CEU eTD Collection The Women's International Democratic Federation World Federation Democratic International Women's The Congress of Women, Moscow, 1963: Women’s Rights and In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts of thedegree ofMaster requirementsfor ofthe fulfillment In partial World Politics during the Cold War the Cold during Politics World Supervisor: Professor FranciscadeHaan Supervisor: Professor Department of Gender Studies Department ofGender Central European University Budapest, Hungary Anna Kadnikova Submitted to By CEU eTD Collection of the biggest global women’s organization, the Women’s International Democratic Federation. women’s organizations in the postwar era, and in particular to the still largely unwritten history The thesis also hopes to make a meaningful contribution to the historiography internationalof treatment of women by the 1960s was a key part of their rivalry. missiles, satellites, technology, oreven agriculture, but also that their competition regarding the competition (peaceful and not) between the United States and the Soviet Union went beyond on literature history the of Coldthe Waris still gender blind,attempt Itoshow not only the that showcased the USSR to the world as the champion of women’s rights. While most of the UnionSoviet successfully used the June 1963 as events an opportunity for public diplomacy, and WIDFthe 1963Congress) the Soviet media, which andAmerican organized and argue that I the Based on my research of the archives of the Soviet Women’s Committee (the Soviet member of and peaceful competition. coexistence of in combinedleaderthese of peaceful of context Sovietthe Khrushchev’spolicies events world’s first woman astronaut, just afew days before the WIDF Congress. Iexplore the meaning Moscow, in combination with the successful space flight made by Valentina Tereshkova, the My focuses thesis Juneon the 1963WIDFWorldCongress ofWomen took placethat in Abstract i CEU eTD Collection intellectual growth. a single moment inmy life my doubted abilities, providing encouragement and helping my mother - my best friend, to whom I owe so much that no words could describe it, and who at andinnot Open the but Moscow Last, in by Archive Budapest. Society nomeans Ithank my least, myArchivearchives two Federation the inwhichIconducted of State - the research Russian the share the challenging and the fun moments of this unforgettable year. I thank the helpful thestaff of most, and to all my friendsforZiferblat having alwaysbeen support ready meto andmakeme feel secure whenIneeded it in the Gender Studiesfor provoking, agreeing bemyam my to friend reader. I second to Knopova- grateful Yana dear department, who were alwaysProfessor Hadley Renkin, whose classes were aroundalways so intellectually enriching and thought-to unbelievable andhelpfulness patience made this thesis possible. Iam also very to thankful and support, warm advice, invaluable guidance, ceaseless whose deHaan, Francisca Professor my supervisor to gratitude expressmy deepest wouldlikeI to foremost,and First Acknowledgements ii CEU eTD Collection Chapter 2. HistoricalChapter Background Review 1.Literature Chapter Introduction Contents Public Diplomacy Chapter 3. The 1963 WIDF World Congress of Women in Moscow as an Exercise of Soviet Bibliography Conclusions 2.2. Destalinization 2.2. 2.1 – The nuclear arms race and the Cuban Missile Crisis Tereshkova as an Embodiment of the “Soviet Dream” and a Soviet “Gender Weapon” 3.3. The World Congress of Women as an Exercise of the Soviet Public Diplomacy; Valentina 3.2 Space Flight of the First Woman Cosmonaut as the Soviet “Gender Victory” 3.1. The 1963WIDF World Congress of Women in an Moscow: Overview 2.2.2 Foreign2.2.2 peaceful policy: coexistence 2.2.1. Domestic policies: ‘helping the women’ ...... 1 ...... 65 ...... 67 ...... 32 ...... 21 ...... 9 ...... 17 iii ...... 25 ...... 24 ...... 18 ...... 33 ...... 42 ...... 53 CEU eTD Collection Federation (Paris, France:Federation (Paris, Women’s International Democratic Federation, 1949). 1 Union. Soviet forthe success were aresounding in competition USA,andwith the that competition and peaceful coexistence policy peaceful of Khrushchev’s in Nikita embedded were and of context in the place took flight Tereshkova’s emancipation. The thesis show andwill argue thethat 1963WIDF Congress itsand links with evincing avery messagestrong that theSovietUnion was thecountry supported women’s that Congress. As I will demonstrate, the Sovietmedia and official discourse linked the two events, atand the celebrated invited to and was woman she astronaut, first becametheworld’s USSR 2010). number of landmark women's rights initiatives on the level of the United Nations (de Haan, socialism, was the largest post-war international women's organization and can take credit for a The organization, which still exists, in spite of being less active than before the demise of children”. of condition the of improvement the for rights; women’s of extension the for peace; of the French Communist resistance. Its goals were “the fight against fascism; for democracy and Congresses in The Moscow. WIDF was founded inNovember 1945in by Paris memberswomen by the Women's International Democratic Federation (WIDF), and held in the Kremlin Palace of Introduction In:Introduction, Second Women’s International Congress WIDF 1948, by Women’s International Democratic A few days before the 1963 WIDF Congress in Moscow, Valentina Tereshkova from the This focusesthesis ontheFifth World Congress Womenof (June 24-29,1963) organized 1 1 CEU eTD Collection the Fifth World Congress of Women of the Women’s International Democratic Federation in the Federation Democratic International Women’s the of Women of Congress World Fifth the Tereshkova servingasthe“living proof” of commitment.this Thus, thesis the to viewproposes opportunity demonstrate itsto profoundinterest inadvancement of women’s with rights, Convening the Congress on its territory and in that period of time provided the USSR with an victory of Sovietthe Union in its struggle for ideological supremacy over United the States. positiveprovidedwomen environment to under socialism. tothe thanks the fruit technology, of success,enjoying Soviet and unprecedented achieved toherimagein a woman according media, who, camefrom a very Soviet background the simple dream”), “American of the (the counterpart dream” I call “Soviet the of what as an embodiment delegate.Sovietmedia before and during the World Congress of Women Tereshkovaportrayed the start of the Fifth World Congress of Women and was invited to attend it as an honorable cosmonaut in the world, who had successfully finished her space venture just five days before women activists from all over the world was assigned to Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman primary “promoter” of the positive image of the Soviet Union in front of a huge audience of world (and thereby implyingits superiority vis-à-vis the United States). Yet therole of the positive picture of women’s situation in the Soviet Union, claiming that it was the best in the of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Nikita Khrushchev, presented an overwhelmingly of the Soviet Union. At the Congress, anumber of Soviet officials,including the First Secretary Women’s International Democratic Federation was an exercise of public diplomacy on the part I argue that Tereshkova’s flight was a “gender victory” rather than atechnological than rather victory” was a“gender flight that Tereshkova’s I argue In this thesis, Iargue that the Fifth World Congress of Women organized by the What my thesisWhat isabout my 2 CEU eTD Collection American life American andculture sympatheticpolicies,” whichfacilitate of understanding wrote our in presentation the of aspects presupposes light.a country “We those of underline a positive television” (U.S.Dept of State dictionary,in cited p.85, WallerPublic 2007). diplomacy countries; its chief instruments are publications, motion pictures, cultural exchanges, radio and programsgovernment-sponsored intended toinform influence publicor opinion in other Diplomacy in just1965, years two after Moscow the Congress Womenof had taken reads: place, definition the of term by provided American the EdwardR.MurrowCenter for Public connotation (even though in USSRitthe was not), itandwith substitute “public diplomacy.”The in generally literature. the overlooked It also underscores the existence of a strong genderdimension of the Cold War, which is Secretary of CPSUNikitathe Khrushchev (1955to1964)in latethe 1950sand early the 1960s. framework of the peaceful coexistence and peaceful competition policies, promoted by the First According to the 1987 U.S. Department of State definition,“public diplomacy refers to flow informationof and ideas.(Edward R.Murrow Center. 1965,cited in Wallertransnational 2007) the is diplomacy public to Central communications. cultural of process those whose job is communication, as diplomats and foreign correspondents; and the between communication policy; on impact its and affairs foreign of reporting the another; countries; the interaction of private groups and interests in one country with those of beyond traditional diplomacy; cultivationthe by of governments public opinion in other execution of foreign policies. It encompasses dimensions of international relations and on formation the attitudes influence of public the dealswith diplomacy Public In the I thesis, refrain from using asit aterm “propaganda” is imbued with a negative 3 CEU eTD Collection Soviet Women’s Committee. The American sources are the dailynewspaper arethe sources American The Committee. Women’s Soviet the USSR)aswell the as themagazine opinion of the government) the of opinion (which was an organ of the Central Committee of the CPSU and whose position reflected the newspapers the include media sources media. TheSoviet in andUSprinted Soviet archive is very rich, and I will be using here only a small part of the material I have seen). the World Congress of Women and tobuild up the arguments of the thesis (indeed, the SWC andforeign Iuse organizations. toprovidethese historical basicdocuments information about adopted by the Congress, as well as correspondence between the organizers and various Soviet of the Congress, speeches of the delegates, reports submitted by the participants, documents sessions plenary the of transcripts Tereshkova, Valentina by speech the and Women of Congress archive includeanumber including of tothespeeches, Nikita World Address Khrushchev's 1963Congress.the The dozens of related to documents 1963Congressthe availablein this founding member of the Women's International Democratic Federation and the main organizer of foremost, I have used the Moscow-based archive of the Soviet Women’s Committee (SWC), a 2007). Edward R.Murrow, then a member of U.S.Informationthe Agency,in in 1963 (cited Waller The thesis alsoincludes textual analysis of the coverage of Valentina Tereshkova’s flight The arguments in the thesis are based on analysis of a variety of sources. First and Methodology andsources and Izvestiya Sovetskaya Zhenshina (published by presidium the Supremethe of of Soviet 4 (SovietWoman) publishedby the The New York Pravda CEU eTD Collection WCW was much more than a form of cultural exchange between “East” and “West” and and“West” that more “East” to WCW than between was much form a of exchange cultural Differently andargue toits seemingly nature. Ilic,from I achallenge the impenetrable that "Western" women in spite of the Cold War, in other words as one of the gaps in the Iron Curtain Ilic (2010) discusses it as an example of cultural exchange that existed between "Eastern" and been written about it - the bits and pieces of information are scattered in different publications. world. The Fifth Moscow World Congress of Women was one of such congresses. Little has in between concerns the women's andcommonalities identify and differences other's experience learn from each in women's about report situation meet, their countries, could organizations coexistence andcompetition? peaceful Khrushchev’s policyof Federation. Democratic International Women’s the of activities the upon women’s rights. Apart from this, the thesis relies on the few available sources that elaborate diplomacy and promote an image of the USSR as a state standing at the global forefront of government towards Worldthe Women Congressof as an ample engage opportunity to in public NikitaKhrushchev in 1955. The historical context helps explain the attitude of the Soviet change in Sovietthe Union,following thedeath Stalinof in 1953 andthe comingpower to of climate at the time of the Congress (in particular the Cold War) as well as the domestic political Hungary, and Hungary, Times and magazines the Congresses organized by WIDFwerethe fora atwhich members of women's Why studying 1963 the WIDF Congress andwhy in thecontextof the Cold War and explore includes and that upon literature global studies Supportingthe elaborate political LIFE , available online. Newsweek, available in the Open Society Archives in Budapest, 5 CEU eTD Collection highly highly It actor. underresearched will allow us to rethink the role of internationalthe women’s historiography internationalof movementsby women's informationproviding amajorabout but politics exerted on the Congress. My study, therefore, will contribute to the existing of the Congress within the Soviet Union and elsewhere, nor to fully gauge the influence global Congress are known (Ilic 2010), they are notsufficient to understand the full scope of the impact disproportionately miniscule.While isolated some facts about impactthe of politics on 1963 the rights-related affairs and in politics global the the amountarena, of available scholarshipis Considering of scope the WIDF’sthe activities and influence the itexerted on both women's WIDF,focusing the about almostinstead exclusively organizations. “Western” on the women's Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). In spite of that, Western scholarship has been silent International Women's Year and pushed for the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of De Haan underresearched. notes it (2010) was that WIDFthe initiated that 1975UN the international organizations,in particular the yet unwritten history of the WIDF, which is highly of women’s historiography makesto the acontribution also thesis cases.The isolated historiography. This literature generally does notinclude a gender dimension, aside from some Congress. the toward government Soviet the of background of time,the whichis cruciallyimportantin toexplainorder thewelcoming attitude Congress Women.of In order to supportmy Iprovideargument, ashort overview political of the I also examine the meaning of the link between the flight of Valentina Tereshkova and the World which will allow us to understand the importance of gender as an area of Cold War competition. itsunderstand meaningwehave analyze to and the contemporary ColdWarSoviet politics, The thesis contributes to literature from a number of fields,first of all Cold War 6 CEU eTD Collection media reactions to Tereshkova’s flight, the chapter argues that the first woman’s space venture woman’s space first the that argues chapter the flight, Tereshkova’s to media reactions 2 dream.” “Soviet of the embodiment wasthe Tereshkova that argument the for foundation a making thus Tereshkova, Valentina about information discussed and the decisions arrived atduring the Congress. Subchapter 3.2provides biographical about 1963Congress, the underlines its tremendous scope, and examines thecharacter issues of competition between the SovietUnion and the USA. 3.1provides Subchapter basic information in time diplomacy of the public peaceful Women of as anexercise of Soviet Congress such as technology, cultural exchange, and, finally, gender. Chapter 3 deals with the Fifth World in coexistence andthedomains andpeaceful thiscompetition, was expressed,which competition Congress on its territory. This chapter primarily elaborates upon Khrushchev’s policy of peaceful political background that is crucial for understanding why Sovietthe Union welcomed the focus on the contemporary political climate of the early 1960s, thus providing the historical- in knowledge about the WIDF in general, and the 1963 Congress in particular. In Chapter 2, I dealt with the history of the WIDF and the Congress, and thereby show the multiplicity of gaps policy of the Soviet Union). Furthermore, I review the literature that has in one way or another Cold War (or, more narrowly – the history of the peaceful coexistence and peaceful competition upon and aspires tocontribute to.This literature includes works deal that with history the of the Structure of the Thesis War. Cold the during superpowers two the between competition in the gender of understanding movementin the broader contexts of world politics of the time. Thirdly itwill contribute to our Cf : 2009, 83. Reid In chapter 1, Literature Review, Ireview the bodies of literature which my thesis builds 7 2 By analyzing the Soviet and American CEU eTD Collection messages Soviet the about Union conveyed by Tereshkova Congress. atthe World Congress of Women was established in the media of the Soviet Union and examines the States. Subchapter 3.3examines the way in which linkthe between Tereshkova’s flightand the UnitedUnion the over Soviet the victory) of a technological than victory” (rather was a“gender 8 CEU eTD Collection War competition. Examples include as such authors Hans Krabbendam and Giles Scott-Smith Since cetera. the 1980s,historians haveincreasingly cultural the studied dimension Coldthe of described the competition between the two countries in terms of arms, economics, agriculture, et between the two superpowers for dominance in the world arena. Until the 1980s, this literature on literature ColdlargelyWarHistorical the genderthe dimension of struggle overlooks the number of issues,including gender equality and women’s well-being. a about competed superpowers two the policy, competition peaceful and coexistence peaceful of the Soviet Union public diplomacy in the period of Cold War when,in the framework of the as they relate to my study of the 1963 WIDF Moscow World Congress of Women as an exercise parts of its history. Below I will discuss the main characteristics of the fields mentioned just now women’s organization, the WIDF, of which we currently only have some articles about specific aspires to contribute to the mostly still unwritten history of a major post-war international history of the international women’s movement, particularly of the post-1945 era. My work Union, and the history of women’s activism within the USA. The other main field is that of the areas include the history of Coldthe War,theevolution of genderthe question within Soviet the upon the fields of literature that the thesis builds on and aspires to contribute to. The relevant elaborates chapter This of America. UnitedStates Union andthe theSoviet superpowers, two narrowly defined, it deals with the gender dimension of the peaceful competition between the Chapter 1. Literature Review Cold War Historiography My thesis, broadly defined, explores the gender dimension of the Cold War; more 9 CEU eTD Collection President Nixon. President the 1959 “kitchen debate” between First Secretary Khrushchev of the USSR and U.S. Vice- the examples of such recognition is Susan E Reid’s article elaborating upon the implications of was part of and shaped the Cold War competition are only beginning to be recognized. One of marginally marginally included in mainstream Cold War historiography. Despite this from recognition ColdprominentWarscholars, women and genderstill remain only words of historian Helen Laville 113),(2002, became an [Cold“important War] battleground.” of representation inand language than we have previously Gender thought.” equality,in the in aninfluential book that “gender relations were closer to the core of the conflict both in terms singlemaster Cold narrativethe Odd aboutthe (2000, War.Arne10-11) recently Westad argued likelihood thisthat scholarship that (butalso“race” on and would similar categories) undermine 1999, Melvyn 501-502)LefflerP. noted (1999, increasingthe scholarship on gender andthe 4 3 overview article onCold Warhistoriography in published the importancethe of gender and other previously neglectedfactors in studying the ColdWar. In an mainstream WarCold scholars such as Odd andArne Westad MelvynLeffler recognized have leading In recentyears, War. World the after Second superpowers the between competition David WorldSecond War who history 1960,or the and (2005), traced of Caute cultural (2003) whowrote a book on cultural the ColdWarin between Western Europe endthe of the The kitchen debate and Reid’s article are discussed in Chapter 2. Chapter in discussed are article Reid’s and debate kitchen The Aspointed out by De Haan 2010, 551. The Gender Question within the USSR 4 10 3 The various ways in which gender in which ways various The American Historical Review in CEU eTD Collection de Haan is one of the few exceptions here. and in particular international women’s organizations, has hardly beenasked yet. work-in-progressThe of Francisca 6 Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004). Melanie Ilic, Susan E. Reid, Lynne Atwood, eds. Atwood, Lynne E. Reid, Susan Ilic, Melanie Women in Politics and Society 5 U.S. phobia of communists on the activities of “communist feminists” in the country. In contrast studies, in Anglo-American and Union Soviet the within both covered extensively been have Union Soviet the within women question” in the USSR. Even though the Soviet “woman question” and the situation faced by hence dangerous. and organization asacommunist theWIDF viewing perspective, sofrom negative does a rather however, rather written from an American perspective, and, while it does mention the WIDF,it country. focuses one on generally discourse forsocialiston women’ssupport equality. picture, as are questions about its importance in Soviet history,including the boast it gave to the Women, organized by the Soviet Women’s Committee on behalf of the WIDF,is left out of the Women’s International Democratic Federation. Consequently, the 1963 World Congress of official women’s organization in the USSR, nor the Soviet Women’s Committee’s role in the establishedCommittee, in 1941 as Sovietthe Women’s Anti-Fascist and Committee the only activities of activities of inherbook American organizations women's The question of how the animosities between the two countries affected women’s organizations around the globe, the around organizations women’s affected countries two the between animosities the of how question The See, for example, Noonan, Norma C. “The Bolshevik Legacy and Russian Women’s Movements”. In Movements”. Women’s Russian and Legacy Bolshevik “The C. Norma Noonan, example, for See, Another field relevant for my work is the literature exploring the history of the “woman In as far as there is literature about the Cold War, women’s organizations and gender, it andgender, about War, Cold organizations isthe women’s In asfar literature asthere The Cold War and USWomen’s Activism Red Feminism ; edited by Wilma Rul and Norma C.Noonan. London: Greenwood Press, 1996; 5 this literature does not or hardly at all include the Soviet Women’s by Kate Weigand discusses the negative impact of the Cold War 6 Helen Laville, for instance, examines the international Women in the Khrushchev Era 11 Cold War Women (Houndmills, Basingstoke, . The book is, Russian CEU eTD Collection 7 activities) USmember(the organization of WIDFthe destroyed in 1949/50 for its alleged anti-American Women Congress ofAmerican the states WIDF.that the She “rehabilitates” Weigand to Laville, within the limits of one or two pages - and comment onits role as a “politicized” participant of do its writers various existence publications.that so around Those acknowledge usually do history arescattered WIDF of the pieces Isolated organizations. women's on “western” the exclusively nearly instead focusing WIDF, the about silent mostly been has scholarship Western in Introduction), mentioned the (asbriefly Federation of activities scope of the of the the spite In (WIDF). Federation Democratic International Women's of thethe activities about information in of Congress Women) particular. World the convened (which Federation Democratic International Women’s the of history not-yet-existent the and in general movements women’s Particular the History of the WIDF impact onthe focuses War Cold of USA. the the within similarly United States, leaving the rest of the world aside. The work of Landon R.Y. Storrs (2007) different perspectives on the “communistfeminists”, nevertheless focus on the activities in the rather taking of in spite books, Both women. these to vocabulary and foundations its of some trying to distance itself from the communists in general and the WIDF in particular, in fact owed For more details, see De Haan 2010. Most importantly, I believe, the thesis aspires to contribute to the history of international of history the to contribute to aspires thesis the believe, I importantly, Most The History oftheInternational Women’s Movementinthe Post-1945 Era,in and The majority publicationsof on history the of movementswomen's fail give to much 7 was not precisely a Communist Party tool and claims that the second feminist wave, 12 CEU eTD Collection presented with the opinion that members of the International Alliance of Women had about the about had Women of Alliance International the of members that opinion the with presented is reader The movement. women's global inthe developments post-war upon elaborating much is discussion devoted to pro-communistthe WIDF, whichRupp gazes over when and Not for Peace Freedom. League Women’s andthe International Alliance), Woman Suffrage Council of Women, the International Alliance of Women (originally called the International International the movement: women's of arena transnational pre-1940 in the players major identity" in the twentieth century (3). She recognizes three major organizations that were the aninternational in andconstructed together organizations collective transnational women's Leila J. Rupp “explores the complex process at work as women from far-flung countries came WIDF to be an unreliable competitor, and the author rather uncritically reproduces that view. that ratherreproduces uncritically and author the competitor, be anunreliable to WIDF (42),"communistassociations were soon the only ones to remain.” The ICW considered the according toFlour agenda. and communist However, the despite “Moscow” organization’s opinions,in spite of factthe founding that of organizationthe was initiativean coming from Because of its anti-fascist "aura", as Flour puts it, the WIDF attracted women with various Women book of the chapters focus in-depth on the “western” organizations that avoided association with the WIDF. Flour refer (2005), totheWIDF episodically and seem treat itto with mistrust, preferring to history of global movement,women's such as Leila Rupp(1997), Karen and Offen (2000), Els the Cold War. Authors of books and articles on women's history, specifically focusing on the , which is devoted to narrating the history of the ICW, briefly mentions the WIDF. In her 1997book In histories of such organizations, the WIDF is merely an episodic actor. One of the Women ChangingtheWorld: Ahistoryofthe International Council of Worlds ofWomen:The Making of anInternational Women's Movement 13 , CEU eTD Collection of 168). of propaganda (GarnerSoviet 2010, UN consultative status to the WIDF, which they saw as “a tool of the Soviet Union” and a source inUnited States and Middle East,” the consequently grantingthe (unsuccessfully) opposed of the Status of Women to be held in Beirut .... [might] be used by the USSR to agitate against the 168). The US State Department “feared that the meeting of the United Nations Commission on State Department toinvestigate WIDFthe andits activities in (Garner MiddleEastthe 2010, the US delegate to the United Nations Committee on the Status of Women, was asked by the US mentioned there because Ruth Woodsmall, general secretary of the World YWCA and advisor of is organizations,” women’s international to theWestern-led counterpoint an itself ‘Eastern’ up as Christian Association (YWCA). The WIDF, which was “sympathetic to the USSR” and “set Allied reconstruction projects, Garner elaborates on the activities of the World Young Women’s NGOs and GlobalGovernance of the role of both sides. the view of the Western women’s organizations towards the WIDF without acritical rethinking number of states shedthat Western colonial This(Rupp, 47). domination reproduces author, too, ColdWar, contributed to“increased global especiallyorganizing,” in the lightof growingthe bourgeois women's movement.” (Rupp, 47). The opposition of the two camps, induced by the with. The WIDF, she states, “continued the well-worn socialist tradition of hostility to the contextthat meant with communist), quite old-fashionedviews, butimpossiblenot cooperate to WIDF: a feminist organization with an anti-fascist agenda (here Rupp notes that anti-fascistin In spite of being a “significant newcomer” to the group of women's international NGOs, 2010book Karen Similarly, Garner’s includes merely a page on the WIDF. In a chapter about postwar about achapter In WIDF. the on apage merely includes Shaping a Global Women's Agenda:Women's 14 CEU eTD Collection which the Congress took place, differently from Ilic, and discuss the significance of exercise of Soviet public diplomacy. Ialso make a larger connection to the historical context in not just an example of cultural exchange between the East and the West –but, more than that, an commenting on her treatment of that Congress). Regarding the 1963 Congress, Iargue that it was impact of the 1963 Congress (since Ihaven’t studied the WIDF 1969 Congress, Iam not Iron Curtain. The depth of her analysis is, however, insufficient for understanding the possible women’s conferences as examples of cultural exchange between women from both sides of the Women’s Congresses, heldin inMoscow 1963 and in Helsinki in 1969. Ilic discusses these dealing with the WIDF. book her in aparagraph than more hardly is there literature, most in as but, instrument, Soviet situation. Carol Harrington (2010) has similarly denied the viability of considering the WIDF a be a mere “tool of the Soviet Union” is simplistic and underestimates the complexity of the rathercommunist, “feminist.”than She alsosuggests(2009,255) considering that WIDF the to and asdeeply politicized was WIDF whereas the rejected seen and organizations), of these notion challenged by de Haan[2010,564],who talks of “self-proclaimedthe political neutrality” have viewedas been (a apolitical “western” lineorganizations the In these, paradigms. with tobeshaped continues organizations by international shewomen's what calls War Cold argues, the silence about the WIDF has its roots in the fact that Western historiography of organization:the Francisca de Haan(2009,2010) and Melanie AsIlic (2011). deHaan (2010) started to appear.Two authors havefar so been“break trying to silence” the aboutactivities of shown above. It is only in recentyears that some accounts dealing exclusively with the WIDF as Flour (42) has put it, the WIDF nevertheless has enjoyed little attention from historians, as Melanie herIlic devoted 2011articlea to discussion of two of WIDFthe International 15 CEU eTD Collection superpowers for ideological supremacy on the global scale. study of the 1963 WIDF Moscow Congress as an important moment in the struggle of two coexistence policy inIn thenext Iwill chapter, particular. for my background historical provide one of the sides of the gender dimension of the Cold War in general, and of the peaceful make a contribution to the history of the WIDF that has just started to be written. It also explores andflight howitbecameto the1963Congress. Tereshkova’s space connected This thesis builds on the above-mentioned writings by de Haan and Ilic, and aspires to 16 CEU eTD Collection different social systems. social different with of countries peaceful competition and coexistence peaceful primarily foreign policies, the change in domestic policy that was part of de-Stalinization, whereas section 2.2.2 discusses by upon in process Khrushchev started elaborates of Nikita Section de-Stalinization 2.2.1 1956. the CPSU NikitaKhrushchev to start rethinking their policies. Subchapter 2.2 delineates the War military confrontation, and the direct reason for President Kennedy and First Secretary of the events that led to the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, since it was a vivid expression of the Cold peaceful competition of countries with different social systems. Subchapter 2.1 briefly describes and coexistence peaceful in de-Stalinization, Khrushchev, particular Nikita of leadership for it represented them?” WCWtoward the opportunity andwhat knowledge aboutthis broader political climate help usunderstandauthorities’ Soviet the attitude in the period during which the Fifth Moscow World Congress of Women took place? How does in Union worldandin climate the Soviet answer “Whatwasthepolitical the are: aimsto chapter to the Cold War, but will focus on those most closely related to my topic. The questions that this domestic and foreign policies of the Soviet Union. Ido not include all events of the time related global political climate of the time, particularly the Cold War arms and space race, as well as the Federation (WIDF) took place. It is crucial,for the purposes of my argument, to elaborate on the Moscow Fifth World Congress of Women (WCW) of the Women’s International Democratic Chapter 2. Historical Background The historical background provided in chapter this includes USSR policies under the This provideschapter a historical-political background of periodthe in which 1963 the 17 CEU eTD Collection got even whenworse 26 Auguston 1957 Sovietthe Union thefirst intercontinentaltested further escalation of the arms race, forcing the U.S. to produce more and more missiles. Things into thinking that his country was notbehind in terms of arms possession. This only instigated a the Cold War was there to stay. The leader of the USSR masterfully deceived the United States suppressby dissent weapons,resorting asin to casethe of 1956 Hungarianthe uprising, and that oppression under Stalin as fundamentally wrong, did nothesitate to use military force to the while acknowledged having new leader, the it that Soviet became soon clear coexistence, First Secretary of the CPSU. In spite of Khrushchev’s policy of de-Stalinization and peaceful of the bombs it possessed. In 1955, two years after Stalin’s death, NikitaKhrushchev became the Union was,in fact, significantly behind the United States, if one takes into account the number superpowers. In1953, Soviet the two gapbetween wasnotechnological the there exhibitthat to bomb,attempting devisedits own Union Soviet the toreciprocate, In order used earlier. theirfirst thermonuclear explosion, hundreds of times more destructive than the atomic weapons hydrogen bomb, or in short, H-bomb – had arrived, when in 1952 the U.S. scientists achieved green light todevise a new,far more powerful weapon. It was clear that a new era – that of the the Soviet Union devised its own nuclear bomb, President Truman gave American scientists the nuclear bombs hadbeenthat droppedon Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945.When in 1949 of the that exceeded far of weapons these power destructive The weapons. nuclear destructive ever-more of by in accompanied development the race, a severearms Union were engaged 2.1 – The nuclear arms race and the Cuban Missile Crisis Throughout 1950s,in the for questthe global supremacy, United and the States Soviet the 18 CEU eTD Collection 2011). with the first man in space, Yuri Gararin, only aggravated the situation (Judge and Langdon fact UnitedThis, the States. with the combined Union that launchedjust Soviet hadthe arocket Whatcame be to known as the Bay Pigsof invasion Aprilof 1961 turned out tobe afailurefor rely on anti-Castro Cubans, planned an invasion of Cuba, with the aim to overthrow Castro. enemy “in the backyard” was not something that the US was taking lightly. The CIA, deciding to Soviet Union gained a site for its military bases in the Caribbean. Having an ally of the main which provided protection andmarket a for the Cuba sugar thatlost in Unitedthe States. The their diplomatic ties in 1961. Instead, the leftist regime built an alliance with the Soviet Union, relationship between the United States and Cuba began to sour, with eventual termination of highest in 1962. After Cubanthe ledRevolution byFidel succeeded in Castro 1959, the feel like it was constantly threatened by the possibility of war. This danger was probably at its January 1958 did the rivaling manage superpower tolaunch its first satellite (ibid). already launched the second satellite –this time, a bigger one, with a dog on board. Only in own science and educational system” (Judgeand Langdon2011,114).InNovember, the USSR October 4, 1957. This news was “devastating for the Americans. Itundermined theirfaith in their started. It began with Sovietthe Union launching the firstsatellite in world,the Sputnik I,on competition (Judge and Langdon 2011). ballistic missile in world,the for timethe being leavingindeed the United States behind in the The military competition between the United States and the Soviet Union made the world spaceracewas inrace, the thearms victory Soviet significant the shortly after In 1957, 19 CEU eTD Collection the brink bitternessthe it of revealed the between annihilation, nuclear of confrontation the possible the United States and the Soviet Union, but perhaps the most severe one. Putting the world on in world fear of warforaweek. nuclear an agreement between Kennedy and Khrushchev was struck – at the price of holding the whole obvious (Judgeand 2011). Eventually, Langdon after letters aseries and of somemore tensions, the lagging of the USSR behind the USA in terms of military technology would become all too dangerous confrontation. Khrushchev in feared that,ifaddition andthey are stopped searched, 148). Suddenly, Sovietsubmarines the turned around, becauseKhrushchev toavoidchose this asCuba-boundterror Sovietvessels approached American ships” (Judge andLangdon 2011, would besunk by submarines.Soviet On October 23, 1963“the world watchedin spellbound Kennedy opted for a naval quarantine of the island. Khrushchev warned that the U.S. ships for Cuba, have ways close remove missiles from search the to threateningly Soviets the plane flew over the island, confirming the rumors that Kennedy had been refusing to believe. In placing its missiles in Cuba, and yetdid notbelieve these reports. In October 1962, a U.S. spy 1962 (Judgeand Langdon2011).Kennedy was repeatedly warned thatSoviet the Union was in spring Castro and Khrushchev between reached was Cuba in arms of placement on agreement States, decided that the best possible solution to defend Cuba was to place missiles there. The would notbe repeated. Khrushchev, witnessing the continuing arms build-up in the United Bay of Pigs was a mistake. However, he did not make a promise that attacks on the Soviet ally admitted that latter Kennedymet, the and President Khrushchev CPSUNikitaof the Secretary The Cuban Missile Crisis was one many expressions of the military competition between At the Vienna Summit of June 1961, where the leaders of the two superpowers, First 20 CEU eTD Collection Coexistence called a1966American book Four yearslater, superpowers. the two Khrushchev a newKhrushchev started erain politicsSoviet andpolicies. On 14 February 1956, during the about. brought it that changes policy foreign and domestic the preceded and allowed it. This subchapter will elaborate on the process of de-Stalinization and competition,it is crucial discussto the profound political change in the Soviet Union that Destalinization 2.2. and be peaceful competition will discussedinsubchapters. subsequent the coexistenceNikita that Khrushchevhadin proposed 1956. The concepts of peaceful coexistence numbers vast world the of around viability thepeople realized of policy the peaceful of Three years after Joseph Stalin’s death on March 5, 1953, First Secretary of CPSU Nikita PriorKhrushchev’s toelaborating Nikita andpeaceful policy peaceful of coexistence Because of the Cuban Missile Crisis and the way it highlighted the “balance of terror,” 6). only survival the to theirof people, own humanity buttothat of awholeas (Kim 1966, 5- not policies, nuclear in subsisting threat inherent the realize to seem Union Soviet the and leaders both United States condition,the of terror” of a “balance Undersuch annihilation. mutual automatic with equated is escalation, or act, irrational miscalculation, use of nuclear weaponsin total war, triggered either by misunderstanding,accident, mankindhistory, is withconfronted possibility the of total self-destruction. The all-out in human time first the for that believe laymen and experts of number A considerable , contained thefollowing passage: 21 Patterns of CompetitivePatterns of CEU eTD Collection that way to threaten the reputation of his colleagues. What came to be known as Khrushchev’s decided deliver to message the butkeep it to secret, notallowing the information leakto andin Like Khrushchev himself, they also once had been Stalin’s supporters. Therefore, Khrushchev forhave mightthem. this repercussions the feared they leaders because bytheParty sanctioned the highest echelons of the Communist Party. Open discussion of the Stalinist past was not idea bring to issues upthese attheCongress metwith from severe opposition his in colleagues had no other choice but to do so because of external circumstances (Tompson 1997, 155). His forever, and that it was in the interest of the party to confront and acknowledge the past before it 1997, 154).Khrushchev realized that the abouttruth Stalin’s crimes couldnot remainhidden their homes, bringing together with them knowledge about Stalin’s politics of terror (Tompson Stalin’s reign: hadcharacterized that cult of personality the a consequences number out corruptive he of pointed without reverence, butalso chose not tomention him in anyway inhis General Instead, Report. Stalin late the about spoke only not Khrushchev de-Stalinization. namely, policies: Soviet the XXth CPSU Congress, Khrushchev gave aspeech which marked the start of profound change in After Stalin’s death, the victims of his repression were returning from from GULAGto the werereturning his of thevictims repression death, After Stalin’s in(quoted Tompson 1997,154). role of collective leadership in the party and led at times to serious errors in our work reduction in their creative activity. The propagation of the cult of personality reduced the simultaneously plays down the role of the party and the popular masses, leading to a of personality, which transforms this or that leader intoa hero-miracle worker and The Central Committee has decisively condemned as alien to Marxism-Leninism the cult 22 CEU eTD Collection The Soviet regime neverfully did andneither recovered, he” in (cited Thatcher 2011,12). Khrushchev, Khrushchev’s Speech Secret was “the bravest andmost reckless thinghe ever did. (Thatcher 2011).In words the William of Taubman, author of an award-winning biography of Lenin to next lain had he where mausoleum, the from body Stalin’s of removal the by followed successfulpronounced by Khrushchev at the XXIIth Party Congress in 1961, which was (Thatcher 2011, 112). De-Stalinization, beginning with the XXth Party Congress, was Speech was “a genuine and profound reflection on what had gone wrong in the Stalin period” known not only in Soviet the Union, butaround worldthe (Tompson 1997,158).The Secret the speech, lest the enemies of the Party take advantage of its weaknesses, very soon it became personality the had causedincult multiple areas 2011). (Thatcher of history wholere-evaluation of the wrongs gradual the rectification Party that and asubsequent called Khrushchev,for therefore, committed, capableParty 2011). cadres (Thatcher eliminated mistakes (from agricultural disastrous spoiling policy to relations the with Yugoslavia) and a consequence, said Khrushchev, Stalin committed multiple domestic and foreign policy As leadership. of collective principle the from and Party the undermine thereby himself distance todisproportionately starting cult, aharmful leader, hepersonality butcreated then Communist 156-157). Upuntil 1934, claimed Khrushchev, Stalin heeded Lenin’s advice and was a good in condemnedparticular Stalin’s repression of mostthe prominentCP members (Tompson 1997, to keepsilence wasfinally about, by raised Khrushchev. Hedemolished Stalin’s reputation, and firstthe hours of 25 February 1956 (Tompson 1997,156).The past,which Party the elite wanted its in lasta closedday, on of Party XXth session the Congress, at Speech” was delivered “Secret In spite of Khrushchev’s warning that no one outside of the party should find out about 23 CEU eTD Collection plans, each Soviet family would reside in its own apartment (Ruble 1995, 31). At least during the community and the Communist Party, and making aclaim that in a matter of three five-year Around 1955,Khrushchev initiated a campaign for housing,involving the architectural apartments, and not have to continue living in the crammed conditions of communal housing. vastly increasing the building of urban housingin order to let Sovietthe citizens enjoy private Khrushchev decided to direct his attention to this issue and to rectify the wrong, for example, by compared with restof the country,the situation that was relatively (Reidgood 2009,84). Leningrad of 1951, each communalwas apartment occupied by an average of 3.3 families and, situation was only exacerbated by the Second World War that devastated the country. In forced masses of people to move from rural to urban areas, creating ahousing shortage. The to invest inimproving the living standards of its citizens. In 1930s,the the industrialization power, leadershipFor decades before Sovietthe Khrushchev’scoming to hadseemed reluctant communism to attainmentthe of livinghigh for all citizens” standards Soviet (Reid 2009,84). living standards. Khrushchev “pledged to‘help and women’ linked his country’s transition to example) and aimed atimproving the living of standard in population,the particular women’s for concerned, life farUnionwas expression in asartistic of Soviet (as liberalization the general 2.2.1. Domestic policies: ‘helping thewomen’ policies of the Soviet Union, and the next sections will elaborate upon this. external and internal in the changes of number a presupposed thus De-Stalinization 133). “toboost its economic and ideological role as a leader of the Eastern bloc” (Autio-Sarasmo, number of tasks: “to strengthen the Soviet Union’s status as a superpower in world politics” and The process of de-Stalinization induced a number of domestic policies that signified a As “leader of a new era”, as Sari Autio-Sarasmo has called him, Khrushchev had a 24 CEU eTD Collection had the right tobuild their ownversion of socialism, adjusted to the local context, rather than peaceful, and, moreover, admitting, unlike Stalin, that the communists in Yugoslavia and China revolution” and stuck to a new thesis, one that claimed that the way to communism could be Soviet relations with the world. He rejected Lenin’s thesis that war was the “midwife of of conception new his upon elaborated Khrushchev Congress, Party XXth 1956 at the Report instrumentas well shaperas of foreignSoviet policy” (Tompson 1997,150).Inhis General 2.2.2 Foreign policy: peaceful coexistence to the foreign policy of the Soviet Union, namely, to the competition with the United States. standards of generalthe population, women,in and particular, seemedtobeinherently connected Januarythe 1959 XXIParty Congress The(Reid 2009,85). domestic policy lifeconcerning the framed in terms of “catching up with and overtaking America,” as repeated by Khrushchev at underline the different nature of socialism as compared to U.S. capitalism, the promise was 2009, 85).Importantly,in factthe spite of this that model developmentwas supposed social of to technology and chemical products that would ‘alleviate women’s work’ in the home” (Reid Moreover, Khrushchev promised toincrease “production the of includingconsumer goods, improve women’s situation, where the service, he said, was going to eventually become free. number of reasons (Reid 2009,90).Heinitiated ahuge increase of service institutions thatwould position, the commitmentinitially pronounced by the Bolsheviks, but later abandoned for a commitment to remove domestic labor from the home as a means of improving women’s social Aside from building urban housing, Khrushchev revived thenineteenth-century socialist feminist first decade of its implementation, with Khrushchev in power, the policy did prove successful. In 1955, when Khrushchev became the undisputed leader of the USSR, he became “an 25 CEU eTD Collection Union. The important detail was that he was notplanning to Sovietinterestitthe of for the use system and colonial of the disintegration of the advantage suspicious of the non-communist nationalists in the former colonies, Khrushchev decided to take beingcopy required to of that SovietUnionthe (Tompson 1997,150).While Stalin was closer toeach (Khrushchevother 1959, 1-2). Khrushchev concludedin that such an environment, advances, reducing the planet to a small place and bringing people and countries closer and pressing need was peaceful for coexistence caused by ever-growing paceof technological the the Khrushchev, wrote all, of First situation. political contemporary the into insights give peaceful competition. Some of the main points ofKhrushchev’s essay are described here, as they socialism as a system, and the pressing need for peaceful coexistence and the implementation of Foreign Affairs mostthe destructive warin history.is There nothird in option (quoted 1997,150).” Tompson coexistence, claimed Khrushchev, was an all-annihilating war. “Either peaceful coexistence or topeaceful systems. alternative The with social different states between coexistence peaceful Lenin’s doctrine of war as a midwife of revolution, Khrushchev proposed a new concept: that of world. Hebelievedsince that socialism had peaceful forces expanded, Insteadof hadmultiplied. in the alternatives no had imperialism when times those to belonged it since Khrushchev, to capitalist (Tompson one 1997,150).The idea of inevitabilitythe of war was accordingoutdated, wouldMoscow bebeneficial and theSoviet that model of was superiordevelopment to the countries, by achievements, Sovietwitnessing the wouldcooperation beconvinced that with of socialist (Tompson development” 1997,149).Accordinghis to non-aligned assessment,the the Indian subcontinent, Khrushchev declared that his country was eager “toshare its experience Khrushchev’s essayKhrushchev’s “On publishedCoexistence”, Peaceful in magazine American the in 1959,revealedOctober the FirstSecretary’s views on supremacy the of 26 impose socialism. During a trip in CEU eTD Collection Crisis made all too clear), the two superpowers started to engage in a qualitatively different type in engagedifferent started a qualitatively to superpowers clear), two the madeall Crisis too “compete without war”(Khrushchev 1959, 4). best possible way” (Khrushchev 1959, 4). He offered to “try out whose system is better”, to andfollow“for from should” purpose peaceful the man’sneedscoexistence, of in satisfying the forallnations consequences – peaceful or coexistence.” could develop: “either war – and war in the rocket and H-bomb age is fraught with the most dire pointthe movingof Khrushchev out. suggested were there ways only two in which situationthe itforthe dislikewouldbut to one to oppose be unreasonableother other, realizethat other, each Mars or Venus” (ibid). He compared the situation to that of neighbors who live next toeach yet this tolerance was necessary, since the disliked state could not suddenly decide “tomove to itmight be particularly difficultfor states with different social systems to tolerate each other, and Even though the military confrontation remained on the agenda (as the Cuban Missile Cuban the (as agenda the on remained confrontation military the though Even competition Peaceful concerned, and on mutual benefit. (Khrushchev 1959, 3) parties the equality of complete aretobebased upon countries between relations andeconomic political presupposes that also coexistence of The doctrine peaceful object of altering their system of government or mode of life or for any other motives. the with countries other of affairs internal in the interference of renunciation a signifies territorial integrity and sovereignty in any form and under any pretext whatsoever. [It] presupposes also an it obligation on the part of all states to desistfrom violatingnon-aggression, to each other’s commitment the from Apart (…) issues controversial In its simplest expression it signifies the repudiation of war as a means of solving , a concept crucial for my analysis, according to Khrushchev, “can 27 CEU eTD Collection technological breakthroughs” (Autio-Sarasmo 2011, 136). The first victory over the U.S., the superpower status. In the 1950s and 1960s, USSR couldthe indeedsome boast “remarkable countries outside of Socialistthe bloc, with a view to strengthening the SovietUnion’s towards Sovietwere especiallydirected technical Themessagesadvancement about 136). 2011, needfor Soviet technology andthe Western emphasized was concealed” (Autio-Sarasmo propaganda:Soviet superiority the of Sovietthe technology and science wasstrongly The 2011). success(Autio-Sarasmoinspace program“was of Soviet the effectively exploited of successesthe of Sovietthe in Union its space Sputnikafter program waslaunched in 1957 in light realistic blocby was only the which seemed (it of matter overcome time), Eastern a the technological gap existing between the West and the East in the post-war period would be America” then overtake (Autio-Sarasmo2011, 133).Nikita Khrushchev believed that the part of Europe, Stalin wanted to catch up with Europe, Khrushchev wanted to catch up with and inframed termsdifferent in historicaldifferent “while periods: Lenin Russiawanted tobecome “Overcoming backwardness” was historically on the agenda of Russia and the USSR, but it was andtechnology. ofscience wasthat withtheUnited States, competed competition, peaceful “effectively eliminate human misery and poverty” (Kim 1966, 5). The rivals would have to prove their superiority in all fields but the military,in the ability to USSR is asitcoexistence”, in described 1966book the countries” “wasforand them a program victory of without war”(Gaddhis, 89).“Competitive Sovietexpansion meant“that essentially without armedcould with occur capitalist conflict of confrontation, with both systems trying tocome out as the winner. Peaceful coexistence , presupposed that the coexistence between the ideological camps had to be coexistenceideological competitive. between hadto the , presupposed that the camps One of the areas in which the Soviet Union, in the framework of peaceful coexistence and 28 Patterns Competitive Coexistence:of USAvs. CEU eTD Collection Soviets “anSoviets instrument of policy”Soviet 1987,3). (Richmond (Richmond 1987, 5). Contacts with foreigners, for instance, through travel abroad, were for the in the arts, culture and science which they tout[ed] as achievements of a communist society” “to gain for policy, peaceful newly initiated their wanted coexistence recognition achievements of framework withinthe Soviets, the the Western technology; learningfrom of objective the included Party SecretSpeech.Congress (andexceeded) Soviets’ withKhrushchev’s The desire door slightly” (Richmond 1987, 2). The changes acquired an even swifter pace after the XXth Sovietthe Union, butits stayed requests until unanswered 1955, when Sovietsthe “opened the 2). Throughout 1940s,theUSrepeatedly attempted cultural the to initiate 1987, with exchange motion picture, youth, government, athletics, scholarly research, culture and tourism (Richmond years, presupposed exchanges in science and technology,medicine, radio, agriculture, television, in subsequent it followed that others with along agreement, cultural two-year The exchange. USSR and the USA, the scope of the competition widened to include the domain of cultural inKhrushchev 1964, when projectsthe he had sponsored wereimmediately closed down). computer science was on par with that of the United States (this changed after the ouster of scientific innovations, and during the period he wasin frompower, 1964,1955 to Soviet victoryimportant in spacerace(Autio-Sarasmothe 2011,136). Khrushchev was adoptwilling to superiority”2011, 136). (Autio-Sarasmo The first manned in spaceflight, 1961, wasthemost program seemed to be a huge blow to the United States and clear proof of Soviet technological 1957 launching of Sputnik,the wasfollowed byfurthersuccesses. From onset,“thethe space From 1958 onwards, with the conclusion of the first cultural agreement between the 29 CEU eTD Collection those of the Americans, and were not worse as to “liberating women.” Thus, the official response (Reid Khrushchev 2009, 83). claimed that thekitchens of Soviethousewivesthe wereas asgood Khrushchev “yourreplying that capitalist attitude notto women does under occur Communism” gadgets and said that “these are designed to make things easier for our women,” with sophisticated tothe pointed Nixon Exhibition. atthe in kitchen the discussion an ideological socialism meantcourse, to bewas downgraded. kitchen was meant to show women which system really provided for the housewife – and, of oftheAmerican display housewife. The American happy of the opposite complete was the project. Western observers constructed the Eastern housewife as a worn-out, poor woman, who socialist overthe capitalism” “people’s serve asa of proof of tosuperiority and wassupposed in Moscow, arrived kitchen the Now front”(83). home U.S. the on weapon propaganda potent a American the housewife- personifying dream consumer, lifeand the fighting hadfor, worth been housewife, message the implied, would be happy.As Susan Reid (2009)putit, “the American in lifestyle a lifestyle of –the which American the anadvertisement wasessentially gadgets, American kitchen that was part of the US display.The spacious kitchen,full of the latest unprecedented scale”(Reid2009,85).Most attention publicof Moscow the wenttoamodel image ofAmerican mass consumption and domesticity vividly thebefore Soviet public onan ideal “broughtthe andculture oftrade American Theexhibition thesuperpowers. between peaceful tothe genderdimension wasanimportant competition there suggestthat debate” Khrushchev and U.S. Vice-President Nixon took place. The kitchen display and the “kitchen inExhibition during which Moscow, “kitchen famous the between First Secretary debate” In fact, Vice-President Nixon and General Secretary of the CPSU Khrushchev engaged in The cultural agreement of 1958 wasfollowed by July1959Americanthe National 30 CEU eTD Collection come out as winner. the come out being time the for Union Soviet the which of out and women, for provide to capacity mentioned themain in issue wastheabove- which acompetition policy, of peaceful the competition women. or technology, but alsoin terms of the capacity and willingness of each system provideto forits conducted not just in the broad terms of which system has advanced further in space exploration that the peaceful competition between the United States and the Soviet Union was being makeand UnitedThe kitchen the States. “kitchen it overtake and the display obvious debate” reverse American engineering of models” 105)in (Reid 2009, Sovietthe effort tocatch up with and appropriation selective the with “coincided subsequently but of “repudiation,” was that In the next chapter, I will examine the 1963 World Congress of Women as an expression 31 CEU eTD Collection internationally. This supports the main argument of the thesis that the Congress was indeed a opportunity provided by conference the topromote a positive imageof Sovietthe Union from archivethe of Women’s Sovietthe Soviet the Committee—how Union use prepared to the as well as the issues it raised. Secondly, subchapter 3.1 also aims to show—based on documents Congress, outlining its agenda and the final decisions. Itaims to show the scope of the Congress Union want tocommunicate by making this link? woman cosmonautlinked to the World Congress of Women, and what messages did the Soviet public diplomacy? How did the USSR use this opportunity? How was the space flight of the first Women heldin inMoscow June 1963 provide the SovietUnion with an exerciseopportunity to peaceful competition with the United States? In which way did the WIDF World Congress of World Congress of Women have for the Soviet Union in terms of the gender dimension of its opportunity. been explained in the Introduction), and the USSR made sure to take advantage of this presented the USSR with a brilliant opportunity to exercise public diplomacy (a term that has flight, coupled will with Tereshkova’s this international conference, argue that women’s Thechapter two. between of link creation the a symbolic the andwith Tereshkova, Valentina exercise of Soviet public diplomacy, with the space flight of the first woman cosmonaut as an Exercise ofSoviet Public Diplomacy Chapter 3. The 1963 WIDF World Congress of Women inMoscow The chapter isinThe chapter divided basic Section sections. information three 3.1 provides the about the did significance What ones: 3arethe following of Chapter questions The central This chapter deals with the 1963 WIDF Moscow World Congress of Women as an 32 CEU eTD Collection 8 from around the world towards participating in the Congress. In Nina Popova’s words, “the a Congress of had 1000 delegates to be reconsideredbecauseof shown interest much higherthe already firstthe on day from 1381delegates gathered 105 countries. Kremlin Palace of Congresses in Moscow lasted for six days,from June 24 to 29, 1963 and anOverview inMoscow: CongressofWomen World The 1963 WIDF 3.1. by socialism in the Soviet Union. messagescertain aboutgender equality –granted overall – and the opportunities emancipatory opportunity for the USSR to“deploy” this weapon,andtocommunicate Tereshkova through competition “arsenal” of the Soviet Union. The World Congress of Women was a golden WIDF World Congress of Women, and shows that she was a powerful “weapon” in the gender the 1963 WIDF World Congress of Women. Italso examines the role Tereshkova played at the section 3.3 discusses howSovietnewspapers established alink flight between and Tereshkova’s two cosmonauts by some influential Soviet andAmerican newspapers and magazines.Finally, support this argument, subchapter 3.2 includes an analysis of the coverage of the flights of the was especially important in view of genderthe competition between thesuperpowers. In order to flight Tereshkova’s Union, Valentina Soviet of the victories of of werepart a series space flights the first woman cosmonaut, Valentina Tereshkova, in June 1963. It argues that although their the country. Section 3.2 elaborates on the twin space flights of cosmonaut Valery Bykovsky and exercisegreat to opportunity it public diplomacy,ensured since alargeflow of foreigners into GARF Fond 7928, op. 3, file 956 (Texts of the speeches of the delegates of the plenary session), June 24 1963. The1963 Fifth World Congress of Women by convened WIDFthe and heldin the 33 8 The initial plan to convene CEU eTD Collection 14 Congress), April 12 1963. 13 3 file 950 – (Minutes of the plenary sessionpart 5), June 29 1963. 12 11 10 Congress),April 12 1963, p.2-3 . 9 without membershipwithout in umbrellathe organization. belonged member to organizationsof WIDF;the a number of them 54countriesrepresented that finalthe of decision WIDFthe had keep been to the Congress open. reported Popova be hadto only for memberorganizations, WIDFCongress the believed the open beliefs. religious diverging and view of points ideological conflicting, often variousaffiliated organizations, possessing apparently different, to continent, every number of delegates than any of the four WIDF congresses held before These were women from cooperation.” mostrepresentative in assembly “considered history the of international the women’s Women would “represent women of the whole world” and claimed the Congress could be wereexpected. countries announcedeven that more delegates wereon their way:in 2000peopletotal, around from 119 who Federation, Democratic International Women’s of the and aVice-President Committee morningthe of Monday, June24by thePresident Nina Popova, of Women’s Sovietthe country an was allotted equal maximum number of delegates: 25.The Congress was opened on [delegates].” allow 200 them tosend to requesting alone were Americans GARF Fond 7928, op.3, file 973 (Minutes of the meeting of the Committee for Assistance of Preparation for the Ibid. GARF Fond 7928, op.3, file 973 (Minutes of the meeting of the Committee for Assistance of Preparation for the GARF Fond 7928, op. 3, file 956 (Texts of the speeches of the delegates of the plenary session), June 24 1963; op. ibid ibid. 11 In the words of the WIDF President Eugenie Cotton, itgathered a far greater 10 In her introductory speech, Popova stated that the World Congress of 34 14 12 While some members of 13 9 Not all delegates the Nevertheless, each CEU eTD Collection 17 1) 24 June 1963. 16 of Women) July 1963. 15 from delegates around world.the impending Khrushchev, replacement. appeared in nevertheless, Olga Ivashenko, Khrushchev’s supporter, who was, ayearlater, trying towarn him about his CP, of the Committee Central Ukrainian of the by theSecretary delivered wasinstead address day day when he was supposed todeliverhis address totheWorld Congress Women.of the on not although Congress, the at present was Khrushchev Nikita CPSU the of Secretary First visitors, a number of Soviet officials from different levels of the Communist Party hierarchy. The foreignitasidefrom gathered,a huge of media amount Congress received, the of attention Youth. of Democratic WorldFederation the Crescent Movement, the International Federation of Trade Unions, the World Peace Council, and Union of Students, the Conference of African Women, the International Red Cross and Red International for Peaceand the Freedom, League International Women’s the UNESCO, Lawyers, Democrat of Association International included the and impressive Congresswasalso the attended representatives whose organizations international Thenumberof out. prestigious stand GARF Fond 7928 op. 3, file 946 (Minutes of the plenary session of the World Congress of Women, Moscow, Part GARF Fond 7928, op.3 file 1002 (Data about the international organizations-participants of the World Congress Pravda A tremendously important event for the Soviet Union,judging by the amount and scale It was not only the great amount of delegates that made the World Congress of Women , No176 (16397), 25June 1963, p. 4. 17 Cosmonauts Valentina Tereshkova and Valery Bykovsky, Valery and Tereshkova Valentina Cosmonauts 15 35 Pravda photographed next to next photographed 16 The CEU eTD Collection 20 19 1963. 18 and men the feeling of brotherhood, feeling of equality and common interest.” coexistence, “which we are all striving for,” was possible if “we give all the children, women, peaceful attainment of that out equality pointed was and of that states between collaboration for basis only the that asserted she is over,” continents the of isolation “the the that Stating first one to suggest a plan of general and controlled disarmament at the UN General Assembly. the being for Khrushchev praised and coexistence peaceful for need the endorsed explicitly She the time when she was speaking. Peace, asserted Cotton, was one of the top interests of women. imperialism”, showing what the map of Africa had looked like ten years before as compared to racism and colonialism, against in “struggle recentsuccesses the praised the women. Cotton women. Cotton, in supporting the peaceful coexistence policy, was more than simply repeating promoting peaceful coexistence by endorsing thisnotion andfostering afeeling of betweenunity Cotton’s words, the Fifth World Congress of Women itself seems to have contributed to Congress. somepresented which of of Cotton organization achievements the since its previousthe Struggle Peace,National for Women's RightsandIndependence, in Happiness of Children,” was followed by one from the President of the WIDF, Eugenie Cotton, called “The WIDF in the Presidium. be Congress the membersof invited to Congressandwere at the who had just 5 days before the Congress returned from their twin space flights, were also present Ibid. GARF Fond 7928, op. 3file 952 (Texts of the delegates’ speeches, inEnglish, part 1), June 24, 1963. June 24 of Women), Congress World of the session plenary of the (Minutes 946 3 file op. 7928, Fond GARF On the first day, a number of important speeches were given. Popova’s welcome speech 19 She discussed the political situation in the world and the state of affairs faced by 36 18 20 In the light of light the In CEU eTD Collection Assistance for Preparation and Conduct of Preparation for of andAssistance Congress. the Conduct report dealing with this issue, said Nina Popova at the April meeting of the Committee for a they that would deliver advancesrights in women's areaof the hadmadegreat women Italian carefully thought through to attain the best possible effect. Thus, itwas due to the fact that the public speechgave whoof WIDF, andthe which was presentation prepared well-orchestrated Conduct of the Congress), 12April 1963 23 22 HöherenLehrerinnenseminars vonSèvres (Berlin: Internationale Demokratische Frauenföderation, 1968). 1945 - Juni 1967, Mitbegründerin des Weltfriedensrates und Mitglied seines Präsidiums, Ehrendirektorin des 21 Cubans the because And independence. national of necessity the on a report deliver to fit most A of hadindependence an representative African was country recently that acquired considered horrors of nuclearbombing, their wastospeak delegate on issue the of peace and disarmament. “Thespoke about Health, Schooling and Education of Children and Youth”. Struggle of Women for National Independence”, whereas Vilma Espin de Castro from Cuba between peoples”. Aoua Keita from the recently independent Mali presented the report “The from activistwomen's aboutJapan, talked for “Struggle peace,disarmamentandfriendship “The Struggle for Women’s in Rights Society Family”.and the Kushida, Fuki peace movement items of the WIDF’s agenda.Anna Matera, from the Union of Italian Women, gave a speech on almost twenty years. twenty almost Council in 1949 andlater amember of its Presidium, shehad been promoting this policy for Khrushchev’s words; as theinstigator of WIDFthe in 1945 and co-founder of Worldthe Peace GARF Fond 7928, op.3, file 973 (Minutes of the meeting of the Committee forAssistance of Preparation and GARF Fond 7928, op. 3file 952 (Texts of the delegates’ speeches, inEnglish, part 1), 24 June 1963. Eugénie Cotton: Mitbegründerin Präsidentin und derInternationalenDemokratischen Frauenföderation Dezember Cotton’s speech was followed by morefour specific reports focusedthat on mainthe 21 37 23 Because theJapanesehadendured the 22 In this well- CEU eTD Collection World Congress of Women, version 2; resolutions, recommendations, an appeal), June 1963. June appeal), an recommendations, resolutions, 2; version of Women, Congress World 26 June appeal), an 1963. recommendations, resolutions, 2; version of Women, Congress World the by adopted (Documents 25 24 religious, and ideological divisions that might seem separateto women. women from all over the globe – unity for the sake of a common goal,ignoring the racial, produced by the WCW. One of the central motives of the Appeal was that of unity between of the World Congress of Women to the Women of the World,” the most important document delegates nearly a documentunanimously adopted encompassing key the calledpoints, “Appeal convened by the participant women, the Appeal said, “to share ourexperiences, ourfears and our The Struggle of forWomen National Independence. Friendship between Peoples; The Health, Education and Schooling of Children and Youth, and and in Women’s Family Disarmament on a specific Position Peace, Society; and issue: home countries. Apart from the plenary sessions, there were five commissions that each focused discussed global politics and gave assessments of the performance of the governments in their they positiverepresented, andnegative sides towomen’s inposition hometheir countries, shared their viewsand experiences. They upon elaborated programsthe of organizationsthe that they addressed. upbringing. It was, therefore, from their own experience that the delegates spoke about the issues country from illiteracy, that issues adelegate speakout on would the tochildren's pertaining had, in Popova's words, Fond 7928 op. 3 file 964. Appeal. Brochure “World Congress of Women” p. 91. (Documents adopted by the 69. p. of Women” Congress “World Brochure Commissions. the on Information 964, 3 file op. 7928 Fond Ibid. In each plenary session, representatives of various organizations from around the world 24 achieved a lotsince the socialist revolution, such as liquidation of 38 25 On the last day of the Congress, the 26 The Congress was CEU eTD Collection 28 27 disarmament. and peaceful forcoexistence peace, campaigns women’s of multiplication initiatives for general complete, controlled disarmament, the creation of atom-free zones and the betweenconflicts countries bymeans of peaceful negotiations. Itcalled onwomen support to the for the fostering of lasting peace on the basis of peaceful coexistence and the resolution of called war, of nuclear threat arms the about raceand the concern expressed The Appeal world. whole the consequently, and, countries, respective in their change of promotion for difficulties” death.”premature inspired It the women“struggle to unflaggingly fearwithout the of progress…millions of illiterate,children are starving, exploited, disinherited, doomeda to Appeal underlined the perversity of the situation when in a “century of scientific and social the mother of all children.” Therefore, children’s rights well-being was also on the agenda. The further to solidify them. The role of women as mothers was pointed out separately: “Woman is humanity.” develop their aptitudes to the full and to collaborate in all spheres for the progress of the family, with equal rights and responsibilities, which will assure them the opportunity to women peasants, housewives and women intellectuals, a worthy and just position in society as in gender equality “wecomponent: are unanimous in wishour to win for women the workers, lasting peace for all peoples of the world.” In addition to the peace agenda, the Appeal included a for “a was together aspiration the goal women in bringing these important most The central and hopes and examine to ways together of sufferingsovercoming our and hopes.” of realizing our Ibid. Ibid. Millions of women, said the Appeal, had won these rights already, and were struggling 28 39 27 CEU eTD Collection Conduct of the Congress, April 12 1963 29 note here that Popova at the time held a number of official positions in the Soviet Union – apart of Soviet officials from different levels and with different responsibilities. different with and levels different from officials Soviet of number with a for thecongress of details the preparation haddiscussed Nina WIDF), Popova, the convened in Moscow, the President of the Soviet Women’s Committee (and a Vice-President of such an opportunity. InApril months1963, before the WIDF World Congress ofWomen was of the large number of activist, engaged women from around the globe provided the USSR with for those Thecountries inpresence to changethepolicies governments. their of order respective aspirations of a certain country to influence the attitudes of the general population of other diplomacy. Public diplomacy, as the definition in the Introduction has shown, has at its core the message abouttheUSSR a globalto in audience, words,itother would an foropportunity public Congress in The CongressMoscow. would an provide foropportunity transmitting apositive (and humanity in general), it becomes understandable why the USSR had agreed to have the that were present, and the potential of the WIDF goals to appeal to a huge number of women Appeal aspired toreach out to a vast number of women – ideally, to all women around the world. is our striving for peace justice, progress and happiness of all mankind,” the text said. Thus, the our children,friendship, and solidarity between the women and the peoples of the entire world, it women’s and children’s whichwell-being. “That unites a greatus constitutes force: itis love for whom the Appeal was meant toinspire to unite in the name of the common goal of peace, as “sisters,” to werereferred time,women At same the factors. by andother class caused race, GARF Fond 7928, op.3, file 973 (Minutes of the meeting of the Committee for Assistance of Preparation and Keepingin mindthenumber of prestigethe delegates, of international the organizations differences the recognizing of women, perspective intersectional an The Appeal exhibited 40 29 Itis important to CEU eTD Collection 31 Conduct of the Congress), 12April 1963, p. 2-3. 30 delegates would stay in the country and tour it for a week, “to get acquainted with the Soviet everyday life of Soviet women, ournation, and children” and that it was necessary to diplomacy. Popova stated that the arriving women would have “a big interest in our life, the argument of this thesis about the World Congress of Women as an exercise of Soviet public Women. meeting of the Committee for Assistance of Preparation and Conduct of the World Congress of Mityurina Restaurant theCongressat Trust, Moscow discussed for the preparations others, and mentioned Secretary of the Ukrainian Central Committee of the CP, Olga Ivashenko, the Head of image of itself. The Soviet officials,including the Minister of Culture, Furtseva, the already definitely had experiencein events organizing helpedthat the SovietUnion apositive promote people's diplomacy of socialistthe (Knopova-Ziferblat superpower” 2011, 15) and assuch was latter “among the biggest and the most importantorganizational within structures the Union of Soviet Societies for Friendship and Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries. The from being a Member of the Central Committee of CPSU, she also chaired the Presidium of the Ibid. GARF Fond 7928, op.3, file 973 (Minutes of the meeting of the Committee for Assistance of Preparation and As a part of this endeavor, it was planned that no less than seven to eight hundred Soviettowards the Union.” out work in favor friendship,of mutual understanding, peaceful coexistence andtrust our tasks, and would leave as our friends and upon arrival to their home countries carry make surethatthe women whoarrivea understanding get true life, of country,our our 30 The minutes of meetingsupports the mainsome valuable reveal information the that 31 41 CEU eTD Collection 33 32 days before the opening of the World Congress of Women), both cosmonauts landed in the 22 hours, and 50 minutes, Valentina Tereshkova orbited the globe 48 times. On June 19 (just five and exceeded the time that had been spent in space by all U.S. astronauts combined. In 2 days, Tereshkova. Bykovsky the Earth fororbited 119 hours, which established anew world record was launched. On board, it carried the first woman to ever fly intospace, 26-year-old Valentina to remain alone in the orbit for long, as two days later, on June 16, the second capsule, Vostok-6, Vostok-5, a space capsule with cosmonaut Valery Bykovsky on board. Bykovsky was not going Victory” CosmonautastheSoviet“Gender of Woman the First 3.2 SpaceFlight image of Union. Sovietthe towards women’sthe conference as conductpublican opportunity to diplomacy andimprove the World Congress ofWomenhadbe prepared,revealed to of authorities attitude the Sovietthe Culture, Furtseva to the head of Moscow Restaurant Trust, Mityurin, about the way the Moscow visitors from India to Moscow were catered meat dishes, which they could not eat). have tobe treated in a special way (she pointed out, for example, that on a previous occasion somewhom of would of delegates, the international character inmindthe service, bearing good she said, the officials occupied with provision lodgingof anddining wouldhave strive to for said. asPopova realities,” Ibid. Ibid. On 14 June 1963, the SovietUnion continued its series space of by ventures launching Popova’s conversation with the Soviet officials of different levels,from the Minister of 32 In order for the country to leave the best impressions on the visitors, 42 33 CEU eTD Collection http://www.vesti.ru/doc.html?id=189286&photo_id=250221&p=1&fr=0 35 34 mentioning him, the two flights mainly discuss Tereshkova, leaving Bykovsky obscured and in fact barely madefor aparticular spectacle. cosmonauts, but a simultaneous flight of a man and a woman (albeitin different ships), which steppes of Kazakhstan. The public witnessed, therefore, not just adouble mission of Soviet Union presented of itself at the Congress, as section 3.3 will show. nearly literal stardom and managed to remain simple was very important for the image the Soviet Sovietthe Union. The fact she that ascendedfrom intoa simple, background underprivileged during theCongress. Herlife story was andprinted reprinted in newspapersthe andmagazines of (and herability retainto simplicitythis in spite of the space flight) were repeatedly underlined biography at some length.Tereshkova’s hardworking,fatherless youth, postwar her simplicity primarily in areaof equality.the but of gender technology, that venture of June 1963 brought the Soviet Union a “victory” in the space race with the USA, notin space thetwo-flight that newspapers, inAmerican and Soviet by toreports show, referring the two cosmonauts. Anatoly Perminov, Head of the Russian Federal Cosmic Agency, in an interview with Vesti: example, for See, Now, decades later, reports of the Russian media that commemorate the anniversaries of anniversaries the commemorate that media Russian of the later, reports decades Now, For the purposes of my further analysis, it is first necessary to discuss Tereshkova’s discuss to necessary isit first analysis, my of further purposes the For 34 http://www.vesti.ru/doc.html?id=189286&photo_id=250221&p=1&fr=0 although were ten world records broken during combined the flights space of 35 In 1963, following the flight, the situation was similar. This section will 43 CEU eTD Collection the Space Era, 1961-1965, 36 from millparachuting club worked. Thechoice up atwhich the to take Tereshkova activity this Communist League. One day, the Yaroslavl Aero club started recruiting new members for its Youth in the Komsomol, the at factory participation her work with active the combining technologist, acotton-spinning became she Later, and admiration. an of respect became object example, questioned the boys' exclusivity in some activities, such as horse-riding, for which she young age, Tereshkova was refusing to act like the majority of girls around her, and, for trains that passed by her grandmother's house, in which the whole family resided. Already at a dreamt of becoming an engineer on steam trains and was envious of the engine drivers on the mill, where she learned to work with machinery, which she enjoyed. As a teenager, she actually labor alifeofhard in factory,local starting conditions. tire difficult love. In 1954, at the age of 16, Tereshkova graduated from secondary school and got a job at a always adamant that her youth was, in spite of being materially difficult, nevertheless full of and,living with her mother, own supportedherself and her three children. Tereshkova was a mill working asaweaver Krasny Perekop at woman called started former peasant There the move out of the collective farm intoa suburb of the town of Yaroslavl in search for employment. World War,without income orresources necessary for survival, Tereshkova's mother decided to old, her father died while participating in the Soviet-Finnish War. After the end of the Second version of Valentina in Russian, the way Tereshkova preferred to be called) was only two years a wooden a wooden housecountry withoutelectricity running water. or The biography sources are: Francis French, Colin Burgess, and Paul Haney, Paul and Burgess, Colin French, Francis are: sources biography The A year later, she left the tire factory and joined her elder sister and mother at the textile Valentina Tereshkova wasborn in in a Valentina Tereshkova farm,a smallin at 1937 March collective village 2007 and Ben Evans, Escaping the Bonds of Earth: theFifties and Sixties.the 44 36 When Valya (the diminutive (the Valya When IntoThat Silent Sea: Trailblazers of CEU eTD Collection 37 Titov have turned out to be." women. The first Soviet cosmonauts will be as big an agitator for communism as Gagarin and women in space will be American. This would be an insult to the patriotic feelings of Soviet Union and the United States. To him belong the following words: "We cannotallow that the first framed the question of sending a woman to space in terms of competition between the Soviet Force in cosmos affairs, who actively participated in the selection of the first Soviet cosmonauts, cosmonauts, including five women. Nikolai Kamanin,Assistant of the Head of the Soviet Sky to fly, the women would soon follow. ones first the were men the though even that everyone to declared and inspired felt instantly she could believenot Tereshkova andherfactory wrote later co-workers news.Tereshkova the that once, Earth havinghumanthe first after inspace orbited becamethe citizen Yuri Gagarin localthe Komsomol election and became a branch secretary.When on 12 April 1961 Soviet admitted club members. By 1960, Tereshkova had shown herself to be an active communist, won months later she was already a third-rank parachutist, and in two years she trained the newly day. Her successful training led to her advancement in the ranks of parachute jumpers. Three for thefirstsheparachute in timelife,wrote herthat wished shecouldit Tereshkova every do would prove to be determinant for her future career as a cosmonaut. After having jumped with a Tereshkova, a successful jumper, appeared on the list submitted by the sports clubs of clubs Soviet of by the list sports submitted the the on appeared jumper, asuccessful Tereshkova, skills in parachute jumping in order to be able to land after the space flight was over. Gagarin - the first human in space and Titov – the second Soviet cosmonaut. Soviet second the – Titov and space in human first - the Gagarin In 1962, the Soviet Ministry of Defense came up with a proposal to select sixty new The future woman cosmonaut had to meet anumber of criteria, one of which was having 37 45 CEU eTD Collection 41 and Vostok-6 Vostok-5, media. it between in All received attention Soviet the communications of headline the read theHeroes of Space!” Nurtured Who being in space on the male and female organisms. “Glory to the Motherland, Glory to the Party, of effects and the compare meant test was flight” to “group Soviet second the that explained 40 39 38 Pilota Space Ship” - next toTereshkova’s photograph on the frontpage. the Land of the Soviets Valentina Tereshkova is The First Woman in the History of Humanity to of page. the one-fourth Tereshkova, occupying approximately aheadlinefirstinwoman“Thefeatured world”the of andcosmonaut apicture Valentina cosmonaut, who had just started her flight, on theirfront pages. The front page of and the (to overtook contestants other useKhrushchev’s slogan). A successful member of Komsomol, Tereshkova fit the standard, and eventually caught upwith the limelight -the woman cosmonaut had to fit anideological profile, that is, to be a communist.in her brought selection of round next The candidate. rank top a considered not was but Union, next in photograph tothe red. launchedspace. into Khrushchev’s “The words peopleSoviet areproud you,”of wereprinted previous day,12:30 pm, at aspace ship with firstthe woman incosmonaut worldthe had been Ibid. Izvestiya Izvestiya Pravda The significance of The significance of is especially eventthe considering immense hardto the overestimate, On June 17, 1963, the major Soviet newspapers printed the portrait of the first woman , No168 (16389), June 17, 1963, p. 1. , No 144 (14307), June 17, 1963, p.1. , No 143 (14306), June 16, 1963, p.1. 39 Izvestiya printed alengthyprinted headline: “ToEveryone: Daughterof 46 Izvestiya 38 It was reported that on the on that reported was It on the nextday. 40 Pravda Pravda and 41 Izvestiya CEU eTD Collection no means wanted himself or his colleagues to be portrayed as disinterested in women’s equality. highest Soviet leadership. Khrushchev’s reply to Voroshilov showed that the FirstSecretary by quite amusing, also conveyed the message that women’s equality was a major concern for the no whichmatter itparts of actually place orhadbeentook embellished—in addition beingto conversation— of this were not.Thenewspapers’ report others the suggesting that emancipation, Voroshilovthat not positionshould himself if as he were only the supporter of women’s glass to women, adding: “And look what women are doing now!” To this, Khrushchev replied Sovietprominent military commander, had braggedcalled and that hehad always his raised especially cheerful because of a woman’s space flight. Khrushchev also noted that Voroshilov, a were had women at thedinnernightthe he given,all previous mentioned the her, that support instance, Khrushchev was said to have expressed his admiration of Tereshkova, and in order to touching, since she grew up without one, as the biography has shown). reported, thanked Khrushchev for his (which fatherly support must have especially sounded they felt absolutely fine and that their space operations were proceeding well. Tereshkova, it was microphones, and smiling with satisfaction. The cosmonauts reported to the FirstSecretary that published a photograph of Khrushchev holding aphone inhis hand, sitting atthe table with 43 Pravda 42 between Khrushchev and the two cosmonauts – in both including andradiograms telephonewere tediously Earth conversations the (alleged) published, Ibid. Izvestiya and The telephone conversation between Khrushchev and Tereshkova, and Khrushchev between conversation telephone The , No 144 (14307), June 17, 1963, p.1 and Izvestiya , allegedly included some rather informal and even humorous details. For Pravda 47 , No 168 (16389), June 17, 1963, p. 1. Pravda and Izvestiya. 43 as reported in 42 Both newspapers Both CEU eTD Collection the American book American the article, seen next to the headline “Socialism is the best starting ground” on the same page, makes them. on written cosmonauts” theSoviet“Glory to party” and communist the Square, with people holding portraits of Lenin and Tereshkova as well as posters with “Glory to purposes. space, butin of terms being usedas propaganda, wrote turned out to be a Russian, not an American.” Cobb did manage tobecome the first one – not in in woman first the “Ispace that amvery space, Cobb noted, into had bitterly disappointed flew from lack interestspace –for aeronautics. American of into fly to woman first the become to managed never she that fact the from came disappointment Union. Soviet the large red font) on the last page of its June 17 issue, framing the event as an ultimate victory of aspiring male astronauts –whichmaleaspiring astronauts was, American pilotand an aspiring astronaut. Her advice was allegedly never listened to by fellow andleaders “Theforeign worldactivists. is amazed,theworld is applauding” –wrote 46 45 44 by pagesafterauthors, pagesin Soviet toBykovskylot) andthe cosmonauts’ doubleflights. Alongside poems dedicated toTereshkova Bykovsky’s flights, butpaid particularly much attention to theformer andless still (although a Izvestiya,No 156 (14319), July 1, 1963, p.3. Ibid. Pravda Especially worth noting is noting bitter arather worth Especially The Soviet media underlined the global scale and significance of Tereshkova’s and of Tereshkova’s global significance scale and the media underlined The Soviet , No168 (16389), June 17, 1963, p. 6. 46 The authors of the review recounted the story of Jerrie Cobb, an experienced 44 On the same page, one saw a photograph of a demonstration on the Red Woman into Space , which, the review said,was forpublished propaganda Izvestiya Pravda featured greetings sent toTereshkova by world reported, her first disappointment. Her second 48 Izvestiya Izvestiya Izvestiya review, publishedon 1 July 1963, of with condescendingirony. This reported that when Tereshkova when that reported 45 Pravda (in CEU eTD Collection elaborated upon the reasons why the US scientists concluded that the group flight could in fact in could flight group the that concluded scientists US the why reasons the upon elaborated achievement was less spectacular than the Soviet sources led the world to believe,” led to world sources the Soviet the than was less spectacular achievement which the competition between the two superpowers was taking place, claimed that “the 48 47 July 1, appeared tohave failed in some phaseof launchings,”their wrote capsules carrying Bykovsky and Tereshkova. “If a rendez-vous was their aim, the Russians wondered actual connectspace operation beenhad whetherof the goal Soviet the reporters the to achievement, relying on the opinion of the U.S. scientists. On June 23, country, suggested that, in terms of technology, the flight had been more of a failure than an reported issue. Secondly, the American media, eager to criticize the ideological enemy of their becomingof anextentnearly to coverage the somedominated it whereon days USSR, published very few articles onthe issue, especially in tothe comparison amountpublished in the and elsewhere, were not quite so exhilarated, to put itmildly. First of all, the news outlets in its primary space competitor States, in media United Union, Sovietthe the forreactions the bemediavictory thespacefeatof an Sovietthe the to cosmonauts claimed two overwhelming by flightdone newspapers andtheattitudeemanated Sovietby the media.While American the women, who only saw disappointment from their country, but not actual results. (gender) victory USSR the of theUSA,over anddenigrated just whichsupposedly usedits it obvious to which extent Tereshkova’s flight into space was seen within the country as a major “His and Hers.” The New Times The New York Newsweek There isThere (and asignificantsurprising) not contrast between theglorifying reporting of the Newsweek , in its section “Space and Atom”, obviously named after two of the areas in , Vol CXII, No 38501, June 23, 1963. , July , 1, 1963,p. 46. 49 The New The York Times. The New The New York Times 48 and the only 47 On CEU eTD Collection 52 51 50 49 deny meaningthe of flight.the Times progressivemost As reaction the world’sof to society.” Washington, official undeniably a contributingpropaganda coup image tothe Russiapromotes of herself as the last its useof August’s “appeared tobeessentially arepeatof though performance, a woman was “Junior Lt. Valentina Tereshkova, an attractive size 18.” size anattractive Valentina Tereshkova, Lt. “Junior of inEarlier body fat” “concentration was article, by the Tereshkova’s underlined phrase the crashes. of in cases save them thanmen,whichcould plane better temperatures extreme endure women and pointed out that women, because of having a higher percentage of body fat, could and men between differences biological about adiscussion on embarked position,” dominant the in man places love of act the even that fact the “bemoaned book the that saying after article, The era.” Stalin’s 380 miles away from landingTereshkova’s spot,was for“notorious its slave-labor camp during be a technological failure. Apart from this, the journalists made sure to point out that Karaganda, discussion about gender differences andreferring genderdifferences to discussion about Ibid. “The Weaker Sex?,” Weaker “The Ibid. The New Times The New York said it could primarily be described as “relief,” by which it again tried to diminish or even The New The New York Times “The asked WeakerSex?” 49 , Vol CXII, No 38501, June 23, 1963. Newsweek tried to show the lack of importance of the flight by stating that it , July 1, 1963, p. 47. 52 Newsweek in the title of one of its articles, starting a 50 The SecondSex by Simone de Beauvoir. de Simone by The New York 50 51 CEU eTD Collection enemies of the Soviet Union were forced to admit that Tereshkova’s flight was a testimony to the was ato flighttestimony admitTereshkova’s that forced to Union were Soviet the of enemies 53 Union. Soviet by the about brought a experience hadbeenneededtooperate space capsule (French, and 322). Burgess Haney 2009, women trained by NASA, claiming that the Soviets had proven that no extensive pilot Space Committee, Clinton Anderson,following the flight, expressed sorrow about the lack of insistence of withpilots engineeringstrong backgrounds. since womenbeen had astronettes,” missions kept out of becauseof organization’s space the that National Agency the itSpace (NASA)would predicted that forface “increasing pressure The New York Times women. of treatment unfair “bemoaned” the whose book deBeauvoir, about useof vocabulary the support for women’s emancipation. The interest ingender equality was, infact, ridiculed –note tried to distract attention from or diminish the meaning of the flight as a symbol of the USSR’s advancement beyond the previous one,itwas Thus,unimportant. mediathe intentionally not, or atechnological was not flight if was that space the flight in to Tereshkova’s media reaction competition between the two superpowers in space. The overall message emanated by the U.S. flight, and perhaps even hint that there was no significance whatsoever, at least for the commenting on Tereshkova’s looks) in toundermineorder the significance of a woman’s space The New Times The New York Clinton Anderson’s reaction was not the only one that acknowledged the U.S. defeat Condescendence and ridicule, however, were not the only reactions in the United States. The U.S. newspapers seemed eager toresort to sexistremarks (e.g. negatively , Vol CXII, No 38501, June 23, 1963. admitted in the same article where it questioned the importance of the flight Pravda , in one of its late June articles, said that even the 51 53 Also, the chairman of the Senate the of chairman the Also, CEU eTD Collection 54 bask,like American women) in the glory of conquering space.” that Tereshova’s flight “symbolizes to Russian women that they actively share (not passively in commas). inverted she(which herself put male “’spaceexperts’” American the costliest Cold War blunder.” She then examined the set of “wrong answers,” given primarily by that “failure of American men to give the right answer to this question may yet prove to be their articlethe “Why Unioninto asked Soviet launch the space?”andstated did a woman cosmonaut magazine onJune 28,1963(p. 31).Titled “ButSome People Simply Get Never Message,”the LuceBoothe indeed wrote an publishedflight, in article concerning Tereshkova’s LIFE “Tereshkova’s flight [was] the symbol of a woman’s liberation under communism.” statements, “just like her husband.” Nevertheless, even she was “forced to admit” that pointed out, was “not afriend of the Soviet Union” and was known for her anti-Soviet “confession” made by Claire Boothe Luce, a former U.S. ambassador to Italy, who, as it was American.“Symbol of a woman’s liberation” is the title of an article which elaborated upon a high position of women in the Soviet society, as opposed to any other, especially “A Symbol of a Woman’s Liberation,” Woman’s a of “ASymbol She then discussed the achievements of the Soviet women since the revolution, and said inherentequality menof and women. Communism preachesand, theRevolution since 1917, of has tried practice to the space because into isRussia putawoman Soviet answer The right that answer. that she is the Moscow version of Madison Avenue’s sexy publicity gimmicks is the right Neither the answer that Valentina Tereshkova is a scientific guinea pig of small worth or Pravda , No 178 (16399) June 27, 1963, p. 4. 52 54 Claire CEU eTD Collection Tereshkova’s space flight. Secondly, I argue that Tereshkova was constructed inmedia and the wasconstructed that Tereshkova Secondly,I argue flight. space Tereshkova’s the first place. To do so, I refer to some articles published in the Soviet media during previous subchapter, wasa“gender victory” of Sovietthe Union) was linked tothe Congress in First of all, Ishow in which way Valentina Tereshkova’s space flight (which, as I argued in the World Congress of Women and praise the virtues of socialism in front of the large audience. of women’s inposition Sovietthe Union, primarily by having Valentina Tereshkova attend the SovietUnion engageto in public diplomacy and transmit to foreignthe visitors positive images a Soviet“Gender Weapon” and ofthe “SovietDream” asanEmbodiment Tereshkova Valentina Diplomacy; of theSovietPublic asanExercise ofWomen The WorldCongress 3.3. for spacecompetition. than for thegender competition more significance UnionSoviet and United the suggests States thethat feat space of two Sovietcosmonauts carried examine the two-fold reaction in the United States. Media coverage of the event both in the in search for clues as to what was happening in the Soviet Union. It was also important to such as such (since these newspapers werereadby public)and foreign foreign domestic news media, (since examinesignificant to image the by presented Sovietnewspapers the tothe public,domestic both according to the initial plan is therefore not important for my argument here. Rather, it was showed, some in the United States refused to admit this). Whether the flight did ordid notgo (even astheU.S.newsmedia inits States though, United ideological with warfare points the In this Iwill subchapter, theCongressargue that represented agreat opportunity for the Less of a space victory,it did look like a gender victory, granting the Soviet Union bonus The New York Times or Newsweek , followed what was written in 53 Pravda and Izvestiya , CEU eTD Collection congress: Tereshkova’s flight, sounded like aninvitation of woman firstthe cosmonaut tothe upcoming WIDF PresidentEugenie Cotton to Tereshkova, published in Soviet newspapers hurried topublish before Tereshkova evenlanded. letter The open of the Congratulations and greetings from the members of the WIDF were among the first ones the Women almost simultaneously and as if these two events were naturally connected to each other. of the Soviet Union reported on the Tereshkova’s flight and the WIDF World Congress of Congress was carefully planned as such. Itseems, however, highly likely that it was. The media of my study does not allow me to establish whether the timing of the flight afew days before the Soviet media shortly after the start of her space venture. I use the word “overt”, since the scope Women. of Soviet public diplomacy – a “weapon” that was deployed at the WIDF Moscow World Congress pendant of the American dream) and thus constituted a “gender weapon” in the arsenal of the during the Congress as an embodiment of what I would like to call “the Soviet dream” (a The overt “insertion” of Tereshkova into the World Congress of Women began in the began Women of Congress World the into Tereshkova of “insertion” overt The may be certain, that in their minds, millions and millions of women are accompanying that you started several days before the opening of the World Congress of Women. You Democratic Federation, tobe able to congratulate you onyour space flight, the flight Dear Valentina Tereshkova! I am proud, from the name of the Women’s International 54 Pravda on the first day of CEU eTD Collection equality. Popova called her a “heroic daughter of the land of communism,” “a sister, a daughter, socialist state as a caring protector of its women, a world leader in questions of women’s phenomenon of Tereshkova was “produced” by the USSR). They presented an image of the underscored her profound links to the Soviet Union (or, more precisely, the fact that the establishedin Thus, the first public links between the Fifth World Congress of Women of the WIDF were Women: of Congress Paris, wrote that Tereshkova would be aninspiration to all the women present at the World in WIDF the of Congress Founding the at been herself had who Karavaeva, Anna journalist 1963, p. 3. 57 at Congress.” the honorable guest most be“the would Tereshkova 56 55 Karavaeva,Anna. “Before the big meeting. Aletter to different addressees.” Pravda.No 174 (16395), June 23, Popova, Nina. “Heroic Daughter of the Land ofCommunism.” Land of the Daughter “Heroic Nina. Popova, Cotton, Eugenie These open letters, apart from inviting Tereshkova to the women’s conference, also women’s conference, tothe invitingapart from Tereshkova letters, These open she can do when she is free and proud. and moral uplift: these are the great wings that can grown in a woman’s heart, this is what are justcountries that for preparing liberation – will be enriched by of feeling the hope Upon seeing her, our lovely heroine, women of the already liberated countries – and of Similarly, Vice-President of the WIDF Nina Popova, in her open letter, promised that that you, the first woman,managed to do. you, congratulating you, and wishing you full success in completing the undertaking, Pravda . Pravda . . No 168 (16389) June 17, 1963, p.4. 57 55 55 Pravda. No 168 (16389). June 17, 1963, p. 4. 56 Soviet writer and writer Soviet Pravda CEU eTD Collection 59 58 wrote Anna Karavaeva, essentially reinforcing the same message. same the reinforcing essentially Anna Karavaeva, wrote such an ambitious and noble idea be born – that a woman can alsovictoriously fly intospace”, “Only in our Soviet Union, where civil rights of men and women are absolutely equal, could that wrote Cotton femalefirst spaceexplorer. become the letters communicated an idea that it was only natural for aSoviet, and not any other woman, to Soviet women, whom her space flightglorified. the women on the planet, it was underscored that she was primarily the object of pride of the Lenin.” though Tereshkova Even was declared byPopova and Cotton alikebe to pridethe of a granddaughter of Sovietthe women,” whose “destiny is in hands the of homelandthe of Popova, Nina. “Heroic Daughter of the Land ofCommunism.” Land of the Daughter “Heroic Nina. Popova, Cotton, Eugenie man, raised her to the heights of inspirational creativity. are those who in the first time of history emancipated the woman,made her equal a to to the Soviet socialist formation, to Lenin’s Communist party of the Soviet Union. They inthat The fact firstwoman the isa like amighty citizen hymn space of USSRsounds the The positive image of the Soviet Union and its system was further amplified when these be a woman –Gagarina. be awoman woman. When Gagarin flew for the first time, I was jealously wondering, why can it not like many people, I was sure that if a woman ever flies intospace, it will be a Soviet . Pravda . No 168 (16389) June 17, 1963, p.4. 58 56 Pravda . No 168 (16389). June 17, 1963, p. 4. 59 all CEU eTD Collection offered by the Soviet Union to its citizens, women in particular. Tereshkova’s modesty was Tereshkova’s simple backgroundhelped highlight scope the of emancipatory opportunities to the World Congress of Women even more delighted to have an opportunity to meet her. Cotton’s only words of outstanding nature reinforced the madeher personality and the delegates in congress thatTereshkova was“asimpleand person”, which atthe acknowledged charming to realize her –and ambitions perhaps achieve even more than she had Eugenie expected. Cotton It was, therefore, implied (or even openly stated), that it was socialism that allowed a simple girl 60 lines: following the contained Committee, Sovetskaya Zhenshina remain simple and charming. Forinstance, abiographical articlein July the issue1963 of hardthrough labor,literally to rose stars the on an equal footing men with – andmanaged to childhood, without any special privileges (but with the socialist state always there to help) represented as the embodiment of the “Soviet dream” – a woman, who, after an uneasy fatherless shewas Union suggests in Soviet flight the Tereshkova’s surrounding Media coverage society. portrayed in the media as the proof of high position occupied by a Soviet woman in a socialist Sovetskaya Zhenshina constructive Soviet life. Soviet constructive power plants, factories and cities. Such heroes are raised in labor and joy of our builders of new electric heroes: soviet of like millions other people Bykovsky are raised, and Tereshkova like people that rich, the for ones, chosen the for hotels boarding Uneasy was Valentina’s childhood... No, dear Western ideologists, it is not in your The fact that it was a Soviet woman who first flew intospace was perceived and . No 7, July 1963, p. 5. ( SovietWoman), magazine the published by Women’s Sovietthe 60 57 CEU eTD Collection speech Cotton. 61 congress. They were further reinforced by Valentina Tereshkova herself, who, due to speaking World Congress of Women, present in the address of First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev to the at Moscow were,the very The shewasmessages in space. WIDFleaders while same still the onefirst tofly inspace) werealreadyinto addressedtoTereshkova letters the present open by socialism (underlining that it was only natural for a Soviet, and notany other woman to be the women (placing her name next to that of Marie Curie). Women, Eugenie Cotton, for example, presented Tereshkova as the ultimate inspiration for the course of the Moscow World Congress of the WIDF. In her address to the World Congress of country? Union,is ordinary, and at the same is the firstin the world, what kind of a fairy tale was that image theUnion Soviet topresenttried tothe outside worldif – in Tereshkova, Sovietthe herself “an ordinary woman.”Soviet This ordinariness is very forimportant understanding the that the trust was given to her, an ordinary woman,by the Soviet nation. In her speech, she called underlined throughout congress; the she herself her diminished own accomplishment,claiming GARF Fond 7928, op. 3, file 956 (Texts of the speeches of the delegates of the plenary session), June 24 1963, As was shown above, certain messages about the emancipation of women under women of emancipation the about messages certain above, shown was As Curies and Valentina Tereshkovas can exist. Tereshkovas, but itis a very great encouragementfor them all to know that the Marie women All become and notbecomeValentina Pasteurs. will daring courageous All successful women do not become Marie Curies any more than all cultivated men into “incorporated” was successfully from herspace, return upon Tereshkova, Valentina 58 61 CEU eTD Collection Congress of Women, 12 April 1963. April 12 of Women, Congress 63 62 reports, matching with the of personalities about (aswasdiscussed inknowledgeable According section 3.1). logicthe to behind the country: that the Soviet Union wanted to send to the rest of the world about women’s situation in the manner SovietUnioneffective speakaboutthe socialism. and (and brand new)symbol of women’s equality and success,could in mostthe persuasive and ultimate asthe thesamelogic, Tereshkova, liberation. Following of advantages and colonization evils to the of testify could country, liberated former colony,who wasfrom a anewly Keita, andNagasaki; from bombingthe Hiroshima since of hersuffered country for disarmament first day of the Congress, Kushida, Anna Matera, Aoua Keita and Vilma Espin, who presented the four key reports on the since she was,in the eyes of the public, a “direct beneficiary” of the socialist system. Fuki legitimacy degree of thegreatest likely tobeseenas was possessing herexperience, from own Explained by Popova at the Meeting of the Committee for Assistance of Preparation and Conduct of the World ofthe Conduct and ofPreparation Assistance for Committee of the Meeting the at by Popova Explained GARF Fond 7928, op. 3, file 956 (Texts of the speeches of the delegates of the plenary session), June 24 1963. words withwords understanding andwillnot consider this tobe propaganda. Communists participate in political, cultural, and social life of the nation. Ihope you will treat my butalso provided for materially. Soviet women have all tofully opportunities the of all the advantages of our socialist formation. Her rights are not only protected by law, enjoying the fruits of socialism, where she is a full-scale member of society, making use Your Congress is taking place in a country, where a woman has for a long time been Nikita Khrushchev’s Address to Worldthe Congress ofWomen, conveys themessage 62 spoke about issues that they were considered to be most 63 Kushida like nooneelse realized the crucial need 59 CEU eTD Collection Khrushchev’s coexistence policy. According to Tereshkova’s speech, when in space, she was not lightin of especially message, animportantthe be state, aninherently itself peaceful to was that by caring for its women and letting them enjoy the fruit of science, the USSR proves Congress the at convey to meant was Tereshkova that message The purposes. military in often solved by could resourcesthat science –butthe forbeallocated usedmost scienceinstead are Eugenie Cotton’s inassertion herintroductory report that problemsthe of women should be workers,” that her mission went successfully. The praise of the Soviet science was in line with by planned by Soviet designers” and the “high ... skill of the Soviet engineers, technicians and In Tereshkova’s words, it was due to the “excellent mechanisms and systems of the cosmic ship materially.” As Khrushchev said, women’s “rights are not only protected by law, butalso provided for actuality of women’s equality in country, the equality beyond going pronouncements on paper. Congress of Women organized by the WIDF. She seemed then to exhibit the materiality, the USSRwouldthe inbe interested andher appearing at in World participating Moscow the that natural only was it and victory,” “gender Soviet of symbol the into Tereshkova made flight this pronounced commitment of socialistthe Soviet Union women’s andto rights equality? The Soviet science received particular appraisal in the speech of the first woman cosmonaut. of embodiment the than other be to meant Tereshkova was who quote, this of light the In socialism. her capabilities and talents in labor and social activities, are fully possible only under of the World Congress of Women that true liberation of a woman, her ability to show all always speak with conviction, and Iwouldlike to say on festivethis day of opening the 60 CEU eTD Collection 87. (Documents adopted by the World Congress of Women, version 2; resolutions, recommendations, an appeal), an June 1963. recommendations, resolutions, 2; version of Women, Congress World by the adopted (Documents 87. 65 64 that this would not have been possible without the support from the state, a socialist state. the bestpossible way. She did not do that on her own, however, Tereshkova pointed outclearly the war with Finland. Her mother, in spite of being alone, did her best to bring up the children in personal experience, that is, being brought up by a single mother after the father’s death during policy): proposed his upon elaborating when case nuclearof war(something Khrushchev hadsaidthat years congress himself, the before leftby thoughtthe interconnectednessof the of world,the andthe wouldhorrors that ensue in Fond 7928 op. 3 file 964, Valentina Tereshkova Greets the Congress. Brochure “World Congress of Women” p. of Women” Congress “World Brochure Congress. the Greets Tereshkova Valentina 964, 3 file op. 7928 Fond 2 Seechapter orphans left after that dreadful war to get on wartogeton feet. that dreadful leftafter to their orphans mother-country, the great land of socialism, which helped the millions of widows and But I would nothave said everything if I did notspeak of the might achievement of my her up brought Tereshkova state, Soviet the of helpfulness the underscore to order In warexplosions? nuclear we allow thissun to be darkened the for people earth of our by blackcloudsthe of a half the dawn met me. The sun rose in an incomparable splendor of glowing color. Can nevermust this earth, soblue and glowing, beblackenedby atomic ash. Every hour-and- linking all the women of the world. Ilooked at our beautiful earth. Never, I thought, cosmic ship, so to speak, could throw a bridge, invisible yet strong, from heart to heart, As I flew, the thought came to me: how good it would be if my Vostok-6, a feminine 65 64 61 CEU eTD Collection 67 66 representative of the International Association of Lawyers. of Democratic Association of International the representative women are capable of occupying in the society and life equal place with men,”said the women,” saidSilvia Hernandez from Honduras. new stage of women’s struggle for conquering the place in the sun, rightfully belonging to “Tereshkova’s deed has once and for all buried the myth of women’s inferiority, and opened a achievement. was lauding Tereshkova’s speech Nearly every Women was immense. of Tereshkova with an invitation the delegates to stay in the capital and see with their own eyes day of congressthe by MayorMoscow Vladimir whocombined Promyslov, his laudatory speech Moscow World Congress of Women to tour the country. This message was voiced on the first particular. As mentioned in subchapter 3.1, several hundreds of delegates were to stay after the additional “proofs” of superioritythe of Sovietthe for Union people in general – and women in the USSR. popularity among the delegates, would strengthen the effective transmission of messages about developjust –not Tereshkova appearing and speaking atthe congress, butalso herimmense delivering her speech. Itis clear that the Soviet officials understood that such a situation would delegates to loiter and make noise around Tereshkova’s table when the speaker was still of the congress, the chair of the session made an announcement that it was disrespectful of the in session last and presence, by the Tereshkova’s weregetting distracted delegates the sessions, Ibid. Fond 7928, op. 3 file 960. (Texts of the speeches of the delegates of the plenary session part 5), June 29 1963. The amount of praise and attention Tereshkova received at the World Congress of The Soviet representative and officials at the Congress were ready to provide a number of 62 66 “Tereshkova has proven to the world that world the to proven has “Tereshkova 67 During the plenary the During CEU eTD Collection 68 “how much in this country is done for the well-being of people,” women in particular. government and the ideological system of her country. Tereshkova, after her spectacular to a world star of space exploration spoke from her own experience –and paid credits to the thing when a woman who had herself undergone the ascendance from an ordinary factory worker opportunities for self-realization provided to women in the USSR. It was a qualitatively different andCotton Nina high praised living Vice-PresidentPopova the standards of andgreat the policies of their respective governments. It was one thing when the WIDF President Eugenie socialism and the Soviet a Union to large audience whosemembers could potentially influence about certainmessages communicate haveallowed her USSRto the effectively visitors, foreign WorldnumberTereshkova ofWomen, appearatthe enormous of an which gathered Congress causing sexist defensive reactions in its media outlets and regrets from some itsof top). Having women’s equality (obviously irritating the main rival of the USSR, the United States, and sent to the world the message about the position of the “land of socialism” at the forefront of by womanfirstflight inspace, of the hadalready the USSRrepresented the victory”of “gender The vibrantmost one. wasthe Tereshkova of which Valentina had beencreated, that weapons” The Congress Sovietpresented the Union with a perfect opportunity to deploy “gender the Conclusion Soviet in Union its ideological warfare with UnitedStates. the serveTereshkovaas –and wasmeantto served-- “gendera powerful by deployed the weapon” combined with her biography, created an image of her as an embodiment of the “Soviet dream.” was Valentina Tereshkova who was the most impressive of these “proofs,” and her achievement, GARF Fond 7928, op. 3, file 956 (Texts of the speeches of the delegates of the plenary session), June 24 1963. 63 68 But it CEU eTD Collection which authorities understood. Sovietthe possessed capacity influencing aparticularlyachievement, strong andpersuadingaudiences, of 64 CEU eTD Collection victory was such that Claire Booth, a former US Ambassador to Italy,in an article in diplomacy, and showcased the USSR to the world as the champion of women’s rights. Their her being admired andhailed atthe World Congressof Women—as an foropportunity public have arguedthatSoviet the Union successfully 1963events—Tereshkova’sthe flightused and member of WIDFthe which the organized 1963 Congress) and SovietandAmerican media, I he believed that his system, and notcapitalism,would inevitably win in this competition. socialist, A military devout inareasthan domain. the shouldother compete superpowers war, the NikitaKhrushchev, the First Secretary of the CPSU, who asserted that in order to avoid all-out by with wasproposed social systems different states between coexistence policy peaceful of middle of the 1950s, it had become clear that an all-out war might destroy the whole world. The guerillassponsored in countries, distant and increased tirelessly theirmilitary By prowess. the States, struggled forglobal supremacy. They took sides in conflicts around armed world,the and peaceful competition. peaceful coexistence of policies Khrushchev’s of context in the events combined these of meaning the explored only few Moscow, successful andhas a space flightof the Tereshkova, daysafter Valentina This hasthesis focused on Junethe 1963WIDF World Congress ofWomen tookplacethat in Conclusions their woman cosmonaut into space?” the “costliest Cold War blunder.” While most of of mostthe War While Cold “costliest into blunder.” space?”the their woman cosmonaut USmen’sthe inability findto the rightanswer tothe “Why question thedid SovietUnion launch Based on my research of the archives of the Soviet Women’s Committee (the Soviet For most of the post-1945 era, the twosuperpowers, the Soviet Union and the United 65 Life called CEU eTD Collection the WIDF membership await further exploration. await WIDFthe membership shown that a wealth of material and important issues such as the heated political debates among though an important one—of 1963WIDFthe Congress, but my in research archivesthe has discussme only allowed has of aspect— to this one thesis scope The Federation. Democratic unwritten history of the biggest global women’s organization, the Women’s International largely still the to in particular and era, postwar in the organizations women’s international supremacy. ideological global regarding their treatment of women by 1960swasthe akey part of superpower the strugglefor beyond missiles, satellites, technology, oreven agriculture, but also that their competition that the competition (peaceful and not) between the United States and the Soviet Union went literature on history the of Coldthe Waris still genderblind,have I attempted toshow not only I hope mythat hasthesis alsomade ameaningful contribution historiographythe to of 66 CEU eTD Collection Archives: Bibliography of of Worldthe CongressofWomen) July 1963. GARF Fondfile 7928,op.3 1002(Data about international the organizations-participants Assistance of Preparation and Conduct of Congress),the 12April 1963 GARF Fond 7928, op.3, file 973 (Minutes of the meeting of the Committee for version 2; resolutions, recommendations, an appeal), June 1963. Congress of Women” p. 69. Documents adopted by the World Congress of Women, GARF Fond 7928 op. 3 file 964 (Information on the Commissions. Brochure “World Women, version 2; resolutions, recommendations, an appeal), June 1963. “World Congress of Women” p. 87. Documents adopted by the World Congress of GARF Fond 7928 op. 3 file 964, (Valentina Tereshkova Greets the Congress. Brochure recommendations, an appeal),June 1963. Documents adopted by the World Congress of Women, version 2; resolutions, GARF Fond 7928op.3 file 964.(Appeal. “World Brochure Congress ofWomen” p.91. session5), 29 Junepart 1963. GARF Fond 7928,op.3file 960.(Texts of speechesthe of of delegates the plenarythe delegatesthe of plenarythe session), 24June 1963 GARF Fond 3,file 7928,op. 956.(Speech by TextsEugenie Cotton. of speechesthe of session),24 June 1963. GARF Fond 7928,op.3,file 956(Texts of speechesthe of of delegates the plenarythe June 1963. GARF Fond 7928,op.3file 952(Texts of delegates’ the speeches, in1), 24 English, part GARF Fond 7928,op.3file 950(Minutes of plenarythe 5), session 29Junepart 1963. of Women),24 June 1963. GARF Fond 7928,op.3file 946(Minutes of plenarythe session of Worldthe Congress 1963 Fifth World Congress Women,of time period: April – July1963. the Russian Federation. Soviet Women’s Committee. Fond 7928. Files pertaining to the Gosudarstvennij Arhiv Rossijskoj Federacii (GARF), Russia Moscow, –State Archive of 67 CEU eTD Collection Printed Primary Sources: “The WeakerSex?,” “His and Hers.” The New York Times American newspaper: American Sovetskaya Zhenshina Izvestiya Izvestiya Izvestiya “A Symbol of a Woman’s Liberation,” Pravda, 174 (16395),23 June 1963,p.3. addressees.” differentA letter to big meeting. the Anna. “Before Karavaeva, 17 June,p. 4. 1963, 1963, p.4. Pravda Pravda Soviet newspapers:Soviet von 1968). Frauenföderation, Sèvres Demokratische (Berlin: Internationale Lehrerinnenseminars Höheren des Ehrendirektorin Präsidiums, seines Mitglied Frauenföderation Dezember 1945-Juni Demokratischen 1967, Mitbegründerin Weltfriedensrates unddes Internationalen der Präsidentin und Mitbegründerin Cotton: Eugénie Popova, Nina. “Heroic Daughter of the Land of Communism.” Cotton, Eugenie , No 168 (16389), 17 , No June 1963,p.6. 168 (16389), 17 , No June 1963,p.1. No 176 No (16397), 25 June 1963. , No156(14319),1July 1963, p.3. , No144(14307),17June 1963,p.1. , No143(14306),16June 1963,p.1. . Newsweek “Symbol of the Triumph of Life.” Pravda , Vol No 38501,23June, Vol CXII, 1963. Newsweek . No 7, July 1963, p.5. The New The New York Times , , 1 July , 1July 46. 1963, p. Izvestiya , 1 July , 1July 47.1963, p. ; magazine: Pravda 68 , magazines: , No178(16399)27 June 1963,p.4. Sovetskaya Zhenshina. Pravda Life . No168(16389),17June , Newsweek Pravda. . No 168 No (16389), Pravda . No CEU eTD Collection Books andArticles: Democratic Federation.” In Federation.” Democratic Ilic, Melanie.“Soviet Women, Cultural Exchange, and the Women's International Surrey, England:Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2010. Harrington, Carol. International Council ofWomen. Brussels: Racine, Edition 2005. Gubin, Eliane and Leen Van Molle, eds. Women Changing the World: A History of the g Karen. Garner, Bochkarev and Don L. Mansfield. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1992. USSR inaChangingWorld. Soviet and American Perspectives Gaddis, John Lewis.“Looking Back: The Long Peace.” In Space Era,1961-1965, French, Francis, Colin Burgess, and Paul Haney, Politics Press. 2007. J. Michael Edward R. CenterMurrow for Public Diplomacy Brochure, ca.1965, cited inWaller, Publishing, 2009. Evans, Ben. Evans, (WIDF).” case the Women's Organisations: of Federation Women's International the Democratic ______“Continuing Cold WarParadigms in HistoriographyWestern of Transnational 1950).” Internationalen Demokratischen (IDFF/WIDF)Frauenfoederation (1945- de Haan, Francisca. “Hoffnungen auf eine bessere Welt: Die fruehen Jahre der by Jeremy Abingdon,Oxon:Smith. Routledge,2011. Khrushchev intheKremlin: PolicyandGovernment inthe Soviet Union, 1956-64 Autio-Sarasmo, Sari. “Khrushchev and the Challenge of Technological Progress.” In: 1963, p.31 Boothe Luce, Claire. “But Some People Simply Never Get the Message.” In overnance, 1925-85. Feministische Studien Women's History Review History Women's The PublicDiplomacyReader Escaping the the FiftiesEscaping the Bonds ofEarth: andtheSixties. Shaping aglobal women's agenda: women's NGOs andglobal Politicization ofSexual Violence: Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2010 Press, University UK: Manchester Manchester, Nebraska: Boardof of Regents Universitythe Nebraska,of 2007. Redrawing the Iron Curtain: Transferring Knowledge in 27, no. 2. (November 2009):241-257. , 19, no.4 (September547-573. , 19, 2010): 69 . Washington DC: The Institute of World Into That Silent IntoThat Sea: Trailblazers of the From Abolitionismto Peacekeeping The UnitedStates and the . Edited by Andrei G. Berlin: Praxis Berlin: Life, . Edited 28 June . CEU eTD Collection Khrushchev, Nikita. “On Peaceful Coexistence.” “On Peaceful Nikita. Khrushchev, Documents. Judge, EdwardH. andJohn W. Langoon. Ransome-Kuti ofNigeria Johnson-Odim, Cheryl and Nina Emma Mba. Houndmills, Hampshire: Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. Ilic, Melanie, Susan E. Reid, Lynne Atwood, eds. London: Cold War Europe, Stanford University Stanford 2000. Press, Europe Laville, Helen. “The Memorial Day Statement.” In USA the by Palgrave. 2002 organizations. Helen. Laville, (1941-1991).”M.A.Committee thesis. Central European University, 2011. Women’s Rights of and Struggles: Domain A Theoretical FrameworkInternational the and and a CaseUnion Study of Soviet the “The Soviet Women’sYana. Knopova-Ziferblat, New York: Putnam, 1966. Kim, Young Hum.“Preface.” In no. 1, p 1-18. Lüthi, Lorenz M. Review Leffler, Melvyn P., “The Cold War: What Do ‘We Now Know’?,” Cass Publishers, 1997,192-306. Offen, Karen M., Press,London: Greenwood 1996; Russian Women inPolitics andSociety Noonan, Norma C. “The Bolshevik Legacy and Russian Women’s Movements”. In Lenin Mausoleum. Malia, Martin Edward. UniversityPrinceton Press, 1998. , Vol. 104, No. 2(Apr.,, Vol. 104, 1999), pp. 501-524. , 1945-1960 Routledge, 2010. Upper Saddle River,NJ:PearsonEducation, 2011. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press; distributed in Cold War Women: theinternational activities of Americanwomen’s The Sino-Soviet split: Cold War in thecommunist world. European Feminisms 1700-1950: APolitical History edited by Sari Autio-Sarasmo and Katalin Miklóssy. Katalin and Autio-Sarasmo Sari by edited Cambridge, MA: University Harvard Press, 1999. , edited by Giles Scott-Smith and Hans Krabbendam. London: Frank London: Krabbendam. Hans and Scott-Smith by Giles edited , Russia underWestern fromtheBronze Eyes: Horseman tothe . Chicago: University Illinoisof Press, 1997. Patterns ofCompetitiveCoexistence: USAvs.USSR , edited by Wilma Rul and Norma C. Noonan. 70 The Cold War. AGlobal History with For women andthenation:Funmilayo Foreign Affairs. Women intheKhrushchev Era The Cultural ColdWar inWestern October 1959.Vol. 38 American Historical . Stanford: Princeton, NJ: . . CEU eTD Collection 2002. Wieringa, Saskia.Wieringa, London: Frank Cass, 2000. Thatcher, Ian D. “Khrushchev as Leader” In Ian D.“Khrushchev as Leader” Thatcher, 2007): 118-152. in Government,” 'Communists against Campaign War Storrs, Landon Y, “Attacking the Washington "Femmocracy": Antifeminism in the Cold University Princeton Princeton: Press, 1997. Westad, Odd Arne, ed., Liberation Weigand, Kate. World Politics Press. 2007. Waller, Michael J. World Politics Press. 2007 in Waller, Michael J U.S. Department of State, Dictionary of International Relations Terms, 1987, p. 85, cited Macmillan.1997. J. William Tompson, Routledge, 2011. Government intheSovietUnion, 1956-1964. Khrushchev.” under Union Soviet in the Taste Reid, Susan E. “Cold War in the Kitchen: Gender and the De-Stalinization of Consumer Rupp, Leila J., Yaroslavl Ruble, A. Blair. Westview Press, 1987. Richmond, Yale. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 2009. In: Kitchen.” Reid, Susan E. “‘Our Kitchen is Just as Good”: Soviet Responses to the American 211-252 . Woodrow Wilson Center International Center for Scholars, 1995. Scholars, for Center International Wilson Center Woodrow . . Baltimore, Maryland: TheJohns Hopkins University 2002 Press. Cold War Kitchen Worlds ofWomen.TheMaking anof InternationalWomen’s Movement Red Feminism: AmericanCommunism andtheMaking Women’sof Money sings: thechangingpolitics ofurban space inpost-Soviet U.S.-Soviet Cultural Exchanges, 1958-1986. Who Wins?U.S.-Soviet CulturalExchanges, 1958-1986. Sexual PoliticsinIndonesia. The PublicDiplomacyReader . The PublicDiplomacyReader . The Khrushchev: APoliticalLife Reviewing theColdWar: Approaches, Interpretations, Theory , edited by , edited Ruth Oldenziel and Karin Zachmann, 71 Edited by Jeremy Smith. Abingdon, Oxon: Khrushchev intheKremlin. Policyand Slavic Review The Hague: Institute of Social Studies, Social of Institute Hague: The . Washington DC: The Institute of Institute The DC: . Washington . Hampshire: Palgrave . Washington, DC: Washington, The Institute . of Feminist Studies 61, no.2 (Summer61, 2002): 33, no. 1(Spring London: . .