareth, Israel. Since Bukovsky was a Soviet dissident, his archive is hardly a neutral collectiondocuments. of However, it 3 [Soviet Woman], which the SWC issued between 1945 and 1991. I also use archival use also I 1991. 1945 and between issued SWC the Woman], which [Soviet 2 4 Sovetskaja CEU eTD Collection of the wordof (Mohanty(1986), Said (2005)) and use it here for the sole reasonlimited of space. 4 they targeted the international arena with the specificinfluencing goal the of domain. active activities I propose engagement. to refer asto this direct type active of since engagement suggest that this activityyet another is anthe example role dimension of played of by the SU’s were influential in theestablishmentcontemporary international of women’s rights standards. I The impact was a sidebroad-spectrum effect of involvement. socialist superpower was not exclusively and directlytargetingwomen or women’s movements: argue that this engagement can be referred to as active and indirect, since the activitythe of Union in thethe domain history representsof yet another thedimension state’s of engagement. I of women’s rights and location for libertiesthe developmentwomen’s of movements and cardinal changes within thestandards in the Third2003) whosees Marxist revolutionaryWorld. and national liberation movements as an important I suggest thatliberation movements in theThird World. this presence of thewomen’sof rights andthe struggles Marxist bySoviet the mere support revolutionary of and national diplomacy were developing. presenting the major discussions about thegeneral lines along which the SU’s foreign policy and the broaderelement offoreign policy and diplomacythe Soviet of State, I begin this part with so, in whatif ways. Since any active engagement within the domain would have been an integral inquire whether the Soviet Union actively engaged ininfluencingthe domain,the history and of the Soviet Union played a persistent and significant role within the domain. Itis necessary to thesetbacks Soviet of Union had for women and women movements worldwide. motivational role is the inspirational impact which the internal policies, achievements and Was thethe activity Soviet Union of within the UN the onlydirect component active of which treaties international drafting in engagement Soviet of examples Finally,discuss I I argue that the Soviet Union played a role withinthe theinternational history of domain However, the motivational dimension alone is hardly enough tosustain my hypothesis that I am aware that the term Third World is highly contested and rightly criticized I share post colonial critic 4 Ibase this argumentMohanty (1991, onideas of 5 CEU eTD Collection Federation. researchthe discussrole which of the SWC played in Women’s International Democratic enjoyed as representativespolitical authority for Marxist Leninists and socialists worldwide, aswell as the authority which it of a Cold disposal,War’s including financial, human and state resources. Ialso discussSWC’s the lines of super its at resources power.material of scope as the aswell thisrole linesof general Ipresent state. Soviet Finally, I suggestactive role within the internationalwomen’s domain of the rights and strugglesof on behalfa few insights to a power. super socialist the of diplomacy was among the biggest and the most important organizational structures within the people's Sovietthe Union Friendship of Societies and Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries – which to establish that the international experience and SWC’sprinciples of work, stood at the base of characteristicsits international of work. Finally, Iam suggesting that further research will be able main the aswell history inits points crucial some and itsstructure, establishment, starting point. The fourth chapter lays the base for such research. I discuss SWC’s the context of as a research future in integrated be work shall international in its power super socialist the and promote social change withinpropose a theoretical the SU frameworkand wasfor future committed research.historicalperception SWCpresence of I in and contemporaryargue role of historical research, and thatto the factsthe thatinterests the SWC did not of Communist Party (2009, 2010b), Wang Zheng’s (2005, 2011) and Raluca Popa’s (2009) theoretical insights. the third chapter I discuss the reasons behind this absence in the light ofFrancisca de Haan’s was large byand behalfof the SU was the Sovietanswer is negative. Infact the majorWomen’s actor which was responsible for active engagement on Committee,the state engagement within of thethe internationalwomen’s domain of rights andinternational struggles? The involvement ofwhich In the fifth chapter Idiscuss the ways and mechanisms through which SWC played direct I begin by identifying and confronting the hegemonic assumptions which underlie a narrow not known in contemporary history of the women and women’s and In women movements. the of history incontemporary 6 CEU eTD Collection 1.1. The Twentieth Century and theWomen’sInternational Domain Rights of and Women (CEDAW), preceded the legally binding Generalthe United Assembly Nations of November on the 1967.7th of TheDeclaration by was followed which were based onthe principles proclaimed in the for the United Nations Commission on Womenthe Status of (CSW)” (de Haan ibid). Expertsthe Committee onWomen, the Legalin Status 1937of of whichof laid the foundations achievements, de Haan emphasizes that the ICW and IAW had stood behind “the establishment internationalactivity, which lead tolevel” “the recognition thatwithin women’s status thewas an issue League that belonged on theof Nations (de Haan 2010a). Among their other International Alliance of Women (IAW), established in 1904, in Women (IAW), established of Alliance International women’s organizations, the InternationalWomen Council (ICW), of established in 1888, and the Haan’s de Francisca to According 1945). (since Nations United in the then and (1920-1945) Nations within thenewly established international arenas,all inLeague theframework first of of of Struggles International AllianceWomen of in 1946. renamed 5 as the International Alliance of Women for Suffrage and Equal Citizenship in 1926, and finally as INTERNATIONAL DOMAIN OF WOMEN Later in the twentieth century,international a series ofdocuments on women’s rights, Important changes for the internationalwomen’s domain of rights and struggles happened A BriefSurvey ofWomen’s Rights According to de Haan, the IAW was established as the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, then C The Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women against Discrimination of Elimination the on Declaration The HAPTER which was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1979 and ratified in ratified 1979 and in Assembly UNGeneral by the wasadopted which 1: UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Discrimination of Forms All of Elimination the on Convention UN T C HE HISTORY AND HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE OLD W written for UN Chronicle in 2010, two international AR COMPETITION ’ S RIGHTS AND STRUGGLES 7 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) Rights Human of Declaration Universal 5 were most significant in their , AND OF THE , adopted by the CEU eTD Collection ratified treaties suchas for treaties ratified position or emancipation. However, the significanceCEDAW of and other internationally only on paper.” (de Haan 2010a). have been achieved is awork in progress at best. For most women, their human rights still exist eighty percent of whomeighty are women percent andof children. Additionally, wars and environmental changes continue tocreaterefugees, millions around of than soldiers” than 44 years”. women remains high and “is still a major causedeath of and disability among women aged 15 to the ranks of unemploymentthe ranks of due tothe recent global economic crisis. the world’spercent of property. thedo sixty world’s six percent of labor,the global earn ten percentincome and of own one women’srealities of lives remain far from itsliberty principles and equality. of Today, women still UN (except seven, the United States among them) have ratified the CEDAW, the contemporary ofwomen on an international scale.be perceived as evidence that thetwentieth However, centuryadvancement was aperiod in of the position although nearly all ofthe member-states ofthe international human rights arena and is described as “an internationalrights forbill women”. of 11 6 1981 10 9 8 7 13 12 Short Short history of CEDAW Convention, International Labor International ‘Global Organization, Employment Trends for Women’, 2009. Augusto Lopez-Claros, Saadia Zahidi 2005 Overview of the CEDAW utd from: Quoted Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe 2002, Recommendation 1582 (2002) on Domestic Violence (2002) on Recommendation 1582 Domestic 2002, Europe of the Council of Assembly Parliamentary UN Security Council, ibid against Women. against Secretary-General, 2006. A/61/122/Add.1. 6 July 2006, p. 45. Referred to by General Assembly, In-Depth Study on All Forms of Violence against Women: Report of the May 2011] 2000, S/RES/1325 (2000), availableonline: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3b00f4672e.html [accessed 3 6 . CEDAW is the single most important treaty exclusively devoted to gender in the Indeed, the twentieth century did not bring stable advancement in women’s situation, Within the liberal feminist framework, CEDAW and other legally binding documents might 10 Moreover, “the victims in today’s armed conflicts are far more likely to be civilians 11 –whilethe civilians majority of killed in thewars are women and children. http://www.unifem.org/gender_issues/violence_against_women/facts_figures.php?page=7 Security Council resolution 1325 (2000) [on women and peace and security] http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/ Security Council resolution 1325 (2000) [on women and peace and security] andpeace women [on 1325(2000) resolution Council Security 8 Inaddition to this, another twenty two million women will join http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/history.htm 8 12 As de Haan summarizes - “whatever may -“whatever summarizes Haan Asde . 9 Domestic violence Domestic against , 31 October . 7 13 , CEU eTD Collection 1.2 Lost our behindminds: the TowardIron Curtain of atheoretical framework for the women’s movements. and the like.women,the umbrellasUN conferences Commission of of for the ImplementationCEDAW, of This collectiveCEDAWenforcement of and other legally binding international treaties on women’s rights under actioninspiration for women’s struggles internationally.by Women worldwide collaborate for the itself as serve documents binding legally byCEDAW international is other and asrepresented rights a domain ofwomen’s empowerment and gender struggles. Second, the internationally acknowledgedwomen’s standards of for women and epoch with regardsinternationalbe in focus political of considerations. Indeed the century was atruly revolutionary to the gender basedissues discrimination, of whenwomen’s the domain of rights and struggles came to documents are evidence that the century was marked byarapid improvement in 14 disregarded. should notbe For the full list refer to the website The ofAdvocates Humanof Rights 4AF1-92E4-F7AA90A4DC90} http://stopvaw.org/Thematic_Human_Rights_Documents.html?Type=B_BASIC&SEC={12402DD4-CCD9- rights and struggles women’s domain of international the of history Sovietin the the Union role of starts ameeting ignorance: on the subject, “They have painted accusing the Bush Moon of much attention to all the noise and fuss around him... Thefourth day, theUS Congress give doesn’t Bush red!” Moon the of half painted already they do something, to have we “Mr. President, him: day,assault The third they it. about dosomething to Bush and push NASA, US AirForce,the interest, theNavy, allalarmed Marines theArmy, are the little with issue the treats Bush red!” Moon the paint to starting are Russians The “Sir! again: day NASAcalls The next Moon!” onthe landed have Russians The President! Then the president of the US, George Bushgets acall NASA: “Mr. theUS,George from of Then thepresident 14 visibility First, CEDAW andinternational the sequence legallyof binding of women and of gender and the scope and significance of 9 awareness of the of CEU eTD Collection 16 15 and its discursive effects: “Throughout the Cold War, the Iron Curtain would beenvisioned as a successful metaphor through the 20th Century. (1994) WolffLarry defines the Iron Curtain trope the Colddynamics War of relied and according to deHaan (2010b) it was perhaps the most 2003,p.106). (McMahon global power and influence between United States, the Soviet Union and their respective allies” second half of the century.terms The to Coldbe laterWar came putstandoff, toto denoteuse for a “theperiod legitimizing all-encompassing that WarCold The can be characterizedthe grandstruggle diplomaticthe forterm as Coldthe brewingWar andbecame armedtime Coldwidely War, which heconsiders among ofthe most importantconflictsthe period. dimensions ideological Historically, of used after theof theargumentspublication and of Walter Lippmann’s16 book titled the Sovietthe fall Union of in 1991. Theauthor refers to the period as the captivatinga period ranging account of fromthe First the beginning World of War in1914 and twentieth century,1.2.1 TheShort Cold the War IronCurtain and the Cold War: Third World Interventions and Our theTimes Making of Cold was a very actual war in the Third world, more on the subject see for instance Westad, Odd Arne. 17 The The Iron Curtain was among the most defining symbolic features on which the rivalry Through his the accountcentury’s of history, Hobsbawm places a special emphasis on the Extremes: The Short TwentiethAge of Century, 1914-1991 http://www.coldwarjokes.com/soviet-us-competition.htm Cola on it now” red! It’s asred as the communistBush: redred!” flag, “O.K. guys, let’s write Coca- formerly presidentthe Hungarian of academysciences. of Its important to emphasize that the term Cold War is contested and have inbuilt problematic since the Hosbawm noteshimself in the openinghis book of that he owes the concept to Ivan Berend, . Lippmann’s book came out in 1947, at theverythe beginningEast/West of 15 17 10 . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. , accessed on 25/08/10. by Eric Hobsbawm (1994) is a is (1994) Hobsbawm byEric ShortTwentieth century. The The Global CEU eTD Collection Curtain’s metaphor; the Cold Warwas in fact muchmore persistent than its officially proclaimed and puts forth the idea of a and puts forth the idea of 18 Wall Berlin itself the may with vanished Curtain representation, the Berlin wall, in1990. Wright argues that “the widespreadthat theIron belief Curtain did not vanish entirely from our minds after the fall of the metaphor’s physicalspeech he gave on March 1946 in Fulton, Missouri: a in it used Minister Prime British the Churchill Winston after only imaginary and discourse p.312). 2001, (eds) al et However,1945 (Isaacs in Goebbels Joseph Propaganda of Minister Nazi used bythe Ironhe couldCurtain find (Wright 2007, becamep.Vernon Lee17). during the First World Warthe earliestThe as one the Ironof mentions Curtain of that metaphor a traveledcentral thenViolet Paget (1856-1935), who used and popularizedto the metaphor under theNazi pseudonym of Germanyand where wellit was known featurelands behind” (Wolff1994; quoted in: de Haan 2010b, p. 2). of the shadows, and such a Coldconception was all the more justification for not looking too closely at the War quarantine,barrier of separating Christian the light civilization of from whatever lurked in the f control from Moscow.of measure cases, insome increasing and, high toavery but influence toSoviet only what Imust call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject in one form oranother, not Bucharest and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in Europe. Warsaw, andEastern Central Belgrade, Budapest, Vienna, Prague, Berlin, across the Continent. BehindFromStettin in theBaltic to Trieste intheAdriatic an ironcurtain hasdescended that line lie all the capitals ofthe ancient states of According to Wright (2007) and de Haan (2010b), the metaphoric meanings ofthe Iron writer byBritish article toan Patrick refers Wright historian social and cultural British Winston Churchill, The SinewsPeace. of Quoted in: Kishlansky, Mark (ed) (2005), p. 300. long Cold War Cold long 18 , arguing that judging by the life span of the Iron 11 be mixed with illusion ” (Wright 2007, p.384), (Wright CEU eTD Collection http://www.opendemocracy.net/article/iron_curtain_a_century_restaged 19 calculable, but mainly negative, consequences” (ibid, p.9). This pessimistic account is joined by Hobsbawm, the withering theaway Soviet state of has had “enormous and still not fully variationsrather than “a set on of authoritarian and fascist themes” (ibid, p7). Thus, according to assured that theWestern world becamevariations “a seton liberal of parliamentary” democracy eventually which in Europe, fascism of growth the against capitalism liberal western with state procedures for its reform”and, by establishing economic a popularity(Hobsbawm planning, of furnishingthe itwith some of 1994, p. 18).that is toIt say, was by providing only it with the intensive the fear,alliance to reform itselfafter the Second the mostWorld lastingOctober results revolutionof theof wasWar, to save its antagonist, bothBolshevik in war and peace – capitalism had significant restrictive effects on the potentially devastatingcapitalism. aspects of Western to as analternative its allies with along power super socialist the of existence mere the evolution in diverse areas. Moreover, according to Hobsbawm, a leftist harshlythe SU, critical of also had profoundly positive outcomes and impact, since it stimulated both systems to elaborate however, Mark (eds)(2003).Hobsbawm, Cold War the Sandle out that race points Edwin, arms the arms race on emphasis especial put USA.Others andin the struggle civil theBlack rights on effects devastating its short-termemphasize its destructive effects. Carol Andersonand (2003), for instance, argues that it had long-termEast and West camps. A significantresearch amountdevastative onof Cold War competition tends to main characteristicwhich was of a Cold Wareffects competition, the dynamic between the so-called (see, for example, Bacon ColdWar the competition andtheSoviet Union’s1.2.2 Therelevance rolewithin itto of life span, and started earlier and lasted longer than its officially-stated1945-1990. limits of h itr f nentoa oano women's international domainrights andthe history of of struggles Hobsbawm goes as farthe toargue strangethe ironies century that“[I]it that isof one of Eric Hobsbawm (1994) relates to the Short Twentieth Century mainly as a battle field the Patrick Wright describes the process of writing his book in Open Democracy website: Democracy Open in book his writing of theprocess Wright describes Patrick 12 accessed on 22/11/10 19 CEU eTD Collection with the interestthe ofCapitalist super-power on accounta progress of in women’s rights.War interestthe of US and promotionwomen’s of 20 rights and issues US women’s organizations had frequently sided this rivalry argued Laville (Laville, 2002, p113). mother-worker. aself-realized of image an featured side its from Union Soviet the while housewife, class) middle when forthe the mostperiod theof United States promoted a happyan image(white of and life was to a large extent buildless than no on the revelry upon a “right”people the hasminds touched ofimage practically every social dimension matters of and its subjectof wasa woman and family lifethedesired propagandist” intent of (Jowett, Jowett and O'Donnell 2006, p.7). Indeed, the war for perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior toachieve a response that furthers the which evolved around its main tool– propaganda: The “deliberate, systematic attempt to shape instance the New Left social movements in Europe and the USA (Isserman 1987). upon those social change movements which rose in opposition to the old-SU related left, as for account that the Soviet Union and the CPSU had motivational as well as inspirational effects into we take if significant more is even It p.73). 1994, (Hobsbawm regimes” communist under thirty years after the October Revolution,the a humanthird race of have living found itself “within since especially one, a crucial isindeed inspiration of dimension The scale. worldwide establishment, empowerment and growth ofalternative governments, to the capitalist system” (Cockburn 2007, p. 230). partiespulled and social from undermovements (theirFeminist Analysis onfeet) a our feet, by the feminist critic Cynthiathe Cockburn (2007)in neo-liberal turn and by the discrediting of any As much as the Cold War was awar oninternational influences, it wasideas also a war of the initiated and inspired 1917, had 7, October Revolution, October Great The In addition, Laville reveals that when confronted in their international activities between the national Cold way life of , in which she mourns that after the fall ofthe SU “the socialist rug has been CommissionWomen on theStatus ofbecame an “important battleground” of itself. Helen Laville (2002) argues that thestruggle over the right way of 20 13 From Where We Stand: War, Women’s Activism and CEU eTD Collection motivational inspirational, restrictive, and other significant impact for the domain. the Cold War competitionwomen’sof rights as workers and as mothers, in politics and in culture”as (Ilic 2011, p162). Thus, well as the roleworld looked to the Soviet Unionthe at of Coldthe Warheight of the as a model for the advancement Soviet Union womenin it ininvolved particular, in the emerging the Sovietconnectionshad Women’s of Committee invital Khrushchev’s the ‘progressive’ era -“manysecond of wave feministAccording to British historian Melanie Ilic,the international who hassurvey written of movement a brief in the WestSovietits achievements propaganda of and inwomen emancipation had profound of positive effects.around the of the InstituteRussianof of historythe Russianof AcademySciences: of Russian society in the first thehalfof polovinyXX century], Ed A. V. Golubev, XX 1998,veka accessed23 on 3/04/2011[Russia on the websitewomen. and the West,22 theFrank Cass, formation2000, pp. 10–11.cited in de Haan (2010b, p 551) of foreign21 political stereotypes in the conciseness of the and was perceived by thePartythe main as tools progress. one in promotionof of Communist system. womenemancipationin thedomain was of of away todemonstrate the advantagesthe of which isbelief shared by many, the Soviet propaganda upon its own successes and achievements women was symbolica central role in thewar onminds.of Since Soviet the leaders believed emancipationthat thelevel ofof level of progressthought” for society,the conflictrepresentationcore bothof interms of and in language(Brodsky than we have previously Farnsworth 1976, p. 1) a Within theSoviet framework the propaganda effort had profound positive connotations Indeed, ashistorian Indeed, See, for example, chapter 5 and the debate on significance ofletters exchange between Soviet and foreign Rossiya i zapad, formirovanie vneshnepoliticheskih stereotipov v soznanii rossiyskogo obshestva pervoy obshestva rossiyskogo soznanii v stereotipov vneshnepoliticheskih formirovanie zapad, i Rossiya Arne WestadOdd (Ed.) 21 . Soviet propaganda touting achievements in emancipationwomen definitely of played 22 Odd Arne Westad (2010) notes, “Gender relations were closer to the Reviewing the Cold War:approaches, interpretations, ReviewingCold theory the War:approaches, interpretations, 14 http://iriran.ru/?q=node/303 , London and Portland, OR: Portland, , Londonand 23 Indeed the . CEU eTD Collection . h nentoa mato theSU’s policies woman upon the internal question impactof 2.1 Theinternational society as the foundation on which the subjugation and thewomen oppression evolved of and the platformcommon was ground anof identificationeconomichuman organization of of more contributed to the developmentwhat had become of a rather flexible platform. The Kollontai (1872 -1952), Inessa (1874Armand -1920), and Clara Zetkin (1857 1933)- and many Alexandra Lenin, Vladimir 1913) - (1840 Bebel August Engels, Friedrich monolithic. essentially withinthe the state.borders of the Bolshevikideology Party, of Marxism-Leninism-(Stalinism) was the only doctrine promoted Republics. Socialist Soviet of Union the of facto de governor the became (CC) Committee theconsequence October revolution,of the Bolshevik or theCommunist Party and its Central independent entity in 1903 after its break from Russian Social Democratic Party. As a 2.1.1 The Bolshevik platform and the internal policies of the Soviet Union on the woman Sovieton the the Union policies of internal the and 2.1.1 TheBolshevikplatform the Sovietfor a role Unionof withinthe the domain. history of Union within thedomain. Consequently to thedebate Iam suggesting a conceptual framework this history. In this chapter Idebate the existent materials in regardthe totheSoviet presence of reflected in the research theof history theof domain, as women’s struggles and rights of anddomain international the the within role persistent a played significance theof Cold War for 24 question The Bolshevik Party (from Russian (from Party Bolshevik The The The Bolshevik, later Soviet doctrine regarding women should not be perceived as C In the previous chapter I have situated my hypothesis – namely that the Soviet Union Although it was officially proclaimed as such only in the third Soviet constitution published in 1977. I ONCEPTUALIZING THE NTERNATIONAL C HAPTER 2 D R OMAIN OF OMAIN ETELLING THE ETELLING R OLE OF THE W bol’shinstvo OMEN 15 S TORY WHICHWAS S ’ S OVIET – majority), was established asan was established – majority), R IGHTS AND U NION WITHINTHE S TRUGGLES T OLD – 24 The CEU eTD Collection http://www.marxists.org/archive/zetkin/1925/lenin/zetkin2.htm 25 were led by women fromwomen’s expansion of of movements inthe Russia. Bolshevik The referred to movements whichupper classes as feminist, although society than notwith their male worker-comrades. all of them identifieddegree as of common social,women before of the October revolution stood an argument that the female workers had a lower political andNotwithstanding the disagreements, Marxist ateconomic the doctrinalheart all oppressionof readings of interestschanges inthehome hasnever reallyaccepted by been theCPSU” (Buckley 1981, p. 228). with women from“Armand’s argument thatsocialismupper the success depends of upon women’s liberation and upon strata of doctrinal aspirations in regards to women’s question and the Sovietrealities women’s of lives, to gender historian MaryBuckley, who explored thethe gaps originsbetween of Bolshevik required special attention and recourses. Theirviews however remained marginalized. According women is anadditional crucial importance taskfor the Partyof and the revolution which theirthe decades political of engagement and by and large they argued that emancipation of communist born to affluent family as Alexandra Michailovna Domontovich, had evolved through who devoted her life to the Bolshevik revolution, and Alexandra Kollontai, a prominent communist aFrench Armand, Inessa of However,views the proletariat the of that than other proletarian againststruggle of bourgeoisie, and argued that women had no other special struggle and private property in theproduction, means of must be strongly brought out.” communism. The inseparable connection between the social theand woman, human position of Zetkin femaleprerequisite emancipationcited of is economic independence” Leninequal economic society organization as essential of womenfor liberation and believed of that “a in has been sustained. Inregards to possiblethisthe resolutions woman question, of they identified an regards: “real freedom for women is possible only through The end of the nineteenth The end of century and the beginningthe twentieth of century was a period Both Vladimir Lenin and Clara Zetkin had identify betweenwomen the struggleand the of Clara Zetkin made an interview with Lenin regarding the woman question in 1920 16 accessed on 18/3/10. (Buckley 1981, p. 79). Clara p.79). 1981, (Buckley 25 CEU eTD Collection of women’sof departments were constantly discussed and contested within the Party as a whole and (Buckley, 1930) 1989). (1925-January, Artyukhina Alexandra and (1924-1925) Nikolaeva Claudia (1922-1924), Smidovich Sophia (1920-1922), Kollontai Alexandra (1919-1920), Armand by Inessa led were departments the superior Women'sCentral Committee -Zhenotdel. Local women’s Department. departments were subject to local Partyupgraded into a Department cells (Otdel) for the Workand among Women within the Secretariatthe of During the eleven years of their existence the women’s 27 26 commission for propaganda and agitation among women”. within theParty, the Congress had ratified a resolution callinga “special for organization of Bolshevik’s cadres, women and men, onwhether there was a need for a separate women's entity which was held the Bolshevikin Party organized the First NationalWomen Congress Workersof Petrograd and Peasants in November, pp. 83-106). 1984, (Edmondson ownership 1918. byproperty restricted Despite seriousaround thesuffrage question and includedof a dispute whether the suffrage shall be universal or disagreementsBolshevik delegationthe Congress walked inprotest againstout of the dispute which revolved among which sheandherBolshevik comrades referred as the to suffrage, than rather system political the of change radical a that and rights labor on focusing character. Kollontai argued that the masses ofY.K.] feminism”. and policy [Bolshevik, working womensuch. Lenin argued for aneed to “draw aclear and ineradicabledistinction linebetween of our are in need for a platform the organizers of the Congressthe organizers proclaiming of that the and leaders the towards criticism harsh raised Kollontai Women(1908) Alexandra of Congress in the Party. According to gender historian Linda Edmondson (1984), during the All-Russia According to Mary Buckley (1989) and Elizabeth A. Wood (1997) thegoals and objectives Following the revolution, Alexandra Kollontai, Inessa Armand and other women leaders of Resolutionthe First of national Congress cited in: Wood Elizabeth (1997). Ibid Zetkin, 26 This perception was largely shared by women and men 17 bourgeoisie reformism feminist demands feminist 27 In1919, theCommissions were , is needed in Russia. in , isneeded The were of bourgeoisie were of CEU eTD Collection among the highestofficial priorities theSoviet state. policyof of Khasbulatova tells that the stage, 1917 – 1930, first the describes She 397-407). pp. 2001, (Khasbulatova 1960-1990. and 1930-1960 1917-1930, as the period in whichKhasbulatova. Theauthor suggests that the Soviet policies can be dividedthe to three main periods: achievementSoviet of full equalitythe of theSoviet policiessexes wasUnionwomen’sabolition of departments symbolized an end(Buckley era inwomen's the history organizingof in 1989). within Women’s departments the are theoreticalsymbolic of the first period in framework suggested by Russian historian Olga 28 the womanresolution question of in the socialist super power was proclaimed achieved. 103). (1884) State and the Property, family, whichwas largely fueled by references tothe fundamental instance, during the 1920s, there was amassivelove debate onfreedom and withering of away of Furthermore, women’s departments were a ground for heated and rather radical debates. For women, and educated women about new possibilities which rose due tothe October revolution. among illiteracy of eradication the for campaigns scale large of variety wide a led activists The departments were genuinely passionate about revolutionary politics and women’s emancipation. kindergartens and public canteens at work places (Buckley 1981, 1989; Wood 1997; Stites 1991). closely cooperated with the trade unions in order to encourage the establishment of with other structures within theevolving Soviet system. For instance, the women’s departments governmental and Party organs.the organization’s Alarge part of activity was in cooperation educational work women and integration to the Party of apparatus, thetrade unions and other and political of forms as well asvarious women peasants workers and among Party Communist thethe internal organization of forums and includedthethe enhancement influence of of See Buckley (1989) for a deep debate on how Stalin understood a resolution womanof question. Stalin dissolved the women’s fulldepartments1929, andin the the goal of end of women’sthe cadres Researchersof generally leaders agreethe and that majority of by Engels. (Warshofsky Lapidus 1978, p. 78-81; Buckley 1981, p. 89- 1981, Buckley p.78-81; 1978, Lapidus (Warshofsky byEngels. 18 h rgno theFamily,The Origin Privateof 28 The CEU eTD Collection laboring as both a worker and domestic wife-mother. happened in traditionalfamily division roles of – women remained under the double burden of state failed to ensure socialization the household of and motherhood, and no significant changes remained through the period at the secondary positions inproduction. the field of The Soviet or equality in life had yet to be attained” (Buckley 1987, p. 223). equality factual won but been has equality formal or legal that was argued It process. protracted sexessexes was officially now recognized.viewed Attainingas and equality a complex of Brezhnevleadership the women’s of question was freshly declared ‘unsolved’ and inequality of fully According implemented. toBuckley even concerns roselater more when“underthe and standards which the Soviet state set as part anof emancipation scheme womenof were not demographicthe Soviet concerns of state. ‘women and motherhood’ by welfare measures and prohibited abortions, these due tothe heavy complicatingdivorce process and abolishingof civil marriages. Additional laws aspired to protect significantly infringed women’s liberties, establishing gender separated school education, 1936 in issued Laws labor. wartime and industrialization rapid both into women mobilize according to Khasbulatova, between 1930 and 1960, a period during which thestate needed to women in the labor force. in consistency with the Marxist doctrine, the Bolshevik Party aspired to increase participation of ensure the equalexercise political of rights. Above all, from the verythe beginning Soviet stateof and legalized abortions. the BolshevikThe second part of program during the period was to women and included decrees legalizing civil marriage, equating women indivorce the matters of Soviet legislation which was drafted during this period proclaimed full equality between men and The harsh realities of ordinary Sovietwomen’s Baranskaya Natalia by ordinary lives addressed are of realities harsh The Indeed, according to Khasbulatova, Buckley and Warshofsky Lapidus, Soviet women Khasbulatova shows that by the early 1960’s, it was widely realizedthe goals that many of Significant changes within theSoviet internal policies regarding woman question happened, 19 CEU eTD Collection Y.K.] at the core ofSoviet ideology”encourage political participation and tointroduce legal equality andsocial remain[ed. services (Buckley 1987, p. 224). aboutArmand the need However,to end domestic drudgery, to mobilize women into labor force, to as Buckley emphasized,treated in different ways at different times.” argumentsThe made by Engels, Lenin, Kollontai and political roles have been persistent themes inthe USSR,the history although of they have been secrecy which surrounded these questions in the public discourse. statepersistence and popular of chauvinism,violence thesilencing against of women and the Sovietharsh reality women’s of lives,the the healthcollapse and of educational systems, the begin with ourselves article landmark inher secret tothis Tatyana related Mamontova dissident, feminists, Soviet first the of One itself. Union Soviet the within secret a wellkept constituted 1980, women’shardness of lives were not only not utilized in foreign propaganda, but up tothe late family obligations in order to be able to provide care for children. education and health system were solved through women’s maneuvering between work and provide for the family dinners. She also demonstrates how primarythe shortcomings of solved by women who stand in thelong lines and had ‘run’ among different shops in order to theorganization SU in whichthe of economic all activityof was planned from above, were Baranskaya demonstrates how the shortcomingsthe central planning, of the economic obligations, while experiencingthean allordinaryhardships Soviet of woman in 1968. scientific laboratory worker, detailing greatly onher maneuvers among work and the family propaganda. foreign Soviet's the of criticism gender of texts important most the of one became and reproduced. 29 in (1968) In general lines, according to Mary Buckley (1981, p. 227), “women’s economic and Despite the criticism raised by Khrushchev and later Brezhnev, these details ofthe daily Underground grassroots network active in the SU, in which censored and forbidenn publications were publications and forbidenn SU, censored the which in in active network grassroots Underground A week like any other Baranskaya describes one full protagonist,week inlife Olga Nikolayevna,of (1984). In a graphic manner Mamonova had unfolded an insider’sthe view of , which was leaked to the West right after its publication by 20 Its time we samizdat 29 CEU eTD Collection implement it statewide. For instance, when representativesCommunist parties of were elected to platform had an impact in those places in which Communist parties were not in power to fully newborn socialistof and communist states (Molyneux 2001, p.105). Inaddition, the Bolshevik world” and determined to alarge extent the policies in regard towomen’s question in along list on women’s emancipation “remained the basis for subsequent Communist Partypolicy across the women’s movements in Latin America. The author emphasizes that the Bolshevik Party platform international impact? movements around the world. In other words, did the internalthe SU havepolicies anyof whether the platform as summarized by Molyneux had an actual impact onother places and asked must be a question above, discussed partially as those question to woman regard SUin the p.106). 2001, (Molyneux for” calling been had feminists demands women'sfor the principle emancipation of policies with the arangethat of reflected many of However, in regard to the doctrine itself, Bolshevik’s Party platform “combined general support with the nationalthe interestSoviet Unionof as those were perceived by the Party leadership. inaccordance varied but approaches, less patriarchal towards evolving steadily not were rights Soviet the Union-general lines policyof internal the impact of 2.1.2 The international p.227). 1981, (Buckley Political and cultural pressures have always restricteddebate about this wide-ranging topic” relations between the sexes should bean important subject for reflection under socialism. durable. For example, Kollontai insisted in the 1920s revolution that the meaning for changingof “some arguments incorporated into Marxist writings about female roles have been much less Molyneux provides a general answer when she examines a discussion on the history of Putting aside the fundamental differences within the Party platform and actual policies of It can be seen that the internal Soviet Union’s policies in regard women’s tothe domain of 21 CEU eTD Collection behalf of the Communist Party the Communist of behalf 30 the activitiesthe state, of but an inspirationalits internalimpact of policies. theto this SU impactas motivational, of meaning that the historical role was notan outcome of the Soviet state. Iproposeto refer the mereexistence of byHobsbawm,suggested animpactof rights and struggles.active Rather than an outcome of involvement this role was along the lines theone examplerole played of by the Soviet state within the internationalwomen’s domain of only in domestic sphere but also in the publicmain areas life” of (ibid, p. 6). bypolicies, not sustained were and persisted inequalities – “the states insocialist SUitself, the of the example above on discussed was and partially remarks rightly asMolyneux For instance, women’sdomain of rights worldwide shall notberegarded only as strictly positive phenomena. parliaments they had a possibility to promote the policiestheir legislative as part of work. I would like tosuggestthe that Bolshevik the export of platform on women’s question is It is almost unnecessary tosay that the the CPSU’s influence of Party platform on the See examples later the survey of the work of Tamar Guzhansky, the member of Israeli parliament on 22 30 CEU eTD Collection abroad. […] Capitalism was seen as international in character and could only be destroyed by an socialism and the international role the USSR should play in supporting workers revolutions outcomes. Trotsky, according to Lane's summary, “emphasized the international character of men were leading the race for the Party leadership (Lane 1985, pp. 64-65). the years after the Civil war and following the assassination attempt on Lenin in 1922, thetwo opponents onthe matter were Leib (Leon) Trotsky (1879-1940)Stalin (1878-1953). and Iosif In role in international and foreign affairs was a contested issue among its early leadership. The main constitutionsthe Soviet of Union, the extent to which the newly born state should play an active http://www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/classics/manifesto.html#c1r3 to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. forcible all existing overthrow socialof conditions. Let the ruling classes tremble at acommunist revolution. The proletarians have nothing development at of the time. things. 31 (1848) manifesto in Communist already wasexpressed which oppressed socialist super power. we shall first inquire into the foreign principles policy andof international involvementthe of suchinternational existedthe state, was engagement apart of in order of to answer this question the mere factits ofown policies and existence. Since the active rolethe SUof in the domain if whether the state played an active role within thedomain in addition tothe impact that it had by asking also to women’s However, we shallproceed struggles. and rights of domain international women’s rights and struggles of domain international the of the history Unionwithin Soviet the 2.2 Active roleof In his Despite the wide-ranging call for world wide unity amongst the struggling workers and I have argued that Soviet Union played motivational role withinthe thehistory of Communist manifesto, 1948, the full version is available allcountries, unite!” online: of Proletarians The CommunistsFinally, they labor disdaineverywhere for the union and the agreementdemocratic all of countries.parties of to conceal theirIn all these movements, they bringviews to the front, as the leading question in each, the propertyand question, no matter whataims. its degree They openly “In short, the Communists everywhere support every revolutionarydeclare movement against the existing social and political orderthat of their ends can be attained only by the State and Politics in the USSR in the , David Lane provides a summary ofthe debate and its 23 [accessed on 10/22/10]. 31 , and reinforced in the CEU eTD Collection guided by the nationalthe Sovietinterests of Union as those were perceived by the contemporary international involvement was guided by Marxist-Leninist doctrine and to what extent it was evolved among Western Sovietologists around the question whether and to what extent the well knownthe examplesUSSR's ofactive involvement internationally. revolutionveto and rights the idea within of theSecuritythe UN,the Council are only fewof of United Nations and other international arenas. The Korean War, the Vietnamese war, the Cuban around the world as welldeclarations as promotion onof avarietymatters in the Councilof of movements liberation national and revolutionaries Marxist to support active military instance for included involvement affairs. This international of a widerange in was engaged Union Soviet till 1940, when he was assassinated by a Soviet agent (Volkogonov 1996). from theParty andwentexile into inMexico, where he continued Stalinist to oppose policies up Opposition within the CPSU, which the debate of was a central part, Leon Trotsky was expelled and the securityMacFarlane „the Soviets tended to focus on consolidation and maintenancepower internally of of stateinternationaland engine of communist revolution and according to British academic Neil externally”complete abandonmentTrotsky’s of ideal that thestate should bea direct and primary organizer (MacFarlanefollowing decades, the foreign and the internalSoviet policies Union representedof a near- had become the paradigm which determined1991, the developmentthe Soviet Union. of In the USSR, the within control p.9). political centralized and collectivization industrialization, of consisted After Eventually, Stalin’sthe doctrine inaccurate”. and “inadequate matter failure of the Left different position in position different although he seconded Trotsky's opinion in his “FoundationLeninism” (1924),of had presented a completed byinternational revolution [….thus according to Trotsky] a a socialist social system canproletarian not be in one country along” (ibid, pp. 65-66). Stalin, Lane continues, The majorThe discussion regarding thethe principles foreignthe Soviet policy of Union of leadingthe abandonmentthe ideaIn spitea world of of wideof communist revolution the rbeso Leninism Problems of (1926) calling his own previous analyses regarding the 24 Socialism in one country , which , CEU eTD Collection with thedoctrine. with 32 with aroom for many competing perceptions' (Hough 1985, p. 12). and Barry Barner-Barry University, who in 1985 argued that ‘the ideology [in SU, Y.K] hasdebate, become a medium of in the Third World varied over time. It is worthwhile to quote Professor Jerry F.Duke Hough of extent (Katz 1990, pp. 2-3). only in part ofthem, this to varyinginvolved was actively Union World, Soviet the Third the in andstruggles liberation frequentlycolonial/national criticized by the movements as insufficient, (Barry, Barner-Barry 1978). the Marxist Leninist doctrine had also tocorrespond to the nationalthe USSR interest of active support from the Soviet State evenpermanent” the (MacFarlanestruggles 1991,which p.9). were However, in essential as Berryliberation and revolutionaryand movementscomplianceBarner-Berry in theThird World – Y.K.] has been universalargued, andwith in order to get liberation and social revolution throughout the Third World. In this sense, its support [to the “starting with the October 1917 revolution the Soviet regime had steadily advocated national arena for muchsocialist of thesuper powerrivalrywomendomain right and of struggles, cannotone be disregardsunderstoodplayed ifthe role the in thebetween history of struggles the inEast the ThirdSoviet history. andWorld, West. which becamethat it is possible that the doctrinalAccording considerations might have had a an weightbigger earlier atthe national to Neil interest MacFalarne, as in Soviet foreignpolicy pronouncements,perceived thepolicies themselves by are largely determined by the contemporaryBarner-Barry (1978, p. 281) conclude thedoctrinalthat “Inpresence spite ornamentation ofof Soviet leadership”.the state.leadership Upon consideration of existent scholarship, of Donald D. and Barry Carol However they also note Again,the the ideological,magnitude of doctrinalthe active dimension of SU engagement Thus, rather than being occupied deeply in the socialist/Marxistentire scope of and anti- the Cold War,Impact of among thethem Soviet the role Union of within theinternational Or an activity which matched national intereststhe SU ofhad to be starched in order to apear as complieng 25 32 CEU eTD Collection the Soviet Union on the website of Third World Marxist revolutionary and national liberation movements. The section devoted to all a frequent phenomenon, was onlythe one activedimension of involvementUSSR in the of revolutionaries on their way to power, they did a great deal to keep them in power (ibid, pp. 4-5). Marxist of support military for alittle USSR did the that argued can be as muchit that for liberation and revolutionary movements occurred at ones (ibid, pp. 3-4). However, Katz notes actively engaged in the Third World again only in 1970s, when numerous promising opportunities reasonably strong. (Katz, 1990 p 3-4) Infact, according to Katz, theSoviet Union became more preferred towithhold military support until the particular revolutionary movement was supported government. Thus to the lessons during 1950s and 1960s the Soviet Union leadership question is toosmall or when it is fighting against another popular supported group or popular he argues, learned thatChinese communists the in the 1920s,interference crucial lessons were learned by the Soviet State. The MarxistSoviets, revolutionsof from abroad, for instance during the support that the SU provided tothe outside can not succeed(1990)argued that duringintervention the early attempts into foreignof affairs and the support if the Marxist group in characteristic Soviet scope engagement: of strict compliance with Marxist-Leninist doctrine (Barry, Barner-Barry 1978, p. 281). nationalwide liberation range of movements, eventhose though might some not of have been in body, which duringUSSR's the yearsexistence of allowed for instance the Sovieta support of support this view and further argued that Marxist-Leninist doctrine was a flexible ideological However, military support which, according to Neil MacFarlane and Mark Katz, was not at Mark N. Katz, in his introduction to CPSA) and the ANC started during World War II. products. Contact between the USSR and the South African Communist Party(then Africa, starting in the late 1950s/early 1960s with the Southboycott African of The SovietThe Union gave enormous support to theliberation struggle in South The Anti Apartheid Movement Archives USSR and Marxist revolutionaries intheThirdWorld revolutionaries USSR andMarxist 26 describes one CEU eTD Collection UniversitySouth Carolina of Press, 1994. women’sdomain of rights and struggles through this involvement. However this role which SU reasoned that the socialist super power had played a role withinthe international thehistory of within the struggles, and those were significant for women and women’s movements, it can be refer for instance to: Te instance for refer 33 impact for women’s rights and their position. revolutionary and national liberation movements had profound, though not exclusively positive movements. (Mohanty 1991). Second,the successes the outcomesMarxist or failuresof of important domains for women’s empowerment and developmentwomen leadership of and international scale. First, Marxist revolutionary and national liberation movements were with thesignificancethosewomen’s thefor thedomain ofhistory of of rights and struggles on diplomatic support in the international arena. opportunities for professionals, trade unionists and other political cadres, aswell as political and educational of provision aid, humanitarian and financial include have could also engagement its support, military with movement revolutionary Marxist or liberation national particular Now let us combine the activethe engagementSU within of the Third World’s struggles Indeed, as it can be seen from the text, whether or not the Soviet Union had provided the For a comprehensive debate on revolutions as locations of change for women and women’s women movemnts for change of locations as revolutions on debate comprehensive Fora Youth Organizations. Council, theAll-UnionTrade Council Unions of andthe theCommittee USSR of Soviet Women’s Committee arena. Several NGOs were involved in the anti-apartheid activities, among them the countryThe gave important political and diplomatic support in the international education in the SU and cadres frommilitary aid. Manystudentsfrom theliberation movements received theiruniversity MK and trade unionists wereANC/SACP/SACTU. trained Support ranged from financial and humanitarian aid to as well. Over the years, close ties grew between the USSR and the ғtreault MaryAnn Women and revolution in Africa, Asia, and the New World [the emphasis is mine Y.K],mine emphasisis [the theUSSRStudents’ 33 Since theSU persistently played an active role 27 . Columbia, . Columbia, S.C.: CEU eTD Collection women’s rights and strugglesUnited in theNationscouncil of Soviet Union had among the Socialist states in the UN. and influence ranged further than its own engagement, given thepower and authority that the well as a member ofvirtually as Council Security vital the of was amember (USSR) Republics Socialist Soviet every of Union The committee within the UN. UnionMoreover became a widely acknowledged super power and held a momentous weight within itsthe UN. actual involvementrights and strugglesutmost significance for the historical developments within international women’s domainduring of the century. Since the victory over the Nazi Germany the Soviet 2.3 The direct engagement of the Soviet Union within the international domainof Soviet the Unionwithintheinternational of engagement 2.3 Thedirect consequentlythe foreignthe socialist engagementof of super power. abroad, the merewomenemancipation principle wasthe platform of of an and integral part of the justified criticism about the practical implementationthe platform within of the SU and women was an inbuilt characteristicthe of proclaimed itswomen liberation priorities. as one of of emancipation Themere idea of of impact shallrole whichnot thebe the Soviet of part perceived women’sthis Thus, or women movements. targeting work specifically of outcome Union played withinas and deliberatelya the engaged with the field;matter on the other hand,domain this particular engagement was not an was activeof a ofwomen’s merebut indirect. rightscoincidence. andHowever, struggles.movements worldwide, Soviet Union played a role withinthe international the historythis of domain On the one hand,Marxism-Leninism this engagement was active-themovements butstate’s was a part of active engagement within the Third World struggles.SU actively had had playedthe domainwithin thehistory was of notspecifically targeting women orwomen’s Political philosopher and historian Johannes Morsink, whose work in large part focuses on As it was discussed in thefirst chapter,United the Council Nations of wasthe an arena of Thus, through its engagement with national liberation and Marxist revolutionary a f life way of 28 which the SU promoted. Thus, regardless CEU eTD Collection (1948) presents in presents (1948) a rigorous research of the history of the drafting of Universal Declaration of Human Rights delegate, argued that the phrase does not include than uneasyIndependence (1776). However,with many delegations and mainly the communist ones were more the suggestionthe phrase “All Menit on base to was made suggestion a wasdiscussed, are declaration the of article Created opening andthe When Equal”raised – similar objectionsto the first article of the countriesUS for their 'backwardness.'toDeclaration (Morsink 1991, p232) it. ofKoretsky,men andits womenthe record equality in the matter and often of attackedof the Western the SovietSecretariat's HumanDivision Rights in of which she says that "the Soviet Union was proud of UN Union’sthe of director first Mr.Humphrey,the of memoires the cites Morsink Union. Soviet sexismabsence in theof Universal Declaration'Human Rights of (ibid, p. 231). of]the base at the [which stood Sovietdelegation from pressure “steady it was the that stressing when farther goes even author the article the in Later p231) 1991, delegation”.(Morsink Soviet the of pressure steady „the Y.K] emphasizes ismine emphasis He espessially p.[the 256). (ibid, women,status mainly of its chair- Bodil Begtrup and the delegates from the communist states” goes “to theeffective women's lobby,the representatives madethe Commissionup of on of the Remarkably for our case Morsink argues that the credit for such a profound for 1948 inclusion definitely [meant to] representequality an idea amongof sexes” (Morsink 1991, p. 256). demonstrates that “every time that "everyone" and “no one” are used within the declaration they Morsink’sthe original researchdraftingthe meetings protocols of committees of of he the role whichof the SU played within the debates upon gender dimensionsthe Declaration. of on the mastery of menon overthe mastery women"of and expressed a wish that the statement could “be modified Morsink discussesexamples a number fromof the protocols. Among the most revealing: Indeed, the deliberation about Declaration’s sex neutrality was an importnat arena for the Women's Rights in the Universal Declaration 29 all and that “this implied an historical reflection (1991) a remarkable historical record historical a remarkable (1991) CEU eTD Collection how the Soviet Union had a real and significant impact withinthe domain.the history Thoseof used by the Soviet Union as powerful ammunition intheCold War. Those are also examples of discrimination which existed in theUS in those days. Thoseare examples on how gender was struggles by establishing thegender neutralityDeclaration of and putting a light ongender historically significant impact withininternational the women’s history domain of of rights and now with certainty. It is definite, however, that therepresentatives involvement or those were the geo-politicalthe Soviet interests state canof notbe determined theof SU resulted in actual and progressive power. Whether women rights were in factthe a Sovietprimary concern of http://www.iiav.nl/epublications/2007/unfinishedstory.pdfat accessed Service) Liaison York, (New UNNon-Governmental Nations Womenthe United and of Story The (2007), Unfinished Hilkka Pietil, and Press Greenwood Nation, Conn: the United Women, and politics, 36 35 34 development and evidence. womenpromotion rights of in international arena is rare and the narrative needs further this account by Morsink which singles out the SU as an exceptionally important force in regard to married woman had no legal existence apart from her husband's” the UnitedStates,a Georgia of “equality law” before actually meant“in while Stateof the instance, during the secondthe draftingmeeting of committee Pavlov wanted to know what equality before the law and repeatedly raiseddiscrimination the issue of against women. For Declaration. Another Soviet representative Pavlov addressed anarticle which dealt withlegal way for a neutral and secularizedfamily definition as it is of expressed in thefinalthe version of Family and Marriage. Inthe discussion, it was the Soviet representative Bogomolov who lead the rights... declaration was neutral draftedthegender in somewaymake to itclear that all human beings were included” Clearly the debates were an arena in which the Soviet Union establishedas a itself One additionalintense deliberationsarena of according to Morsink was upon the article on was chosen as the opening statement. For exampels of mainstreem U.N.Doc. E/ch.4/ac.1.sr.13 western AT 6. Quoted in: Morsink (1991), p. 233. centered outlook refer for instance to Winslow, Anne Ed. (1995) U.N. Doc.E/CH.4/AC1/SR.37 at 7.8 Quoted in: Morsink (1991), p.243. 36 All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and in dignity equal and free born are beings All human 30 35 34 . Itis important tonote that . And indeed, when the final CEU eTD Collection its involvement within the domain, the state’s actions had an actual impact on its history. concept encompassing the idea that regardless the particular motivationsthe Soviet Union of in conceptuallymotivational and active dimensions, while I suggesteddivided that the active dimension can be tothe internationalwomen’s domain of rights and strugglesindirect can beconceptualized as consisting of and direct engagements.representative in the domain. Soviet Women Committee-the Soviet by the internationally out carried was it of part major Finally, I was only onedimensionthis engagement,suggest of as I mentioned above and I am developing below, a engagementthe activity.objective of However,the SU in theinternational the engagement UN of arena of as a engagement as directtheof international since domainit waswomen’sof directly rights and struggles. targeting I suggest referring thethethe to actionsSU or ofnot, thethis impact was dismal in the domaintypeimplementationCEDAW. of of as a specifiedcomplain tointernational bodies on individual base. Whether this was the only motivation behind and proclaimedargues that theinvestigated SU andacted punished within as the respectiveUnion opposed tosuch the mechanism arguingindividuals that complaints of shall bediscussed, states, in andorder by their own criminal the implementationthe CEDAW of to and enhance its effectiveness. systems. Accordingprevent to Galey, the Soviet Galey itsindividualpossibility of complaints to theUN –the mechanism which was supposedown toensure citizensMargaret E. Galey in 1984. Galey argued that the Soviet Unionfrom was continually blocking the a possibility to engagement SU had actual impact withinthe domain. the history Later of I refer to the complex dynamic as examples illustrate that regardless the actual motivations which might have been complicated, the In this chapter, I suggested that therole which wasplayed by the SU within thehistory of The above examples representthe directthe SU partengagementwithin of theof history One more negativethe SU within impact thedomain of was described by political scientist . 31 CEU eTD Collection Motivational dimension nentoa oano women’s rightsand international domainof Motivations Interests h oeo theSU of in the history The role of Indirect Engagement Indirect struggles Engagement 32 Activedimension Direct Engagement Involvement Impact CEU eTD Collection contemporary critical research about the SWC in the former USSR area was subsequently saying: “NO ONE is interestedcurrently under waythe Sovietthe history on the issue Women's of of Committee (SWC) by in our CommitteeRussian now.” women’s and genderhistoriography. history, responded Soviet Women’sto Committee,the whose activities are heavily under researched in women’squestion and gender In the of of whether jurisdiction was in Februaryengagement active direct state’ the of part major the sources, Soviet there is any study2009,the internationalthe history women’s of domain of rightsNatalya and struggles. Infact, according to Pushkareva, the Unitedan Nations.of acclaimed example, the SU’shistorian active involvement withinthe thedomain history ofthe in councilthe arena of nationalof liberation struggles in theThird World. Soviet The SU’s direct active engagement includes for andits general foreignof policies – for instance, while providing general support to Marxist and direct engagement ontheother. I argued thattheSU’s was indirect engagement an inbuilt effect suggested to differentiateplatform, and the effect between it had on the woman policies on the aninternational questionarena, as was the caseactive for example in the worldwide. indirect As for the SU’sthe motivationaldefinition of role Iproposedactive to includeengagementthe Soviet the impact State’of internal role, I on theSoviet Union had played motivationalone as wellindirect as and direct active roles.hand, Within the and activeby the SU within the international domain of women’s rights and struggles. I argued that the emphasis in original. 37 C OMMITTEE IN THE HISTORY INTHE OMMITTEE INTERNATIONAL OFTHE DOMAIN OFWOMEN However the SU’s engagement in the UN was only one partits ofdirect active role within In the previous chapter Idelineated a conceptual framework for the role which was played C E-mail exchangebetween FranciscadeHaan andNatalia Pushkareva (Feb 20,2009),onfile withauthor, HAPTER 3 T HE STORY WHICH WAS NOT TOLD RIGHTS AND STRUGGLES 33 37 Anexplanation for the absence of – THE S export OVIET of the Bolshevik of W OMEN ’ ’ S S CEU eTD Collection 38 SWC and its historical role and to propose a framework for future research. historiography, to reveal and address the assumptions which underliestudies the lack on theof its history in the SWC and the on research West. lackof the for reasons the discusses chapter This introduction. in the I intend to situatealready well-knownof and widelymy accepted details about the SWC’sarguments work as was briefly presented withinthe West isthe highly one would remarkable only if consider the potentiallatest for research on the base debates inunderstandable inthe abovethe women’slight explanations of given by Temkina, the limitedit in scope of did not leaditself to them being forgotten fromthe domain.the history of not “feminist enough”the dominant in one of contemporary the senses term; this reality of by historicalwomen-based accountsof of establishments which might without doubt beconsidered minimalistSWC’s accounts of history in the West. Western feminist and gender research is full researchfor the lack inthe theacademy former Soviet of Unionof cannot explain thevery October Revolution. womenposition inSoviet of society and the changes which occurred before and after the Great within the Soviet Unionbooks -dozens articles and ofhundreds were of published about the the West, both sociologic and historical, did deal in depth with gender and women's history West.in Research the in working studies Soviet Slavic and in working historians or gender Union comprehensive research onthe SWCits activity orat least of parts the Soviet by historians of are not very interested in women”. Soviet “officious”official [integral Soviet parts of apparatus, Y.K.], whereas the ‘good historians’ was done in Russia is because “the ‘good feminists’ are not very interested inthe the history of estimated that the reasons that no comprehensive SWC local research or international of work proposed in an e-mail exchange with Russian gender sociologist Anna Temkina. Temkina Thus, although the lack ofresearch about SWC within the former Soviet Union is quite Temkina’s first explanation applies to scholars in Russia, but cannot explain the absence of E-mail exchange between Yana Knopova and Anna Temkina (Nov 20, 2009), on file with author. In similar way the second reason suggested by Temkina as an explanation 38 34 CEU eTD Collection comprehensively describing the work and historicalSWC. role of now reproduced by young historians and frequentlyevident treated not but only as as self as these, initially Soviet madebyrespected researchers andgender history, in the fields are ofby the SWC’s actual work, structure and local and international activities is available, statements such women-Party tools individual agency who were just following the Party orders” (de Haan 2010b, and allegedly communist movements are coined by Chinese scholar Wang Zheng. narratives, we might expect that more in-depth historical inquires would necessarily suggest a knowledgemere lack were of the sole explanation for the continuationthe of sustainsknowledge, the lack ensuringof that no complex account will be pursued. However,a if significance producesinterest lack in the of further research, which in turn reproduces and reproducing loop. In this loop, the lack of knowledge about SWC’s actual work and historical acted within theSWCan almighty as and mere monolithic tools of challenging them” (Buckley 1997, p. 159). These narratives present the women who worked and SWC was “generally viewed as an apologist for the regime, toeing Party lines rather than whensayingthat approach the summarizes Buckley 1998,p.10).Mary (Nechemias propaganda” Ferree, Risman 2001, p. 1161), and as having “functioned as a mouth piece for Soviet summarizes the SWC and and a fewpages on a fewlines its to amounts research Westernand European in American is found historical role as “designed to serve Party goals,”3.1.1 Thewomen –Party toolsnarrative (Sperling, Marx 3.1 Women tools –Party anditsroots narrative One can argue that the Following de Haan and Wang Zheng, Iwill further referaccounts to this as group of Notwithstanding the immense potential for research, the typicalthis topic account that of narratives. Notwithstanding the fact that no comprehensive in-depth research on women-Party tools Indeed, as De Haan argued, the women of Communist of women the argued, Haan as De Indeed, “constructed [in this discourse] as women without 35 narratives function to a high extent as aself extent to ahigh function narratives Party-patriarch p. 564). women-Party tools to use a phrase CEU eTD Collection complex than mereinformation. lack of consider the possibility that the grounds for the developing a significantlywith women internationally” (Racioppi and O'Sullivan-See 1997, p. 74). more contacts make to Government/Party] Soviet the [by was used home at effort war the complex of behalf understandingpropagandist onwomen's issues [which] after having successfully helped mobilize women on of theits role late and approach. When characterizinghistory.the SWC’s a major period of work from its establishment until1980s, Letframework within which the SWC the work is approached of the same with narrowedus more of nowRacioppiHowever, as opposed to what might have been expected from a more developed account, the andstructure and ideology, and give significant space to Alevtina Fedulova’s own analysesO’Sullivan-See and words. noteworthy. The authors discuss some details in the organization’s history, relate them to its Fedulova.stateSWC Alevtina thatthe organization’sthe history of work as well as a long interview with the lastthe president of theRussia,Women the Union of of theofficial the SWC, successor they include of an inquiry into SWC waswomen's movements in Russia in thepost-Soviettheir period. chapter onAs part of the work theof “state’sbook, Their O'Sullivan-See. Katherine SWC’s work and history in English is a captivating account by U.S.chief academics Linda Racioppi and more complex narrative. Evidentially, a relatively more developed the accountSWC’s of history did not lead to in SWC the about information of scope The That does not however appear to be so inactual research. Themost detailed description of Women's Activism in Contemporary Russia inContemporary Women's Activism 36 women-Party tools Women's Activism in Contemporary Russia Contemporary in Women's Activism narratives are deeper and more and deeper are narratives (1997) focuses on focuses (1997) is CEU eTD Collection “ women andhistory women’s of movements is discussed by Francisca de Haanin herrecent work bywestern the mainstream research of as Communist women’s organization played within the historical research as active agents (Ibid, 520). socialist patriarchal state” (Ibid, p520), Westernwomen areby default perceived in thewestern be lacking any agency by the self-evidentbeing defaultunder the “total of the dominance of argues Wang Zheng, even as Communist women and those affiliated with themare assumed to centralized and monolithic to have any space for women's intervention” (Ibid, p. 520). Moreover, state” (Ibid, p. 520). socialist “The state,” Wang continues, Zheng “is generally perceived astoo desire orimaginationlack of to excavate women's role in policymaking processes in socialist on women and socialist states and studies on feminism in capitalist democratic states” due to “the studies between exists difference “amethodological because scholarship western overlooked in ACWFwas previously activists of women of agency the that argues Her research in China. Federation (ACWF), the Chinesethe SWC, analog of and the male-dominated Communist Party complex negotiations dynamics and of power relations between the All-China Women’s China Maoist Formation in State and Socialist strategies which codify their relationship to Other in implicitly hierarchical terms” (Mohantythe 1988, pp. 61-62). primary referent in theory and praxis. [...]remarkably similar effects of various analytic categories and even a coherence of political practice is neither singular nor homogeneous in its goals, interests or analyses. However it 39 is possible to trace to Communist women organizations within western research in our toolsnarrative-between women-Party “thelingeringIroncurtain 3.1.2 Therootsof international women movements minds” and “the continuing Cold War paradigms” within local the historiography and of Continuing Cold War Paradigms in Western Historiography of Transnational, Women’s Organizations: The Women’s Transnational, Organizations: of War Historiography Cold Western Paradigms in Continuing The downgradingThe phenomenon andof silencingthe role which of Communist and alleged agZegdsussteroso whatWang Ireferto as Zhengdiscusses therootsof I use I western research western effects resulting from implicit assumption of the West (in all its complexities and contradictions )as contradictions and the West complexities its (inall of assumption implicit from resulting hear along the lines suggested by Mohanty: “Clearly, western feminist discourse and (2005). Wang Zheng’s research reveals and analyzes the 37 39 women-Party-tools in herarticle State Feminism? Gender State narratives in regard in narratives CEU eTD Collection American Coldcommunist in WIDF’s case) women’s organizations perpetuate thefundamentalWar suppositions of policymainstream western approaches historiography of Communist to the history (or alleged of as and ideology. The supposition can be summarized as a default Women, an organization which was the affiliated with WIDF and worked in the US, which states: House Un-American Activitiesof Committees 1949/1950American Report on theCongress of these unexamined assumptions underlying the researchabsence on WIDFof to the original text interested in advancing theCommunist cause” (de Haan 2010b, p556). Notably, De Haan traces ‘feminists’ or ‘not really’ interested in “dealing with women’s problems […] but were primarily mentioned above, is “that women in theWIDF and its affiliated branches were either not 41 40 the “communist international” consensus that theWIDF was nomore than apuppetthe Soviet in the hands Union of and even assumptions in thewestern historiographyinternational women's of movements. One is a it derivesintervening two WIDF, around from that silence emphasizes research and the of roots women’s history”(de Haan 2010b, p564). She explains the concept through an inquiry into the is characterized, or at theInternational Democratic Federation.very least influencedfundamental work, De Haan discusses the silence around the historical Women's role of Federation (WIDF)” Women’s Democratic the by International of Case […] a continuing Cold War paradigm in Connecting the discussed insights of de Haan and Wang Zheng, we can see that the that Wang we see and can de Haan Zheng, of insights discussed the Connecting De Haan argues that “Western historiography of inter/transnational women’s movements inter/transnational of historiography “Western argues that Haan De in the face of thein the faceCommunist of drive for world conquest. Unitedthe States anddemocratic nationsgenerally, inordertorender themhelpless demobilize and disarm to campaign “peace” current the in warfare political Soviet primarily with women’s problems, as such, but rather toserve as a specialized of arm HUAC, K. Offen, p. 389. Quoted in: de Haan 2010b. The purpose of these organizationsThe purpose of [WIDF and its branches] is not to deal Report on the CAW , 1. Quoted in: in de Haan 2010b. 40 . The secondThe assumption, which derives in part from the one 38 41 (de Haan, 2010b). In this CEU eTD Collection illustration ofthe general lines ofsuch bias. A search ofthe termchange is considered ‘real’ social change, by whom, and who does this change serve? considered in this discourse to be ‘neutral’ or ‘authentic’ and on what grounds? What type of understand the bias beneath this argument, a question must first be posed: Which movements are constructed as constructed women’sthe domain of rights and struggles, communist and alleged communist movements are principles and the interestsCommunist of movements. the to WIDF,full commitment, alleged of in case or commitment, full – their neutrality recognizing those movements, or eventheir studying history, of is their alleged or actual lack of struggles was mere cloaking for their role as role their for cloaking mere was struggles are disregarded, viewedwomen whose as the emptymaneuvers engagementwith women’s of that the histories and activitiesthe communist of or allegedly communist women’s movements Wangand by deHaan Zheng. Namely, proposed reasons the for historians, western by unseen, hegemony 3.2.1 “Neutrality” of theoretical the 3.2 Moving beyondhegemonic perspectives: towardsmodificationof a womento those and womenof movements. Party –Patriarch who took an active part within their work, were merelyan almost toolsmetaphoric of almighty perception that Communist and the alleged Communist women’s organizations, as well as women Before attempting to answer these questions let us only consider in this regard a colorful Furthermore, as Wang Zheng and de Haan argue, within the mainstream historiography of In the previous section, I argued that the Soviet Women’s Committee is unknown, or within the women’s international domainrights of and struggles approach the forrole the researchplayed by of the Soviet Women’s Committee , as Wang Zheng refers to it, inherently serving goals that are perceived as contrary the other , agents of ulterior agenda, not agenda, ulterior of , agents ol f theParty tools of 39 real . Indeed, the main argument against women’s movements. In order to Feminist movement in the Free CEU eTD Collection historical account is accepted here, and in many other instances, as suggested in the western-centricany account subject canof also very well be biased. FEO, which originated in and is based in the West, fails toidentify or even consider that a was notspecifically placed within the subject of a warningthe GREabout is automatically thebias of definedthe websitein thesystem andof warn thereaders aboutthe theGRE. biases It can beargued,of and might very well be true, that ideological andgeographical context, yettheFree Encyclopedia Online finds only it necessary to The following article is from The Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1979). It might be outdated might It (1979). Encyclopedia Soviet Great The from is article following The women's movements. article by The GRE isaccompanied byfollowing the statement: “ proletarian and communist the women’s parts of movements in the developmentthe global of global, while emphasizing the class divisions within it and prioritizing the significancethe of 43 42 entry which is borrowed from the Encyclopedia Britannica which states no less than: biased” Encyclopedia Britannica (EB) article is fromOnline Encyclopedia (FOE) will lead toa page with two articles named the Great Soviet Encyclopedia (GRE) and the other one is borrowed from Ibid. This is a captivating example of how the self-proclaimed neutrality of the western We can effortlessly observe that both accounts are biased, each originating in its own in each originating arebiased, accounts both that observe Weeffortlessly can of women's experienceof – including family, sexuality, and work the “women's of movement” peaked in the1960s and 70s and touched on every area focused onwomen's legal rights, such as theright to vote, the second-wave feminism feminist movement. While first-wavethe 19th feminism and early of 20th centuries personal livesseeking equal rights and opportunities for women in their economic activities, and politics. It is recognized as the “second wave” of the larger http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/feminist+movement . [Theemphasis is mine, Y.K]. Notably enough, nosuch warning is placed near by the Women’s movement – diverse social movement, largely based in the U.S., 42 . The article from GRE portrays ‘the’ women’s movement as 40 Women'smovement . Still, the certainty remains that 43 . Women’s movement or ideologically or Warning! Prison - one - CEU eTD Collection gradually cometobeseen as the class this of desires and ideals classes.other overthe The dominates class which (bourgeoisie) dynamics among social classes in society, and argued that in any given society there exists a ruling Gramcsi suggested an applicationpoliticalthe concept of ofhegemony to the analyses of rests upon rests class theruling of hegemony The asawhole. society of interests perceivedas the are interests movements and organizations are not significantthe domainthis is for anhistory of outcome of the Cold War’sof West. two were in fact taking a very active WomenroleCouncil (ICW)of and the International Women inAlliance (IAW) of the and argues that the Cold War and saw themselvesuncovers as deception within theintegral self-proclaimed and widely accepted the neutralityInternational of agents (2010b) deHaan Francisca regard, same the In agendas. values and capitalist promote to serves the women's movement in theneo-liberal former USSR actually powersof acts andon behalf where she argues that the support provided by western women’s movements and organizations to Europe andeastern Central communist in post programs indevelopment women of paradigms and western NGO-ised critical discussion revealing and addressing capitalist hegemony within the contemporary deeply on the ongoing basis. For instance, American feminist historian Kristen Ghodsee (2003) holds a in practice and in theory is exposed, and its mechanisms revealed, within theoretical discussions internationalwomen’s domain of rights and struggles. the western-centeredthe hegemony of approaches withinhistoriographythe thefield of of movements as opposed to the communist or alleged communist women’s movements is a sign of western women’sneutral and “normal.” Followingneutrality of Gramcsi, mere the idea of Notebooks The suggestionThe that communist and alleged communist states that supported women’s westernThe and capitalist hegemony withinwomen's the field and of feminist movements women movement in her (1929-1935) cultural norms, cultural of Italian revolutionaryof Antonio Gramcsi. Inhis monumental work, meaning practices, institutions and beliefs that become considered norm And if the shoe doesn’t fit?(wear it anyway): economic transformations economic anyway): it doesn’t fit?(wear shoe the And if . Its values are gradually perceived as universal and its 41 CEU eTD Collection other international women’s movements in the Soviet view: Soviet women’s inthe movements international other (1908-1995) (thesecondthe president SWC) explains of the differences between WIDF and neutral. Thefollowing text by Lidia Petrova, a Soviet author and lifelongNina Popova friend of are agendas their that argue others agenda; a political from asdisconnected framed be cannot agendas.them, however, Some of outwardly proclaim that thewoman question/issue/position own their promote they that sense the in political, all women’s are movements mentioned, I’ve ‘neutral’ in concertwith itself. hegemony However, researchers asargued byof thelargecohort movements, representing political interests rather than women’s interests, which are politically not neutral not hegemony. According to this hegemonic perception, the communists and alleged communists are realizationpeace-loving of foreign policy (Petrova, 1956, p. 4). resolution as connected towide theconduct democratic of transformations and oriented positions, but aims to address them in their fullness, conceiving their charity- or pacifist feminist, a issues from these approach not does worldwide. It Federation takesnot onlyupon itself one, but all the issues which concern women to improve the situationchildren primarilyof charity by means work. of independence. Bourgeois organizations which dealtchildhood with theissue hoped of rejecting war, also spoke out against the oppressed nations’ fight forfreedom and to the right to vote and right to education. Pacifist women’s organizations, principally women from thedemands expressed bourgeois the class interests andof were limited the lastthe century,end of was to strivewomen. for equality However, of their but In opposition to all these organizations, the Women’s International Democratic feminista great number organizations, mainThe of goal of which at formed political; as such they are irrelevant to aglobalwomen history and of women’s 42 CEU eTD Collection hoeia prahfrtersac f h oko SWC work the of fortheresearchtheoretical approach of 3.2.2 Identifying hegemonic assumptions and3.2.2 moving Identifyinghegemonic assumptions beyond them–toward anew internationallyits highest as priorities, one of italso influencedmajor gender treaties aspects of Not only did the CPSU proclaim theliberation womenand emancipation locally of and women’s rights norms norms and beliefs which underlie the ofwomen’s rights and struggles.exploring the ways and mechanisms through which the SWC engaged in the international domain To do so, I will first examine and expose hegemonicp. 74). cultural women within them may have found otherexercising ways agencyof on particular issues” (ibid Furthermore,these organizations even if were unable tochange national policies […] individual argues Popa, “women’s organizations in socialist countries had their own institutional agency. […] challenge the assumption that women’s international activism was Western-driven. In addition, 44 called on women’son issues” organizing global in event significant most “the be to argued Berkovich Nitza sociologist which (IWY) by the UN in 1975. Theyear constituted the Internationalbeginning of Women’s Decade, the two organizations played central roles in the establishmentthe International of Women’s Year HungarianCouncil Women of and the NationalWomen Council in Romania,of and argues that organizations” should be read (Popa 2009, p. 73). Popa inquiresNational into thehistory of Women’s YearInternational of Creation and the Romania and Hungary from War Women Cold Activists Divides: Across Men Berkovich 1999, p. 120, cited in Popa 2009 The first assumption underlying the narrativesthat SWC wasis abelief In the next chapters, I would like tosupport Popa’s argument and further reinforce it by Romanian gender historian Raluca Popa asks, in her second world or played inIWY the adoptionwent unnoticed of for along time. Her findings serving Party goals. This dichotomy alone represents an over-simplification. 44 . Popa addresses the fact that the role which the state feministsthe so- of how the “internationalthe communistactivism of women women-Party-tools 43 narrativesSWC’s of story. Translating Equality Between Women and Between Equality Translating either working for CEU eTD Collection – the biggest base of SU’s– the biggest base of citizen diplomacy. FriendshipThe Unionthe Societies of board of for Culturalof Relations with theForeign States district in Moscow in WWII – and responsible for its defense; WIDF;vice and president head of Krasnopresnenskythe head of CPSU; the theCentral Committee of SovietSupreme andof the of member longtime Popova wasa positions, other her Among this. of illustration as an simplification.Nina Popova, The life of thethe presidentSWC in the of years 1945-1967, serves outsiders workingthe Party. in theservice of This notion is yet another obfuscating over- the Party in the aboveits patriarchalservants of section,goals and orders. While wetouched on thethe complexity goals of of it is worth establishment,elaborating and theSWC women as working of almostthe Party-Patriarch outside of as mere on the perception of SWC’s women as view that supports dichotomist the in missing are that complexities for examined carefully be should them between the two aims could potentially beinterrelated, even interdependent, and the relationships theserving Party the goals should of of not be considered mutually exclusive. On thecontrary, its internal and foreign policies, working theconcepts for women’s of promotion of rights and and labor in the earlythe century. years of Therefore, inSoviet the context doctrine of as well as one ofthe few states which inhad theUN, was among world pioneers alreadyinformal theequality promotion of for women, and led formally guaranteed women equal rights in education Nina Popova attheXXParty Congress The first assumption is closely tied to another:the The CPSUperception as an of all-male women-Party tools narratives. 44 CEU eTD Collection movement see, for example: Siegelbaum, Sokolov (2004). Aleksey 45 Stakhanov, who had mined 102 tons of coal within less than 6 hours (14 daily norms). More on the moving towards “direct administrative interferencesocialcreating in theprocess of of authorities responded to the flourishingindependent of voluntary civil society in the1920s by Soviet the asserts, Evans Historically, 2005,p.28). McIntosh (Evans, Henry, self-governing” sufficiently control independent by the Party-Stateof regime to be considered fundamentally approaches, “did notexist in the Soviet Union, becauseformal organization nosphere of was theoretical western by civil defined as society, that it isusually least at agree scholars most organization in thewesternthe word. sense And ofindeed, as sociologist Alfred B. Evans notes, the mere toolsruling male of hegemonies nothistorical worthy record. of as solely democracies in these establishments state-supported working women in of perception during most While thesamecriticism thisistrue, canbeleveled against almost everydemocracy in the west of the 20th the Politburo,century, which were de facto the highest governmental authoritiesthe Soviet Union.of andfact led by men, as can beseenthe Central inthe Party thedemography Committee and of of that factin was asawhole hierarchy, Soviet system inthe organizations of members the of position does not automaticallythe most somepowerful of high-ranking officials in the Soviet state. lead to thana didnarrowed the male elites. the SU’sHowever, elite women,whom were some active of in the SWC, had a less powerful collective voice among the womenthe Party,of or occupied otherinfluence whopositions in the of community and the state.led Certainly, and representedstakhanovites the SWC were SWC leadershipthe The wasstate; topcadresprofessors, of of municipalities, heads of Another dead end in the research of the SWC is the ‘revelation’ that it was not a public It could beargued that, notwithstanding the high ranking women leading SWC and the Popova’s active and varied participation in many levelsleadership was of not exceptional: Competitive labor movement which emegred during second five-year plan in 1935, and was named after 45 , members of the Supremethe, members Soviet Soviet of Union of and the Central Committee 45 CEU eTD Collection significant social change impact for localwomen’s for impact aswellfor change social elsewhere movements significant women’s organizations which originated within thethe mainstreamWest of might have had in regard to women’sdid not promote radical social change inside the Soviet Union embodies another activismdouble standard inshould bedismissed as a academicsubjectthe interestof simply on the grounds that the organizationCold War’s East and West. had the Itpotential to engage in social change internationally.is generally More acceptedimportantly, the organization still had the potential to make a social impact locally, and even that referred to by ordinary citizens as ‘compulsory-voluntary’ ( was active public participation in the SWC ona voluntary ‘ Union. Although the public hardly set the goals or priorities for the organization’s work, there SWCThe was not a public organization seeking to promote radical social change in theSoviet by the SWC, must beevaluated in thesense familiarto contemporaries in that time and context. would be nearly impossible. could not resulttotalitarian in the state. actual As Evans (andargues control even thethe very robustofSWC every effortsaccording to Evans it also shallamong not beassumed that publicofthe organizations Soviettheorganization’s Union of state, whenthem such existed, complete allsubjugation public activism of – tothe Party. Y. everyK.), move.wereconsolidationcontrol continued of throughout the 1930s, eventually resulting in the near-Suchin facttotal totallycontrol subjugated to some near-mythic led to arapid decrease in the number and membershippublic organizations of 48 47 46 organizations”. Furthermore, the idea that the possibilityinternational social of SWCchange impact of In light of these facts, theterm In light of Ibid. Il’ina (2000), pp. 56, 83, 90. referenced in: Evans, Henry, McIntosh , 2005. Il’ina (2000), p. 110. referenced in Evans, Henry, McIntosh , 2005, p. 32. 46 When a new law regulating non-profit organizations and groups was issued, it obshestvennaya organizatsia obshestvennaya 46 48 dobrovol’niy’ dobrovol’no-prinuditel’nyi) However, it needs to be noted that , or ‘public organization,’ as used basis, orwhat was cynically 47 . Theprocess of (Orlova 2007). (Orlova CEU eTD Collection May, the school was immediately transformed into a shelter for Palestinian refugees. Khoury her home in Nazareth. However, after the the1948 eruption Arab-Israeliof War onthe 14th of Eighteen-year-old Khoury went to work in a school in Acre, a town which was relatively close to ensuring the students,Palestinian. When the British mandate endedKhoury in 1947, the teachers fled the college, but not before among them,platform which includedthewerePalestine division the support of of into two states – Jewish and hurriedly political their and Israel) graduated of Party Communist the became later which movement political Jewish with teaching Jerusalem.diplomas. It waswomen’s in college a British-run in studies there higher her during active politically and socially that she decided toparticipating in demonstrationssupport when she was only in elementary school. She continued to be the National began Palestine. Khoury in settlement Jewish mass the and mandate British the against Liberation League revolt Arab an 1936-1939, Revolution), Palestinian Grand (The Al-Kubra Falasteen Thawrat (an Arab- that women are equally capable and deserve equal rights”. Khoury’s early youth coincided with and two boys. It was within thefamily andfrom her communist uncle, she says, that she “learned very ways and mechanismsSWC’s of international work and thisthe impact engagement. of SWC up untilthe Soviet the fall Union. of Thus the interview with Khoury sheds light on the considered. Closely related to the Communistinternational role at least inthe the UN.arena of Party of Israel, Tandiwrong and the Cold War’s East organizations had a potential and playeddirectly a significant collaboratedis essentially dismissing automatic above byPopa this .However,argued societies. as their within with internationally is by defaultassumed as equated with its ability or will topromote social change women’s organizationsthe Cold War’s of East, the alleged impact which its work might have had 49 international women’s movement. My interviewee, Samira Khoury was born to a Palestinian Nazarethe’sten girlsfamily of In this regard, the three decade-long relationship between SWC and Tandi should be See, for example: Lavelle (2002), Ghodsee (2003). 49 Incontrast, when it comes to the state supported communist 47 CEU eTD Collection of Asia, influential activists inwhich Progressive The Women, attended the InternationalWomen Congress of wasdeveloped during the year. In the same year Ruth Lubich (1906-2010), who was among the most organizedorganization. Thetwo organizations met in 1949 and cooperation between them slowly under an umbrella of Women’s International Democratic work of 2010)Palestinian orexpulsion of people from their land. According to Khoury the activists aspired to do no less than “prevent a second Nakba” (Khoury which focused on promoting literacy andwomen the education onpolitical of and social issues. women”empowerment (Khouryof 2010). Thelatter included presenting lectures and workshops organization’s existence the activists were “mainly occupied withrefugees the supportand the of name the organizationas many aseighty three women participated and a board was–al-Nahda elected. women The decided to al-Nisaaiirights”(Khoury 2010) third The meeting took place in October 1948,– when accordingWomen’s to Khoury Uprising.women,the rightsincluding supportof of marital liberties, labor rights and elective During the in and violence against displaced, first internally were who Palestinians of rights “refugee for work years of the thedetailed organization platform of was discussed. Women agreed that the organization would who were the Party.members of attributes this decisionthat the new frameworkmainly will generally supportthe Communistthe platform of Party and to the fact that allorder to support the refugees. Shetells thatwomen atthethe group first the women meeting of agreed in the group had immediate relatives were arriving to the Arab city from the surrounding areas. newly established Israeli army did she return to Nazareth in order to support the refugees which stayed in Acreand helped with therefugees. absorption of Only when Acre surrendered to the In late 1948 a Communist friend the Women’stold the members of Upraising about the According to Khoury, at the second meeting twenty seven women were present and the Khoury recounts that in Nazareth she and seven of her friends decided to organize in Hanashim Hamitkadmot, Hanashim The Progressive Women, a Communist Jewish women’s 48 CEU eTD Collection developed on the ways through which SWC provided Tandi with resources that were necessary Tandi,work especiallyof its international outreach and developmentits activist of body. She West Bank and Gaza, and encouraging the civilwomen engagement and girls.of and its work includes women, the empowerment activism of against theIsraeli the occupation of organizes its work. Today theorganization focuses on political, social and educational activities meeting once a year; in addition to that, every region has its own local management board which Democratic Women’s Movement in Israel (Tandi). campaign. Since the association had grown significantly they decided to change the name to thousand women joined the organization anational as a result membership of recruitment 1973, five In cities. and towns Womenin 65villages, Democratic of Union name the under Women following the divide in theParty. According to Khoury, from 1954 to 1973 they worked women activistsZionist of socialist of MAPAM asked to joinDemocratic TheOrganization of Democratic Women in 1951 (Lubich 1985). Khoury tells that it was renamed in 1954, when part returned, the two had decided to merge and called for thean first Organization congress of of toit represent upon herself both Women’s Uprising and TheProgressive Women. When she the Convention on theall EliminationDiscrimination Forms of of against Women (CEDAW). the UN International of Women’s Year (1975), subsequent Decade for Women (1976-1985), and had initiated the UN Declaration on the Child,the Rights and wasof among the driving forces a few highlights from extensive research in progress conducted by Francisca de Haan, the WIDF women from around the five continents fromits establishment.the moment of To mention only uniting one hundred and eighty different organizations claiming to represent eighty million remains active today, was the largest international women’s the organizationpost-1945 of era, Federation in China. (Lubich 1985) TheWIDF, which was established in Paris in 1945 and In our meeting Samira Khoury presented evidence and argued that SWC supported the assembly asageneral as well board national level, anelected Tandi has structural the On Samira Khoury recalls thatat theInternationalAsia,Women Lubich Congress of took of 49 CEU eTD Collection Communist women have Party. described engagement asservicetothe their However, narratives for SWC’s work is a possiblecontemporary misreading political of jargon. Many engagement encompassed a cardinalpotential social of change. in parallel to many foundations and organizations in the Cold War’s west, SWC’s international and since the SWC had supported Tandi throughits work, decades it of can be established that, 50 feminist engagement and work contemporarythe Palestinian leaders of Arab feminist movement in Israel had began their acknowledgedthe feminist in thehistory movementsof in Israel as the site inthe which many of women, especially the most marginalized among them. Most importantly, Tandi is cherished and defined as feminist; however, its work is by and large focused on rights and empowerment of childhood, welfare, andin Israeli a history. Inherwide parliamentary work, Guzansky focused on the protectionwomenrange and of ofother socialsocial lawmakers important themost among considered and 1990 and2003. Guzansky between issues. The movementFront Democratic Israeli representing ha-Knesset parliament, Israeli the of wasis amember who not strictly self- Consider, for instanceIsrael. in change social fundamental promotes and advocates it also thewomen’s empowerment, work of one of the leadersmovements in Israel-Palestine,ofTandi, with thousandsmembers overandof a history fiveof decades of Tamar Guzanskyitself (bornfor 1940) the feminist andfeminist fieldpolitical in Israel can beunderstand wemore fully examine thesignificance if Tandi of field in Israel. Tandi is not only amongsignificancethe communist of women’s the organization. oldest women’s members, consultancy services and more and was crucial in enhancing the impact and for its work including financial support for its international activity, scholarships for studies for its The lastThe misconception to consider when looking for the roots of Since the work of TandiSince the work doesof most definitely answer the usual criteria forsocial change Given the relations between the two organizations the impact which SWC had for the Interview with Abeer Kobti, palestinian feminist and a memberthe city of Nazarethcouncil of 10/12/10. 50 . 50 women-Party tools service of service CEU eTD Collection shifted from national states and their institutions to powerful international corporations. democracies rely, while the twentieth for the most of century the real power as many argue has governmentgrounding myth by of people (or their representatives) onwhich western liberal the Sovietinterests elites.of However yet again the criticism can be can be easily applied to the had only very limited influence on the actualthe state governance and were of servants to leaders and internationally was insignificant, or lacked the potential to promote social change. illustrated above, these facts by themselves do not imply that the work it did both domestically promote anyinterests within the internationalwomen’scardinal domain of rights and struggles. Inaddition, it did not state and Party was andpromoting CPSU the with connected was It deeply apparatus. diplomacy change withinas the verythe base ofresearch. bordersstate. On the contrary, futureThe investigations should implicateSWC the organization and its complicity wasof an theintegral Sovietnot to contradict the factpart that SWC was a communist organization closelyof intertwined thewith the Soviet Union. state rule. hegemonic of a continuation be will reversal andsimple its foreignHowever,a perspectives, as northern/western/orientalist the of builtasreversals be not should narratives as I have Chandra Talpade Mohanty (1988, 2003) and Edward Said (1994) suggested that alternative these assumptions should be addressed and a different theoretical approach should be mapped. men were. Conceptually, it implied serving as 52 51 Revolution the Leninistthe Party perspective of the Party as the leading and professional vanguard of the See, for example, Klein Naomi Books, 2008 . One can rightly argue that in fact alongthe Sovietthe history state of the ordinary citizens In order to suggest amore complex narrativethe work and of historical SWC, role of See, example, Hobsbawm (1994), p. 76. was a general concept used to describe the political participation in the CPSU,in inthe rooted participation political the describe to used concept wasageneral 51 . In this Leninist jargon, the female Party members were serving the Party muchas Party the were serving members Party female the jargon, Leninist this . In The Shock Doctrine: Disaster The CapitalismRise of 51 odeso the Revolution Soldiers of Therefore, Iwould like topropose that rather than , New York Metropolitan evnso the servantsof 52 CEU eTD Collection a hypothesis about its broader historical influence on the foreign diplomacythe Soviet of Union. locally. Finally,will present impact I its work and international its of characteristics main the and the SWAFC-SWC’sthe generala history ofoutline of establishment; its organizational structure; provides the basis for future research inquiries using my suggested approach. Here, I will present CPSU and the Soviet state as the base from which the research inquiry should begin. This chapter proposed that future research should considerthe organization’s the facts of affiliation tothe its international activities had potential to support and promote such change in other locations. I argued that even though within the Soviet Union SWC was notan organization for social change, women’s movements. Based onthe the examplerelationship of between Tandi and the SWC, I the SWC and the generalof silence around itsinternational role in thehistory of and local organization. what this organization does for women. But can’twe any time separate and the activitiesthe realities of communist women. She who is a Communist belongs as a member to the Party, just as he who is a Communist. 54 53 C HAPTER AND MAIN CHARACTERISTICSOF ITS AND DIRECT PRO DOMAIN OFWOMEN In the last chapter I explored the reasons behind the narrowed Surely, right now, we look any at women’sthe activities organizationof and judge from the viewpoint of We derive our organizational ideas fromour ideological conceptions. We want no separate organization of Quoted in: Racioppi, O’Sullivan See (1997), p. 85. Lenin 1977, p. 110, 4: T HE S OVIET Quoted in: Buckley (1981), p. 100. ’ S RIGHTS AND STRUGGLES ON BEHALF OF THE W OMEN ’ S C STATE OMMITTEE 52 , ITS HISTORY AND STRUCTURE - Alevtina Fedulova, the SWC.last president of ACTIVE ROLEACTIVE WITHINTHE women-Party tools - Vladimir Lenin S narratives OVIET 54 53 CEU eTD Collection 4.1.1 The Second World War and the Information the Sovietestablishment Bureau of of Thus, the authors resourcesSoroka, enormous were mobilized fortheSIBand propaganda effortingeneral. continue, during The propaganda campaign was not by any means an easy one. According to Nikulinathe and years of whichthe was perceived andportrayed by the Western treason to the war effort. Allies as anactof war, the Bureauthe Soviet Union in theWest had been further reinforced by the Molotov-Ribbentropbecame Pact, a vast structure positions of thepositions Soviet of Union compartmentrespected as Alexanderwell. Sherbakov Thedirect (1901-1945), SIB authoritywhowas servedthe was under (1999), Soroka as Zoia and Nikulina Natalija historians Russian theformedto SIB, according secretary of ofthe the Moscowwith CentralParty (SIB) was established on theJune 24, 1941, within the National Committee for Foreign Affairs. The goalCommittee of propagating1974). Thepropaganda effort took on aspecial significance. TheSoviet Informational Bureau of the CPSUhuman or infrastructural, civil andor military –were subjugated tothe war effort the(Murmantseva was policies led by the influentialand and the USSR was in a conditioncommunism, the Soviet Unionof was a state struggling forits mere existence. For almost four years, state was defined by its ideology, and because Nazi Germany had a particular hatred towards 1941, when it was invaded by forces German during Operation Barbarossa. Because the Soviet non-aggressionthe treaty with Germany,of in 1939. TheSU did not join the Allies until June 22, century, sawSoviet a shifting alliances of The Soviet Union signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, archive Online. Retrieved on March 3, 2011 from: http://www.alexanderyakovlev.org/fond/issues-doc/69228. Soviet propaganda abroad” improvement of 55 4.1 within Born the national interest (SIB) The propaganda effort was especially significant since the deep general suspicion towards suspicion general deep the since significant wasespecially effort propaganda The The SecondThe World War, among the most significant periods thein thetwentieth history of See, for example, for See, eouino the ResolutionOrganizationCommitteeof CPSUCentralBureau the the (b)”Onthe of of 55 (issued on September 29, 1949). Document from Alexander Yakovlev personal . total war total in which all ofthe resources of the state – financial, 53 CEU eTD Collection important role in the Sovietmobilization Women of as well as women around the world for the the presidentSWC saysof in the interview with Racioppi and O’Sullivan-See that SWAFC had an substantiate below) had to be mobilized for the national effort. Alevtina Fedulova, thelast war needsSoviet of propaganda and under the urgent pressuresmobilization of for the state of into the war has to beexaminedthe war as part effort, withinof the theframework evolving of 4.1.2 Soviet Women’s Anti-Fascist Committee-the beginning Department of Propaganda of the Propaganda CentralDepartment Committee of the of CPSU of the events and materials were pre-examined by SIB, and also had to be approved by the presentations in meetings and plenary sessions had tobeapproved by the SIB. This meant that with foreigners, visits to embassies, banquets receptions,and as well as all speeches and letters and telegrams abroad prior to inspection and permission. It also meant that all meetings articles, send to unable literally were committees anti-fascist the that meant SIB the of authority 1999). Soroka and SIB’s aswell(Nikulina war,worked the and authority under of year first the during established FascistSoviet ScientistsCommittee of and Anti-FascistSoviet Women,Committee of were 2005. Retrieved on March 3 2011 from: 57 organization was disbanded in the1948 end andof its leadership was executed. 1948, after the Soviet policies in the Midlle East proved fail its members were anti-Sovietaccused ofwhich activities. Theplayed a significant56 role in the Soviet Victory came to represent a threat in the eyes Stalin’sof circles and in Committee JewishAnti-Fascist including committees, anti-fascist The SIB’s structure. broader of part department,international and a department affairs. of Thedepartments, however, were only one which incorporated eleven departments, including a military department, a counter-propaganda . It is in this framework that Soviet women, as collectively and also as a Thus, the Sovietestablishment Women’s of Anti-Fascist Committee only a few months According to Russian historians D. Nadgarov and Z. Belousova, (2005) being subject to the D.G. Nadgarov, Z.S.Belousova, Stalin and Cosmopolitism,1945-1953. International foundation Democracy, foundation International D.G.Cosmopolitism,1945-1953. and Nadgarov, Stalin Z.S.Belousova, the Committee Committee: the Jewish Anti-fascist In brackets it’sof fate tomention thetragic worth 56 , Anti-Fascist Committee of Soviet Youth, All-Slavs Anti-Fascist Committee, Anti- Committee, Anti-Fascist Youth, All-Slavs Soviet of Committee , Anti-Fascist http://www.alexanderyakovlev.org/fond/issues-doc/69228 54 57 . brand . (a term I will total CEU eTD Collection and called upon them to join the struggle against fascism: abroad. During the assembly, the Soviet women’s delegation addressed thethe worldwomen of assembly was attendedSoviet by hundreds women of and hosted female representatives from in Moscow’s PalaceNations, as of theits establishment moment of (SWC 1975, 1981, 1987). The generalthe secretary Central Committeetheof CPSU in theof years 1964-1982: from women (Murmantseva 1974). SWC’s brochure, 1981, quotes Leonid Brezhnev, who was injured. Theywere also themajor blood donors – over ninetyblood donations percent of came They cared for children, including those who were orphaned by the war, as well as tending to the contributed thethe financial largest part of resources which were needed for the military effort. were mobilized both compulsorily and voluntarily tothe wartime industry. The Soviet women the militarythe forefront defense of and took part in underground partisan rebellions, and they that the Soviet women did participate in the war effort onan enormous scale. Women fought on 59 propaganda efforts, for examples refer to Sz, 1945, 1; 1962, 3. women or not,58 the mere participation of women in the war remained one of the main themes of SU foreign mobilizationSoviet women of for the struggle against the Nazi invasion. beyond thisthe research scope of to establish how significant in fact was the SWAFC’s role in the struggle against fascism during the WWII (Racioppi and O’Sullivan-See 1997, pp. 84-85). It is the face of the danger threateningthe facecivilizedus and of the whole all of humanity, of we ourvictory children, and the fate ourof brothers and our husbands depend on us. In religious beliefs or social status. We call on you on behalfof all Soviet women. Our In its official history, the SWC refers to the assembly which was held onSeptember 7, 1941 fighting alongside their husbands and sons during the war scales would beprobably equal reflecting thethe strength Soviet of women that were our soldiers,of and on the other – the laborthe Soviet deeds women,of then the Leonid Brezhnev (1970) Leninskim Kursom. Vol. I. Moscow.: Politizdat. p. 136.cited in: SWC, 1981, p. 19. In brackets it shall be noted that whether the ACSW had played any actual role within the mobilization of If we Ifcould find such weight-scales, so that to put on one scale the military deeds We address all women the world over,political regardless of convictions, 55 59 . 58 However, it is definite CEU eTD Collection 61 London: H.Clarke and Co., n.d. [1942].) Women’swomen’s also See Women 1941. Soviet to You,OGIZ, Committee, Moscow: assembly...] Call Anglo-Soviet Moskve v kolonnom zale doma soyuzov 7 sentyabrya 1941 g. [To the womenthe of intire 60 world, speaches from the combat flight accidents (Golovanov 2004). during the military operations, and her regiment had low discipline andnon- a large number of Commander of the Air Forcesinterfered with her command position: According to Alexander Golovanovof (1904-1975), the the Red Army obligations public her that seems it 1943. However, in colonel in of rank the wasawarded and those years , she repeatedly left her post 2005). 1942 (Sorokina in Organizations, State Enterprises, and Institutionsthe USSR, whichof was appointed by the Party Accomplices,the Damage and ofThey Caused to Citizens, Collective Farms, Public Their and Invaders German Fascist the of Crimes the of Investigation and Establishment Grizodubova was the only woman in the important Extraordinary State Commission for the 1987). (Geroi, titles and awards other asnumerous well as (1986), Labor Socialist of Hero her life Valentina Stepanovna wasthe SovietawardedHero Union of the (1939)title of and flights. Borntoapioneering aircraft designer, Stepan Vasil’yevich Grizodubov, over the years of became famous in 1938, when she set an international record for women pilots in long-range women in socio-economicthe matters state of fascism and for peace and women's rights, advancementchildren, andSoviet of engagement of relations with women's organizations abroad, uniting women worldwide in thefight against of the victory of call upon your emotions and your intellect. Our unity is our strength and the guarantee It is reasonable to suggest, although further verification is needed, that Grizodubova’s During World War II, Grizodubovaa waslong-range the commander aviation of regiment, The first head ofthe SWAFC was Valentina Stepanovna Grizodubova (1909-1993), who The The proclaimedthe SWAFC goals of atits foundingthe point included of developing Ibid. v sostoyavshiemsya mitinge, antifashitskom na zhenskom Vystupleniia mira! vsego K zhenshchinam Soviet Women’s Committee 1987, p. 5-6 cited from: 60 . 61 56 . CEU eTD Collection Renita Andreyevna Grigoryeva. materials from GARF, and interviews with Popova’s colleagues and her daughter, film director Borisova. her time.figures Her lifea of book written is inthe focus 2005 of by the Russian scholar Natalia served the SWCas the president upthe to1968, most of influential was one of Soviet women 2004). (Golovanov positions military all her from removed was Grizodubova Valentina but request, his military tribunal. Golovanov argues that at the end the case did not go to the tribunal because of a caseto the transfer was to made decision andthe false, asdeliberately wasdeclared complaint consideration by the Politburothe Central –the highestthe Party, Committee organ of of the an attemptGeneral. to obtain the According rank of to Golovanov, after an investigation and among the higheststate leadership,ranks of filed a complaint against him, in what he describes as thethe president SWAFC. of of Golovanov reports that in 1944, Grizodubova, well connected complaint against Golovanov, was thereason behind the removalGrizodubova of from the post Nina Popova andher daughter Renita.Date and place unknown. Privat collection of Renita Grigoryeva.ofcollection Nina Popova, who came fromSherbakov, theclose circle of the SIB , also a the head of iaPpv ietm f Creation of Nina Popova –Life-time is based on materials from Popova’s from materials archive,on personal isbased 57 e CEU eTD Collection (1980–82) and the leader of the struggle against apartheid in South Africa Nelson Mandela Nelson Africa in South apartheid against struggle the of leader the and (1980–82) revolutionary writer Jorge Zalamea (1967), Palestinian politician and poet Mahmoud Darwish Fidel Castro (1961), long standingIndia presidentIndira Gandhi of (1983–84), the Columbian Swedish women’s movement, doctor Andrea Andreen (1953), the Latin America revolutionary the prize includes the presidentwhich was renamed Lenin’s ofWIDF Peace Prize in1956. long The and impressive the laureatesEugenie list of of Cotton (1950),Khrushchev, Popovathe was among the few leaderSU citizens who were honored with this high award ofWIDF and Nikita with of Along Prize. Peace Nobel the of equivalent Soviet – the (1953) Nations the African states and the Soviet Committee for European Security and Cooperation. and Asian with Solidarity of Committee Soviet 1958, the from World the Council Peace of Peace (SovietCommittee for Peace theDefense Committee) of from1955, asamember served between 1961 and 1976. In addition, Popovathe the Soviet waspresidium amember of of Countries (1958-1975). She wasthe Central a member the Committee of Communist of Party Sovietthe Union SocietiesPresidium of for Friendship of and Cultural Relations with Foreign the All-Union Centralof Trade Council Unions of 1945-1957 and the Chairwomanthe of the ofSWC in 1945-1968, during her long and impressive career Popova presidency her hadfrom Aside servedp. 5-54). (Ibid, 1934 in University as Moscow from Secretaryeducation in degree progressed within the new system. She becamethe Party a member in of 1932 and obtained a movement, and later Komsomol (Ibid, p.22-23). Idealistic andcommitted, Popova rapidly energetic and quickly became socially engaged. She joined the Pioneers, a ' communist students’ student in thefirstSoviet generation orphanages of in post-revolutionary Russia. Popova was Russia, to a family ofa working class constructor. Orphaned at the age oftwelve she became a Popova was awarded the International Stalin Peace Prize for StrengtheningPeace amongof January,Yeletsk, in 1908 22 of on Vasilyevna was born Nina that writes (2005) Borisova 58 CEU eTD Collection friends. Dateunknown. Grigoryeva.friends. Privateof Renita collection Indira Ghandiand Nina Popova, according to Borisova the twowomen were close October Revolution (Ibid, p. 204). (1990). In addition tothe honorary award PopovaLeninthe had two and Order Orders ofof Popova waged a fearless campaign for her husband’s release, following which Andrey Shamshin fight. Unfortunately not many decided to fightpeople the system. She later described that at the time she “fought, internally decided to then made any attempts Borisova,to Andrey Shamshin,fight” Nina’s first husband, was arrested during Stalin’s(Borisova purges, Popova 2005, p. exceptional 38). Borisovacourage. Onestory recounts is especially remarkable. Accordingto and talent political great of Popovaa person as of aportrait Borisova draws work there. Party Popova was an activist.” knew how to promote issues and push. She was very personal with people and intimate.[...] political flexibility and ability to maneuver in hard and changing conditions. Khoury says “Popova progress within theSoviet state under Stalin, Khrushchev andher Brezhnevevidence is of itself According to Borisova, Popova left Yeletsk in 1925 and arrived in Moscow to continue her Popova wasexceptional a woman of political talent. Themere fact that she continued to 59 CEU eTD Collection and had spent almost three full days in earth’s orbit. While in space, she collected data about the background played a central role in herselection. Tereshkova was sent tospace in June 16, 1963 Tereshkova’sbegan, process class selection wide country the and space to awoman sending years old. WhenSergey Korolyev,the Soviet Space program, theleading proposed figure of cooperative, and her father was a war herowho died in combat when Valentina was only three Yaroslavl region in theRussian federative republic. Both her parents worked in aland cosmonaut. Tereshkova was bornon March 6, 1937, in avillage Bolshoye Maslenikovo in the Orlov was killed onthe way to Berlin, less than two months beforethe warthe end of passionate relationshipmarriage ended and brieftragically March, onthe 1945, 18th of when 63 Party history] Cited in Borisova (2005). 62 occupation planningwas andherself preparing to gounderground in 1942, in case Moscow fell to Nazi their skills and devotion (Borisova 2005, p52). She not only encouraged and mobilized others, but her eyes was a the centraldistrict’s part of defense program. Popova praised women’s power, for the war effort, Popova especially encouraged and cherished women's mobilization, which in resources (Ibid p. 53-54). Borisova observes that among the manymobilization dimensions of began with preparationsdefense and mobilizationallof available of material and human werePopova’s at thecenter of early work. Popova took the new assignment most seriously and belief that the war would theto Krasnopresneskiybecome head of district in Moscow.not Notwithstanding the common cross the borders of the SU, preparationsoppressive days (Borisova, ibid). Popova and Shamshin divorced before theforthe war. eruption of such a possibilitywas indeed set free, along with his five colleagues. This was aunique accomplishment in those The third head of the SWC was Valentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova, SWCwas Valentina Vladimirovna the world’sfemale first of head third The During the war, Popova fell in love and married a war hero, Colonel Vladimir Orlov. The Borisova writes that in the1941, beginning Popova of was offered by Alexander Sherbakov LettersOrlov of to Nina Popova and Renita , 1942-1945 (referred to in: Borisova (2005), pp. 206-208. Archival sparavka [Archival note]18/07/65, partarhiv of the Institute of Party history.[part-archive of 62 . 60 63 . CEU eTD Collection Popova continued her work for much longer”. Tirishkova, asa symbol, to be in the foreground. It was visibility for purposes butof Ithink returning astronaut... Popova continued to do the work she had done always butallowed was Tereshkova she a because perhaps wasand asymbol, happen it did perhaps but remember Federation. She was more representational than activist[...] Popova was notreplaced. Idon't goddess in her. She was very humble and shy. She was very pretty and loved by all womenspacethe of and went on stage from cameback she When had? as she reach asfar [Tereshkova]can was Who likeaGoddess. [at the 1963’s World says“she Khoury and a “token” calls her (1984) apparatus. Mamonova theSU orwithin WIDF Congress of Women inWoman’s Moscow] International Democratic Federation. It is unclear how influential swas within the people saw a Award. A crater on the moon was named after her. Union, United Nations’Peace Gold Medal and of the Simba International Women’s Movement October revolution and the highest the Soviet honor, Lenin, Hero the ofthe Ordermedal of of 1980. Women on in Copenhagen, Worldthe Conference (1968-1987) led the Soviet delegation to the IWY UN Conference in Mexico in 1975 as well as to SWC the of president the as role her In 1969-1991. in Party Communist the of Committee served atthe Supreme thepresidium Soviet of in 1974-1989the Central and was amember of the Suprememember the Soviet Sovietof Union of in 1966–1974 as well as in 1970–1974, led to theaerosol discovery holes of in earth’s atmosphere (Lothian 1993). the femalereactions body tospace,of and alsothe made Earth’s photographs of horizon which In the capacity Sovietof Women’s Committee, Tereshkova was also Vice Presidentthe of of Order the including medals and prizes honorary Tereshkova listof wasawarded along Tereshkova served as a member theof World Peace Council from 1966. She was elected a 61 CEU eTD Collection addressedthe questionsrepresentationwomen of in the of leadershipthe state and theof poor instance in thelaw-making. processes of However, rather innovatively fro those times Pukhova that the organization had an impact within SU’ through the entireits existence, period of for reorientation seem to be engaged with women the ansituation within of the Soviet Union.exaggeration. atotal accountsThe of As I willreorientation show, the SWC in its own1989. Racioppi and O’Sullivan records described the processes under her leadership as the beginning of reports Zoia Pukhova on(born September 24, 1936). Pukhova servedthe as SWCthe president up to of Tereshkova was replaced in 1987 by aStakhanoviteformer weaver,Socialist Hero of Labor CPSU. 26.11.1986 Moscow,Ria-novosti WomenCommittee ofSoviet Valentina Tereshkovathe twenty congress at the seventh of Cuban leader Fidel Castro andcosmonaut, Hero oftheSovietUnion and head the of of the organization. They argue of that during the period the SWC became much more 62 CEU eTD Collection Fedulova was theone who led Russianthe establishmentthe Union Womenof of on the base of Finally, contacts). international its retaining (while Union Soviet women’sthe liveswithin SWC, completed the process in whichthe organization thefocus of became the conditions of 84). p (ibid, peace” and peace. I would say that all my life Iwas working in avery noble sphere: women, children and step in my life and it was reallylogical a was this think SWC:“I of verypresident vice as Fedulovawas elected in 1987, harmonious parallel, In with my inner state ofmind: women, children Fedulovaworkthe period tellsat SPC:of of she was elected asanthe Soviet executive Peace Committee secretary of (SPC). This is how twenty three. In 1971 Alevtina was the appointed Pioneers head ofYouth Movement and in 1984 earlier career was graduallyamong the most influential Sovietthe 1980s. woman of Fedulova,promoted who worked as a teacher in her within thechildhood as a Partydaughter to illiterate single mother in the industrial city Elektrastalia,which tobecoming she joined ininterview with Racioppi and O’Sullivan-See,1963, she talks about her remarkable path from her at the age of established by Mikhail GorbachevPeople Congress of Deputies. elections, seventy fiveprojects which targeted women’s professional and personalof development SWC’s (ibid, p. 77). In the 1989 members O’Sullivan-See,were pp. 58-59). Inaddition under her leadership, selectedthe SWC established a range of due to availabilityprofessionalthe of training for women in major Partyquota and state forums (Racioppi, system in the newly to develop direct contacts. (ibid, p 84) taught me how to look for common things, how to work in informal ways, and how realized what was happening in theworld, who realizedwar. the danger They of Peace Committee unitedvery many interesting, Iwould say outstanding, peoplewho According to Racioppi and O’Sullivan-See, Fedulova, together with other women at the The last head of the SWC was Alevtina Fedulova (born on April 14, 1940). In her I am grateful for this opportunity in my life. Because in those times, the Soviet 63 CEU eTD Collection for these positions the Sovietauthoritative Union alist consisted of positionsof potential and a list candidates of were situated inan elite thehigherthe social ranks state. of strata The nomenclatureof system in ordinarylives Soviet women.of The theirmere facthigh positionsof or family relations, they different backgroundsnoted that an absoluteSWC’s majority of leadershipbut including those who initially rose from were to variouswomen extents did not representestranged ordinary in Soviettheir women daily had a experiencebasis in fact. For frominstance, the it should be interview to Racioppi and O’Sullivan-See: widely perceivedwell connected, and well positioned women, and their ability to represent Soviet women was by women elite, of organization SWC an was the was infact SWCraised that the of opponents which contemporariesthe highestpower positions within theSoviet of apparatus. themain arguments Still, oneof as background,limited. the SWC’s presidents were women who rose from a working class background up to Fedulova addresses this question in the 64 SWC’s infrastructure and in 1993 was elected to lead the election block committee for this? (ibid, p. 86) we sent abroad the bestBecause every country trieswomen to show the world the best that it has. And the fact that scientists, set up only forwriters, contacts with foreign countries. And Iwould call this a positive act. artists howthink and say that the Soviet’scan women committee united onlythey elite women and was blame the whose authority could somehow influence legislation. Well today, sometimes people it was necessary toput together and involve prominent women whose names and fascism, in uniting Soviet women; but surely the task was not to unite all the women, The above biographies testify that, aside from Grizodubova who rose from a middle class amiddle from rose who Grizodubova aside from that, testify above biographies The This representation by Fedulova is lacking in complexity, and the argument that the See Voslensky Michail (1984). Nomenklatura: The Soviet Ruling Class (1st edition). Russian original was In those times, the committee did alot inthe uniting world women against of 64 . The rise of Soviet nomenclatura as a separated class was discussed by was discussed class separated a as Soviet nomenclatura of rise . The 64 oe f Russia Women of . CEU eTD Collection 4.2 Organizational Structure and Financing during his rule, opened a new, more liberal theera Soveitin the history Union, of also refered to Stalin’s1956. secretspeech,which The denounced thecrimes of eraand personality cult the Consequences the SU which followed, most significantly the secret speech followingStalin and the the deathprofound of changes within internal and foreign policies of was renamed organization the May, Thus, 1981). (SWC, 1956 15of on Plenum its from decision made an independent organization”. “in November 1945 by a decree theof Centralthe Soviet Informationalof BureauCommittee ofthe AUCP fact representativesa different, of better country, the Soviet Union as they experienced it. SWC in its international work belongednomenclatura to the ranks of they most probably were in recreation and health services. Thus, since the absolutethe women majority who represented of within what he satirically called satirically he what within the average the gap between thenomenclatura lives and of the ordinary Soviet people was sosignificant that bureaucracy became a new ruling class. Voslensky whoapplied System published by the http://statearchive.ru/383 66 Union. Soviet the Partyof Communist to 1952 renamed and finally Party(AUCP) Communist All-Union 65 theclass Soviet of Union. written in 1970, distributed by samizdat, and eventually printed as Voslenskiy M.S. (1991) Nomenklatura. The Ruling Milovan dissident later Michail Voslensky (1984) in his As I have argued, the SWAFC was established in order toenhance the propaganda efforts 15) ugse hti h oils oite nEsenErp h ltso Party of elites the Europe Eastern in societies socialist inthe that suggested (1957), The Bolshevic party was renamed Russian Communist Partyin 1918, in 1925 it was renaimed again to to Kometet sovetskikh zhenshin,; Annotatsiya [Soviet Women Comittee, Description]. Women Comittee, [Soviet Annotatsiya zhenshin,; sovetskikh Kometet , which was given by Nikita Khrushchev to theXX Party Congress on February 25, nomenclaturshik samizdat Ǚ acsesesed on 2/05/2011. đ ., 1991. in1970 was inspiredthe Yugoslavian by the ideas of revolutionary and ilas (1911-1995) who in his in who ilas (1911-1995) (a person from nomenclatura ranks) could live her/his entire life entire liveher/his could ranks) nomenclatura from person (a Nomenklatura: The Soviet Ruling Ruling Class. Soviet The Nomenklatura: nomenclaturia . According to the descriptionthe SWC’s of archive in GARF, 66 It was renamed Soviet Women’s Committee, officially, by a – a land of special –aland and of elite housing, education, 65 The New Class: An Analysis of the Communist the of Class: AnAnalysis New The đ ilas ideas totheSU, argued that On the Personality Cult and its His book which was first 65 theCommittee was CEU eTD Collection 760). collaboration with themresponsible person who provided guidance to the organizations(Khoury and who led correspondence and 2010; SWC,regionregions (the number and their of precise division1981, probably evolved over time) had a 1987; GARF, asWIDF’s,each lines same that the meaning along work was structured SWC’s that international fond 7928 (SWC), op. department 3,for translations and an accountingd. department. Khoury noted during the interview information management. In addition, the organization hada managerial department, a departments for relations with national women's organizations worldwide and a department for department for relations with theWIDF and other international women’s organizations, magazines published by the committee” (SWC, 1981, pp 11-12). artistic and professional unions. Among its members the 21are editors alsowomen’s thechiefof the Committeethe members areof the representatives trade unions, youthof organizations, representativesall Unions and of autonomous Republics, which led and supervised SWC’s work between the Plenums. The SWC was “comprised of the SWC. ThePlenum the Plenummet oncea ofyear andelected thePresidium,members of public organizationsreform of in the Soviet state (Dawisha 1975). as ottepel Over the years of its existence, the SWC’sOver years the of included structure ageneral department, Every five years a general assembly met to approve the future plans and toelect the , a ’thaw’profound – an change era of in internal and foreign policies, including the 66 krais , many oblasti and cities. Among CEU eTD Collection 1961’s budget, Woman, which was issued in fifteen language editions bythe SU.the fall of According to the the Committee for the year 1961, p. 3-4. 67 02.07.1968 Moscow,meeting. Ria-novosti cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova,making aspeech left, attheSWCplenary the PresidiumChairwoman of oftheSoviet Women's Committee (SWC),Soviet working nearby and within the organization: Women’s Committee 1981, p. 14) experts and consultants, as well as prepare materials for publications”(Soviet significantlyvarious tothe conduct ofsymposia and meetings, making reports as psychologists, doctors, and representativeslabor unions. of Theycontributed economists, jurists, sociologists, including 20 commissions approximately According to SWC (1981, 1987) along with other SU public organizations, SWC was taking Starting in December 1945, the SWC published the journal One important part of its One structure,important part according of to the SWC, were public commissions . See: GARF, fond 7928 (SWC), op. 3, d. 760. The list ofstaff and budget for administrative expenses of “Hundreds of activists and volunteering specialists were activewithin specialists volunteering activists and of “Hundreds Soviet Woman was anthe integral SWC part ofon a structural level 67 Sovetskaya Zhenshhina Sovetskaya 67 . -Soviet CEU eTD Collection Soviet Society (Buckley 1989, pp. 144-147). According to Mary Buckley, women’sMary to councils According 144-147). pp. 1989, (Buckley Society Soviet approach” which literally meant greater openness towards organized interest groups within the “differentiated his and pp. 52-53) 1987, (Browning life public in participation active more establishedNikita in 1958 Khrushchev’sas part of efforts to mobilize the Soviet citizens for councils especially sincetheywere revivedthe XXVII Party congress byadecision of held in the Soviet Union. along with additional temporary employees for big projects, for instance, international congresses as 1961. 68 1987,pp.11-12). Committee public education, and the USSR constitution adapted during perestroika (Soviet Women’s republics on marriage and the family, national labor legislation, national legislation in housing and 1981, p. 13), “contributed to thethe drafting fundamentalsUSSR legislation of of and the union Women’s 1990”(Soviet until Committee and 1981-1985 for USSR the of development social and Child Care, it also took an active part in preparing “the basiceconomic directions and of the Supreme Soviet’s commission onWomen’s Working and Leaving Conditions and onMother a part in legislation and initiatives (SWC, 1981, pp. 12-13). In this capacity the SWC was active in 13.) p. 1981, (SWC bodies the legislative to suggestions its issues,introduces SWC these Committee to staythe issues aware that matter of for Soviet women. Summarizing which they raise their points ofcriticisms concerning everyday life. This helps the In the 1980s, the SWC became more practically active on issues internal to the state, The SWCThe had agrowingemployees number of that had reached hundred thirteen as early This is how the SWC described the mechanismsits legislative of work: See: GARF, fond 7928 (SWC), op. 3, d. 760. 68 and were subjugated to its authority in 1987 (Pukhova 1987). Women’s councils Inaddition, SWC employed freelancers, including experts, writers and photographers, Annually, the Committee receives tens of thousands of letters from women in women from letters of thousands of tens receives Committee Annually, the 68 zhensovety women’s were were CEU eTD Collection - They were everywhere, in each work place, in -Were the city there Party many enragement, of them everywhere. (zhensovety)? garden, there was -Someand alsoviolence if at a family women wentwomen to them sometimes for help. Wewho didn’t need this, -Andhad but some women whatdid. problems they did wentlocally? to them, women fromlike abroad, -Ah, we would never dare to meddlefor intoof course,this business…instance singlethey weremothers. doing 69 Theyinternational could arrange a flatwork; sometime withSoviet orwomen a kinder aroundState. the Indeed,world, theySWC played within theinternational women’sin domain wereof the rightsof and strugglesorder on behalf traveling to argue abroad thatanddimensions also the hostingSoviet that Union can enablewas a persistent us to establish actorimpact. thewithin significance the of thecouncils had a relatively occupation wide scope ofanddirect a reasonably or even notably significant active roleare examined relativewhich totheir western counterparts, and for thesame practical purposes, women’s the Moreover, based Buckleyon the findings and of Browning, it canthe councils beargued that if with support acertain to ease extent the double aSovietof burden worker-mother of model. for social change, they were in fact organization-cells SWC’snature of work,the in fact spite that of women’s councils were not women's organizations on an individual or groupimprove women's working and living conditions,level. and were able to do so locally toa certain extent Indeed, to authority, their of limits the within strived, genuinely councils the that in argued Browning concert with the depictionculture, health, agitation, child care, and more. Itshould be noted that both Buckley and I have provided women’s The councils activities. councils’ of the Brezhnev’s as rule, generally referred to of among the counsels as well as during the differentSoviet periods rule.of For example, the period some with only a few members and some with dozens. They were active to adegree that differed women” (Buckley 1989, p. 150). Thecouncilswomen were activists,groups of composed of (Browning 1987, Buckleyformed in large1989) part and by thewere work subject enterprises to “officialand offices, asParty well as prioritieson different regional for work levels among -Grandma, did you know about the Soviet Women’s Committee? The question of finances questionThe available of for SWC’swork is among the most important 69 December, 2009,Kiryat Haim, Israel. zastoj participated in areas such as working conditions, asworking such areas in participated 69 – the stagnation –was the lowestthe point of f womenfor women of , which provided women CEU eTD Collection children and grandchildren could leave in peace, so that there would be a peaceful sky all over the our so that war the prevent help people; other of contributions the with along contribution, the SWF were women, and adds citations from the letters womenof to the Fund: “Let my little contributionsordinary citizens. of salary towardsWatches” the fundspopular musicians, bands and singers. Money was also collected during the so-calledof “Peace the SPF.women during international competitions; and withdrawals fromfees paid for the concertsA of final sourcethe summer labor practicum for schoolchildren; sport prizes won by Soviet Sports men and of fundingundoubtedly immense. The Peace Fund collected funds fromcame church revenues; withdrawals statements. itsfrom The fromexactrevenues amounts of and expenditures remain unknown but were the individual organizations. organizations. Notably, Nina Popova was deeply involvedthe fourwith three largest of founding Friendship and Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries and numerous other smaller public YouthCommittee Organizationsof the USSR,Soviet and of the Union Societies of for SWCThe was among thethe founders SPF, of along with the Soviet Peace Committee, the abroad, and another part came from the Soviet Peace Fund (SPF) after its establishment in 1961. international activitythe SWC came of from the payments for its journals, distributed locally and months in 1992, and has been closed ever since. responsible for many backstage budget related decisions, was opened to the public for only afew factthe thatarchivesthe Central the majorthe Party, part Committeeof of of which was money on it.” In fact, the answer to thefunds question is very of complicated, mainly due to the to put was power “ready socialist super the that todemonstrate beable should one domain, On several occasions the SWC pronounced that thethose whomajority contributed of to Soviet Peace Fund was a closed, opaque organization, which did not publish any financial According to the brochure which was issued by SWCthe funds in 1987, for part of – a labor day inwhich Soviet workers enterprises of were obliged to transfer their 70 CEU eTD Collection Copenhagen (14-24 women’sof organizations from the countriesAsia and of Africa in the ForumNongovernmental of organizationsfinancial aidin to the International Women’s Democratic Federation to provide for the participationrepresentatives of from Asia and Africa in participation in the International Women congress [07/11/1980]: f the of expense atthe year) this July of 14-24 (Copenhagen, organizations Nongovernmental of Forum the in delegations to the International Women’s Democratic Federation in connection with the participationthe Federation’s of by theCentralthe Party. Committee (CC) of 71 70 SU’s the into the ways by which former Soviet citizens construct thetheir memories participation of in inquiry fascinating in her describes (2007) Orlova Galina as However, 31). 1981, p Committee exhibitions for the same purpose. Writers transfer their honoraria as well” (Soviet Women’s plays, and money from these events is donated to the Peace Fund. Painters organize photo Peace Fund is supported by many activists from culture and art. Artists organize concerts and Puzireva). Natalia assistant medical (hospital planet” 72 Chernobyl catastrophe in 1980. the earthquakethe victimssupport of of inthe Armenia thein victims 1989; and support of of Lebanon; fundingmonuments the construction oftoSoviet soldiers who died in Europe; (including Angola, Cambodia, Nicaragua, and Ethiopia;)Palestinian support of refugees in national liberation and Marxist revolutionaries inthe the Soviet regions Union’sof engagement to assistance Union; Soviet inthe countries African and Asian from students for scholarships The Soviet Peace CommitteeFund as one more tax they were obliged to pay. and The World Peace Council; Coverage of tuition fees and Soviet Peace this is Fund.a (ifquote, put it in quotation marks.) However it needs to benotedthe SPF’sthat a major part of spending decisions were made The brochure of SWC The makesbrochure of the contribution seem acompletely voluntary action: “The Examples for the projects which are widely known to have been supported by the fund are: Decree ofthe Secretariat ofthe Central Committee ofthe Soviet Union Communist Party Regarding the To agree with the proposal about provisionfinancial of aid in the amount20 ofthousand Quoted in: Soviet Women’s Committee 1981, p. 31 . See for instance Bukovsky, Section 8 (Peace), Document http://www.peacefond.ru/en/ peace movement th of Julythis ofyear). of , the ordinary people frequently perceived the contributions to the Peace 71 acsessed on 3/03/11 71 72 Inaddition, according to a document in the 70 Ȳ CT219/59: CT: Financial assistance to women convertible roubles convertible CEU eTD Collection Soviet Women to the First Nationalthe Union Congress des of Femmes Fran during the period of NinaGrizodubova,SWC’s the principles of vastPopova’sinternational work and networking were established leadership. In June, 1945,4.3 the InternationalThe PrinciplesSWC WorkPopova of of led a delegation of the congress (07/11/1980). Women theInternational in inparticipation Africa Asia and from towomen assistance CT:Financial CT219/59”: 73 Popova, and lasted for over two decades (De Haan, the2010c). two The photos leaders, of the established later that year. A warm and genuine friendship flourished between Cotton and elected as the first president1967). Cotton, a physicist, was CurieMarry astudent and an anti-fascist of leader. She wasofthe Women’s International Democratic PopovaFederation was taken to the forest where Orlov had been killed. when it was the delegation flew to Paris through Berlin, where the delegates were shown the bombed city, and were artists, scientists and workers. According to Borisova, Popova’s friend Lidia Petrova said that wish tobecome the thepresident SWAFC of during this hard period in her personal life. it is possible that she was sent to lead to the delegation in order to examine whether she would her husband,the death whichof had occurred just afew months before the Congress convened, not yet thethe SWCpresident at of that time. In fact, given that Popova was in mourning over the All-Unionas Secretary Central of Trade Council Unions of might bea sign that Popova was Gagarina asthe the SWAFCsecretary of inthe Congressthe whilereport of is she listed herself the time ofthe conference SWCat the of (Borisova president the Popova wasalready that Women. argues French Borisova of Union 2001, p.103). However, the fact that Popova lists Zinaida archive, Bukovsky Despite the fact that SWC had already begun making international contacts under The delegation arrived to Paris onJune 15, 1945, and was met by Eugenie Cotton (1881- Ten women had participated in the Soviet delegation to the UFF congress, among them Bukovsky Archive, Section 8 (KPSS i bor’ba za mir [CPSU and struggle for peace]), Document Document peace]), for struggle and [CPSU mir za ibor’ba 8(KPSS Archive, Section Bukovsky 73 the SWC also had the ability to ask CC for additional foreign currency funds. 72 Ǵ aises (UFF) – aises (UFF) Ȳ CEU eTD Collection apparent in many additional photos and documentary materials. intertwinedarms and their bodies intimately close. Their genuine love and friendship are in 1951. Here is another scene, the two women are leading a women’s march in Moscow – their honor on Eugenie’sorder of chest when the anti fascist leader isawarded the Stalin Peace Prize documentary material shows Popova looking warmly into Cotton’s eyes and helping her put the appear to beintimate and close friends – holding hands, supporting and loving each other. The [Renita’s, Y.K] visitin thespring”. In theSoviet documentary film (1975) Popova's daughter, for a „sweet” letter she had sent, by saying „we are looking forward for her the letter with thesalutation, “My Gentle, Dear Friend!” and closes, uponthanking Renita, an oldthe andmanner committed of friend, almost without any formalities attached. She opens from an exchange between the two (ibid, pp. 248, 249).Cotton,love are full and admiration. of In Borisova the includes letter,Cotton’s in herbook a photo of letter Cotton writes to Popova in filmed documentary materials, andthelettersas well articles,as the inwhich Popova described 73 Eugenie Cotton , the two CEU eTD Collection state (Sorel 1989). Stalingrad in1942 and was awardedLenin and an several Order of other medals by the Soviet 1975, she returned to Spain. in Franco dictator fascist the of death the 1977. Following 1939 to from USSR in exile political Madrid in 1936 becamedetermination a symbol inof the struggle against fascism. Ibarruri was in leader theof Spanish civil war. Her cry guest” in the family (ibid, p. 113-114). (ibid, family the in guest” “special was a (1895 who –1989) Ibarruri Dolores with relationship a close had Vasilyevna also International Democratic FederationInternational ( International LeninPeace Prize with EugenieCotton, President ofthe Women's Nina Popova, ChairmanoftheSoviet Women's CommitteeandLaureate ofthe Cotton was far from being Popova’s only personal friend within the WIDF. Nina Ibarruri lost her son, Ruben Ruiz Ibarruri, in the battle of No pasaran! No La Pasionaria from to –novostiright). Ria 03.06.1954 left 74 (They will not pass!) before the battle upon , was known worldwide as a Republican CEU eTD Collection before and says that she couldn’t find Nina at the Congress they both attended afewdays earlier, bothattended they attheCongress shecouldn’t says and Nina find that before Vaillant-Couturier on her birthday. In the letter, Marie-Claude apologizes that she had not written 1972, Marie-Claude writes a quick note thanking Popova for the warm greeting she had sent to house and had especially warm relations with Popova’s daughter. In aletter dated December, 23, (Cazenave 2004). According to Borisova, Vaillant-Couturier was a frequent guest in Popova’s 1956-1958 in Assembly National 1967-1968 French and the of vice-president a as served of the Union des Femmesof Fran WIDFgeneral in 1945-1955,secretary of WIDF vice from 1954president of and vice-president member of the centralBirkenau and finally Ravensbruck. Vaillant-Couturier was a witness in the Nuremberg trials, and a committeeFrance, and had gone through the Nazi concentration and deathof camps Romainville, the Auschwitz- French Communist Party from 1947. She was the Moscow Nations. 26.05.1964, Ria , (in 1944- congratulating Dolores Secretary Ibarruri,former GeneraloftheCommunistParty ofSpain Nina Popova, chairofthePresidium ofthe Soviet Women's Committee (ontheright), Fran Couturier (1912-1996). During the WWII Vaillant-Couturier was engaged in the La Resistance Ǵ aise – a movement which fought against the Vichy regime and the Nazi occupation of Among her warmest friendships was Popova's relationship with Marie-Claude Vaillant- 1960), on the award1960), onthe the InternationalLeninPrize Strengthening of for Peaceamong Ǵ aises (today -Novosti 75 Femmes Solidaires ) from 1979. Vaillant-Couturier from ) CEU eTD Collection Haan 2010c). Haan supported those politics, and about which we know through various personal documents” (De engagement and interactions with women from Asia and Africa whichwas inline with and that “the WIDF’ssupport forpolicies anti-colonialism of also includedpersonal the level of Women’s Internationalpresident from 1953)…positively contrasted her treatment withinLeague the WIDF with that in the for Peace notes that,for instance“Nigerian leader Funmilayoand Ransome-Kuti (1900-1978) (WIDFVice- Freedom, which sheanotherWIDF dimension – its anti-colonial of and anti-racistdisliked.” position. In this regard, de Haan De Haan believes p. 10. Women. American Washington:Office), U. Printing S. Government of Congress onthe Report 1949). 23, October 75 74 New Year’s table-"Do no forget to put it in the fridge!”-she finishes the note. grandson –who is “the cutest thing.” Marie-Claude is leaving Popova a present –pate for Nina’s and tells her that she wanted to find Popova in order to show Vaillant-Couturier’sher a photo of International Democratic Federation” American Activities Committee (HUAC) under a headlinethe Women’s “Ringleaders of leaders of WIDF“Body language ISmeaningful,” says deHaan,share and calls our attention to the joy that the women in the“…personal relations and famouschemistry contributed significantly to thethe successorganization.” of picturemembers’ long-term dedication tothe organization” (Ibid). Furthermore, according to de Haan, which appearedhave made an important contribution to the functioning its theWIDF and to some ofof in the womennumber withinreport of theWIDF formed deep and long-lasting friendships, which seem to of Houserelations were at the verythethe foundation entire work WIDF. of of Un- According to deHaan, “a theWIDF –An Exploration BasedDecades on Letters and of otherPersonal Documents According to Borisova’s research and my interview with Khoury, Nina Popova had an De Haan also uses the examples of the warm personal relations to call an attention to attention call an to relations personal warm the of examples uses the also Haan De Indeed, as de Haan (2010c) argued in herconference paper See: Committee on Un-American Activities, U.S.Representatives House of (1950, original release date - Aletter from Vaillant-Couturier; cited in: Borisova, 2005, p. 250. 75 . 76 Politics and Friendship in the Early andFriendship inthe Politics 74 , warm personal CEU eTD Collection women of Greatwomen ofBritain on information exchange). June 15 – July 5)77 and GARF,after finally finding women’s organizationFond –allianceColumbia of women and establsihingtherefore7928 conection with them). there(SWC), are no women op. organizations76 2, d. here19 and (E-mail no women press” (seemscorrespondence that the commitee continued withto try National Councilassembled for its own publications, including Soviet Woman and brochuresof published by SWC on potential. activist and suitability ideological comparative archives contain files which onseveral organizations active inthe region, with notes about their worldwide. In internationaldevelopmentsome contacts, of and selecting ideologically appropriate partners of the countries’the informationcollection was of done for several functional reasons. Among them was the files, for instancewomen, theirof struggles and activismGreat in virtually every place around the world Britain Foreign Affairs,and was rapidly and continuously collecting detailed informationUnited about the situation States,national the organizations,States, Nigeria, and Spain, to name only a few. It seems that the SWC with the helpWIDF, of kind in the world. its It includes reports about women from Mozambique, Libya, Peru, the United local irresistiblecommunist temptation for reading, while it is withoutthe biggest a collectionsitsdoubt one of of importantparties dimension aroundabout in theirSWC’s the work. work.world Collecting representativesmet a number of In from the French women’s fact, movement and gathered information and informationthe thearchive SU’sabout of the the SWCMinistrylives in GARF,and enthusiasticactivities about the relations with foreigners andis exceptionally friendly.”almostof of women an remainedwork. an In Khoury’sculture, and which, according to Khoury, remained characteristicthe SWC’s of international opinion,warm friendships which stoodespecially ata formation the baseof warm organizationalof “allexceptional of the talent Committee’s for interpersonal relations. activists It seems that it werewas this talentquite that sustainedgenuinely the warmly Judging by the files organization in the archivesof and the individual documents, the Popova writes in her report that before and during the congress ofUFF, the delegation See, for example: GARF, Fond 7928 (SWC), op. 2, d. 149 (Report on the visitSoviet of women to France, See for an example document: GARF, Fond 7928 (SWC), op. 2, d. 71: “Women in Columbia have no rights 77 77 There is also a collection of data 76 . CEU eTD Collection (Popova, 1946, p 20). Note that the separate representation for Ukraine and Belarus reflects the reflects Belarus and Ukraine for representation theseparate Note that (Popova,20). 1946,p represented Belarus) and PidtychenkoKiev (a professorUniversity of who represented Ukraine) representing the Russian federation), Aleksandrovskaya (People’sthe SU, Artist of who Popova, along with Vasilyevathe Second (a professor Moscow of Medicine Institute, established during the UFF congress, and included four representativesthe USSR: Nina of values could bedelivered without reference to any deficiencies in the Soviet system. needing to mention that such aproblem existed in the Soviet Union atall way, Popova promotedmarketeering, Popova condemns the black market and praises thethose who fight against it. In this Party linewere against positive modelsthe forblack the Sovietneed to spell out that the samemarket issues existed in theSovietcontext. Union, and that the French women ofIn thethe examplepost ofbehaviorthe war UFF struggleyears, and values. against without In blackthe casematerials printed in the journalsof werematerials meant to educate theSoviet women about appropriate dealing with foreign affairs, an author didn’t even Soviet Woman Soviet printed reports or articles in connection with the materials published by the SWC about international affairs, whether single and thespace it gets within herstory raises an important point which has to be mentioned in market in apost-war France. wayThe Popova portrays women's struggle against theblack market theblack and poverty, starvation the work against their and Resistance, tothe contribution events. level and can accountbe which is providedtrusted under the quite easily to identify Party line, is frequently to remarkablyconcluded accurateserve on a factual as Wea archivalsources. Womanother Soviet the from and data within baseSWCand articles by the issued brochures that for anSWC’s establishmentuseful texts are of a in moreby andgeneral. 79 comprehensible largeand oppression”useful . Inaccount in indicatingthe of 78 historical joint significant work with events. de Haan,Moreover, we wedrew found thatcomparisons the between several accounts within the the international women's movement and the WIDF. The InitiativeThe Committee for thean preparation internationalwomen of was congress of In the public report on the Congress, Popova praises UFF women’s courage, their The published, modified accounts See requirefor example Soviet criticalWoman 1960, 12 , Nina reading, Popova „For a world but without shall weapons notand wars, at slavory any rate be disregarded as non and another popular Soviet women journal Soviet Woman Soviet . Gudova (2008) argues in her conference paper on 78 78 Krestyanka [Peasant woman that woman [Peasant 79 . The message about the CEU eTD Collection look like orhow it would function” (de Haan, 2010b, p 561): “any notion that the Soviet Union orits representatives simply decided what theWIDF would toundermine whichseems WIDF’sthe rivalry in history thisearly summarizes Haan 34). De included objections to the time line and suggestions to postpone the gathering (Popova 1946, p. ourestablishment women’s of democratic federation”. The against struggle intensive an was“managing Miss Ellen, lead by delegation British the that notes words (Borisova 2005, p. 115-116). This is judging from Popova’s own public in report which she probably the Soviet side that pushed for a congress in “the year in which war ended,” in Popova’s it was most and inMoscow. Borisova’sis mistaken that seems account However, it disbelief and surprise with wasmet schedule tight this Borisova, Paris. to 1945,in November, According Women's Congress, which was organized in just a few monthsshort to begin on the 26th of an internationalof women's congress. way in which the SU was represented at the UN. The Initiative Committee called for a gathering ‘Communist’. More than this, Elisabeth Allen also argued against theFederation for the member organisations which, according to Elisabeth Allen, sounded a more open formulation was added) and also proposed changing the ‘ordering style’ word ‘anti-fascist’ with ‘democratic’ in relation to member organisations (and indeed Federation. In regard to organise and establishthe a common viewpoint about thenaturethe andwording aims of of the Statutes,postponing the congress for a year in order to give womenthey in their countries time to argued for replacingAustralian women who had no formal role on that Committee, arguedthe for Delegations and representativesforty-one states of arrived in Paris for the International The BritishThe the International members of InitiativeCommittee, supported by 79 sabotage as Popova referred to it, CEU eTD Collection 81 memoirs; see her Sila 80 in those days described the trip to Borisova: This is how Evdokiia Belolipetskaia,a village awoman background of who worked with Popova (International Unity of Women: the great power) (Moscow: VTsSPS Profisdat). pp.Street’sWomen:(Moscow: power) JessieVTsSPS Profisdat). 85–91; thegreat of Unity (International brought us some scarves, shawls, fur, some jewelry. We dressed up and nolonger Maretskaya was returned. cabaret!”your own!” I One rememberof us rattedcomplaint. on Maretskaya We were “She ours allMaretskayawentOne toof visit the emigree who was the isczar'sgathered relative, and someonegoing filed a out at tothe meet wall. the embassy on portrait family czar's isthe there and hishouse, usto invited translator people and in told: a saying “Not a Westep would eat atthe canteen. The translators were the Whiteanywhere immigrants. One “I on amCoutourier among them. We settled in thetrade mission, four tofive people per room.an actress.We landed in I France.the suitcasebathrobe out of and putit onunder the coat; I tied myshould shawl over my hat. We Fritz like the up were ourselves warming plane, the around running see met by that.”the Frenchflew abroad for thewomen, first time.and was givenAs terrycloth robes.Marie-ClaudeI From the recall,central airport we flew on a“Douglas.” Many it was freezing coldthe outfits. Everyonewas dressed in browncoats, very very stylish ones, brown hats, on theVaillant- plane. We were women soldiers from all the republics.” We were thendriven toNikolskaya toreceive us–actresses, thedelegation. scientists, Therewill be about30 of engineers,of voting. havingmember organisationsdirect control of and opposed the proposed system of At the time SWAFC,the president of Popova wasthe onceagain delegation. the head of Fritz – derogatory, a German person. De Haan (2010b, pp 560-561) based on Nina Popova (1946) Before the Congress, Ambassador Bogomolov's wife came to visit us. She And so Nina Vasiliyevna tells me: “We will gotothe Paris Congress, as members 80 Jessie Street , p. 195. 80 Mezhdunarodnoe Edinenie Zhenshchin –Vilikaya 81 in winter. Itook the CEU eTD Collection Nikitina – Assistant professor in AcademyScience of and finally Bugayeva – a journalist (Popovaof 1946, Moscowpp. 93-94 ). AcademyScience; of BlolipezkayaUniversity – asistent to the Secretarythe Trade of Unions(Popova); Mechenkodistrict; – professor of USSR;thetradeForeign ministry Maretskaya of of – artist; Arefyeva – directorkindergartenKrasnoprecnenskij of of Ermolyevadepartmentthe state union organizations; ofof Languages, Shangina – engineer; Tyuleneva – memberthe advising of board to Furzeva – chemistry engineer; Fomicheva – colonel,the Hero Soviet – of a Union, KoshelevaBoychenkoprofessor, of ,mother Unions Trade the hero– head the culturalof of sanatorium ofthe of Soviet amanager Ivatsek, Union; Soviet the Union; of hero a aviation, of colonel Sveshnikova – director – a liberarianheadMoscow in Lenin's ofof metropolitan;library, Kononenko a the –a schoolwriter; Fedorova Belkina –metropoliten engineer, memberthe– institute Supreme ofjournalist Soviet, Troitskayain chemistry, – colonel,of , KapustinaKirov professor Ivaneyeva in the– architect; Mendeleyevscientific district Institute;advisement of Aleksandrovskayaboard the of ministry biologicalLebedeva– health, ofa – national worker-stahanovez;Pidchenkoin artist – professorUSSR, of Moskow; ZelrkalovaKiev ofprofessor University, , Gorinevskaya– – – colonel,a artist; professormilitary medicine. ofhead Dzhavahashvili Sharigina – PHD in medicine, Tbilisi, – PHD preventionTurkmenia,ofindustry of the a memberinstitute Supreme of Soviet, Vainberg – ministerJurisdiction ofLatvia, Vasilyevaof – GarmashMoscow council; Parfenova the – schoolsheadof board of of in theTuberkulezeducation, ministry of Bahtigul – minister light of – educationofhead infections, of a Kotortractorstudies under – neardeputyCentralbrigade; Committeebythemember theof jurist; Soviets Berhsanskayathe ofacademyworkers Petrova, Minister within ofa head ofHistorythe ofprinting scienceof82 Department; people's – industry.of Gurina health and – an Kirsayevaengineer a member in ofcommissarheavy SU– member industry; , of Zuyevaof the theBelyayeva, ofthe to havebeen must professors SWAFC, of thea number such head of of– theparticipation ofthe beyond Kovrigina idea the headBorisova, USSR, – of theprofessor committeefascination with knowledgeof and higher educationon and hereconomics deep respect towards theit, as described by issues andofSoviet womengroupcultural of delegates came from academica backgrounds. Asidemember from Popova's of the interesting considerationsaccount of involved in compositionthe delegation. of (Borisova 2005, p 116) p 2005, (Borisova taking a suddenus in. And Minsk all allowsof landing, with bonfires. Minsk let us in” off. Everyone has wrapped themselves up, frozen... Then we are told -airports are not now -it's time to fly home, but the weather is frightful. Douglas cannot manage to take going to bedweeach flaunted other.in front of I itremember happened just it as if Chine night gowns, embroidered in satin stitch, beautiful like evening dresses. Before allowed to leave home and into Europe... perhaps... Everyone was laughing at meafter that - look what happened once she was with me. When Iopened it, it turned out to beempty. Some confusion happened, resembled orphanage children. In Moscow they gave me a box of groceries to take The SovietThe delegation was among Sovietthe biggest. The participantslist of provides an The delegation included Gagarina – the editor ofthe newly established „The Soviet woman” , Sabillo, a The FrenchThe treated us exceptionally well. Iremember, at night we wore crepe de 81 82 The largest The CEU eTD Collection emphasize theirrole as was supposed to not only position the Soviet women withinmilitary aframework glory and to of Union. state leadership positions represented one more impressivethe Soviet achievement formal of SU,ministriesthe Central of membersthe Party Committeeof and the of like. Indeed women in the government, includingthe Republics, MinistersAdvisory Committeesof members of by the compose a politically impressive delegation, but also the most reliable one. to become a professor one had to bethe Partya member and of that Popova didn't only need to Russian origin, Popova assigned special significance and attention torepresentativethe East of delegation is the ethnic representation. While an absolutethe delegation majority of was of movies which were known abroad. (Popova 1946) Congress, as ifshe was an actualtells war heroin, due tous the roleof she participation an in filmsplayedSoviet about heroism women of during the war. Inthis regard Popova anecdote ineven one ofthe wartime when the war were met filmby the women at the Congress with special enthusiasm. actressunthinkableWestern among the armies Allies.of According to Popova, the Soviet heroines of Maretskayaliterally afact apparatus, military the ranksof highest the at served women Soviet that idea was accepted by women at the celebrative representation, yet it was far more advanced than the reality in the West. 83 education intheWest in those years establishing the superioritythe Communist rule,of givenwomen thestatus inhigher of womenthe Soviet was state. in theThe progress of Soviet academy especially meaningful in of characteristic standard and academy isaregular womenin the of advancement the that argue The nextThe significant group within thedelegation was themilitary personnel. This group Another significant group within thedelegation was women who hold very high posts in One more dimension which should be emphasized in regard to thecompositionthe of artistsThe who were chosen for the delegation were internationally known from their Although the reality of women's status within the academic community in USSR was far from this eedr f the world defenders of 83 . As a side note, against fascism, but also to yet again emphasize the emphasize yet again to also but fascism, against 82 it is also important to mention that in order CEU eTD Collection representativethe official of full narrative womenemancipation of by of the Soviet state. a republic’smember of government!” (Popova 1946, p. 66). long ago was under colonial“A woman in born Asia, in peasant’s family toMuslim parents,a nation a whichdaughter of not rule and suddenly – a member of Supreme Soviet, a minister, a with nothing less than full admirationher achievements: of that she was accepted by other delegations at the Congress is a colonialremarkable tropes mix of the Soviet Union.of The way in which Popova tells about the Eastern representative and the way minister of theTurkmen governmentminister of of (Popova 1946, pp. 65-66). she arrived as a big public[…] And young Bahtygul, by working and studying, rose higher and figure,higher. To Paris a memberonly of thethe rightSupreme but anSoviet opportunityraised by theSoviet rule […] as everyher nationof child Bahtygul of USSRhad received not to andstudy. It occurredMorocco and Algeria are thatborn nowadays. she […] But …our Bahtygulwas was educateda gifted and the same conditions in whichchild.exploited children and heartof Islamic public of In summary - the delegation of the SWAFC toBahtygul, according to Popova, immediatelythe drew attentionher eastern because looks- of WIDF’s founding congress was Our Bahtygul Altibayeva, the daughter ofTurkmen […] was born in exactly 83 CEU eTD Collection 1945 The Sovietdelegationatthe WIDF’s congress,founding Paris, France,November represented the people who won over fascism, in a grandiose battle never seen before in history” was walking “awoman who Borisova, because to according reaction, received this She standing. Borisova tells us that when Popova walked to thestage todeliver her speech, the entire room was delegation proclaimed that the Soviet Union had progressed beyond the ‘woman question.’ for itselfa unique statusclaiming in also but state, Soviet by the emancipated fully women were that idea the portraying among the delegations at 112). Thus,the through the mere compositionthe delegation, of the SWAFCCongress. succeeded not only in By its mereStar, architects, composition, women industrial workers, writers andlarge mothers families” of (Lavelle 2002, p. the lieutenantthe uniform colonel, of a captain who carried out night bomber flight, a Russian Film Soviet Russia.of Numbering forty two, it included a woman general, a famous surgeon, wearing Monitor Soviet delegation. This is also supported by an account from the Congress in delegation brought the desired results; women from all around theworld were fascinated with the According to Popova's account, the broad and illustrative representation within the which reportsthat “the largest andcertainly the most representative delegation was that 84 Christian Science Christian CEU eTD Collection (Popova 1946, pp. 48-49). (Popova 1946,pp. motherhood improved in thecountries in which“people democracy had gained the power” and occupation in the Eastern Europe by citingexamples a long onlist how of protection of within the frameworkthe Soviet Foreignof Policy. For example, propagating the Soviet presence Party,the allthis of line the to according structured analysis political broad as aswell accounts, women's narratives present at thecongress. These include the personal domain and local political Popova as a well-educated politician and diplomat, who easily maneuvered the wide variety of affection for women and is demonstrativeher political talent of as well. Theaccount reveals strength their survival, and and women’s struggles of accounts and stories with analyses and framework often beauty.arrivingfeeling at a decisive of momentin world history. Her narrative is a powerfulHaan 2009, 2010). accountpeace. Thefour themes becamethe theWIDF’s focus of future work as well (Popova 1946, de of her genuinefinally,women theparticipation in the establishment of democracy and strengthening of of respectmeasures which need to take place in order to improve them; childhood and education; and and women in the struggleChinese, French, Spanish and Russian.the congress included Theagenda of four main themes: againstwere from local French organizations.fascism; Theofficialthe congress were languages English, of economic,another hundred and seven an advisory voice and yet another four hundred forty women present legal andParis (De Haan, 2009, 2010). Two hundred socialthirty three women present had an elective voice, statuson Saturday, of women 1 December and the1945, the week ended withSovietstatus Union’s of a representationmass in WIDF, by similar means.rally in the Velodrome(Borisova 2001, p. 118). Inthe next decades, the SWC’sd'Hiver was working to preserve this unique in The structure of the presentation which the Soviet delegation gave on stage was Popova's accountthe congress(1946) reflects of an deepatmospheresolidarity, of and the 29, and November on Federation was established Democratic Women's The International 85 Her narrative joined an ideological CEU eTD Collection 4.4 Prospects for the research on the role of the SWP within the development of the and the foreignthe policiesUSSR. of women's movements and activistsand internationally, and/or appeals for support International women's movements, asin well as the West whose goals complied with the national interest revolutions in the Third World. the Soviet'spart of Union engagement in the national liberation struggles and Marxist stages of the USSR'sstages existenceof and remained significant until its fall. People’s diplomacy, using citizen diplomacy, a channel which was highly important at the earlier Soviet Union’s national interests by the means of: in depthabove demonstrate thatthe Soviet the work Women’sof Committee had promoted the SU of policies anddiplomacy foreign 25-28). 1980s(Popova 1946,pp the until up locally achievements, whichthe wereCommittee's a common theme of propaganda internationally and resolution “knew verywell what she is fightingof for,” (Popova 1946,the p. 25). Thepresentation lauded the “womannarrative question” which Popova“exceptional theand Soviet mass heroism women of during the War” presented was, accordingas to the one in thein thethe development “historytheoutcomepublic Soviet of of state,”of a (Popova 1946,long p. 24). The report, list due to during thethe WWII. Thenarrativeof was meant todemonstrate that thisfact heroismfactual was anintegral that the Soviet decadesand later.the Themainpresentation focus of was onexceptional Sovietwomen heroism women of imaginaryrepresentativethe narrative of in which theSWAFC and later SWC used in their work for Soviet x x x Thus, the history, structure and characteristicsSWCthe work which of wereof discussed Appeals for womensolidarity and women's of rights activists and movements in the West Empowerment of women, women's rights activists and women's rights movements as movements rights women's activists and rights women, women's of Empowerment Networking with women, women's rights activists and movements as part of the Soviet the of as part movements activistsand rights women's women, with Networking 86 CEU eTD Collection the entire organizational culture and the model for international cooperationSWC. of WIDF; that there is a possibility that it was not only Popova’s experience which was wanted, but the experience gathered within the frameworkinternational of networking among women and argument and briefly show that there is a possibility that the Union was actually built based on experience she had from her work in the SWAFC and WIDF. I would like toexpend this Sovietpillars people's of diplomacy. this newly established structure, whichthe latermore became important oneof and influential Countries was establishedthe in VOKS. place of Nina Popova was assigned to head the board of untilSoviet 1956. Societies TheUnion of for Friendship and Cultural Relations with Foreign up states foreign with contacts “informal” for which was responsible structure governmental on the All-Union Society for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries (VOKS) – the diplomacy was performed (Dawisha themajor changes1975). Onein this of regard was the ban diplomacy. These changes were not so muchforeign in thecontent policy, of but in how encourage further researchthis subject. of included in this thesis research. I have chosen to include this rudimentary evidence in hope to inquiry isneeded in order tosubstantiate the argument, whichthe full can not scope be of very briefinquiry into the facts which lead me to suggest thisSocieties hypothesis. Again, a muchfor deeper Friendshipthethe SWC workmodel formed of ofthe basis for the establishmentSovietthe Union of of and Cultural Relationsdemonstrate that although amuch deeper inquiry is needed, there are grounds to believe that the with Foreignthe USSR can not be summarized by thisStates account only. In the following section Iwill strive to (the Union). This is only a Let us turn to adocument by Radio Free Europe – a popular western propagandist radio Natalia Borisova argues that Popova was assigned the the internationalto post because of Nikita Khrushchev riseThe of brought profound changes within the Soviet foreign However, it seems the SWCthat the within rolepeople’s of the history of diplomacy of 87 CEU eTD Collection deal with similar unofficial bodies abroad” authorities) to argue that the friendship societies are unofficial and must therefore beleft free to organization public real another name. Their main argument that supported this analysis isthat theUnion will not be Popova, in which she compares the new organizations and VOKS: Radio Freehints Europeatthe the itselfchanges quality with of citation from an interview with organizational cultureVOKS and banthe ofestablishment theand Union did of represent profound changes bothin in the the ways offoreign change.propaganda However, even fromand the readingthe RadioSovietof Free Europe'sabove, a publicState’s organization in USSR ownwas certainly not an independentreport, entity striving for ita social is diplomacy.clear that the describes the reasons behindVOKS: the ban of 86 85 84 station that played a significant role during the Cold War. embarrassed the Soviet Government and prejudiced its relations with other countries as the Communist-dominated friendship societies in the West. at the same time it dealt only with unofficial and unrepresentative organizations such G.A. Zhukov; of the chairmanship under Countries, Foreign with Relations Cultural recognized and tacitly admitted to be controlled by the official State Committee for However, Radio Free Europe further argues that the new Union is merely VOKS under I disagree with the generalRadio nature Free of Europe's argument. Indeed, as elaborated Ibid. Ibid. „New Organization to Control "Friendship"” April 25, 1958. OSI Archive: HU OSA 300-8-3, 55-3-16. Madame Popova admitted that some of VOKS’ past activities have VOKS […] had the disadvantage being an organization of that was commonly but “a supposedly independent organization, which enables them (the Soviet 86 . 88 84 This is how Radio Free Europe 85 a CEU eTD Collection 88 87 establishmentFriendship andUnion work of Societies of with Foreign Countries international work. Ialso discussed a possibility that these principles stoodthe at the base of the Soviet Unionof can be profound. archival research, however thesuch outcomes an inquiry of people for diplomacy thehistory of FriendshipUnion ofSocieties with Foreign Countries, requires without adoubt an extensive includedits principles the exporting of people’sto the biggest structure of diplomacy – the establish that the theSWC legacy was of in fact much more far reaching than its actual work and warm interpersonal relations and cultural exchanges. Union was to work on the principles on which the SWC was working under Popova’s leadership: Europe: cultural and personalof contacts rather than up-front propaganda. According to Radio Free relations withpolitical a broad range and of social actors around the world, grounded in avision authorities or communist parties, while theUnion, similarly toSWAFC, aspirated to establish the peace loving foreignthe Soviet policy of state. the Soviet people,their economy, thedevelopmentlife of of culture andscience and foreignlanguages countries of and to diffuse abroadinformation all on kinds the of acquaint theSoviet people with the life, work, custom, economy, culture, history and the Moscowon the model Youth of Festival. Its goals according to Popova were to intended to be the new thespearhead Soviet "peace of and friendship" propaganda when she said that its “forms and methods” are “outmoded”. In this chapter I’ve discussed the the SWCestablishment andits the principles of of The hypothesis which I suggest here, namely that that further research will be able to Thus, according to the citations brought by radio Europe, it can be suggested that the new Indeed, as Radio Free Europe itself describes, VOKSIndeed, asRadio worked FreeEurope itself throughgovernmental Ibid. Ibid. Madame Popova's opening address suggested that the new organization is organization new the that suggested address Popova's opening Madame 89 88 87 CEU eTD Collection 5.1 Introduction target audiences - the womenbroad public around of theworld- struggles. imperialist anti and anti-capitalist anti-fascist, with integration and in combination welfare, social their and foreign policy and diplomacy. Thus, there was a special emphasiswomen-workers onrights of international domainwomen’s of rights and struggles was a partgeneral of frameworkSoviet of inquiry. future this for lines of the thesis, howeverarenas. A comprehensive argument on the historical thissignificance role is beyondwhere of the scope applicableaudiences – women’s masses and women leadership,and and in regard to both local and international where the SUevidence within the international domainwomen’s of rightsallows, and struggles in regard to two main target chapter summarizesI the wayswillthe and mechanismsthethe SWC engagementof of on of behalf suggest generaland identified the main characteristicsits work during of the organization’s founding period. This comrades was vast but to emphasize the antagonism which existed according to the Marxist Leninist doctrine, 89 ON BEHALF OF THE C HAPTER The work of SWC can workThe bebetter understoodof through its outreach efforts to two main I begin by emphasizing once again that thedirect activethe SU within engagement theof In the previous chapter I have presented a generalSWC’s outline of history and structure, n f h ao ietoso tewr f the the majorSoviet the directionsworkWomen’sOne of of of Committee is the cooperation development with of other women’s The term 5 T women masses women HE MECHANISMS OF THE DIRECT ACTIVEROLE PLAYED BY raiain ntewrdi aeo peace, friendship and mutual understanding between peoples. the in the organizations world in name of S in Soviet jargon was used not only to in order to emphasize that the target audience- OVIET WOMEN U ' NION WITHINTHEINTERNATIONAL DOMAIN OF S RIGHTS AND STRUGGLES 90 (Soviet Women’s Committee, 1981, p. 2) womenmasses 89 , and women- , and SWC CEU eTD Collection others: The SWC definitely played a central and influential role within the WIDF. Orwell, all organizations within WIDF were equal, but some organizations were more equal than SWC was not merely one more organization among equals. Certainly, to paraphrase George international structure as a mere submissivethe SWC tool and of the Soviet Union. However, the 2009, 2010). Thus, argued de Haan, WIDF’s history can not be degraded to presentationthis of different political and ideological backgrounds and differentthe Iron curtain “sides” (de Haan of WIDF wasa significant, thelocation of powerful and dynamic meeting among women from over WIDF. Francisca de Haan objected to this false consensus, arguing convincingly that the women's movements was that SWC wasthe Soviet a tool Unionof that had absolute control recently, the consensus in thewomen and gender historythe scholarship transnational of its work were its role and participation in Women’s International Democratic Federation. Until empowering women, especially in the Third World. activists, but was also deeply engaged in the developmentfuture leadership of through women leaders, theSWC not only did outreach to and cooperated with existing leadership and important to note in this regard that withinoutreach the domain and collaboration of with constituted a valuablesocial, racial and economic equality, the women leading these struggles and movements target audiencewomen was conceptualizeda struggle as for peace,an integral national part of liberation and for and a pool of possible partnerships for the SWC. It is outreach or cooperation and wont be elaborated upon here. 91 most appropriate term in regard to the thework committee. of 90 West. between interestsordinary of women in the west and east, and intereststhe of ruling capitalist governments in the Marxist revolutionary struggles women’s movements, as well as with women leaders and activists within national liberation and War’s East and West. This included connecting with womenlocal leaders and internationalof activists and leaders The singleThe most significantthe SWC and engagement definitely of the most central within The committee also had conection with women leaders fo capitalist world but this can not be perceived as The usagethe of term „outreach” is not taken for granted: I will argue later why this in my opinion is the 90 . TheSWC reached out to women’s activists and leadership located in Cold 91 . Given that thestruggle for liberation and emancipation of 91 CEU eTD Collection SWC had from the work within and with the SWC were a capital by itself, given that a systembelonging of to the nomenclaturethe Soviet elite of state. The connections which and included opportunities for career advancement and Union Soviet the valuablewithin and rare were that privileges with activists and staff members, elite its provided SWC The p.76). (ibid abroad” to travel even sometimes and viewpoints provided opportunities to make international contacts, tolearn from foreign experiences and and O’Sullivan-See, “the SWC was particularly attractive toprofessional women, because it and activists’,staff had any personal interests in SWC’s work. They did. In Racioppithe words of was a separate agent within system acting on its own interests. meetingactors withpoint of interests, the SWC might have autonomy had a degree it thatof is if interest groups within the particular ideologicalthe Sovietwe think domain. stateof If as a the Sovietgovernance Union of according to Lane can bebetter understood as a meeting among unrealistic supposition, at least as far as the period after Stalin’s death is concerned. The is an subjects, and itsstructures overall of control total sustained and few, obtained who governance. Lane argues that an understanding ofthe Soviet state as a totalitarianSWC’s relations with the Centraltheregime CommitteeCPSU. of a of ACWDF, Iwould like tosuggest as well that amore complicated approach might be applicable to evidencebroad as base my of respectable colleague who had interviewed theleading women of differentpriorities set thanof the broaderChina. Although CP of Iam not relying on such a Chinese PeopleFederation that the organization, which was inavery similar structural position within the Democraticstate. Dr. Wang Zheng (2005, 2010) shows inAll-China her research Women of DemocraticRepublic,to broaden our understandingthe complexitiesSWCthe position within of the Sovietof of did in practice have its own The first dimension which must beconsidered in this regard is whether its members, paid First, let us getback to David Lane’sthe Soviet (1985) state’s analysis of character of Before approaching the actual mechanismsSWC’s of activity internationally, it is important 92 svyazi [connections] with other women voice and even a slightly women of thewomen of CEU eTD Collection demonstrates the organization had some autonomy and self-interest in the context. put: In order to stay relevant and influential,influenced its position within the internationalwomen’s domain of the rights and struggles. SWC Simply had to reasonable that the the(in)ability SWC to respond of the requeststo some of could have mentioned warm personal relations with foreign women, as well as ona political level. Itis above to due level, a personal on both were requests the to respond to pressures The structures. Peacethe requests Fund. Some ofalso demanded collaboration with other Party and state the like. TheSWC could fund the requests from its own budgetthe orfrom Soviet the budget of Soviet Union for women leaders and their children, for humanitariancrisis aid forand areas of students, for invitations and visits and delegations to theSoviet Union, for vacations within the from different quarters,addition, itcontinually received divergent andevenas conflicting requests, andwas underpressure I will show. The SWC receivedmost importantly WIDF, and forged relations with individual women leaders worldwide. In requests organizations, women fortransnational with relationships built stipendsand p.7) 1989b, (Pukhova countries from women networked with more than three hundred local women organizations in hundred thirty seven which it collaboratedalso had to answer to outside pressures inside and to advocate includingthe the elites, to cope with the failuresthe central of forplanning (Ledeneva 1998). Sovietthe interests ofother state. actors with This is clearly the case, given that the SWC participation in the International Women congress [07/11/1980]. Women congress the International in participation 92 budget, and requestedworldwide. from CC an Inadditional order to be advantageable in this regard, the SWC had alsobudget toprovide actual and relevantto support to its partners respond on a projectto the requests,much theas SWC strivedbeing to enlargepart its ownof the powerful Soviet state was an important symbolic and practical informal and personal networking – These two dimensions – personal intereststhe activiststhe SWC of and of and the staff The secondThe dimension which must be taken into account in this regard is that the SWC Section 8 (Peace), Document Ȳ CT219/59: CT: Financial assistance to women from Asia and Africa in in blat – stood at the base ofthe strategies ofSoviet people, 93 be relevant and influential, and as byproject basis. 92 The above The CEU eTD Collection 5.2 The ways and the mechanisms of engagement of the SWC within the international the SWC within the of engagement of mechanisms the and ways 5.2 The journal Soviet Woman. As I have mentioned briefly above, the main printed material which theSWC distributed was the materials that illustrated the achievementsthe Soviet Union of in the women. emancipation of within theinternationalwomen’s domain of rights and struggles was printedthe distribution of encouraging other people’s struggles and progress.the active Animportant part of propaganda people diplomacy not only in promoting its international standing and interests, but also in in the Middle East, theleadershipthe SU believed of cultural in theefficacy propaganda of and printed materials of 5.2.1 Distribution women's rightsdomain of and struggles organizations worldwide, helping it stay relevant in the domain. organization, and also toSWC had an interestenlarge in theenlargementthe privileges both the of that thewomen of the resources whichEurope, the various public organizations within the State and more.it Under these conditions,could the allocate torevolutionary women movements, communist parties in the West, socialistand governments in Eastern women’s diplomacy, efforts needed to be divided among many clients – national liberation and Marxist foreign to allocate could it recourses limited had state Soviet the of authority governing interest existedof between the SWC and the Central Committee. In addition, while the the pressures it experienced from outside sites– are examplesin which of potential for conflicts According to Karen Dawisha (1975) who focuses on the Soviet Union’s people’s diplomacy 94 CEU eTD Collection group. In Hindi and French, the coversthe Journalof were also replaced. the literally editing and "writinggraphical of headlines” amount to three times more expensivereplacement affair than the first ofmaterial material. Theis lastas expensivegroupToday ofissues includes within Chinese replacementtheheadlines of for every editionfirst andKorean, style editing and additional controlgroup, editingJapanese for every issue. Spanish. this The issuing group it of requires and partialrequires replacementwrittenHindi. ofand illustrating material, includingIt is twonotablethe budget control for that1962, thewhile editions editing’s the are Japanese, dividedpartial to „groups”: whichHindi the first and grouptogether also includes in French English, 94 with German,under Hungarian a title andCommittee "A for the year 1961.Woman today”. The journal93 was issued monthly. According to sections on fashion, cooking, culture and child upbringing. women within the Soviet state, as well as their rights as workers and mothers. Italso featured drawings and,of later, photographs. It featured articles about theposition and welfare of edition by sample patterns for child dresses. samples for women’s dresses which were included in the Russian edition were replaced in Indian the targetinterests audiences of and also responded to cultural differences. For instance, pattern original material. encompassed fifty percentof materials in the foreign language editions were translated from Russian, but the French edition 01.07.1983 The "Soviet Woman" magazinepublished in14languages. Moscow. 1983. in French cost thehalfof amount the of entire first group, probably due to the higher percentageoriginal of The The journal was developing over the years and included articles and a considerable number According to the budget and work plan for 1961, approximately seventy five percent of In 1961 the Journal was issued in ten languages-Russian, English, German, Spanish, Hungarian, Chinese’s, Hungarian, Spanish, German, English, languages-Russian, ten in was issued the Journal 1961 In GARF, fond 7928 (SWC), op. 3, d. 760. The list ofstaff and budget for administrative expenses ofthe 94 95 93 The original materials addressed the specific the addressed materials original The Soviet Woman Soviet was heavily occupied A Woman CEU eTD Collection term the the Greatday Victory, of and more. from women who visited SU, letters received for celebrating memorable dates, for instance, for SWC and included reports from delegations sent to foreign countries,acknowledgment letters of it and its successes.the journal also This part of served to report about the international work of initiative committee meetings, and the Soviet interpretationsthe WIDFs work of and obstacles to organizations. Thearticles dedicated to WIDF included reports from the congresses and the articles dedicated WIDF to theand work other internationalof and transnational women’s included also It worldwide. movements Marxist and liberation national in took women role the world, articleswomen forabout struggles their of political and economic rights, and articles on international domain. journalThe included articles debating womenthe situation around of the Soviet Union, professors, heath professionals, stakhanovite and alike. about women occupying the highest posts within the state,Supreme as membersthe Soviet of of propagandist efforts outside and inside the state. To this end, the Soviet Woman featured articles with line in is which one acentral as state Soviet the women’s within role representing with women worldwide, however, since they now occupy unique and high places, being, as they are, narrative. According to the narrative, theSoviet Women are sisters within the community of Sovietposition women of within theinternationalwomen community is an of the Communist Party. combat theWIDF accusations as being under of the completethe Soviet control Union of and work. This was probably a partthe of broader consistent effortorganizations theof SWC and the WIDF to and and thebranches, editors were careful to decrease usagethe of word and even with few exceptions in regard to the SWC and its own democratic It should be noted that the pieces regarding international affairs used almost solely the the to wasjournal’s dedicated the space of part aconsiderable edition, first its very From The narrative which describes the SWC role and position within WIDF, and the general in regard toWIDF and its branches and organizations. Itseems that the authors 96 communist in regard to WIDF itself, its Older sister CEU eTD Collection had to justify the spending in the budget proposal: honorarium for the articles within the yearly onpayments tothe theauthorsarticles inof forits printed materials (excluding translation and typing fees. Theeventual cost was almost twice as much as what theSWC spent incoming letters a month, which had amounted to quite an expensive affairthe because of received thescreened by the KGB), translated, typed and sent abroad.same The letters arriving from abroad treatment.to the SWC, where they were edited by the SWC’s a member(meaning, of staff most probably, Forexchanges among Soviet and foreign women. lettersThe written by theSoviet women1961, were sent the SWC plannedthousands greeting cards for the New Yearto and six thousand for the International Women’sissue Day. aninformal education children. of The same year the SWC alsoanswer planned to send abroad eight to collections weresixty prepared featuring different topics: family, Soviet children, vacation, and the five the next year twenty albums containingphotos inhundreds each. Intheof same year extra set to include fifty pictures illustrating the topic. On the same subject, SWC also planneda photographic exhibition to called issue “InternationalSoviet relations women,” of with each exhibition printed propaganda for foreign women. In 1961, SWC planned to send toseventy different states books about theSoviet lives women” of included plans to send to a hundred organizations worldwide5-6 “librariesbrochures of and abroad. For instance, 1961, in theSWC’s the budgetyear of of twentieth anniversary, also Committee for the year 1961. 96 6. mezhdu narodami [Soviet woman in a struggle for peace and friendship among people]. Soviet Woman. No 6, pp.95 5- supportiveother sisters within of thehumankind family of completely liberated and emancipated, they are not just any sister, but an older sister, wise and One more dimension of printed showcase propaganda was a wide scheme for letter However, Soviet Woman was notthe only printed material that the SWC was sending GARF, fond 7928 (SWC), op. 3, d. 760. The list ofstaff and budget for administrative expenses ofthe See, for example: Nina Popova (1947) Sovetskaya zhenshhina v bor’be za delo mira I sotrudnichstva I mira za delo bor’be v zhenshhina Sovetskaya Popova Nina (1947) example: for See, Soviet WomanSoviet 96 . Photography was a veryimportantthe dimension of 97 ). So expensive it was indeed that the SWC 95 . CEU eTD Collection 5.2.2 Financial support to women, women’s movements andwomen activists in the Third of delegations and of women, USSR embassy in Syria, aboutpeaceful preparationthe congress forces, of of exchange the Indeedfiles one withinof the archive include a “letter exchange withSyrian The League of to the women’s organization in the Third World, dependant, colonial and post-colonial states. activities. However, Khoury notes that to her best knowledge the SWC did provide direct support World, colonial and dependent states its own brochure the SWC argues: 99 material aid, January-October, of 1973. provision and delegations, of exchange corpses, Peace of World the Congress for women onpreparations 98 Committee for the year 1961, and annexes. 97 and children. Uponthese theinvitation countries, of the Committee sends lecturers eradicate illiteracy among women; and public centers are established to aid women to conducted are campaigns the Committee, the of help the with countries, these In disease. and poverty hunger, illiteracy, colonialism: of burden difficult the overcome youngorganizations independent of states in Africa and Asia, which are yet to Samira Khoury argues that Tandi itself didn’t receive any direct financial support for its See, for instance: GARF, fond 7928 (SWC), op. 3, d. 3329. Mail correspondence with theSyrian League of GARF, fond 7928 (SWC), op. 3, d. 760. The list ofstaff and budget for administrative expenses ofthe participate women from Moscow, but also from other cities and also otherregions to foreign countries, the Committee is using the exchanges, and incorporating not only socialist system and away toestablishing contacts with different groups within the letter exchangethe advantagesthe Sovietpropaganda is a of means of of figures and journalists, which are addressed individually toSoviet women. Given that It has become a good tradition to support in various ways the women’s The CommitteeThe is receiving many letters from foreign organizations and public 97 rvso f financial( provision of . materialnoy) 98 aid [the emphasis is mine, Y.K.]” 99 . In 98 CEU eTD Collection Palestine. The Soviet women would coordinate theseChina or somewhere aids.” in that area or many times in Vietnam we would send aid even from here in in eruption wasavolcanic there areas. When struck to crisis world the around organizations through local women’s organizations. They would coordinate theaids sending from women of support would offer “They disasters: natural women’sand women of incases movements support to Vietnam: research is required. However, some range can be imagined from the following data on the SWCthe campaigns against illiteracy,congresses, theSWC schools sponsoredfor children the establishment inAfrica. of Thescale of support ofwomen’s centers and schoolspossibilityWIDF’s that part of campaignsis was in fact financed unclearby the SWC exists. and furtherexperience in this issue. These campaigns were also mentioned withinWIDF, the work of and a World. This is reasonable,the Soviet in light state’s of high interest in this domain and its broad of motherhood andof childhood in Hanoi (Women... 1977, p.236). 2 million roubles for thethe international establishment centre of for the protection healthcare and culture. Through the Soviet Peace Fund, they were able to inject over Vietnam in the of reconstructiontheir domestic of economy, in the development of (Soviet Women’s (Soviet 1981,p.28-29) Committee Delhi in January 1978 addressing the contemporarychildren plight in of Asia. Committee actively participated in preparing and conducting regional workshop in experienceschildren and sanitary education; meetings and workshops are organized to share the into these states in order to give talks and provide trainingsaddressing on the upbringing of women’s problems in the USSR. For instance, the Khoury emphasizeshumanitarian the importance of support which SWC provided to Khoury also mentions that, according to the stories of the women she met Third in the illiteracy against in masscampaigns SWC sponsored the saysalsothat Khoury WIDF’s At this moment,our women country are providing of assistance to the people 99 This, according to Khoury, was done CEU eTD Collection provided asignificant support to many countries in the world innational preparation cadres” of American states began to arrive to the Soviet state, and, as Petrick notes, “the Soviet Union has Latin and African later and states, Asian and European Eastern from representatives when Russian scholar Valdimir Petrick, their numbers began to increase again after the World War II, Stalin’s rule, the number foreign students in the USSR declined sharply. However according to 44-nations. (CUWE) was established in 1921. By the end1921, of CUWE had trained foreign students from Soviet Federation Russianthe to arrived Turkey, from Mongolia and students Persia,1920s when Afghanistan inviting foreign students to study in the newly established Soviet state had began already inSocialist the Republic. The Communist University of Workers of the East http://www.russia.edu.ru/information/analit/1300/ 101 Madagascar and humanitarian aid, 1959. 100 5.2.3 Scholarships collapse.state of humanitarian aid continued even during 1989, when the Soviet Union’s own economy was ina the notes significant contributionfrom from the SWC in the international arena. Itis notable that according to the toannual do so is beyond assembly the extentaid” humanitarian and Madagascar in disaster natural of the about ofMadagascar the the thesis. SWC’s However,the archival documents, Ihave encounteredafile association called “A USSR- letter of plenum it seems particular requestsforhelp,response to whichSWC. tothe directly arrived among Andindeed, thethat humanitarianpracticeboth in the aid offramework wasprovision a of SWC’s engagement of within WIDF and its global campaigns and in However, due to the suspicionforeigners and fear ofwhich characterized the period of According to theanalytical section of It is hard to track the exactthe humanitarian scope of aid, and the research effort required GARF, fond 7928, op. 3, d. 304. The letter from Madagascar-USSR association on natural disaster in Export of higher education services in Russian educational system. educational Russian in services education higher of Export 101 Russian education for foreign students foreign for education Russian 100 Online. Retrieved on March 20, 2011 from: 100 . , the practice of CEU eTD Collection superpowers of programs studies foreign inthe students of numbers different the among comparison like the USA,USA and France. Francestudentsnumber studying of abroad and were the foreignthird largest students group after of and on theSoviet eve ofthe collapse ofthe USSR. Theseforeign students of in theSovietstudents Union increased more thanUnion, 20 times, reaching 126,500 people accounted for 10.8% ofthe worldwide However, the foreignis students studied all over the Soviet Union. From 1950 to 1990 the number not theFriendship University was theplace in whichforeign thepercentage students of was the highest. best Europe, ten percent from Southway America and ten percent from North America. ThePeople’s to reachforeign studentscame fromAsia, twenty-four percent fromAfrica, seventeenpercent from an svyazi low percentage of Sovietthe Sovietstandards Union. of Aside from the foreign students,students the university also accepted a after a rigorousuniversity excellent hashad academicpersonnel andquitedeveloped a infrastructure, bythe competition,foreignfor training specialists of and is consideredas the third best universitywell in Russia today. The as evaluating institutions educational People’s theworld'slargest Lumumba Universitywas among Friendship students’ Belgium colonialism whowas assassinated shortly after the establishmentthe republic. of Patrice Lumumba, the first elected Primethethe Republic Congo Minister after its of of liberation from 134-135). p. (ibid, significance students from these countries with an opportunity for studies on a massiveutmost scale was of states experienced severe shortages in specialists, and the fact that the Soviet Union had provided colonial powers did not prioritize higher education within the colonies, the newly established professional(Petrick 2007, p. 132). The Soviet Union, in Petrick’sdevelopment opinion, was highly instrumental in the of cadres of post colonial states. Petrick remarks that, since the –connections. According to the oee,acrigt n rdaeo SWC’s plain the Salwa Najjab, scholarship, of graduate one to However, according Patrice after named 1960 and in People’swasMoscow established University Friendship Foreign Studies in Russia Studies Foreign 101 , in 1988, forty-six percent of percent 1988, forty-six , in CEU eTD Collection Khoury suggests that other women’s organizations also appealed to the SWC and that washow that SWC and the to women’salso appealed other that organizations suggests Khoury Party of Israel had selectedsecure special scholarships for women students, when it became apparent that the Communistmany more men thenIsrael, Khoury writes that Tandi turned to SWC and requestedwomen whether there was a possibility to to be sent to to inregard For instance, women’s womenactivistsabroad. and from requests organizations the studies in USSR. scholarships beginning in 1964.” in beginning scholarships “headed toUSSRindependently”. prospective students was the level of excellence in studies. Titos also says that some students (letters to girls from Rwanda about providing stipends for studying in USSR), etc.women on providingOctober – 1973 December USSR, 1974); in studying for stipends onproviding Guinea... of GARF, theindependence stipends of Party African fond 7928 (SWC), op.for 3, d.104 studying 3631 (mail correspondence in USSR, with the Union December ofCentral African103 1973);102 GARF fond 7928 (SWC), op. 3, d. 2601 Cyprus, states in his interview to the structures and states.origin and also by other organizations friendlyTitos to the Soviet Union or intended to become such Christofides, who today is the Underlatter group would help them with the language and adaptation Secretaryprocess. to the students per Presidentroom. In PFU, the foreigners lived together with the Soviet students; this was so the in foreigners were higher usuallystandards of that the regular facilities, housing one to three travel from and to one’sorigin wascountry usuallyof reimbursed. Dormitories accommodating amounting up to three times more thantheir the local stipends counterparts. of Inaddition, the stipends. Najjab testifies that theforeign students who studied in theSoviet Union had a stipend eastern block), not only studied for free (which was alsothe USA and France, the trueforeign all studentsof in studying France), in the Soviet Union (and the much of but also received living understanding ofthe significance of the socialist super power’s engagement worldwide. Unlike According to the SWC’s archival annotation it “started to provide special affirmative action affirmative special provide to it “started SWC’s the to archival annotation According The foreignThe students were chosen by Communist and Socialist parties in their regions of See for exampleRetrieved on February 15, 2011 from: GARF, Textthefond interviewof is available online. 7928 (SWC), Interview with Salwa Najjab, 10/03/2010 op. 3, d. 3471 (Mail correspondence with the Secretariat of 104 Khoury says that they began with this practice in response to eso Cyprus of News http://www.vestnikkipra.com/?mod=news&id=223 102 103 that one of the criteria that one of for the selection of 102 CEU eTD Collection indicates that there were also private persons who turned to the SWC for stipends. affiliated with specific states, suchCentral-African as the Union of women. Moreover, one file Senegal, Namibia, Ruanda, Peru, Iran, Costa–Rica and many more, including organizations non- archive includes exchanges with Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Yemen, Jordan, Congo, Tanzania, the SWCchannel amounted of to 2,000 students across the Soviet Union in the year 1987. The women from Communist parties abroad; Communist, colonial and dependant states; Marxist states; and dependant colonial Communist, abroad; parties Communist from women 1987) notes, like.(Plenum the and illness, instance, invitationsattention from local women’s councils students includingto those who were not studying onthe women scholarshipcelebrations, received care and Union in these years, which was much higher. However, according to the womenthe SWC all of assurancenumber of ofcourse appropriate does not represent medical the totalcare, of foreign visits women during who studied the in the Soviet in USSR, May-August 1977). studying for students scholarship female Moscow,in “Woman onaccepting seminar and socialism” and conducting 105 1981,p.29). Committee “according to the recommendationthe local women’sof organizations (Soviet Women’s the practice of women fellowships began. The SWC argued that it provided the stipends participating in the women’s movement. (Soviet Women’s Committee 1981, p. 30) actively homeland, intheir work successfully now and studies their completed jurists, economists, philosophers, historians, etc. More than 200 girls have already Union. Upon graduation, they receivedoctors, the degrees pedagogues,of engineers, America studying in thevocational or higher education institutions in the Soviet The number of women numberThe who cameof to study on the special scholarships provided through The significanceThe the Soviet stipends, of which guaranteed that a considerable number of In 1981 SWCwrites: In See: GARF, fond 7928 (SWC), op. 3, d. 4312 (Mail correspondence with private individuals about Today, there are about 800 girls from 59 countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin or directlyfrom theSWC. would This haveincluded, for 103 105 This CEU eTD Collection village”(Khoury, 2010). village”(Khoury, [those who were recommended by Tandi for SWC scholarships] everywhere, in each city, in each pupils. 01.10.1987 Moscow region, Ria Women scholarship, Marceline dos Santos in aquick sports exercisewith her studentfromA female Guinea the significance of thedegree engagement in economics – “when from I 2007-8,the andtravel Tamar Guzhansky, a UniversityKnesset member in theyears 1990-2003, who obtained her around of Leningrad.the country,Advisor for the Women Affairs in theHealth the Palestinian Ministry of In authority in the years a movedI see voice KhouryNajjab, who was studied medicine insummarizes thePatrice Lulumba Friendship University and was the overestimated. To name only afew notables from theMiddle East,notemy interviewee Salwa revolutionary and national liberation movements could obtain ahigher education, can hardly be -Bissau, holderof the Committee oftheSoviet - novosti 104 OUR students CEU eTD Collection Asia and Africa: transportation for 500 foreign delegates [01/15/1980]. 108 transportationforeign representativesof (per requestthe Soviet of Women’s Committee) [02/17/1981]. 107 106 and congresses was widespread within the Soviet foreign diplomacy structure 5.2.4 Travel onwomen's congresses rights expenses major forthe International of a offew hundred women every year. This included sponsorshipwomen’sdomain of right and struggles. travelof Theorganization had sponsored the international womenof travel activists’ to women activiststhe most important as itsone of dimensions contribution of to the international fully covered by the Soviet Peace Fund. covered by national organizations participating in the forum. CC orders that this affair isto be five hundredsix people hundred, instead while of expressing the hope that the rest will be the Centraldepartment Committeeof answered to the SCSPAA that they would be allowed tofly Therequeststhe forum. were notautomatically approved. In this particular case, theforeign within representation political pro-Soviet ensure way to a sufficient isalso and forums the within the flightscoverage fees constitutes of the Soviet the main Union’s partof financial participation that request in the argues SCSSAA Africa. and Asia Peoples of with Solidarity of Organization 600 foreign delegates both to the Soviet Union and to the internationalthe forums of 1981(SCSSAA) . Committee thepractice can befoundin therequest which wasthe frequency sent Sovietof bythe of Solidarity with States of Africa and Asia to the Central Committee in the tickets to the Federation. They helped all those who could not afford the trip to the Federation. Not only us but Interview with Samira Khoury. 8/10/10, Nazareth, Israel. The practice of paying practiceThe for the ofThird World delegations’ travel fees to international forums Khoury singles out thetravel sponsorship which the SWC provided tointernational See: Bukovsky archive, See: Bukovsky archive, Bukovsky See: „They also aided delegations to reach Russia they helped us reach the Soviet Union and then they bought 108 Inthe document, the SCSSAA asks Central Committee’s for approval to fly Section 8 (Peace), Document Section 8 (Peace), Document also from Latin America and from poor Arab countries.” 105 Ȳ CT246/22 Soviet Committee ofSolidarity with Ȳ CT250/69: CT: Use of "Airoflot" for 107 . The evidence for 106 CEU eTD Collection the People's Iran.Party Special of training for people [08/11/1980]. 110 Amsterdam where severalthe Potsdam of participants were present. 109 covered the travelSouth African delegates,of while theNetherlands Women’s Movement council meeting incongresses and meetingsHelsinki was widespreadWIDF. in thework of For instance, for WIDF’s in 1957, the Federation offoreign currency. Swiss Women for PeaceThus, allocating the Soviet support to this budget line was a way toreduceand national spending in Progress by Aeroflot, the national Soviet flight company, with tickets paid for by rubles, within thestate. including the Soviet Union. travel to thecongress was integratedsocialist withthe a Easterntour countries of Block, of WIDF.Ngoyi with Lillian affiliated closely became 1954 in which wasestablished Federation the congress, Lillian Ngoyi was theviceFederation presidentSouth African of Women.of The was invited to participate in WIDF’s congress in Prague 1955 (de Haan, 2010b). At the time of instance was South-African Lillian Ngoyi (1911-1980), “thethe motherblack resistance”of who forums; among the famous Third World women who were host in Europe by the SWC was for Nation’s conferences. The SWC proactively invited leading activists to international women’s the women’s congresses world wide,WIDF and both other of organizations, as well as to United WIDF’s and other international congresses international WIDF’s other and SWC usually passed through the Soviet Union and Socialists states in Europe on their way to practical reason behind the fact that theforeign majority delegates of whose travel was funded by justify these requests in a waycontemporary reminiscent fundraising. of This was probably the shown above, in order to obtain foreign currency the SWC had to submit special requests and understood in the prism ofseverealso be should women’s and struggles, and rights of domain theinternational to contributing shortages offoreign currency in the Soviet state. As I have It needs to be noted that the delegationsthe practice paying of for each other’s travel to Indeed, flights sponsorship was a of internationalcommon way cooperation of and See: Bukovsky archive, Section 8 (Peace), Document According to de Haan, Lillian Ngoyi’s experiences were discussed by Barbara Caine during arecent talk in 109 110 . This way the transportation could be carried out 106 Ȳ CT219/50: CT: A request from the leadership of CEU eTD Collection Soviet Union objects” of the intendedobjects” programof number of five-day-longeach was supposed workupcoming year. Twenty-five delegations were to expected arrive thatyearfromdifferentto states; visitinspections a few additionalis a fundingin order citiesrequest tomeetings and congresses. The delegations werevisit rigorouslyapart prepared. In the budgetfor for 1961, there the fromthese inspection Moscow.individual visits. This sitesincluded those who were staying in theSU on their way tointernational Theofand sites SWC “to budgetedwhichlike afew hundred women arriveddelegations,examine dozensevery yearof as as of part well as in would a bethe visitedpower.these visits Thescope of is not clear, but according to Khoury, it appears that something by delegationspropaganda efforts, but also had aprofound effect on the women who visited the socialist super in the delegations of women leaders from all around the world was not only very important for SU and the reports in Soviet Woman andSWC, brochures the typicala of visit duration ranged of describes them as combiningthe delegation the interests and the of SWC. According to Khoury awho were accompanied by a representativethe SWC. Theprograms of varied, and Khoury 10). Woman, No 1960, (Soviet independence” for women the life of your people it made me think more deeply about the fight of our nation and our .. niaino wmnsdlgtosadidvda iiso womento the -leaders women’sof individual visits delegationsand 5.2.5 of Invitation international arena. specific delegations and guaranteed participationwomen from marginalized of communities in Committee for the year 1961, and annexes. 112 111 assisted Indonesian delegates. A typical delegationanywhere consisted from of a few to a few dozen foreign women, Roz Mari from Gvadelupa writes for GARF, fond 7928 WIDF IV Congress,(SWC), Vienna, 1-5 June 1958, op. 3, d. 760. The list ofstaff and budget for administrative expenses ofthe 111 The practice of sponsorship Thepractice of promoted the connections among 112 . Soviet Woman Soviet Documents. 107 Quoted In Ilic 2010 in 1960: “Dearfriends, after Ihave seen Indeed, it seems that participation in CEU eTD Collection relations and status among other organizations. could assign places for their own members, increasing their commitment and strengthening but they were also grateful to Tandi for this experience. Thus, theSWC partner organizations they came back from the visit, the women had not only been inspired and learned a great deal, two closely related to theIsrael ruling Partyat that time of -Mapai. According to Khoury, after the Naamat, and Vitzo organizations mainstream the from instance for inIsrael, organizations twentydelegation women of from Israel. Tandi was able toinvite women from other women’s Khoury speaksone proudlyincident of when Tandi received an invitation to organize a delegation could have had on those who were responsible for the invitations on the local level. women in theof SU. inspirational value. Inaddition to the visits, the SWC also held lectures about position and welfare Soviet inthe health and education labor, rest, in achievements the highest shown were Union,delegations whichstories they heard, they gotmany ideas and learned a lot,” (Khoury, 2010). Indeed, since the werein fact had a profound effect: “The women were highly inspired by the things they saw and the certainlythe visits had nopotential to inspire and impress the participants. InKhoury’s opinion, the visits impressive,drawing conclusions aboutordinary thelives SU citizens. of However, this does not mean that when adjustments make appropriate to tried at least they that means which locations, exemplary theAccording to my interview with Khoury, the visitors were well awarevisits that they were shown this regard. in Twoconsidered earlier. be should factors as Ielaborated Soviet successes, surely had an educational and 113 with workers, and visit universities and health facilities from two weeks to a month, thus, it was possible for visitors to travel to different cities, meet Another factor to mention in this regard is the empowerment effect that organizing such The sitesThe which were shown (off) were not ordinary, but carefully chosen and exemplary of Khoury, 2010, SWC 1981, 1987, Soviet Woman, 1960, no 10, p 12. 108 113 . CEU eTD Collection .. elbigo women 5.2.6 Well-being of organizations and makers grant with together gather andactivists professionals and pioneering, is considered in care community and self- order of practice The activism. social of areas other to movements feminist to discusscome to thethe forefront global civil of society, has only recently spread from women’s and the ways to address the concern. This historical anecdote calls to mind the Kingwords Solomon: of was only available for the women within a particular ideologicalthe women’s wing of movements. enough to induce nostalgia for the resources mobilized for women’s support,that supporteven if recovery expenses were fully covered by the Soviet Union. particularalone This may story be and medical her of afterwards. All vacation recovery a medical was to andshe sent performed, a Soviet The hospital. medical exam showed she neededan operation. was surgery The trip, which was supposed to be a vacation for activists, Khoury underwent a full medicalKhoury spoke about amonth long checktrip she took to theSoviet at Union. At thethe beginning of 114 for rest and health, as well as providing vouchers which allowed their children to attend youth provide activists and even their children with vacations up to a month long in Soviet sanatoriums for activist women. contemporary innovations were clearly prefigured by the programs offered in the Soviet Union during which they can take time toreflect on their own well-being and security. These include, for instance, how to responsibly fund movements, and vacation-trainings for activists The theThe well-beingpromotionactivists of of and human rights defenders, has recently sun. the under new isnothing there again; be done will been done what has again, be will has been What One of the most specialOne of the the dimensions SWCengagement was of described when Although the Soviet Union and the SWC did not offer empowerment trainings, they did See for example Barry Jane, Djordjevic Jelena (2008). 109 114 Contemporary issues Contemporary CEU eTD Collection was an important way in which the Soviet Union engaged on the international scene, and not about its activities. 115 with Yatunina Ljudmila Vasiljevna” A hand-writtenthe page note also at thebottomstates: of “Aboutvoucher: the speak work and has proved as dynamic, herself active and reliable (ispolnitelnyj) employee”. 14 years, and right now is an assistant tothe generalWIDF. secretary of She is doing important adds her recommendation on her side: ”Annie Khubi has worked in the WIDF secretariat for of Proskurnikova accompanied Annie’s letter with a note that the positive answer will be desired and the secretariatBerlin WIDF, Proskurnikova. Proskurnikova sent a request from Annie Khubie, an employee of the timeof a theMs. Fedorova, WIDF, by a representativeinhelped poor people that could not afford a vacation”. which of the we were she there.organization Everyone receivedrequested a month's salary from offered treatmenttheat immediately. Party. The visitors,WIDF’s according to Khoury „alsoThis received perdiem whileis how the Soviet headquartersUnion medical a check-ups uponvoucher arrival to the country, andinany if health issues were identified, theyreceived, were were toroutinely providedArtek for activists. Those whofor came for long visitsand the warm and movingher reception they received were from the young people there.offered fullson.Artek, an international Soviet child and youth camp, to which many activists’ children traveled, summer camps.”(Khoury, 2010) Khoury speaks with great nostalgia about hervisit tothe famous conduct these summer send back campsa reward. The children were invited to summer camps in the Sovietin Union. They would Yalta or in choseSochi. the nicer ones and send them to the Soviet Union they would pick the best drawingsEach and year aboutcamps. 50 children went to these It seems that providing opportunities to rest and and attend to one’s personal well-being One document on GARF is a letter sent on April 5, 1965, to the Secretarythe ofSWC , at Indeed, according to Khoury, these vacations, and even the extra medical care she herself „ GARF, fond 7928 (SWC), op. 3 d. 1398. Mail correspondence with the Soviet representative of WIDF We would organize adrawing competition for children. We would have aboard that 115 . 110 CEU eTD Collection officials to the USSR in 1971: organizationtheir receptionof and service, and related expenditures” [07/28/1971]. guests” Committee, specialists withthe knowledgeforeign of languagesthe foreignfor the service of authorities and public organizations to provide, according to requests from the Central inspectionforeign guests,” whileofCC CPSU thedepartments are singledof out as responsible forspecific the requests from the foreign Parties . The final order is “to ministries, 116 organizations for vacation and medical treatment” shows what the procedure when the invitation the Fourth Main Department other vacation places. Thenext sectionorganizing speaks medical of services, ordering to “oblige administrative authorities which would be responsible for obtaining vouchers to sanatoriums and the lists document the Then authorities. other of help with visitors the for responsible be would KGB thatthe states and secretaries) French communistparties’ and Italian emphasized especially Finances inforeign currency,the parties (the document for toof the services first secretaries of hosting 2,900 foreign visitors. An additional 650,000 rubles were to begranted by the Ministry the second stage, the budget would be developed and detailed,3,200,000 with limits rubles of for document details that, at the first stage, letters to the parties would be prepared and approved. In labor and national democratic parties for a“rest and health vacation for the year 1971”. The activity. Thedocument discussed plans toinvite leading cadres from other countries’ communist, related expenditures” foreign Party officialsof totheUSSR in1971:their reception organization and service, of and for foreigners. For example, Documentthe electronic 71-2 of archive states: “On the invitation just with activist women. Several documents in Bukovsky’s archive deal with organizing vacations 117 the Sovietof States was used to. facilities and infrastructure available which at no way were representative ofthe standards which the general public Yet another document in Bukovsky archive, entitled “Invitation for leaders of ex-patriot 117 The See: Bukovsky Archive, section „Peace”, Document . Fourth Department a hdlgto h rcdr f whatseems to have beenalarge-scale may shedlight procedure the of on was a department ofnomenclature and foreigners which had in its use best health 116 under the Ministry of Protection of Health underProtection to the accept Ministry up of to of 100 111 Ȳ CT123/30: “On the invitation of foreign Party CEU eTD Collection 5.3 Engagement inWIDF case the precise question would be WIDF was fully controlled by the Soviet Union, and that SWCthis was control. a tool of In this opposition to, the mainstreamshould be asked from at least two different positions.western One position is rooted in supportnarrative of, andor SWC withinin theWIDF, it should be clarifiedtheir that involvement thequestion of can and of WIDF’s history.archival This materials narrative and withinthe and with the Womenclaims Internationalinterview Democratic Federation. Before I begin analyzing that to uncover rights and strugglesthe cannot be understood without taking roleinto account their deep engagement and the influence of the Soviet Union 119 organizations for vacation and medical treatment ” [04/10/1980]. 118 process through whichdelegations organization went. of the Motherland’s own budget. The evidence demonstrates the complicated and well designed assigned responsibility forhealth services. expenditures The were intendedtobecovered from vocational facilities. TheFourth Department withinProtectionHealth the wasMinistry of of their visitors,reception of as well as for obtaining the vouchers for sanatoriums and other by accordance with the attachedpeople list while of “some minor changes to the lists can be done Cultural Relations with Country Men Abroad” for a duration up to 30 days, This should be in theSoviet Societydocument for the presidium begins with adecision of “accept the to offer of came, at least nominally, from a public organization rather than from the CC itself. Ibid, p 1 Rodina The work and the significance of the SWC within“Oh no, all backgrounds, no! Those were women fromall of the entireover the world!” world, women of the international“Samira, was the Federation domaincommunist the Soviet existence Union?” during of the years of of women’s See: Bukovsky Archive, section „Peace”, Document (Motherland) themselves.” whether the Soviet Union (and SWC) had control within the 119 The public organization would itself beresponsible for the 112 Interview with the author, Nazareth, October 8, 2010 Ȳ CT206/32: “Invitation for leadersex-patriot of 118 The CEU eTD Collection the Third World, colonial and dependant states. constituted a very real contribution to the empowerment and visibilitywomen’s of voices from invitations. However,the multiple regardless and of sometimes conflicting aims, these efforts international arena throughwomen’s the domain of rights and struggles by issuing these motivated mainly by the Soviet Union’s national interests, including its aspiration toinfluence the Centralthe Communistthe eyesCommittee of of Party, this sponsorship was probably and people in international arenas, which is incredibly significant. On the other hand, at least in womenhundredsthe leaderspresence of and activistsof from globally marginalized movements Committee 1981, p1). Notwithstanding the exact motivations, sponsorship by the SWC ensured women have for empowermentpropaganda to counter the capitalist vision, as well as fulfilling “the obligations whichof Soviet women worldwide”from WIDF and local foreign organizations,Soviet promotion foreign of interests,in and creating SWC’s own wordsmotivationsthe SWC in ofsponsoring travel were complex,(Soviet and included responding to requests Women’sSWC’sinternational sponsorship women of travel activists of and leaders. As I have shown, the I have suggested in previous chapter whether or not, and to which extent, that support was necessary for the organization’s success question becomes implications for the historiographywomen’s of movements worldwide. More precisely, the movements worldwide, then our inquiry acquires additional and very different meanings and globalwe acceptscale. that WIDF If was an important entity for women and women’s argument that WIDF had grand historical significance for women and women’s movements on a research. WIDF, and to what extent. De Haan addresses this important question in her developing The significanceThe the Eastern block of and the Soviet Union for WIDF’s work, its scope The two possibilities can beencompassed by the theoreticalengagement, concept which of Another position from which we can approach this question is based on de Haan’s own how the Soviet state and the SWC supported and enhanced the work ofWIDF, and s . Let us examine this concept inthe above light of discussed 113 . CEU eTD Collection calling for ‘equal pay’ when women in some countries had not yet even secured the right to work 163). Another discussion centered on “whetherthe question it was of right for WIDF to be p. 2011, rule,”(Ilic imperial under living still countries colonial from those particularly congresses, its to delegates some to alienating was potentially this because its publications in and meetings WIDF at use for appropriate was ‘imperialism’ term the whether over discussion was some outcomes were fully predetermined by the Soviet Union. 120 ibid). 2011, (Ilic discussed,” and identified be could nations different women from between existed that gaps ambitions and even its own name,”persistent rivalries. According to Ilic,(Ilic “WIDF was subject to internal debates about its 2011,purpose, p. 163). It servedbetween Soviet and British delegations, the internationalasWIDF was arena the locationof “a of site in which the culturalbeen suggested by some respected academics.belonged to them. I presume it was because the SovietIn Union also had global politicalfact, influence.” as in the “Theyexample of thewere disagreements simplyIlic 2011) and anwas “regardedinfluentialwithin theWIDF, but rather, it occupied a very unique and powerful position (De Haan 2010b,as the ‘advance organizationguard’”(Ilic 2011,moved to Brazil (de Haan,p 2010b,164). p550). inAccording the toFederationideology and its infrastructure.Khoury: It was only able to reestablishin 1994, itself when its headquarters de Haan,– afterpolitically, the fall theof Soviet Union Eastern andCentralwas Europe had onWIDF. an Accordingenormous to Khoury, in aan argument supported by blow to WIDFthe affecting last andboth, scale, canbe understood by the profound impactitsthe communist that the fall rule in of word impactthe revelries.of and motivations, themes WIDF,type of within to the due many disagreements the todescribe term appropriated Ilic bringsexamples. a long list She of recounts that in “late 1940s and early 1950s, there However, the SWC was not so powerful as to hold absolute and default control, as has Most certainly, the Soviet Women’s Committee was not another organization among equals I disagree with Ilic about the use of 120 Obviously, these rivalries would hardly have been fought withtheir such vigor if cultural 114 here; in my opinion political would have been more been have would political myin opinion here; CEU eTD Collection material – as well as its significance as a superpower within the international arena, specifically arena, international the within as asuperpower its significance –aswell material Union had nomystical powers. Theearthlythe state powers included of its resources human and wished-forsense but mythical of full controlillusion could of notpossibly exist. TheSoviet international forums,” (The Union.., p. 70). activistwork, for platforms instance of around WIDF’sthe phrasing of documents to further notes that “difficulties had frequently arisen around (dis)agreements on political and The brochure written Russianby the Union of women for the 60th anniversarythe WIDF of Experience; ideology;members; number financial of and infrastructural resources, and so on. organizations which encompassed the WIDF were different from one other on multiple levels: WIDF in western the mainstream historiography women’s of of movements. In fact, the women Cold War chimera represented by thethe WIDF opponents is a pureof Cold War assumption, one that follows the paradigm in the foreignthe Soviet policy of Union evolved following the Khrushchev’s secret speech and around the new “Peaceful Coexistence” congress in Moscow (Ilic 2011, p. 170). Theconfrontation between the two socialist giants confrontation led by Chinese delegates and supported by Albanian, hadA 1961. in erupted split Sino-Soviet in in 1963 culminated and Republic WIDF’s Democratic People Chinese and the crisisthe lines that of developed after Khrushchev’s ‘secret speech’ between the Soviet Union confrontation between the SWC and the Chinese federation, which unsurprisingly evolved along 165). One more importanta long example standing of rivalry within the WIDF was the p. 2011, in nurseries,” (Ilic left would be children their that meant this all if work at for out go to Catholic countries ofLatin America, for for work example,was proclaimedWIDF’s among the one of priorities “women from thestrongly Roman questioned whether it was rightor to be paid for the work they alreadyfor undertook,” (Ilicmothers 2011, p. 165). Inaddition, while theright Setting aside the Cold War paradigms, such a Indeed, the idea that the SWC hadby default complete control over the WIDF as metaphor which de Haan (2010b) discusses in regards to the perception of 115 Chimera (to put it in de Haan’s words) in a CEU eTD Collection 121 skills: organization UFF’s mass praises and in France itssignificance UFFand the workof the analyzes author from the personal writing style it is likely tohave been written by Nina Popova. Inthe report, the report from the firstUFF. congress of the Theauthor report is unidentified; of however judging maneuvering required for maintaining the SWC’s eminent position is evident in a secret SWAFC mythical default, it expended far too much effort keeping its position.the political The extent of within WIDF. In fact, for an entity which supposedly was in complete control by some almost with Khoury is that SWC had made enormous efforts in order to obtain and keep acentral role theinterests broader of WIDF and its organizations. betweenthe Party,the will of the organization’s own interests and needs, and the will and the WIDF, even if itsrights and struggles. As such, the SWCexistence wasthe Soviet nota mere tool state’sof will to control of was definedto pressures from abroad in order tokeep its relevance within theinternationalwomen’s arena of by the SU in will theseto survive and grow, tokeep and extend the privilegesits members. Itof also had torespond terms, but own its and interests, its own with unit organizational a separate rather itwasalso structure, diplomacy a mediator as was already mentioned above, while the the SovietSWC was foreign a part of policy and the Coldalong War the lines of competition as discussed by Eric Hobsbawm (1994). Moreover, Congress) International atthe Initiative Committee the of first(zasedaniya) the acall for making of timing and principles the (about debates serious sparked issueswhich faced already Congress willbattle require forUnion concerning its battle for “extermination”fascism,the remnants and a ofof greater peace. attention However, from the Initiative Soviet delegation Committee, since we have which was created during the What can be definitely said onthe the materialsbasis of discussed above and the interview See: GARF, fond 7928 (SWC), op.2, d.149 Report about the Sovietvisit of women to France, conclusion. Union of FrenchUnion Women of (UFF) may form a base for the International Women’s 121 . 116 CEU eTD Collection during certain periods, hadcoordination some level with of theSoviet Union. Along the same However,the State almost entities all of in theEastern bloc, except Yugoslavia and Albania regard. this in made be can generalizations any hardly thus overtime; changed which of nature summarized here. Every Eastern bloc state had different relations with the Soviet Union, the (Hirsch, Kett and Trefil 2002, p. 316).these relations Thecomplexity of cannot beneatly Warsaw the Pact,” of countries asthe well as Albania, and Yugoslavia including Europe, eastern influence that the Soviet Union had withinthe role that the Soviet Unionthe and the SWC played for Easternand within theWIDFcourse was the of bloc: “The former communist states of Soviet delegation.” She suggests: established for the preparationthe ofCongress will “require great attention from the sidethe of fascism and for peace.”for thean internationalorganizing ofwomen union for of struggle against the remains of The author finishesinternational women’s congressby had the potential, accordingsaying to the author, to “become a platform that the is initiativeeven more problematic given British the steady propaganda flow to thestate.of The planned committeeinformationauthorthe lack about complains the Soviet of of Union, availablewhich inFrance, which was experience and political adulthood”. Therefore, “great attention and support are required.” The On the other hand, according to the document, UFF did not have enough “organizational One more very important dimension to take into account when considering meaning of work of the Initiativework of Committee. would beinvited,August in themonth in Moscowof untilthe the beginning of Committee to make acall for ameeting to which the French and English women women about granting permission to their delegations to come to the Soviet Union. reasonable and it is alsoimperative tosatisfythe French therequest and English of delegation theInitiative which is partof Committee ought to beconsidered It must be considered expedient to give permission to the Antifascist Women’s In one month, a trip to France by one of the members of the Soviet 117 CEU eTD Collection women) from WIDF which happened following theYugoslavia expulsion of from Cominform in being ‘falseFront of anti-fascists’, and the the expulsionorganization of (but not all Yugoslav that: SWC document includes suggestions for the upcomingWIDF, meeting of the SWC proposes WIDF in order topromotethe the Sovietinterests Union of in Czechoslovakia: Thisinternal of stage the used the SWC that suggests document one Infact, type. taken” givenorders “orders dynamics within the bloc does not provide a base forthinking that these were stable relations of the women’s theorganizations Eastern bloc of is unclear at this point. The scholarship the of Czechoslovakia), p. 5. 122 relationships: cooperation with the SWC,lines, the officiallyincluding supported women’sthe Eastern organizations bloc had some of level of the work within WIDF. This is how SWC presents these Council of CzechoslovakCouncil of Women and coordinationwork among of NationalCzechoslovak Front of Women and the structure the clarify to necessity the of because Ispolkom to the attention draw shall Czechoslovak Women, Soviet representative-membersIspolkomthe Federation, of of 15). Women’s 1981, p. (Soviet women’ssolving problems Committee in experience own its the socialist societies. However, each country has its owndevelopment specifics of and determined common major direction in finding solutions to the women’s problems in womensituation and children. of The commonalities in social-economic formation focused on the experienceexchange furtherwith theof thebettering aim of of What was theexact level the relationsand character and of how it actually worked among One more example of theOne Sovietmore example influence of was theirYugoslav accusation of Women’s See: GARF fond 7928 SWC, op. 2 d. 256 (Reference materials about Women’s movement in …during the presentation which will be held by the National Front of Bilateral ties of the SWC with similar committees of the socialist countries are countries socialist the of committees similar with SWC the of ties Bilateral 122 . 118 CEU eTD Collection WIDF Information Bulletin, no 41, November –December, 1949, p 4 cited in Ilic December,(2011). 1949,123 p 1; Dolores Ibarruri, The Struggle Against the War-makers is the Sacred duty of All Women, 2011) (Ilic 1948. This, however, did not mean that all Yugoslav women were excluded from the organization Palestinian Women Movement (PWM). Indeed, up to the late 1980s PalestinianIsrael citizens of Jewish organization from Israel, and the women’sthe organization Palestinian of Diaspora- up as a side story. Up to the 1980sdue tothe SWCfact that within the role theWIDF of is not directlythere addressed here but comes were tense relations between Tandi, as a mixed Arab-authority within WIDF. emphasizes that both material and human recsources were significant in amounting to SWC’s However, she locates the power in theresources that theorganization had at its disposal. Khoury that this assumptionWIDF was theof most important topics in ouris2010c, p. 5).interview. Khoury’s opinion about the assumptionessentially that the SWC had complete control over Khoury had stressed againnot also been implicated the andinblack some of pages state in the socialism”(de historyagain of Haan wrong.organizing “The and politicalSWC activismwasopinion] the WIDF has been mucha progressive more ofwomen’s force in thehistory of worldwidevery thanpowerful we have reactionknown, that (or doesn’tlack indeed,”ofit) tomean this that the most painfultraumatic of chapters the inorganization.” the ithistory of De Haan sees hasin „the WIDF’s event” she some „evidencesays.(2006) Pp. 178-180). the Czech Thedeath feministthat of was according to deHaan, “probablyeven one though [in de Haan’s1949, sentenced to death and executed by hanging in 1950 (De Haan, Daskalova and Loutfi (eds) Czechoslovakia. She resigneditsWIDF atfounding. the time of In1946 she joined the provisional national assemblyin of 1948 after the communistactive in anti-fascism struggle in Czechoslovakia during the war and was among thethe leaders of take-over. figure a public wasHorakova (1901-1950). Horakova Milada Czechoslovak of Horakova execution was the was arrested in Khoury’s argument was supported by a story she told, which I find even more significant Zinaida Gurina, Courage in the fight for Peace, WIDF Information Bulletin, no 41, November – November 41, no Bulletin, Information WIDF Peace, for fight the in Courage Gurina, Zinaida 123 . Yet another painful point in WIDF’s history which shall be mentioned in this regard 119 CEU eTD Collection of its communist of participants the WIDF was perceivedrivalry as a among fieldideological of stopped her speech with an emotional outburst: they that 2010) (Khoury, territories,” Palestinian 1967occupied the from women Palestinian the from greetings sending Zionists with sawthey asa“collaborator by what outraged which included representativeswork together against the occupation”. PWM and The womenoftheirArab comrades of in WIDF, countries and some stateswasn’t in allowed the Third to continue World towards were sowantthe tosend the delegates secondregards from Palestinian women from the Occupiedpart Territories...” theof she sentence which was “within WIDF’s meeting in Tashkent. whom When she had arrived to a wepart in her speech that began with “I Israel. Khoury tells about an occasion during which1980sat the beginning she gave of aspeech which thePalestinian women who wereIsrael citizens cooperated of with Jewish citizens of Palestinian cause. (theThis Zionist entity) were frequently considered by wasthe Palestinian Diaspora as traitorsthe of evident especially in the approach of PWM in regard to Tandi, in This story is a fascinating and rare account. Khoury is suggesting that at least in the view the in least at that is suggesting Khoury account. rare and isafascinating story This they and talk to the PWM, and I was allowed to continue. communist so they were from my side. was, many others,the majority organizations of were knew how to talk S: Because theywere hostsandalso the because theywere very nicewomen, Y: And why did PWM women listen to them? S: They advised me to skip Y:the And what did the Soviet women partdo in this regard? where I sent the greetings and also went S: No, because they were Y: Why? Because they were the hosts? S: I went to (talk to) the Soviet Women’s Committee. Y: So what did you do then? … my comrades in the WIDF, they were communist as I 120 nationalist , and they (SWC) were CEU eTD Collection should be mentioned that SWC’s own vast infrastructure WIDF’s Lastly, campaigns. wellas sponsoring it as congresses, international other to branches internationalof work also allowed it to sponsoring the travelWIDF representativesexpenses of and its member organizations and women activistsof and leaders from around the world tothe internationalWIDF, congresses of movements and women’s rightscourse domain. included This of sponsoring the travel expenses engagement includedthe above-mentioned all of engagementmechanisms within ofthe women and promote thethe WIDF interests to the UN”(Khoury,of 2010).SWC’s Thematerial side of had within WIDF was, among other factors,UN, dueit wasto the especially ability ofthe Sovietimportant Unionprogressive tofor represent thanthe the UN, federation’sand since it was also promoting WIDF’s ideaswork”. and proposalsthis regard. According within to her,Thus, “since thethe Soviet Union had policies similar“The totheUN or more authority that thewhich influencedSWC WIDF and which WIDF wanted to influence, it was the UN.” says Khoury in inI theinternationalneed the UN.to identify “Ifarena what of was themost important power policies were quite similarWIDF, to the goals of andits organizations the goals of and branches constitutedonly formal because organizationachievements includedSWC theauthority as a representative the Sovietof Union. of This is not the the valueof political toKhoury, the According material. and political dimensions: Soviet two main of and Union’swere exemplary officialthe complicated relations among PalestinianIsrael citizenand the of Palestinian Diaspora. and progressive,policiesup as background to another story (in fact a very painfulinanswer toa directone question for about dynamics and the powerthe relations but interviewee)withinregard theWIDF, but came – the alsostory of disposal. Yetbecauseto again, Khoury’s account in this regard is quite valuable, sincewomen’s it was not given as an itssignificant rights mediator a and wasa capable also camp, and Communist the of wasaleader narrative this to according withand the “nationalist”welfarecamps, a field in which the “communist” camp was opposingcamp, the “nationalist” one. The SWC, due to the exceptional resources it had at its Thus, Iwould like topropose evaluating the SWC’s engagement in WIDF along the lines 121 CEU eTD Collection 126 meeting in Helsinki. See WIDF IV Congress, Vienna, 1-5 June 1958, Documents, p. 29.the NetherlandsCited in Ilic Women’s(2011) Movement assisted Indonesian delegates in their attendance at the 1957 WIDF125 council 124 The budget. dollar WIDF’s 493,677 within 11,920 dollars to amounted and WIDF’s budget of membership fees contributed by the Soviet Union’s representative constituted only 2.41 percent membershipthan payment fees. of Moreover, accordingthe SWC to the budget for 1961, of the “supplemented” by the Soviet state. and it is most presentation misleading and romantic rather certainly above wasmost the Indeed, (Orlova 2007). probableactually that financed: the “the quote acynicalpeople remark made by a Soviet citizen in regard to how fundsthe peace campaigns were gave a ruble, Orlova’sfrom Consider 2011). (Ilic, itself theMoscow as well as Prague and Berlin London, in Partyaccounts Finnishthrew in a million andsponsor thewomen, congresses in Moscowthis and Helsinki, with instructions to send paymentscovered to bank it allif suchnecklaces tothedelegates. existedsponsored by the masspearls purchase by 100,000 of Finnish women tobe given as souvenirat all, werefrom many differentWorld Congresses, countries wheredeveloping world in attending congresses and council meetings handcrafts and and wereindustrializedfolkEurope countries and the Unitedof States would directly sponsorart women from the putitems onwere sale.sentwidespread fundraising campaigns, wherebyfrom women from wealthier nations and from the women’sThe 1963 own its organized also It itsmagazines. organizations sales of in engaged and organizations national World Congressaffiliated its from fees raised security. WIDF financial independent own its ensuring towards was partlyIlic (2011) notes in this regard, that according to its own records, the Federation took steps organize, sponsor and largehost dozenscongresses of and conferences. The frameworkThe the Soviet Union’sof financial engagement was surely much more complex SWC’s exactThe scope of financial contributionWIDF tois thework unclear. of Melanie WIDF Information Bulletin… (1963), p. 3. Cited in: Ilic (2011). For example, the FederationSwiss Women of for Peace and Progress paid for South African delegates and For the full list refer for instance to 126 International solidarity funds were set up to receive donations to 60 years to WIDF 122 , The UnionRussian of Women, 2005 125 . Grand bazaars were held at the 124 CEU eTD Collection CongressWomen), of pp.1-4. 128 (for instance headquarters rent) translated to money terms. French invasion to Vietnam,(de127 Haan, 2009) it is possible that the German contribution listed, was in fact international events. For example, the committee sent such adelegation to the Congress of GDR should “pay” for Nazi crimes. probably an outcome of the Soviet presence in the GDR,GDR women organizations held within the andWIDF. the general Sovietthe Sovietthe context presenceof in GDRidea as well asthe uniquein thecontext placeof that the that the Democratic Republic (GDR). This membershipdistribution fees should of beconsidered within the membershipbiggest partof fees, amounting to 452,380 dollars was contributed by German sending delegations abroad “in order to explainthe upcoming the goals congress” of through a persistent contact with Lebedeva, the Soviet representative in WIDF, as well as by houses and the like. TheSWC also planned to “support “the WIDF with preparations – this was translators, other public organizations, ministers, societies, research institutions, publishing which includeda broad the mobilization cross-sectionSoviet women, of of activists, paid staff, events planned by the SWC for the international congress sheds light ontheir the scale efforts, of preparations for it were not only intense but done on grand scale. Adocument summarizing the congress in Moscow (June 24-29, 1963) was an especially significant event for the SWC and the SWC was sponsorshipcategory of international –the organization congresses. of A WIDF sponsorshipwas interms of by project. Let us consider in depth the materialone meanings of organization were accepted to WIDF. how the situation withmembership distribution fees of for WIDF worked before the GDR the WIDF. In this regard,membership fees wasone a way todownplay the significancetheimportant Soviet of Union and SWC within question which should be raised in future research is In any case, the factfunds that the majorityfor WIDF’S work of came from the GDR was Indeed it seems materialthat thethe SWC major withinengagement part of the of WIDF GARF fond 7928 (SWC) op. 3 d. 1008 (List ofactivities Since WIDF’s for headquarters preparing were located andin Berlin conductingbeginning 1951, this due to theCotton’s International condemnation of 127 Itis only reasonable that the official record of 123 in kind 128 at CEU eTD Collection 131 130 129 enormous step in emancipationwomen worldwide. of up andapplauded whatwasdelegates stood perceived astheSovietwoman’s heroicdeedandan Tereshkova to come up to the stage together withthe Plenum the membersthe and of all of Tereshkova,observers were present in thethe room. most Onemoving of moments was when Valentina theRepresentatives113 countries of and 180 organizations and movements, 1,552 delegates,world’s and 384 firstdelegates womaneven includes details aboutpresents theorganization from Soviet of womencosmonaut, to the foreign In sum,logistical the scope of details in thedocument is impressive in its scale and thinking, and enteredexchanges which were planned with the Soviet Union in order to bring delegates to the congress. delegation the use also and states, socialist bloc Eastern other in exchanges the delegation for plans auditorium.therepresentation women from of all over the world.” To dothis, itintended to find out about course carefullyof prepared. The SWC planned “to support WIDF in theassurancethe wide of Popovastate, in which thedelegates were to meet Soviet women, and visit different regions; thisinvited part was issued by different bodies and also including a film and a song. Tours were organized around the Foreign delegations to the congress were supposed to receive propaganda a long materialslist of famousinterviews foreignpublication of and Soviet of women in the Soviet Union’s media. the Soviet Union’sof “achievements” locally and internationally. TheSWC planned to ensure the delegation exchange among the Soviet and foreign women in order to propagate the congress.” WomenLatin America of in Cuba, January 1963. Inaddition, the SWC had planed to “use the Novosti Dnya, Khronika nashikh dney [Newsthe day,of chroniclesour days],of directed by Katanyan V. Russian Central StudioDocumentary of Films. 1963. No 26. Notably enough Tereshkova’s historical journey tospace happened only ten days before the Beginning on June 24, 1963, the Moscow Congress was indeed an impressive event. According to the document, the Congress was an important platform for the propaganda Ibid Ibid 130 . 124 131 129 CEU eTD Collection probable. though we do not have enough evidence to establish that this ‘coincidence’ was planned, it is Congress with great enthusiasm and hope. Eugenie Cotton, President of the WIDF the of President Cotton, Eugenie and hope. enthusiasm with great Congress honorary delegate the of WorldPresence the first ofCongress. woman cosmonaut From will grant Fromthe the name Congress the ofthe particularwomen allbottom of weight. continents, We would be ourofremarkably we arehearts, happyawaiting to welcome youthe132 as weanmeeting congratulate with you at our you and ask you to honor us with your presence at the World Congress Women.of Congress, and she was invited to the congress by a special letter from Cotton herself and more. In regard to WIDF, I argued humanitarianthat aid, and scholarships the for women from SWCThird World, colonial was and dependent states not in a position offull includingcontroltravel funding fees of for women to international congresses,over delegations to the SU, domain, the within engagement ways organization’s various of the Ihave analyzed state. Soviet direct role within the international women’s domain of the rights andof struggles on behalf In this chapter I have addressed the mechanisms by which the SWC played an active and relations between ChinaandIndiaat the time). Congress, mainlybetween Chinese and Sovietdelegations and thedegrading be understood intheheatedlight ofconfrontationwhich evolvedatthe Teeshkova.her honorarypresence of Thepoliticalmeaning onthestageshall Indian representative educatorKapilaKhandwalaonthestagenear by Valentina Tereshkova,Khandwala.Moskow,1963,25.06.1963(Note Kapila the Ibarruri, cosmonaut pilot Valery Bykovsky, Eugenie Cotton,NinaPopova, The honorarystage attheWIDF Moscow Congress, From 1963 Dolores left: Cotton writes: h IFBra sanucn ihgethpiesisamrto o h xrodnr n usadn edo yours. WIDFis announcing Bureau The happiness with its great admirationfor andoutstanding theextraordinary deedof 125 . Cited in: Borisova 2005, p 140. 132 . Even CEU eTD Collection in the Federation. organization communist biggest UN, theas weight its WIDF’s within and agenda promoting included its role as the representativethe Soviet state of which included the possibility of value, Iargue, included financial, human and organizational resources, while the political value the WIDF but was of utmost significance due to its material and political value. The material 126 CEU eTD Collection internationalwomen’s domain of rights and how can it beconceptualized?’ with thesubsequent historiographythe internationalwomen’s of domain of rights and struggles. framework in order to promote higherthe visibilitythe Sovietpresence Union of of within the a conceptual suggest I approach. asystematic lack of this addresses thesis history. This the socialistimpact of super power remains, by andlarge, absent from women’s and gender are documented and discussed, there is nosystematic approach to this role. The overall historical women’s movements. inter/transnational circumstances thatradically localshifted and during the centuryandwork of within theinternationalwomen’s domain of rights happened duepolitical toa combination of UN and beyond. Finally, itis located in theassumption that changes, developments and setbacks the of arena women’salongside international inthe movements visibility,its influence as aswell progress in the twentieth century, suchthe gender as the rise perspective of and its increased guarantee a stable improvement in women’s lives worldwide, achieved very real and durable informedthat by the the UNbelief treaties on women’s rights, although they have failed to stable development within the internationalwomen’s domain of rights and struggles. It isalso women’sdomain of rights and struggles. and focused theon the Soviet role of Union and its impact within thethe international history of contribute to an argument about the significancethe Cold War of and Cold War competition, movementsand women’s movements had a significant women impact for and an women’s history of during the twentieth century. Influenced by Francisca de Haan, I aspired to My research question was twofold: ‘Whatthe Soviet was the role Union of within the Althoughthethe examples presence Soviet Unionof of withinthe domainthe history of My research is situated in the argument that the twentieth century was not a location of The current research aims to contribute to thedispute about which political circumstances C ONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH FORFURTHER SUGGESTIONS AND ONCLUSIONS 127 CEU eTD Collection engagement in the field. By suggestingimpact that this be typereferred of to as ‘indirect,; I mean visibilityindirectly impacted local women and women’sand movements elsewhere, as well as their international presence.century, it is only reasonable thatSoviet the mere engagementfact in of the struggles had I suggesteddevelopment andsetbacks for women’s movements and women rights throughout the twentieth thatrevolutionary and national liberation movements were importantan location for boththis is scene,an and so forth, rather than on military intervention. I argued examplethat since Third World Marxist professional and militaryof cadres, and on making acontribution in the internationalactive, diplomatic movements. TheSU’s involvementthough frequently focused onthe revolutionary, preparing of indirect,particularly involvedthe Marxist-Leninist in support of revolutionaries and national liberation was state Soviet the factthat the emphasized SUespecially I internationally. engaged still deeply among those who argued that although the SU did not in fact lead a worldwide revolution, it was were perceived by thequite a junction flexible of Marxist-Leninistcontemporary doctrine and changing national interests as those Sovietconsensus within theSU’sleadership political historiography that theSU’s foreign policy and diplomacy was at the time.the role the SU played withinthe thedomain, history I ofhave situated my researchI in the also situated of active the dimension for women’s worldwide. As and leaders women for my struggles standards research effect, since its internal policies were an example for other states, and represented desirable argue that theverythe Soviet presence Union of in theinternational arena had an inspiring policies the SU of Bolshevik platform regarding the woman question represents the motivational and active dimensions. Iargued that theinternational thedissemination of internationalwomen’s domain of rights and struggles can beconceptualized as consisting of domain as carried out by the Soviet Women’s Committee (1941-1991)?’ question, ‘What were the specific ways itsand mechanismsdirect engagement of within the In addressing these questions the the SU I suggestin that thehistory therole of of and I refer to this impact as “motivational.” 128 I suggested the term motivational to international impact of the internal the of impact international CEU eTD Collection over-simplification, because the official Marxist-Leninist doctrine implicitly endorsed aspirations endorsed implicitly doctrine Marxist-Leninist official the because over-simplification, argue that the Thus, I argue that an that argue I Thus, and the goals theof Party were complex, andcomprehensive definitely study, where she establishes that the relation betweenwomen’s the field of rights not mutually exclusive, but interrelated. and women’s rights de Franciscainsights of Haan, Reluca Maria Popa and Wang Zheng. organization in general, and the Soviet organization in particular, thereby contributing to the the persistencemisleading of assumptions about state-supported Communist women’s history, including the Western hegemony in the historiographywomen’s of movements, as well as some reasons for this lack of research, and for the narrow the for and research, lack of this for reasons some verybeen the subject limited research of in either the former Soviet Union or the West. Isuggest the Soviet Union was the Soviet Women’s Committee, an organization whose history has only was actively engaged in theinternationalwomen’s domain of rights and strugglesof on behalf itsexact motivations.influence regardless of AccordingSoviet to sources the main which agent I suggest the theoretical notion of notion theoretical the suggest I targeted and impacted the domain. field. I proposeinvolvementone is more wayan example of in which theSU wasto significantly present in the refer to women’s this that Ihave international standards. suggested rights contemporary this of establishment involvementSU played in drafting and promoting international treaties that were influentialas for the direct and the international arena. in involvement state’s general Soviet the of effect women’sinbuilt or an women but movements, to emphasize that this and similar impacts were not the outcome of a purposeful outreach to The firstThe assumption I addressed is that the SWC could only have been working for women Finally, Ihave provided examples from the research that describe the essential role that the women-Party tools or either-or serving the goals of the Party. I cited in this regard Mary Buckley’s approach leads to truncated perceptions ofSWC’s record. I also narration theof SWC’s history along either-or lines is an extreme engagement 129 as a concept that allows us to view Soviet allows usto that asaconcept women-Party tools active since the actions specifically actions the since approach to SWC’s CEU eTD Collection did not promote social change within the Soviet Union and was committed to the the interests of other states. for social change within the SU, it had the capacity to promote and support social change within impact on the feminist field in the state. Thus, despite the fact that SWC was not an organization movements in Israel, SWC’s contributions to that organization’s growth made an active and direct feminist Palestinian in the leaders of generation entire an raised also but Israel, in change social relationship with Tandi, which spanned more than three decades. Since Tandi not only promoted Cold War, any actor had potential for international influence. I discussthe the SWC’s example of arena. perceived as essentially local and insignificant in respect to developments in the international influence, while at thesame time, the actors affiliated with or originated in the Cold War’s east are are by and large perceived as active and independent agents with potential for international and Wang Zheng states that in the historiographywomen’s of movements, western organizations women’s organization in the Cold War’s West and East. An argument raised by de Haan, Popa the world, bothof west and east, for thethe twentieth most of century. men. This general observation, however, was true not only in the Soviet Union but inmost parts also noted that one can argue that, notwithstanding women’s involvement, the system was led by the women were the an integralruling apparatus part of rather than it. I merehave servants of have argued that since the SWC waspolitical anorganization and of professional women elite, apparatus as a male-only establishment in which women were mere “servants.” In this regard, I movements as well as many local movements, as Molyneux argued. for gender equality, and its agenda was not far from the agenda ofinter/transnational feminist Finally, following Edward Said and Chandra Mohanty, I suggest that the fact that the SWC I join Popa in arguing that contrary to this perception, in both the East and the Westthe of One more dimension which I discuss is the double standard applied the research on the state Soviet the and CPSU of perception is the Ihave uncovered assumption second The 13 0 CEU eTD Collection international women’s domain of the rightsSoviet and struggles state.of on behalf On the States – the most important structure within the people diplomacythe socialist of super power. Friendshipstoodthe Union at the Societies base of of for Cultural Relations with theForeign will be needed toestablish that these and otherthe work principles SWCand organizationof of research further that suggest I addition, In arena. international the within women with relations information-gathering, and the establishmentexceptionally of warm and friendly personal Soviet Union’s achievements throughdelegations, the structure of a commitment to rigorous Popova’syear of leadership. These principles included a strong emphasis on representing the the SU, must have being very different from the dailyordinary lives Soviet of Women. the Soviet elite,of accordingly, Iargue that their daily experiencenomenclature as part eliteof of class origin. Nevertheless, it is evident that the womenmajority involved of in the SWC were part Fedulova – and emphasized that, other than Grizodubova, theSWC leadersworking- were of Popova and the last threethe SWC heads – Valentinaof Tereshkova, Zoya Pukhova and Alevtina servedSIB inas 1941-1945. the head of Finally, Ihave provided shortNina biographies of second head of the organizationas the Popova was Nina appointed that Golovanov. Alexander suggest General also I with had due to her earlierGrizodubova, was removed from her post as the presidentSWAFC aconflictof because she of work with Alexanderreviewed Sherbakov, and approved whothe SWC’s subjugation by to alsothe SIB, and the fact itsthatthe activities all of up to1945 had tobe Bureau. I suggestInformational Bureau (SIB) to produce propaganda for extra-territorial consumption.that Idiscuss the first headUnion during World War II, and the ofmeasures which the were taken underthe Soviet theauspices of SWAFC, Valentina womenthe history and ofwomen’s movements during the twentieth century. Party should be acknowledged in further research into the organization and the role it played in Finally, I discuss the ways in which the SWC played a direct and active role within the first the during established were work SWC’s international of principles the that argue I I locate the establishmentthe SWC in the of state of 131 total war which mobilized the Soviet the mobilized which CEU eTD Collection role of a mediator between the will of the Party, its own interests and needs as those were asthose needs and Party,interests the own its willof the between amediator of role played a and its owninterests with unit organizational itwasa separate also structure, diplomacy the two answers. I also argue that, althoughsuggest thatengagement the concept addresses of this ambiguity the when building a frameworkSWC for was part theof Soviet foreignthe policy work and ofWIDF, enhanced it and whether and to which extent it was necessary for its success. a certain extent control of within the WIDF least two different positions. One is influence of the Soviet UnionFirst, and SWC withinI drew the WIDF?”attentionorganization was influential in theFederation canbut did not have all-encompassing and control over it. should to be theasked factfrom at that the Third World,exact and more. same questionstudents, the well-beingwomen leaders, of financialwomenorganizations support inof of the “What wasorganization and seminars;a varietysponsorship and the of stipendsof provision for women of the role and to internationalthe congresses and seminars; the organizationinternational congresses; of the disasters; the organizational sponsorshipsupport, travel ofcosts for women leaders and activists and children toThird World; thehumanitarian provision wars aid of and natural in case of the Soviet influence upon the Eastern bloc). the Republics Ukraine and Belarusof (in this regard Ialso mentioned briefly the significance of within theUN, through thethe activity Soviet representatives of including the representatives of accomplishments in the emancipation women women’s and promotion of of rights treaties significant achieved had which astate of poweras arepresentative and authority movements, its The political resources included its genuine significance for the Marxist- Leninist parties and political value. The material resources included financial, human and organizational resources. theoretical level, Iargue thatthe SWC’s authority and influence were based on its material and In regard to the SWC’s engagement in WIDF, I join de Haan’s argument women ontheeducation experts of SWC includedof sending directof engagement This that the whether the Soviet no Unioncontrol/had (andSWC) control/had had and another one is 132 how the Soviet state and the SWC supported Ifurther CEU eTD Collection aspects of the Cold the SU’saspectsWar of policies. Another dimension which Icould not fullyover address is the changing time. Indeed,Pollard 2009, p. 153);Russian the impact of chauvinism onthe SWC’s work, as well asas imperialist the scope,violence against women, themes,which was “was ignored and denied by the [Soviet] authorities” (Misner- and locationsmore, including, for instance, the international Soviet impact reluctance of to address the issue of of Cold War However, the negativethe role consequences played ofby the Soviet Union should be explored thesis is heavily focused on what can becalled the “positive”the SU upon the domain.impact of struggles. and into the direct role which that the SU played within the internationalwomen’s domain of rights this role. It isof my hope that my research has indicated the vast potential for further inquiries field. In asingle thesis, there cannot bea comprehensivethe scope and account significance of international women’s domain of rights, which can serve as the basis for further research in the to establish that this ‘coincidence’ was planned, it is highly likely. before the 1963 Congress in Moscow and argued that although we do not have enough evidence discussed earlier. and a significant mediator with the “nationalist” camp, this due to the exceptional resources wascamp, acapable andalso Communist the of was aleader her narrative, to SWC, according ideological camps, a field inwhich the“communist” camp opposed the “nationalist” one. The [specific]. isaddressed efforts central role within theorganizations. WIDF and analyzed I showed perceiveda document that the in SWCwhich made the enormous very beginningby efforts the ofin these order leadership to obtain and keep a of the SWC, and the will and interests of WIDF’ and its Although I have intended to suggest aconceptual framework more than ajudgment, this This research has proposed a theoretical framework for the Soviet Union’s role within the Finally, Ipoint out that Tereshkova’s historical journey to space happened only ten days I have presented Khoury’s argument that the WIDF was the site of rivalry between 133 CEU eTD Collection Relations the Formerin States Sovietof Union. RussiansThe Perception of Russian chauvinism in the Soviet state, refer for instance to Hagendoorn, L., Linssen,Reading EncountersH., Between Black andRed, Tumanov,1922-1963 S. Ed. 133 chauvinism. Russian and racism its state, Soviet the of imperialism internal the with itcorresponded how and milieu the in out played racism how as as well activities, of types specific prioritizing women’s struggles, Future research should also address how and whether the Soviet intervention oppressed local the Soviet interventionwomen’s of within rights and struggles in the Third World, future research should ask thehow and whether domain produced colonial subjects definedengagement. by a Soviet gaze. investigationwell. What the SUinternational withinwomen thehistory rightsdomainof and of struggles changed as and those couldcompetition changed, we may assume that the focus,changes range and significancethe role played of by help towere create and howa more significant detailed theyhistorical were, would account bear ofa significantthe Soviet influenceparticular the history women’s of movements in the Third World and the West? The within the WIDF? How did it change through the years SWC’sof international arena? Whatexistence? was the exact role and significancethe Soviet Women’s of How Committee did the SWC this figure highwere actually invested by the SU in women’sin struggles and the women’spromotion of relation rights? Was SWC’sto specialists in drafting the major women’s theother century? rights What treaties resources of issuesactually worked on theadministrative,in human and material levels. What waswhichthe the exact role of the isSoviet a vast project, and much moreshould be done in order tounderstand how this intervention state wasplayed by the Soviet Union within the internationalwomen’s domaininvolved of rights and struggles. This withinreader finds it by now as interesting as I do, is the scope and the significancethe active roleof the For m Regarding the imperialist aspects theof role played by the Soviet state within the domain But the most fascinating topic to explore further and I can only hope that the respected ore on the racismthe SU, of refer for instance to Kate A. Baldwin. 133 . Durham: Duke University Press, 2002; for a deep inquiry into 134 . East Sussex: Psychology Press, 2001 Beyond the Color Line and the Iron Curtain: Intergroup CEU eTD Collection Representation of forgotten is a past erased asa possible space from which toview the present critically.” 134 no longer exists there is aregression in these issues. Now people are starting to ask where the Marxism is. England were all afraid laborers of uprising andthem, that is why they gaveand social topacify andlaborers towomen rights gave they that therights. of fear for So revolution. Now a communist eyes crowdsin their spell that the Soviet Union also learnedabout women how rights. to claimCountries their in the world rights. were constantly The westernafraid laborersofpoor get poorer and the rich get richer evencountries in Russia. and women uprising like as it Francewould the US and women’s movements, their work and struggles. meanings and consequencesthe contemporaryglobal of hegemonycapitalism of for women and this agenda and hope that my research will be able andto contributefuture may haveto the left criticalglobal capitalism herresearch: over contemporary “[The] present the hegemony of agenda of the past analyses as the sole of the source ofcritical perspectives.”has withereditself away. illuminate ways in which women’s and feminist struggles have changed since that superpower whicha socialist theexistence of super power influencedthe domain the canhistory of the century. This inquiry,whichthe international the historywomen’s of domain of rights and strugglesI evolvedbelieve, through is valuableanswers beyond to a thesestrictly and manyhistorical more questions interest. could The waysshed a infascinating light on the exact ways in China,” 135 Zheng, “Revealing Erasures: Visual Representation of Wang Zheng (2009) recalls the words of Arif Dirlik (2005) in order to summarize the S: The situation would be as it women rights?Y: would What was be different in terms of before the Soviet Union. I think the Soviet Union taughtS: the world Y: Samira, there wasn't how would theit Soviet be if Union and the Soviet Women organization? Modern ChinaModern Arif Dirlik, Arif Arif Dirlik,Arif “Reversals, Ironies, Hegemonies: Notes on the Contemporary HistoriographyModern of Like now Like oe f China Women of , Vol. 22, Issue 3, Jul., 1996, p. 248. Quoted in Wang Zheng, “Revealing Erasures: Visual Marxism in the Chinese Revolution . What with the Soviet Union gone the third world countries are in very bad shape. The : 1949-2009,” unpublished paper, 2009, p. 1. , Durham:Duke University Press, 2005, p. 279. Quoted in Wang oe f China Women of * * * 135 : 1949-2009,” unpublished paper, 2009, p. 1. 134 And: “[A] past “[A] And: 135 Ishare CEU eTD Collection 136 andannexes]. year1961, the for theCommittee of expenses rashodov Komiteta na 1961 g. i prilozheniya k andnim budget [Thestaff forlist administrativeof GARF, fond 7928 (SWC), op. 3, d. 760. Shtatnoe raspisanie i smety administrativno-hozyaistvennykh disaster in Madagascar and humanitarian aid, 1959]. Madagaskare I okazanii pomoschi [The letter from USSR-Madagascar association about the nature GARF, fond 7928 (SWC), op. 3, d. 304. Pis’mo assotsiatsii “Madagasckar-SSSR o stikhiinom bedstvii na 1958]. friendship contacts, participation in international women’s movement, exchangesprinted [Mailofmaterials, correspondence etc, with theWomen’s Union of CommunitiesYugoslaviadrugoe i of izdaniyami, aboutpechatnymi obmenu strengtheningdvizhenii, kontaktov,mezhdunarodnom v uchastii druzheskikh GARF fond 7928 (SWC) 3 194. Perepiska s soyuzami zhenskikh obschestv Yugoslaviiukreplenii of Yugoslavian[review of press on women’s movement in the country, 1958 – 1959]. GARF, fond 7928 (SWC), op. 3, d. 193. Obzor Yugoslavskoy pressy o zhenskom dvizhenii v strane (information, reviews, references), 1958 – 1959]. (informaciia, obzory, spravki) [Materials about the democratic women’s movementGARF, in Yugoslavia fond 7928 (SWC), op. 3, d. 192. Materialy o demokraticheskom zhenskom dvizhenii v Yugoslavii 1958. WIDF,June 3, III]. part of Comgress theIvth from report [verbatim III chast’ MDFZh, IV Kongressa Stenogramma op. d.11. GARF, (SWC), 3, 7928 fond Women’s about March-May, 1946. Czechoslovakia]. materials movement in [Reference GARF fond 7928 SWC, op. 2 d. 256 l. 5. Spravochnye materialy o zhenskom dvizhenii v Chekhoslovakii womendelegation ofto Australia]. August 11 – October 1 1945. zhenskoy sovetskoy delegatsii v Avstraliiu [materials and reports on the cancelledSoviet visitGARF, of fond 7928 (SWC), op.2, d. 174. Materialy, spravki, doklady o nesostoyavsheisya poezdke Sovietthe visit ofwomen to France].June 15- July 6, 1945. GARF, fond 7928 (SWC), op.2, d.149. Otchet o vizite sovetskikh zhenschin vo Frantsiiu [Report about “Columbia” (Latin America]. October 20 1944 – June 23, 1959. :Kolumbiia (Latinskaia Amerika) [Letters about the activitiesdemocratic of women’s organizationGARF, fond 7928 (SWC), op.2, d.71. Pis’ma o deyatel’nosti demokraticheskoy zhenskoy organizatsii organizations in USA]. April 20 1943 –April 26, 1951.women’s of activities the about information and [References Ameriki Shtatakh Soedinennykh GARF, fond 7928 (SWC), op.2, d.46. Spravki i svedeniia o deyatel’nosti zhenskikh organizacii v February 1949. Great Britain on information exchange; notes and information about the Council]. November 13 1942 informatsiey;- spravki i svedeniia o sovete [E-mail correspondence with National Councilwomen ofof GARF, fond 7928 (SWC), op.2, d.19. Perepiska s Natsional’nym Sovetom Zhenschin Anglii ob obmene Federatsii, Moscow [Hereafter GARF]) Rossiiskoi arkhiv (Gosudarstvennyi Federation Russian the Archive of State from Documents sources Primary For full information about the archive please refer to: B IBLIOGRAPHY 136 136 http://www.statearchive.ru/383 CEU eTD Collection scholarship students for studying in USSR, May-August 1977]. individuals about conducting seminar “Woman and socialism” private with in Moscow, correspondence [Mail nauchebu. stipendiatok oprieme and on sotsializm”, i accepting „Zhenschina female GARF, fond 7928 (SWC), op. 3, d. 4312. Perepiska s chastnymi litsami oprovedenii v Moskve seminara women on providing stipends for studying in USSR, December 1973]. predostavlenii stipendiy dlya obucheniya v SSSR [Mail correspondence o zhenschin with theCentral Union Africanof tsentral’no-afrikanskikh Soyuzom s Perepiska op. d.3631. GARF, (SWC), 3, 7928 fond 1973]. PeaceCongress corpses, of exchangedelegations, of and provisionmaterial ofaid, January-October, pomoschi. [Mail correspondence with theSyrian League ofwomen on preparations for the World o podgotovke Vsemirnogo Kongressa miroliubivykh sil, obmene delegatsiyami, okazanii material’noy GARF, fond 7928 (SWC), op. 3, d. 3329. Perepiska s Ligoy siriiskikh zhenschin, Posol’stvom SSSR v Sirii [Mail correspondence with the Soviet representativeWIDF about of its activities, 1965-1966]. GARF, fond 7928 (SWC), op. 3 d. 1398. Perepiska s sovetskim predstavitelem MDFZh o ee deyatel’nosti Women,1963]. of Congress the International conducting podgotovke iprovedeniiu Vsemirnogo Kongressa Zhenschinactivities [List of for preparing and GARF fond 7928 (SWC) op. 3 d. 1008. Perechen’ meropriiatii Komiteta Sovetskikh Zhenschin po 137 CEU eTD Collection Materialy mezhdunarodnogo zhenskogo seminara. Moskva, Sept. 15-Oct. I, 1956 [Materials for communism]building of Moscow, 1954. Folder 3, Report 16. InstituteRadio Free of Europe/Radio Liberty, Publications Department, Background reports. Box 55, HU OSA 300-8-3 Material from Open Society Archive (HU OSA) Soviet propaganda abroad” the Organization the ResolutionCentral the CPSU Committee Bureau of(b) of „On ofthe improvement of Materials fromAlexander Yakovlev’s personal archive: representatives (per therequest Soviet of Women’s Committee) [02/17/1981]. Section 8 (Peace), Document Iran. Special training for people [08/11/1980]. Section 8 (Peace), Document participation in the International Women congress [07/11/1980]. Section 8 (Peace), Document vacation and medical treatment” [04/10/1980]. Section 8 (Peace), Document transportation for 500 foreign delegates [01/15/1980]. Section 8 (Peace), Document reception and service, and related expenditures” [07/28/1971]. CT123/30: “On the invitationforeign ofParty officials to the USSR in 1971: organizationtheir of 137 Karaseva, L. E. March 8, 2011) http://www.archive.org/stream/reportoncongress1949unit/reportoncongress1949unit_djvu.txt Government Printing Office) States Women. United American Washington: of ontheCongress Report 1949). 23, October Committee on Un-American Activities, U.S.Representatives House of (1950, original release date - 60 Years Anniversary for WIDF sources Secondary Section 8 (KPSS i bor’ba zamir [CPSU and struggle for peace], hereafter „Peace”), Document archive). Documents from Soviet Archives collected by Vladimir Bukovsky (Hereafter Bukovsky http://www.bukovsky-archives.net/Bibl-new/Index-numerical-eng.pdf The fulldocuments list of in english is available online. Retrieved on March 1, 2011 from: CC CT In titlesthe documentsof from Bukovsky archive: 137 (Central Committee) stands for „Decisionthe Centralof Committeethe USSR of Communist Party”. stands for “Decisionthe secretariat of the Centralof Committeethe USSR of Communist Party”. Sovetskie zhenshchiny v borbe za postroenie kommunizma New Organization to Control "Friendship", April 25, 1958. (issued on September 29, 1949). 29, onSeptember (issued , Brochure, Union of Russian Women, 2005. Ȳ Ȳ Ȳ Ȳ Ȳ CT250/69: CT:“Aeroflot” Use of for transportationforeign of CT219/50: CT: A request from the leadershipthe People's of Party of CT219/59: CT: Financial assistance to women from Asia and Africa in in CT206/32: “Invitation for ex-patriotleaders of organizations for CT246/22: Soviet CommitteeSolidarity of with Asia and Africa: 138 . [Soviet Women in the struggle for Records of the Research Records of Ȳ (accessed CEU eTD Collection http://www.a-z.ru/women/texts/puhovr.htm In USSR] Puchova, Zoya. „Zhenskoe dvizhenie i perestroyka v SSSR” [Women’s movement and perestroika in 1967. Popova, Nina. 12 (1960) Federation” Democratic International Women’s of the Years Popova, Nina. “For a World without Arms and Wars, a World without Slavery and Oppression: Fifteen power]. Moscow: Profizdat, 1946. 138 Novosti Dnya, khronika nashikh dney the[News day, of chroniclesour days], of directed by Katanyan V. Russian CentralDocumentary Studio of Films. 1958. No 24. Novosti Dnya, khronika nashikh dney the[News day, of chroniclesour days], of directed by Slutskiy M. Russian CentralDocumentary Studio of Films. 1954. No 33. Novosti Dnya, khronika nashikh dney the[News day, of chroniclesour days], of directed by Rybakova A. Eugene Cotton. Russian Central DocumentaryStudio of Films. Directed by Solovieva, N. 1973. documentaries from Fragments Soviet Women’s Committee. Moscow: Novosti press agency, 1987. Soviet Women’s Committee. Moscow: Novosti press agency, 1981. Soviet Women’s Committee. Moscow: Novosti press agency, 1975. 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