G 72 .C24 v. 39 1999 AVAILABLE SEPTEMBER 1999! I
A NEW, SECOND EDITION OF
CALIFORNIA: THE GEOGRAPHY OF DIVERSITY
by Crane S. Miller and Richard S. Hyslop
The second edition of this popular, topically arranged text is an account of the most vital, significant, and fascinating aspects of California's rich phy sical and cultural landscape.
KEY FEATURES
• The book has been completely revised and expanded to include such topics as the rise of Silicon Valley, recent earthquakes, mass transportation, California's changing demography, the role of the state in the Pacific Rim econ omy, and much more.
• The text provides complete coverage of emerging envi ronmental issues.
• Coverage includes information on weather, landform provinces, ecological regions, and demographic patterns. The authors treat less traditional issues such as historical geography, cultural oddities, and regional personalities.
ISBN 0-767 4-1345-8
Call Mayfield Publishing today at 800-433-1279 to request a complimentary examination copy.
· � Mayfield Publishing Company • 1280 Villa Stre et, Mountain View, CA • www.mayfieldpub.cp _ liJ 94041-1176 . The California Geographer
Vo lume XXXIX 1999
A Publication of the CALIFORNIA GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
EDITO R Ray Sumner
EDITORIAL BOARD James Duvall, Contra Costa College David Hartman, Santa Ana College To m McKnight, UCLA Clement Padick, CSULA
GUEST EDITOR, Vol. XXXI X Dale Pullin, California Institute ofTechnology
Ty peset by Mark Reina and Ray Sumner Long Beach City College
Printed by Jaymar Fast Print, Glendora
Copyright I 999 by the California Geographical Society CALIFORNIA GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 1999-2000 Presidwt Stephen Cunha, Humboldt State University, Artcata
Vice Presideut Carol Jean Cox, Sierra College, Rocklin
Treasurer Bill Holder; Fountain Valley High School, Fountain Va lley
Secretary Marcia Holstrom, San Jose State University
Editor, The Bulletin Jenny Zorn,Ca l ifornia State University, San Bernardino
Editor, CaliforniaGe ogra pher Ray Sumner, Long Beach City College
Past President Stephen Cunha, Humboldt State University
BOARD MEMBERS Joan Clemons, University of California, Los Angeles Mike Murphy, Gettysburg Elementary School. Clovis Emily Lieb, California State University, Fresno Bob Wa llen, Mendocino College Richard Eigenheer, Kit Carson Middle School. Sacramento Linda O'Hirok, CaliforniaState University, Los Angeles Carolyn Wharff, Mt. San Jacinto College Chris Lukinbeal. San Diego State Universi ty I UC Santa Barbara Christy Brenner, Saddleback College Matt Ebiner, El Camino College Table of Contents
Artides Tire Ultraviolet Judex iu tire Coutiguous U11ited States a11d Its Verificatioll i11 Los A11gcles
...... Gong-Yuh Lin and Ti m Boyle
Califo mia's "Asia11 Clam" (Potamorcorlmla amurerrsis) and tire Rlretoric of Alierr luvasious ...... Diane Meredith 21
Recreatioual Paradise or Desecrated Slrriue? Divergiug Perceptious aud Rlretoric of a Coutested Wildemess Laudscape: Lake Powe/1/G/eu Cauyou ...... Douglas Warren Johnson 35
Absurdisl Carlograplry: Tire Dada Miller111iur11 Map of tire Uuited States ...... Da Nemeth and Da Kaplan 65
Thiessen's Remarkable Po lrgous ...... Mark P. Kumler 71
Geographh: Chronides
The Ventura Meeting ...... 82
Slim Bauer - a Note from Eliot Mcintyre ...... 87
A Call for Authors ...... 88
Geographic: Education A Regioual Corrrparison of tire Geogmplry of tire Uuited States ...... Marcia M. Holstrom 91
GIS Wo rks/rap: Au I11troductiou to ArcView
...... Kathy Duret 98
REVIEW: Earthquakes: Scieuce aud Societ)' by David S. Bnrnrlmuglr
...... Richard Raskoff 100
Editorial Policy ...... 103 CORRECriON
Vo lume XXXVIII included the article "California's Northeast Border: Political Pragmatism TurnedTe rritorial Imperative" by Gregory A Reed. Mr Reed is at Southwest Texas Sta te University. The Ultraviolet Index in the Contiguous United States and its Verifi.:ation in Los Angeles
Gong-Yuh Lin and Tim Boyle California State University, Northridge
Introdudion
For the purpose of studying biological effects, ultraviolet radiation can be classified into three bands based on wavelength ranges; UV-C spans the 100 nm to 280 nm range, UV-8 lies between 280 nm and 320 nm, and UV-A extends from 320 nm to 400 nm (EPA 1994a ; Urbach 1986). Unlike UV-A and UV-8 radiations, the UV-C radiation is completely absorbed by the atmosphere before reaching the ground surface. There fo re, UV-A and UV-8 radiation is of major concern to human health. Human exposure to ultraviolet radiation provides some beneficial results such as skin tanning, vitamin D synthesis, and diagnostic and therapeutic applications in medicine. In contrast, overexposure to UV radiation may cause skin cancer, eye .disorders, suppression of the immune system, and erythema (sunburn or skin reddening).
Since June 28, 1994, the National Weather Service (NWS) has issued the daily Ultraviolet Index (UVI) to warn the public against potential sunburn risk fo r 58 cities in the United States (Figure 1). The UVI was developed by the National Centers For Environmental Prediction (NCEP, formerly National Meteorological Center of NWS), in collaboration with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Center For Disease Control And Prevention (COO It is used as a tool to enhance public awareness of the health risks of excessive exposure to ultraviolet radia tion. Other countries, such as Australia, Canada, Germany, New Zealand, and Britain also issue an ultraviolet index, although their criteria may be different from those of the US UVI OCNIRP 1995).
This article intends to introduce geographers to the concept of UVI by discussing the spatial and temporal va riations of the UVI and minute-to-burn time in the contiguous United States. Since the ultra violet index is a next-day fo recast of the likely exposure to ultraviolet radiation weighted by the erythemal action spectrum for a particular location at noon (EPA 1994a), an attempt is made to verify the UV J fo recast for Los Angeles by the measured UVl from the Ya ngkee's environ mental UVB-1 pyranometer located at Northridge.
1 .� ------·--- ::..o seattle -r -- ("'\.r , r ------i · . - - - ·--r ---- -"- ;·' \ _) ·;e.;;;.-·----j \ - - r - i <- ' - " _ _'IF� o'"' ,i _ _ __ - g rl } '. 9PorUand -- _.------! Burhn, to ' """' / ·-\- - -- 0 o. ' �.. ------i _ L 0 - - - Boston· . -! . 8 ff 1 · . . . u __ - _;.g--�· � · · i . Qo ____ao . oo""' i __ - 'o . --.1. f li < ------\'M>Iwa ukee0 � , -- -•• o----- __ , / - - J . ,___ -';y-:;' . c-- --J ,• ------' � o - ' ', ' �-"' i-lf'/e -ork :, - ... \ - -� . •lN wY , -- , -�-- - < -;oO ' - · ·- - \ < ( • o < •• � '"0 o f " , sbu gh.,o �l_ oAtlantic City - " , • P>tt r e·- ' - - "�" OO 1 d'. Baltim; or 0 i ------< Ooo ------·-, •' ?liover f < > n >anapo0lis / · '" \ < � c, : \ ,-:' o "' < ·------. \, ashington. DC �-� ' , o v o , I �rl;ston W .,, , en er Lo v ll l··G. :' , : : ': Sa>nt Louis uis i e o , : : {._,J-0 ,'-···· orfol��k0 N \ \ �. \ : ' \ ! - - W>�hlta i \ �s Vegas------: -- - : 0 ; ------\ - - ·r '-- ;;�;;--- i ' - - -- >- • � : ------�- -"•--- • ---J' ...- ; -:'-"(:· , LosAngeleso ;;:\- ,.ft".fi!P�!S - - ·� -i �:: •• - · --- � •• 7 0 • .. � r �--- i -, _ . ; "-·-.------e \Al)j'nla o - .< . Utt) Rock i • -,_ _ ! : , o t _ , Charleston / · _ - ! i ___ '. {' -. • Dal aso . : •,- l ; Jac_kson : .. - ·---·- -- -- , { 0 • -----1. -' ' !_ \ • ! - \ M��·------'------•: Jacksonville --. - l L---• o • . _._ ' \ •, / ·,,\ OUSIOno \ ��Tampa 0 � � \ ( UVI STATIONS \jMiami _ _ \_ __
Figure 1. The locations of UVI stations. Literature Review
The method of predicting the next day UVI is rather complicated. The EPA (I 994b) provided a brief discussion of the method of computing UVI in the United States. Long et al. (1996a) presented the procedures of UV I fo recasts in detail. Fa ctors causing variation in amounts of ultra violet radiation reaching the ground surface include the total column ozone, cloud cover, altitude, surface albedo, optical depth, and solar zenith angle or time of clay. Ozone strongly absorbs UV-B radiation but it is a poor absorber of UV-A radiation. Therefore, fluctuations in the incidence of UV-B radiation are particularly sensitive to variations in the total column ozone. Using the total column ozone observed fTom polar orbit satellites, a radiative transfer model. regression equations, and model output statistics (MOS), the spectrum irradiances at each wavelength between 290 nm and 400 nm are calculated and then weighted (multiplied) by the CIE (International Commission on Illumi nation or Commission Internationale d'Eclairage) action spectrum and integrated over the wavelength range to produce an erythemal dose rate in watts per square meter (WI m2). During the UVI experimental period, June 1994 through April 1995, the VVI was expressed as one hour's erythemal dosage based on the integration of the predicted erythemal dose rate for the noon hour (I 1:30 am to 12:30 pm local time). The integration of the erythemal dose rate (W/m2 ) over one hour is converted into hectojoules per square meter (hJ/m2) or dose rate times 36. The scaled dosage in units of hJ/m2, rounded to the nearest whole number, is the UVI issued to the public (EPA 1994b). The UVI derived fro m this method lies on a scale fro m 0 to 15. Since April 1995, the United States has adopted the international standard that expresses the UVI as the dose rate times 40. Most countries use a CIE weighted irradi ance scale such that one unit of UVI is equal to 0.025 W/m2 (WMO I 994). The reciprocal of this value is 40, meaning that one W/m2 erythe mal radiation equals 40 UVI. The present UVI value is hence about 1.11 (40/36) times larger than the experimental UVI value (Long 1996b).
In order to provide a warning system fo r high levels of ultraviolet radiation, the EPA (1994a; 1995) set five exposure categories; Minimal (0, I. and 2), Low (3 and 4), Moderate (5 and 6), High (7, 8, and 9), and Very High (10 and higher), based on UVI values which affe ct fa ir skinned persons. The public is advised to minimize outdoor activities between the peak hours of 10 am and 4 pm when UVI lies in the category of High or Very High.
The UVI is a measurement of erythemally weighted ultraviolet radia tion that requires some background knowledge of the erythemal action spectrum. An action spectrum describes the relative effectiveness of each
3 wavelength of radiation in causing the same degree of a biological re sponse, such as erythema, skin tumors, or DNA damage (Cole et al. 1986). Jt is defined as the reciprocal of the dose required to cause a threshold biological response. This effective radiant dose is normalized to 1 at the most effective wavelength. The effective radiant exposures of the other wavelengths, which are smaller than I, are computed fT om statistically-derived normalized equations (McKinlay and Diffey 1987). The UVI employs the erythemal action spectrum as a weighting func tion because erythema is an im mediately noticeable biological reaction when human skin is exposed to UV-B radiation. UV-A radiation may cause erythema but requires a threshold dosage 500 to 5000 times that of UV-B radiation (Urbach 1986). UV-A eryther11a is characterized by dark red color in contrast to bright red color of UV-B erythema. Furthermore, UV-A radiation may cause skin pigmentation without prior occurrence of erythema (Mu tzhas and Cesarini 1987).
The study of erythemal action spectra began in the 1920s by Hausser and Va hle (Urbach 1986; 1987). Most recent studies of the action spectra ofhuman skin were presented by Parrish et al. (1982), Gange et al. (1986), Urbach (1989), Diffey (1994), and Anders et al. (1995). In 1994, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO 1994) recommended the adoption of the CIE action spectru m normalized to 1.0 at a wavelength of297 nm. The CIE action spectrum is based on a statistical analysis of the results of the minimum erythema dose (MED) studies from various publica tions prior to 1982 (McKinlay and Diffey 1987). The spectral erythema effe ctiveness is the reciprocal of the MED, which is defined as the small est amount ofUV dose necessary to induce a barely perceptible redness of previously unexposed skin within 24 hours of exposure (Diffey 1994). The UVI is determined almost entirely by the amount of exposure to UV-B radiation. The relative erythemal effectiveness of UV-A ra diation is insignificant compared to that of UV-B radiation
In order to provide in formation fo r the public to better understand the health risk of overexposure to ultraviolet radiation, the NWS issues daily UVI warnings accompanied by minutes-to-burn(su nburn)time fo r the noon hour. The time required to sunburn is calculated by dividing 60 minutes by the number of MEDs (minimum erythema dose) in one hour. The EPA (1994a and b) has provided the va lues of a M ED fo r fo ur skin phototypes: never tans/always burns,someti mes ta ns/usually bu rns, usually tans/sometimes burns, and always tans/rarely burns.The mini mum energy required to produce skin reddening (MED) va ries from 10 mJ/cm2 (millijoules per square centimeter) fo r the most sensitive people (never tans/always burns) to 50 mJ/cm2 for the least sensitive people (always tans/never burns).
4 The most sensitive skin color in an unexposed area is pale, milky white, or alabaster. The time required to sunburn fo r the least sensitive people is about 5 times as long as that required fo r the most sensitive people. The skin color fo r the least sensitive people is brown, dark brown, or black.
The UVI value is first converted to mJ/cm2 and then divided by 10 mJ/ cm2 to obtain the number of MEDs in one hour fo r the most sensitive people. The conversion of UV I in units of 0.025 W /m2 to hourly UV-B energy dosage in units of mJ/cm2 is achieved by the fo llowing equation:
UVI x 0.025 Js-'m-2 x 3600 s = 90 UVI )m-1 = 0.9 UVI h)m-1 = 9 UVI m]cm-2.
Since the energy of minimal erythema fo r the most susceptible skin type (milky white) is 10 mJ/cm2 as recommended by the EPA. the number of MEDs in one hour is therefore 0.9 UVI (9 UVI/10). Minutes to-bum time is computed by dividing 60 minutes by the MEDs in one hour or 60/(0.9 uvn.
Methodology
The daily noon-hour UVI data for the period 1995-1997 in 55 cities in the contiguous United States (excluding Anchorage. . Honolulu, and San , Juan) are derived from the NCEP archive (Long 1997). The method of deriving UVI and minutes-to-burn time in the United States are al ready discussed in the section of literature review. Statview software is employed to obtain basic statistics of the UVI for the 55 cities in the United states. Adobe Illustrator and DeltaGraph software are used to construct monthly distributions of mean daily noon-hour UVI maps and graphs.
In 1995, California State University at Northridge (CSUN) installed a Yankee Environmental UVB-1 pyranometer at its weather station oper ated by the Department of Geography. The CSUN weather station consists of a Campbell Scientific datalogger and typical meteorological sensors including an anemometer, wind vane, temperature, relative hu midity, tipping bucket rain gauge, barometric pressure, total solar pyranometer and UVB-1 pyranometer (Figure 2). It is located at 34°14'17" north and 118°3 1 '48" west. The UVB-1 pyranometer is about 10 meters above the ground. The measured UVJ at Northridge weather station is obtained by the following equation:
UVI = 0.001 x 2 x 0. 141 x 40 x (CRlO voltage output)= 0.0113 x ((RIO voltage output).
Where the factor 0.001 converts millivolts to volts; the number 2 trans-
5 - -r
\
Figure 2. Northridge weather station (UV Pyranometer - inset picture).
6 fers voltage readings from the UVB-I sensor to the Campbell Scientific CRIO datalogger which outputs the UVB energy in units of millivolts; the value O.I4I effective (W/m2)/volt converts UVB-I instrumen t output voltage into the CIE defined erythemal irradiance (Diffy action spectrum) in effective W /m2 (YES I997); and the multiplier 40 converts the erythemal irradiance into UVI (Long 1 996a). UVI measurements are taken every 3 seconds. Hourly values of average, maximum, and mini mum of UVI and other weather variables are stored in a module of a Campbell Scientific datalogger and can be displayed on Excel spreadsheets on an IBM computer screen via a modem.
The NCEP prepares the UVI fo r Los Angeles using fo recast ozone fi eld within I o x I o latitude/longitude grid, as well as location, altitude, pre dicted cloud amounts at Los Angeles International Airport (LA X). The UVI issued fo r Los Angeles is valid within a 48 km (30 miles) radius of LAX (NOAA 1995). The observed UVI data fo r the period I996-1997 at Northridge, approximately 32 km (20 miles) away from LAX and is hence within the forecast area, provide a good example of testing the validity of UVI forecast fo r Los Angeles by comparing the mean monthly distri butions of observed and fo recast UVI values. It is of interest to find the effect of altitudes and cloud amounts on the accuracy of the UVI fo recast. Dis.:ussion
The spatial distribution of the mean monthly UVI at noon-hour in the contiguous United States illustrates a strong latitudinal dependence with a gradient showing the decrease of UVI from south to north (Figures 3). During the months of November, December, and January, the mean monthly UV I is in the Low and Minimal categories (4 or lower) every where in the contiguous United States. There is a distinct UVI maximum over the Rocky Mountains and a UVI minimum over the Mississippi Rjver Valley areas. Obviously, elevation and the dry atmosphere over the Rocky Mountains account fo r such a spatial distribution of the monthly mean UVI. In February, Miami, Florida experiences a Moderate category of UVI while the other cities are still in Low and Minimal categories. In March, Miami leads other stations in the contiguous United States with a mean monthly UVI of higher than 7. Beginning in April, a High category of UVI values (7 and 8) appears in Arizona, New Mexico, and southern California.Florida still experiences the highest mean monthly UVI of 8 in the contiguous United States. In May, the southernsta tes of the country experience UV I greater than 7. A striking feature is fo und over Miami, Florida where the mean monthly UVI exceeds 9, approach ing a Very High category. Florida is consistently characterized by the highest mean monthly UVI in the contiguous United States except during summer months of June, July, and August (Figures 3 and 4).
7 JANUARY
""" ::::J 0
.r::' c: 0 0 c: .z-. 'l 8 FEBRUARY 7.0 \ .. -._; APRIL �------· ·- ;·-- -�--- - -;--- : 9.0 _____ ") :·· ·--- -- 10:0/;\ ..L ------\ . 10.0' JUNE 9 : : ' .._ ·-- ---' . 10.0 . JULY 1o.o . ,-··· SEPTEMBER ·. � .. � 1.0 ,)t··············· . · · ·�d ·· __ . . . ,_ . o ...... t···--:------··· · ,_;:·: ···v � 4.0 NOVEMBER ( �·-� 10 7.0 ·------·-- 9.0 AUGUST • , \ OCTOBER DECEMBER 11 Figure 3 shows the area of maximum UV I in winter occurred persis tently in Florida, shifting to southwestern desert states in summer. Fig ure 4 shows monthly variations of mean daily noon-hour UVl values in Los Angeles, Miami, and Seattle. The UVI values in Miami are higher than those in Los Angeles except in summer months, June through August. The decrease in UVI values in Miami from May to Ju ne can be attributed to the increased cloudiness and preci pitation associated with increased thunderstorm activit ies in early summerCLydolph 1985). Clouds frequently attenuate the clear sky irradiances by n1ore than 50% (McKenzie et al. 1990. As expected, the UVI values in Seattle are lowest because of its location at a higher latitude and abundant clouds and precipitation associated with frequent cyclonic activity. part icularly in winter. ln June, a UV I minimum appears to extend from easternTe xas toward the upper Mississippi River Valley and the Great Lakes areas, corresponding to the June precipitation maximum in the same areas (Trewa rtha 1980. From June through August, the area covering the south ern two-thirds of the nation has a High UVI ca tegory. ln June, the maximum UVI occurs over Arizona, New Mexico, and southernCalif or nia, with the UVI values approaching or reaching a Very High category 00+) (Figure 3). In August, the UVI values decline slightly compared to those of July for all cities and nowhere in the contiguous United States is the mean monthly UV I of Very High category attained. Southern 10 � 9 - /" �.. - � 8 - ) v � - � 7 ( / l >:::l ..... 6 / I \\ :::J - 0 ..r::: I( C: 5 ) t/ /"- \" 0 0 r-- 2 4 -/ I ) \ \\� � """' ·;;; ...... Los Angeles 0 3 )( I \l \ c: � Q.) v � 2 v � Miami '\ � " v - Seattle �,...., -v � 0 I I I I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Month Figure 4. Monthly variations of mean daily noon-hour UVI in Los Angeles, Miami ·and Seattle. 12 California experiences the highest UVI in the contiguous United States, with a value slightly exceeding 9. In Se·ptember, only the Gulf coast area and the southwestern states attain the High UVI category. In October, the southernmost states experience the Moderate UVI category. Although the mean UVI values in the northern states along the US-Canadian border fall in the Moderate UVJ category from May through August, the maximum daily noon-hour UVI val ues reach the High ca teg01y. Figure 5 shows that Seattle, where the mean UVI value is the lowest in the contiguous United States, attains a maximum daily noon hour UVI value 9 in June. The figure also shows that the maximum daily noon hour UVI reaches 13 in Miami in July, the highest va lue in the cont igu ous United States in the period I 995-1997. Figure 6 shows the monthly variations of fo recast (LAX) and observed (Northridge) mean daily noon-hour UVI values fo r the period I 996- 1997. Visually, there is a good fit between the forecast and observed UVI val ues with a difference less than one UVI unit in each month. The fo recast values are slightly lower than the observed val ues except fo r the summer months, June through September. Figure 7 also shows a good agreement between fo recast and observed UVI values. Approxi mately 39% of the forecast and observed UVI values are equal. For about 87% of the days, the UVI forecast is within one index unit of the 13 12 v.\. 11 /. v� 10 //i"- v � 9 > - / I \\. ::l 8 I """' \.'\ .....:::J v v 0 7 I I / \ \\. -7c:: 0 0 6 z I I / \ \\ � 5 ·� -, v ,/ \ \ i"- 0 4 "\. E / ...... __ Los Angeles Maximum \ :::J UVI E 3 / / \ "" ·x � Miami Maximum "' 2 UVI � / . i"- 1 - - Seattle Maximum -v UVI i"- 0 I I I I I I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Month Figure 5. Monthly variations of maximum daily noon"hour UVI in Los Angeles, Miami, and Seattle. I3 observed value. The percentage increases to about 98% for the fo recast values that are within two index units of the observed values. These accuracies are higher than those of the overall UVI fo recasts fo r other cities in the nation having a comparable accuracy of 32%, 760/o, and 92% (Long et al. 1996a; 1996c). The forecast UVI tends to be lower than the observed UVI as reflected by more negat ive values (390/o) than the posi tive values (21%) in figure 7. LAX is located at a lower altitude and more cloudy than Northridge (Keith 1980), resulting in lower UVI values. An examination of daily UVI data indicates that the large differences, 3 or higher either positive or negative values, between forecast and observed UVI are attributed to the occurrences of rainy and/or cloudy days. The occurrence of a few cloudy days that resulted in a ve ry low UVI va lues at Northridge accounted fo r the slightly lower mean daily noon-hour UVI values in the summer months of 1996-1997 (Figure 6). Alth ough cloud observations are not available at Northridge, the extreme low UVI values occurred on the days characterized by a significant decl ine in air temperature and increase in relative humidity from the previous days, indicating the presence of clouds or fogs. Since the UVI issued by the National We ather Service is accompanied by minute-to burn time, it is of a geographical interest to study the 10 9 - ...... - � � 8 A� � 7 )/ 't > - ::> 6 .__ 1// r\ ::I 0 -7 5 Ar \ c 0 0 '� c 4 1// � \. ·ro -+- Forecast (Los Angeles) "0 3 Ar UVI � c «l (1) �v � 2 ---9-- Observed (Northridge) UVI ' 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Month Figure 6. Montly variations of forecast (Los Angeles) and observed (Northridge) mean daily noon-hour UVI values. 14 spatial and temporal variations of minute-to-burn time in the contigu ous United States and to warn the public about the potential risk of sunburn. Figure 8 shows the spatial pattern of minutes-to-burn time fo r the most sensitive people in January and July. ln January, it varies from about 20 to 30 minutes in the south to more than one hour in the north of the contiguous United States. The northwest and northeast regions require the longest time to cause sunburn. Previous studies have concluded that a person exposed to sunlight for a long period of lime may be at a health risk despite the fact that the UVI is in the low or Minimum category. A UVI value of two may cause sunburn in about 30 minutes for the most sensitive people and ISO minutes for the least sensitive people The low UVI value in winter by no means implies that it is safe to expose the skin to sunlight fo r many hours. In July, the time required to sunburnthe m.ost sensitive people at noon is about 12 min utes or less everywhere in the United States (Figure 8). In the southwest desert area, it requires less than 7 minutes to cause sunburn at noon, the shortest time required to cause sunburn in the contiguous United States. 40 35 30 25 �0 ;:: 20 <..> c::: Q.) ::s � 15 u.. 10 5 0 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 2 3 4 5 6 Forecast UVI - Observed UVI Figure 7. Frequency of the differences between forecast and observed UVI values at Northridge (Los Angeles). IS ; � ��---- ��: i -� --- ..------' ... \ JANUARY '-- - - · ··. J \ . \ - ', ,, -, , . ' .,_ ' ,_,..�...' __ _ __ ' _____ ' ;- - -. ' --- \J : 7 ____ .0\ J- -, j JULY . F1gure 8 · Mean noon-hour minute-to-b urn time in January and July, 1995-1997. 16 Summary The spatial pattern of the UVI in the contiguous United States is mostly latitude and altitude dependent and is inversely related to that of pre cipitation and cloud cover. The northwest and northeast regions, where cloud cover and precipitation are greatest, are characterized by the mini mum UVI throughout the year. In midsummer, maximum UVJ occurs in the southwest United States. Except fo r the summer months, Florida is characterized as having the highest UVI values in the contiguous United States. Mean daily noon-hour UVJ values vary from near 0 in the northwest in winter to about 12 in the southwest in summer. The forecast UVI values are verified by observed UVI val ues in Los Angeles. It is found that the fo recast UVI values are within one index unit of the observed values for 87% of the days tested. The accuracy of the UVI forecast in Los Angeles is much higher than that of the overall UVI forecast for other cities in the nation. In Los Angeles, the fo recast UVI values are consistently lower than the observed ones duringwint er months. The discrepancy between the fo recast and observed values may be attributed to the diffe rence between the locations where forecast and observed UVI values are taken. Observed values are measured at Northridge, located in an inland valley northwest of LAX, from which the forecast values are derived. The UVI values are expected to be lower at LAX than at Northridge because of its lower elevation and more cloudy days. However, a few cloudy days associated with extreme low UVI values at Northridge resulted in lower observed mean daily noon hour UVI val ues than fo recast ones in the summer of 1996-1997. The 1996 and 1997 summers should be viewed as abnormal summers. This i result can be verifed furtheras more summer UVI data become available. In summer, it takes about 12 minutes or shorter time to get sunburn fo r most sensitive people anywhere in the United States. This information wi ll enhance the public awareness to take proper protection when conducting outdoor activities. Acknowledgntenbi We thank Bill Flores, Dean of College of Social and Behavioral Sciences at CSUN for providing reassigned time to the principal author to con duct this research project. We are grateful to David Fu ller and Robert Provin fo r their cartographic services. 17 Kcfcrenc:es Anders, A.; Altheide, H-J.; Knahnann, M.; and Tronnier, H. 1995. Action spectrum fo r erythemas in humans investigated with dye lasers. l'lrolodtmlislry nrrd 1'/wtol!iology. 61 :200- 205 Cole, C.A.; Forbes, P. D.; and Davies, R.E. 1986. An action spectrum for UV photocarcinogenesis. 1'/wtoclrelllistry nrrd 1'/wtol!iology. 43:275-84. Diffey, B.L. 1994. Observed and predicted minimum erythema doses: a comparative study. 1'/rotodtflltistry n��d 1'/wto/Jiology. 60:380-82. EPA. 1994a. Tire experi111mlnl ultrnviolel irrdex fn ctslteel: explnirrirrg lite irrdex to tire prrl!lic EPA 430- F-94-0 17. ___. 1994b. Experirrtmlnl UV irrdex: lrd111iml npperrdices to tire expai111mlnl UV itulex Ja ct.slral EPA 430-F-94-019. ___. 1995. Wlwl is lite ullrnviolet(UV) irrdex? EPA 430-H-94-003. Gange, R.W.; Park, Y- K.; Auletta, M.; Kagetsu N.; Blackett A.D.; and Parrish, J.A. 1986. Action Spectra fo r cutaneous responses to ultraviolet radiation. in The lliologiml Effects of UVA /{ndintiorr., eel. F. Urbach and R.W. Gange. pp. 57- 65. New Yo rk: Praeger Pub lishers. ICNIRP (International Co mmi.ssion On Non-Ionization Radiation). 1995. Clolwl Solar UV lrrdex. Germony. Keith, R.W. 1980. A Cli111ntologiml Air Qrrnlily l'rofi le: California Sorrtlr Cons/ Air llnsirr. An Air Programs Division Report. South Coast Air Quality Management District. Long, C.S.; Miller, A.J.; Lee, 1-1:1:; Wild, J.D.; Przywart)', R.C.; and Huffo rd, D. 1996a. Ultraviolet index forecasts issued by the National Weather Service. llttllctirr oj "11te A111erimrr J\!leleorulogiml Sociely. 77(4):729-48 ___. 1996b. personal communic«tion. ___ ; __; __: and ___. 1996c. Credibility of the uv indices issued by the National Weather Service. Syt rrposiulll l::rrvirurrtrrmtnl ApplicnlioiiS, pp. 92-95. 1996 A1\IIS meet ing at Atlanta. Long, C.S. 1997.UV lrrdex: Arc/rive of UV lrrdex /iullelirrs. http://nic.fb4. noaa.gov/proclucts/s tratosphere/uv_in dex/uv_archive. htm I. Lyd olph, P. E. 1985. Tire Cli111nle OJ "11te Enr/IJ , pp. 239. To towa, New Jersey: Rowmiln & Allan held. McKenzie, R.L; Matthews, W. A.; and Johnston, P.V. 1991. The Relationship between erythemal UV and ozone, derived from spectral irracliance measurements. Ccoplrysiml /{e scnrdJ Lel/ers. l802):2269-2272. McKinlay, A.F.; and Diffey. B.L. 1987. A reference action spectrum fo r ultroviolet in duced erythema in human skin. C/E }ounwl. 6(1):17-22. Mutzhas, M.F.;and Casarini, J.P. 1987. Risk-benefit calculations fo r uv tonning devices in Hutrrnrr Exposure To Ultrnviolel Rndinliorr: /{isks Arrd Regulnliorrs, eel. W.F. Passchier· and B.F.M. Bosnjakovic, pp. 345-352. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers. NOAA (National Oceanic And Atmospheric Ad ministrations). 1995. "11te Urrited Stales VrpnrlrrJml of Corrrrrrem• News. NOAA 95-21. The NWS Office Of Public Affairs. Parrish, J.A.; Jaenicke, K.F.; and Anderson, R.R. 1982. Erythema and melanogenesis action spectra of normal human skin. l'lwtoclrclllistry nrrd plwlol!iology. 36:1 87-9 1. Urbach, F. 1986. Historical aspects of UVA effects. in "11tc /3iologiml Effects of UVA Rndintiorr, eel. Urbach F. and R.W. Gange. pp. 2-6. New York: Prager Publishers. ___. 1987. Miln and ultraviolet radiation. in Hrrtrrnrr Exposrrre "lu Ultrnviolel Rndinliorr: /{isks Arrd Rcgulnliorr, eel. W.F. Passchier and B.F.M. Bosnjakovic, pp. 3-17.Amster dam: Elsevier Publishers. ___. 1989. Potential effects of altered solar ultraviolet radiotion on humiln skin CilllCer. l'lwtoc/re"'istry Arrd 1'/rotol!iolo!J r 50(4): 507-13. Trewa rtha, G.F. 1981. The l::m·t/r's l'rul!le1 11 Cli111n/es. 2nd edition, pp.326-32. Madison: The University Of Wisconsin Press. 18 WMO (World Meteorological Organization). 1994. Rcporl Of llre WMO Mceliug Of Ex perfs Ou UV-13 Mcnsurc111mls, Dnln Qunlily A uti Slnutlnrtliwliou Of UViutliccs. No. 95. Les Diablerets, Switzerland., 25-26 July, 1994. YES (Yankee Environmental Systems, Inc.). 1997. UVB-1 Ultrnviolct l'yrmwlllclcr: IIISinl lntiou nutl User's Guide. Version 2.0 Turners Falls, Massachusetts. 19 Figure 1. Potamorcorbula amurensis California's Asian Cla1n (Potamorcorbula amu.rensis) and the Rhetori.: of Alien Invasions Dianne Meredith University of California Davis Abstract: Invasion Ecology has contributed a questionable rhetoric to Biogeography which employs language and nomenclature seemingly borrowed from the volatile dis course surrounding the invasion of alien peoples across national borders. A case study from the San Francisco Bay Delta is presented (the invasion of Potamocorbula amurensis) as an introduction to the very real problem of exotic, alien species invasions. The contrib uting modern invasion mecl1anisms are discussed in the light of the social, cultural, and economic forces which began to unlock biogeographical closures around 1500 AD. Fi nally, a tour of the environmental perceptions surrounding alien species invasions reveals socialized rhetoric employed by both scientists and lay environmentalists. Key Wo rds: Environmental Perception, Biogeography, Alien Invasions, Human Geography. Introduction An ideological framework from the field of Invasion Ecology has come to the forefront of recent conservationist and biogeographical thought as a result of the escalation and speed of transfer of species across great distances, both voluntarily and involuntarily. The perceived problem is directly related to human activity in an increasingly globalized, borderless world. I would like to draw the attention of social theorists as well as scientists to the misplaced rhetoric employed by invasion ecologists and biogeographers, which uses vali..te-laden terms and descriptive no menclature borrowed (seemingly) from the volatile discourse surround ing the movement/invasion of alien peoples across national borders. I will illustrate this by beginning with a case study of the invasion of Potanwcorbuln n111urensis ("Asian dam") into the San Francisco Bay-Delta followed by a discussion of modern invasion mechanisms. I will then take the reader on a tour of environmental perceptions as evidenced by the social/scientific rhetoric of alien invasions. Timing and Vulnerability In 1986, a biology class from Diablo Va lley College was doing field work in Suisun Bay, part of the eastern San Francisco Bay-Delta Estuary. They were surprised when they came upon a handful· of small clams, not previously seen in the area. These individuals were later identified as Polanwcorbula n111urensis, named for the Amur River in eastern Russia and northern China. This species has an extensive natural range, from the 21 mouth of the Amur River at the northern end of the Tartar Straits to the Pearl (Zhu) River west of Hong Kong. It is also fo und in Korea, the shores, inlets, and estuaries of the Bo Sea, the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea, and the west and east coasts of Japan. Clearly at home in a wide latitudinal area along the western Pacific Rim, why was it now being seen thousands of miles away in Northern California? Not only was it present, Po tamocorlmla n11wrwsis was amazingly successful. From the few individuals noted in 1986, the population increased so ra pidly that by the fo llowing year it was the most abundant benthic organism in the northern part of the San Francisco Bay-Delta with densities of up to 16,000 clams per square meter. [Cohen 1995) By late 1988, the alien clam comprised 95% of the total benthic fa unal abundance. Not only that, but 70% of the remaining 5% were barnacles attached to the shells of Potamocor/mln amurcrrsis. [Nichols 1990) This fo reign invader quickly became the object of great concern as well as intensive study. The questions were "Why here?" and "Why now?" In 1986, the San Francisco Bay-Delta ecosystem was responding to two years of climate extremes capped by the flood of 1986 which killed off many organisms in the estuary. Prior to 1986, the Bay-Delta had been a non-equilibrium habitat with a regu lar change of abundance of benthic species, depending on the relative salinity of the water. [Nichols 1979) During high flows in the winter and spring, freshwater species would migrate westward into the San Francisco Bay. During the summer or extended drought, organisms from the South Bay which were more salinity-tolerant would migrate north and east as fa r as their tolerances would allow. This regular movement of organisms in concert with river outflow was a feature of predictably changing estuarine conditions. However, the flood of 1986 was particularly intense and it would be more than a year before the normal salinity regime reasserted itself. The freshwater-intolerant benthic community was eliminated not only due to salinity conditions, but also due to high suspended load and scour ing of the bed. [Cohen 1995) Even so, it was expected that the commu nity would eventually swing back to its usual rhythms of adva nce and retreat with changing estuarine conditions. It was expected that this new "Asian clam" would do likewise and retreat back to the southern, more saline reaches of the Bay. But in 1986, Potamocor/mln nmurcrrsis entered a depauparate community not as an invader, but as a colonizer and "exploited a naturally disturbed, sparsely occupied habitat rather than injecting itself among and displacing existing species". [Nichols et al, 1990, p.IOO) The timing was connected to habitat disturbance; it colonized an "underexploited habitat". [Nichols et al. 1990, p. 96) Po tallwcorlmla n11rurmsis is an effective colonizer and invader. It has a broad range of salinity tolerance, from 33 ppt to 1 ppt, though indi- 22 viduals are smaller at the lower range. It can survive in a wide tempera ture range, from 8 to 23 degrees C. Because it can exploit a broad range of habitat, it is widespread where it is present. It is also flexible in its fo od preferences, consuming phytoplankton,zooplankton, and bacteria plankton, thus occupying multiple levels of the fo od chain. In fact, it exploited the habitat so successfully that the benthic community which was expected to return in the dry period following the 1986 flood was completely excluded, with the resources of space and food made unavailable by the unusual success of Potnnrocor!wln nmurmsis. The new clam from the western Pacific Rim was now the dominant filter-feeder, capable of filtering the entire water column once per day, and the shallows 13 times per day.Plankton populations in the northern parts of the estuary are now to a great degree controlled by Polnlllocorlwln n111urensis. The summer diatom bloom has disappeared [Cohen 1995] and there has been a large decline in abundance of zooplankton as well, particularly copepods. [Kimmerer 1996] Geologi.:al Context The San Francisco Bay-Delta Estuary system is very young and has only been flooded for less than 10,000 years. Prior to then (15,000 to 18,000 years ago) the Farallon Islands marked the shoreline of the Pacific Ocean. As sea level began to rise following the last glacial episode, the ocean entered through the Golden Gate and began to fi ll the San Francisco Bay at a rate of 100 feet per year, slowing around 5,000 years ago when most of the current glacial melt was completed ·and sea level became relatively stable. The "Delta" formed within San Francisco Bay 4,000 to 6,000 years ago as the sediments from the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers were empound ed by the bedrock barrier of the Carquinez Strait. Braided distributary channels, interspersed with wet freshwater marsh, covered a 540 square mile area, flowing out to the ocean through the narrow "notch" of the Carquinez Strait. [Ross et al, 1996] The significance of this history is that the Bay-Delta is geologically young, relatively depauparate in its native biota, and therefore susceptible to invasion. [Nichols et a! 1986; Bennet and Moyle 1996] Polnlllocorbuln mJJurcJJsis was by no means the first significant molluskan invasion in the area. The first actual record of an introduced species was for the Atlantic barnacle, Bnlmws inrprovisus, in 1885, [Carlton 1979], but introductions of marine organisms were likely long before that. Ships sailed along the Californiaco ast in the 1500s and the first ship to enter San Francisco Bay was the Sn11 Carlos in 1775, with its inevitable wood boring fauna. In the 1780s, shipping increased from both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and increased again dramatically during the California Gold Rush. In 1851 alone, over 800 ships were at anchor or 23 abandoned in San Francisco Bay [Carlton 1979) ejecting their dry ballast made up of sand, gravel, seaweeds, and associated organisms from for eign ecosystems, long prior to any biological studies of native species. Judging from the rapid diffusionof Potamocorlmla a111urwsis, many of these organisms may have become so widespread as to be considered endemic. Most reliable distribution data is from the twentieth century, although paleoecological studies continue to clari fY the histories of many of these species. Unlike the cultivated and edible Cor/Jiwlajl urninca, the most abundant freshwater clam in California, Po tanrocorlnrla annrrmsis was not an inten tional introduction. While both are colloquially termed Asian clam, the fi rst came by invitation (though later became unwelcome) [Cohen 1995], but the second simply arrived stealthily, as a stowaway from China, ejected in a blast of ballast water release in the San Francisco Bay, probably with thousands of other organisms. Ballast as Ve dor The common role of ballast is to add weight for the empty returnvoy age or to lose weight to cross shallows. Clearly necessary for the safety of ocean passage, ballast controls not only weight distribution, but also density relationships and temperature. It is also used to decrease or increase speed according to weather conditions. The Committee on Ships Ballast Operations defines ballast as "any solid or liquid placed in a ship to increase the depth of submergence to change the trim, to regulate the stability, or to maintain stress loads ..." [Committee on Ships Ballast Operations 1996, p. vii) Ballast water is taken on in port, either pumped or gravitated into a tank and is then released at another port, usually in a bay or an estuary. Over two million gallons of ballast water, most with living organisms, are ejected every hour at different ports in the United States. It is estimated that a single ballast release can contain ten millionla rvae. For the past 100 years, water ballast has provided "invasion corridors" [Carlton 1995, p. 195) fo r the inoculation of new, exotic species at an unprecedented rate. Suspended sediments settle to the tank bottoms of ships and are often carried over from port to port, taking up new wa ter as the old is released, adding to the biotic soup which is mixed and released at the next port. [Carlton 1994) Some unpumpable ball ast water almost always stays on board in the sediment layer, fo rming a ballast tank substrate which theoretically could support a living, benthic community. Ballast water is thus a species "conveyor belt" [Smith 1996, p. xi] and is a "dispersal mechanism with no analog in terrestrial systems". [Carlton 1 993) 24 Since early history, marine organisms have attached themselves to ship hulls or have been carried in wet or dry ballast. The San Augustin, which sank in Drake's Bay in 1595, no doubt had its accompanying fo uling and boring fauna. Beginning in about 1880, it became common practice to switch from dry ballast to wet ballast - seawater instead of gravel and sand. Ballast water commonly carries phytoplankton, floating and detached plants, seaweed and seagrasses, kelp, and diverse zooplank ton including larvae. Plankton samples taken from Japanese ballast water in Oregon recorded over 367 taxa. [Carlton 1993) There is a diffe rential survival; most species do not survive, but simply disappear. However, those like Potnmocorlmln nrmrrensis, benign where endemic, can wreck havoc once they gain a foothold in a compromised, disturbed commu nity such as the San Francisco Bay-Delta in 1986. Significantly, the arrival of Potnrrrocor!Ju/n nrmrrmsis was concurrent with a relaxation of trade barriers with China and an increase of shipping. There are no easy solutions to the problem of unwanted organisms in ballast water. Over 80% of the world's commodities move along shipping routes so there is a potential for the continued introduction of nonindigenous species. In fact, the Committee on Ships Ballast Opera tions in their study for the National Research Council said that "it can be stated with confidence that further introductions will take place and that ballast water is an important vector contributing to the dispersal of nonindigenous aquatic organisms". [Committee on Ships Ballast Operations 1996, p.2) Va rious discharge treatments are under study: biocides, filtration, ther mal or electrical treatment, ultraviolet radiation, sound or magnetic waves, and deoxygenation. Some of these methods are potentially dangerous to use in a "closed" system on board a ship. Others require unusual safety precautions and may have dangerous byproducts as releases. The most promising method appears to be more sophisticated filtration methods, but environmental perception of the danger of introducing nonindigenous species is not strong in the shipping com munity. The few regulations in effect are primarily voluntary in nature and compliance is most often in terms of petroleum-tainted waters. Regulations Without Te eth The regulatory measures so far enacted are the equivalent of"be careful and think". [Kohler 1986) They do not reflect an environmental percep tion of imminent risk. The Nonindigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention and Control Act of 1990 (Public Law 101-646) authorizes shipping studies to determ ine the "degree to which shipping may be a pathway of trans mission of aquatic nuisance species ..." [Smith 1996, p. xi) It goes to fa r 25 as to establish task fo rces - but no further - with NOAA and the Fish and Wildlife Service as Co-Chairs. The International Marine Council (IMO) agreed on International vol untary guidelines at the 31'' session of the Marine Environmental Pro tection Committee. They also now have a working group to consider added regulatory measures, which would range fro m voluntary to mandatory. [Brown 1993] Strategies would include further investigation into the treatment of ballast water itself and the timing and location of loading and discharge. Federal Laws regarding ballast are in effect in the Great Lakes and in the Hudson River. directed mainly to their zebra mussel problem. Ca lifor nia legislation to regulate ball ast water discharge has been unsuccessf1_d so far, due to legislative resistance and to the fear of international law suits based on "undue burden". [Committee on Ships Ballast Operations 1996, p. 46] Some studies are being done on environmental risk a alysis, asking the question, how clean is clean enough? What is our comfort level with the introduction of unwanted organisms? How many unwanted organisms can we live with and is there a threshold level that is perceived to be environmentally unacceptable? In 1996, the National Invasive Species Act was written. again with vo l untary guidelines, and primarily fo r the Great Lakes and their zebra mussel problem. The suggestion is to release ballast water "beyond the exclusive economic zone", in other words, a 110I-i11-111)'-lwckrnrd approach so that "the exchange does not pose a threat of infestation ... in waters of the United States". [Public Law 104-332, p. 4076] The National Invasive Species Act also authorizes further study including ecological surveys in San Francisco Bay in order to make examinations and estimates of the p'roblem. It authorizes the creation of a Western Regional Pa nel to identify the priori ties, make recommendations, develop an emergency response strategy for "stemming new invasions", and to write an annual report for discussion of prevention, research, and control. Meanwhile, 11 billion gallons of ballast water continue to be released annua lly. much of that in sensitive estuarine locations throughout the Un ited States. The differential survival rate of nonindigenous species is only partially comforting. The Invasion Continuum Clearly there is more travel today on an international scale and. at the same time, more artificially disturbed areas. Organisms are now suc cessfully invading where previously, in less humanly "disturbed times", they were unable to gain a fo othold. [Shigesada and Kawasaki 1997] 26 Invasions have always been a driving force in biological history, but today they represent something more - a "continuum between the geological and human dimensions of history". [di Castri 1989, p. 18) The social. cultural. and economic forces which began to unlock biogeo graphical closures around 1500 AD changed the rules of the game. Francesco di Castri considers the understanding of both human-his torical impact and geological-ecological variables to be crucial in his model of the dynamics of invasions: Ecological and Genetic t( � Chance, Timing, and Attributes of Species ..,.�•-r� Human-Derived Opportunities Geologically- Based Studies Human-Historical Studies For Emergence of Genetic To Explain the Background And Ecological Attributes Ta ken together, the human and geological-ecological factors represent a continuum, although today there is a breakdown in scaling, with space extended through globalization and time shortened through techno logical advances in communication and transportation. To day we have a "complete multi-focal globalization of the human-governed forces that promote biological invasions". [di Castri 1989, p. 27) Also, since humans are the primary vector of any biological invasion, a vilification of either ballast water of the organism it carries (such as Po tnnrocorlwln nmwmsis) is ultimately misplaced. To day, species invasions are a global rather than a local event. With long distance travel, mass transport, and human-induced alteration of habitat, a "new biological order" [Mooney 1993, p. 503) has been estab lished which has old invaders being replaced by new invaders. Much of the benthic fauna replaced by Potnmocor!Juln nmurmsis may have been nonindigenous or at least cryptogenic (not decisively native in origin), and today San Francisco may be the chief global exporter of the so-called "Asian clam". One school of thought contends that most of the coastline biota of the world has been homogenized long ago, accelerat ing dramatically in the sixteenth century with the expansion of Euro pean trade routes. The California coastline may have been inoculated with foreign species so long ago that they are now widespread and interpreted as natural in distribution. [Carlton 1994) Human impact has already unnaturally removed biogeographical barriers and one result is that estuarine bodies have a global commonality of many species. [Drake 1996) There may be clues which can be used to identify true natives, 27 including assessments of global distribut ions. genetic lineage. the presence or absence of parasites or commensals, historical presence or absence (for example, shell middens), anomalous disjunctions without ready explanation, and assemblages with other species. Still, many species will remain cryptogenic, with no clear resolution of status. [Cohen 1995; Carlton 1995] If the human-historical role in transporting species has been grea tly underestimated, and our biological surveys postdate transport events, then the widely held idea of natural cosmopolitanism among coastal species could be more a matter of environmental perception than reality. Biologists may "perceive" cosmopolitanism in coastal areas. invoking factors of tectonics, corridors, glaciations. and ocean currents. Others believe that today's distributions are instantaneous in geologi cal time, involving hundreds rather than thousands of years. [Carlton 1989 ] Th is idea extends further to the perception of estuarine sanctuaries. Are these tru ly naturally functioning systems or just the most recent "older" assemblages? Are they natural reserves deserving protection, or are they assemblages of invaders to be protected fromnewer invasions? ln Man's Role in Changing the Face of the Ocean, James Carlton suggests that perhaps we have been led to the "anomalous situation of protecting 'natural areas' that have in fa ct already been altered in large part by exotic species". [Carlton 1989, p. 269 ] Invasion Rhetori.::: A To ur of Perceptions We are told that there are "thousands of species on the invasion hori zon". [Carlton 1995, p. 102] How then should we view these species? There is a world of diffe rence between a colonization and an invasion and the difference is one of both scale and perception of scale. Two very small juvenile specimens of Po tallrocor/Jula 1111111mrsis became the "van guard of a major recruitment event". [Nichols et al 1990, p. 98] In the Sacramento Bee on April 4, I 996, Nancy Vogel informs us that "Invader species tighten grip on Bay, Delta" and "one after another, species fro m fo reign shores and seas have taken hold in the bay .. " If that weren't enough, next to come is a "strange new crab with velvety claws" (the Chinese mitten crab). In a 1995 quarterly newsletter Wa ters/red fro m the Save San Fra ncisco Bay Association, scholars Cohen and Carlton de scribe how a Dungeness Crab "gingerly picks its way among the crowds of fo reign organisms" which are so numerous there are millions within a single glance. [Cohen and Carlton 1995] We are told they are trouble makers, exotic. there are "too many of them". They are "ruthless in their quest fo r light, water, space, nutrients or the very flesh of their victims". 28 [Flack and Furlow 1998) We are warned of hostile takeovers, infiltra tions of escaped invasives who have secreted themselves in ballast water. They are "specimens", timebombs waiting to go off. One in len intro duced "goes bad". What are the older invasives? Troublemakers under control? Model minorities? How much depends upon point of origin? We are told that a "transplant" is an introduction from any part of the United States, while an exotic comes from a foreign country, as though organisms have nationalities. [Kohler 1986) Ultimately, whether the in vasion is exotic or transplanted, the impact on the receiving ecosystem is the same. [McCann 1996) The U.S. Geological Survey discusses invasives in a webpage section called "biological contamination", while the Nature Conservancy has issued a small booklet, "A merica's Least Wa nted: Alien Species Invasions of U.S. Ecosystems" [Stein and Flack 1996). accompanied by exquisite pen and ink drawings of the aforementioned invasives. Mean while, Andrew Cohen, in one of his case studies, gives a poetical description of members of the invasive community, which reads like the best of nature writing: At the Bay's mouth, under the shadow of the Golden Gale Bridge, orange-red clumps of the Indo-Pacific bryozoan Watersipora, 30 centimeters across and 20 centimeters deep, cover the docksides. To the north, in San Pilblo and Suisun bays, the Chinese clam Potamocorbula fo rms thick beds in the mud while Japa nese gobies and Koreiln shrimp swim overhead. In the brar.kish water a few kilometers distant. large, roral-like masses fo rmed from the calcilreous tubes of an Austrilliilll serpu lid worm harbor an abundant population of the Atlilntic shore crilb Rhithropanopeus. Upstream in the Delta il Eurasian freshwnter hydrioid for ms thick colonies on ropes and marina noats. [Cohen 1995, p. 167] If we acknowledge these creatures as nature, is there then a bad nature? In il Science art. icle, "Biological Immigrants Under Fire", we learn there is "nothing more insidious as an agent of ex tinction than exotic species" and that more and "more stowaways are expected to arrive uninvited". [Culotta 1991, p. 1444] One wonders at the intent of these party crashers, and at who inevitably invited them. Wa r-like, Culotta refers to invasion theory and the need for an anti-exotic campaign against species who "worm their way" into human culture. "Never, never let exotics be le gitimized!" Culotta quotes Bruce Coblentz of Oregon State University, because "nothing is more diffi cult th;m to predict what will happen to an exotic". What is more, "typical invaderlsl tend to eat like whitenies, breed like rabbits and colonize like crabgrass". [Culotta 1991, p. 14461 We know of course who is being referred to: it's that infamous bivalve, the yellow "Asian" clam, who is outcompeting the indigenous species. The Smithsonian Institution, a venerable American organization, cries out fo r "our living, native American biota" which is being "biologically 29 polluted through the introduction of living exotic (foreign) life". [Lilckner et al, 1972] On tire Rlrodc, newsletter of the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, echoes the same rhetoric in 1994 in an article, "The Aliens Among Us". These aliens among us are "often unrecognized by the casual observer as aliens", making it even more important thilt we "try to learn their numbers, where they came from, how and when they arrived, where they live now local ly, and what they do here fu nction ally". [Ruiz 1994] In other words, what are their intentions? The New Zealand-based International Union fo r the Conserva tion of Nature (ISSG) is a global group of scientific and policy experts that has an Invasive Species Specialist Group (by invitation only). Making no bones about their stilnce, their quarterly newsletter is boldly entitled Aliens. They suggest the term Honwgeccnc for this epoch of global species invasions into "otherwise intact. pre-existing native ecosystems". [Lowe 1998] In another part of the fo rmer British Empire, the Botany Depart ment of the University of Western Cape in South Africa has an Environfacts webpage that describes alien as a species that has been unnaturally introduced by people, and an invader that which repro duces and spreads, "unassisted by man, into areas where they are not wanted" (the wrong neighborhood?) so that "drastic measures are required" to control them. [Collins 1998] Is this an "irrational zenophobia that resembles the inherent fear and intolerance of fo reign races ..."? [Brown 1989, p. 1 OS] The Northeast Sea Grant network, in their newsletter Aquatics Exotics News declares 'Tankers, cargo ships and container ships among culprits! Ballast water contains international mix of organisms!" [NE Sea Grant Network 1998]. In reality, their bombast is tongue-in-cheek, fo r they end with an acknowledgement of the relative recentness of biologica l distribution data available which makes it difficult to ascertain which species are actually native, or immigrants of long ago. Condu�ions Meanings are inevitably based on interpretations and different philosophies, and word choice appears to be governed by a l.imitecl number of terms that now exist. [Shafland and Mclewis 1983 ] II seems unfortunate that terminology with such obvious socio-cultu ra J overtones should be applied to environmental or biological problems, as though they are one and the same process. Invasion is a military expression referring to a deliberate, initial assault, but when the invild ing population becomes established it becomes "colonization", a more benign state. The invasion of Neolithic fa rmers into Europe spread through both cultural and biological waves of advance, gradually 30 co-opting the resources of indigenous hunters and gatherers. [Hengeveld 1989] The descendants of these alien opportunists took to sailing vessels and colonized much of the rest of the world over the next ten centuries. As a result, the world became smaller, trade became vaster, and the opportunity for globalization (or homogenization) of flora and fa una was inevitable. The question of blame ultimately depends on the perception of Neolithic invasion as either involuntary dispersal or vo luntary migration. America's least wanted alien invaders, by all accounts, do excessive harm to ecosystems and contribute to an increasing decline in the diversity of global biota. There is no great pride in the San Francisco Bay-Delta now being the greatest global exporter of Polnlllocor/wln nlllllf'CIIsis. There is a great deal of sadness and sense of irretrievable loss, though as Marston Bates pointed out in 1964, "Man started to be 'unnatural' a long time ago and there is no way back:' [Bates 1964, p. 74] Still, one would have to be insensitive to be indifferent to the dangers. Whether we are living in the Homogecene, the Psychozoic Era, the Anthropozoic Era, or the McDonaldsphere, the trend towards global community is clearly on the agenda. Europeans came to the New Wo rld, homogenizing it with their weeds and invasive cattle. Perhaps Asian invasions such as Po tnllwcorbuln nr111rrmsis are part of the so-called "New Wo rld Order", or maybe they are just a series in a sequence of succession. What is important is to remember the ultimate vector - human activity - and not to vilify the pest. The biogeography of invasions has such a strongly human com ponent that it becomes part of human, cultural geography. A neutral, scientific stance is probably not entirely possible, as evidenced by the rampant social crossover rhetoric used by lay environmentalists as well as by biologists and biogeographers. If not careful, we run the risk of biological fascism in attempting to intervene in the results of our own interventions. [Tenner 1996] K(�ferenc:es Bates, Marston: 1964. i\lln11 i11 Nnlure. Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey. Bennett, W.A. and Moyle, P. B.: 1996. "Where have all the fishes gone'? lntemctive fa c tors producing fish declines in the Socramento-San Joaquin estuary'; in Hollinbaugh, Jilmes T., ed., San Francisco Boy: The Ecosystem. Pacific Division of the American Associa tion fo r the Advancement of Science, San Francisco, California. Brown, James H.: 1989. "Patterns, Modes and Extents of Invasions by Ve rtebrates" in Dr,1ke, J.A, Mooney, H.A, di Castri, F.,Groves, R.H., Kruger, F.J.. Rejmanek. M., and Williamson, M., eds., lliologiml luvnsioll5: A Clobnl l'mpeclive. John Wiley ·& Sons, New York. Ca rlton, James 'J:: 1979. "Introduced Invertebrates of San Francisco Bay", in Conomos, T. John, Ed., Sn11 frnucisco /Jay: The Urbn11ized Eslunry. Pacific Division of the American Associa tion fo r the Advancement of Science, San Francisco, Californiil. 31 Ca rll on, James ·.:: 1989. i\ 32 Lachner, Ernest A., Robins, Richard C., and Courtenay, Jr., Walter R.: 1970. Exotic Fishes and Other Aquiltic Orgilnisms Introduced into North America. S111illr.�o11inll Cvlllrifm lio11s lo Zovlo!)Y, 59: 1-29. Lowe, S.: 1998. IUCN (InternationalUnion fo r the Conservation of Nature), Invasive Spe cies Specialist Group Home Page. http://indilbil.iucn.org/external/t hemes/s sc/progrilms/ invilsjves/issg/ (5-20-98) McCann, James A., Arkjn, Hori N., and Williams, James D.: 1996. Nollillrli!JeHVII.I Arpwlic n11rl Selecletl Te rreslrinl Species of Ploridn, l'nlirwnys of 1111rod11cliv11. Published on the Internet. MMch 1996, by the University of Florida. Center for Aquatic Plants: b.1!..p.;LL aquilt l.ifilsutl .edu/mcjntro2.html (5-20-98) Mooney, H.A. and Drake, J.A.: 1989. "Biological Invasions: a SCOPE Program Over view". in Drake, J.A.. et al, eels .. llivlv!Jiml l11vnsio11s: A Glo/Jnl l'er.�peclive. John Wiley [:1 Sons, New Yo rk. Nichols, F.H.: 1979. "Natural ;md Anthropogenic Influences on Benthic Community Struc ture in Siln Francisco Bily", in Conomos, TJ., ed., Sn11 Prn11ciscv llny: "flrt· Urlw11iurl tsl1111ry. Pacific Division of the Americiln Association fo r the Advilncement of Science. San Friln cisco, California. Nichols, F.H., Cloern, James, E., Luoma, Samuel N. and Peterson, David J-1.: 1986. The Modificiltion of an Estuary. Scic11cc, 231: 567-573. Nichols, Frederic H., Thompson, Janet K., and Schemel, Laurence E.: 1990. Re milrkable invilsion of San Fril ncisco Bily (California, USA) by the Asian clilm Potilmocorbulil ilmurensis, Part II: Displacement of il fo rmer community. Mnri11e Ecvlo!)y l'rowcss Series 66: 95-1 01. Northeast Sea Grant Network: Aquatic Exotics News: http://www.ucc.uconn.edu/ -wwwsgo/ballilst.html (5-20-98) Ross, B., Ta ylor, K., ami Larson, E.: 1996. Chapter 4, "Affected Environment" in Loii!J· ·Ii'rm tHnlln!Jei !ICIII Slrnlc!)y IUMS) fu r lire I'Lncel lrelll vf IJn·dyctl Mnlerinl i11 lirt• Sn11 Prn11ciscv ll11y l{r!Jioll, IJrnfl . Progrilmmatic Environmental Impact Report prepared fo r U'MS Milnage ment Committee. Oilkland, Cillifornia. Ruiz, Greg: 1994. The Aliens Among us. 011 lire Rircule: Newsfcller of lire S11rilirsv11in11 brvircm IIICIIIni Resenrcir Ccr rlrr; Spring 1994. http://wtvw.serc.si.edu/OT R/spri ng94/a ljens.html (5-28-98) Shafland P.L and Lewis, W. M.: 1983. 'terminology Associated With Introduced Organ isms. hnrrsncliv11s vf lire A11rerim11 Pisireries Sociely, 102: 268-269. Shigesada, Nanako and Kawasaki, Kohkichi: 1997. Biological lnvilsions: Theory and Practice. Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K. Smilh, L. David, Wo nham, Marjorie J., McCann, Linda D., Reid, Donald M. and Carl ton, James '[: 1996. Sirippiii!J Slruly II: Bivlv!Jiml lllvnsivlls /Jy Nollilldiyt'l lcms Species i11 U11iletl Slnles Wnlers: Qllnrrlifyirr!J iire Rolt• of llnllnsl Wn /er nrrrl Sedirrrerrls, l'nrls I nrrd II. Smithsoniiln Envi ronmental Research Center (S ERCl. Edgewilter, Maryland. Stein, Bn•ce A. and Flack, Stephanie R.: 1996. A11rcrim's Lens/ Wm rlcd: Alierr Species lrrvn sioiiS of U.S. Ecvsyslcrrrs. The Nilture Conservancy. Arlington, Vi rginia. Te nner, Edward: 1996. Wiry "flrirrys llilc 13nck: "feclrrrvfvyy n11d lire Rcverr!JC vf Urrillle11ded Corrse !JIImces. Alfred A. Knopf Publishing, New Yo rk. lJ.S. Government: 1996. Public Law 104-332-0ct. 26, 1996. "National Invasive Species Act of 1996". Environmentill Protection, Maritime Affairs, 16 USC 4701. Vo gel, Nancy: 1994. Crab in Bily Puts Diners, Delta at Risk. Snmrrrre111o flee Newspaper, Nove111- l1er 30, 1994. � __: 1996. Invader Species Tighten Grip on Bily, Deltil. Sacramento Bee Newspil per, April 1, 1996. 33 Figure 1. Motorists. A ski boat and personal watercraft cruising Lake Powell today, with Castle Rock in the background (from www.lakepowellmag.com). Figure 2. Spiritualists. Hikers exploring Glen Canyon before it is flooded, early 1960s (from www.gci.org). 34 Recreational Pa ra dise or Desecrated Shrine? Diverging Perceptions and Rhetoric of a Contested Wilderness Landscape: Lake PoweU/Gien Canyon Do11glns Wn rre11 ]ollllSOII San Francisco State University Ahstracl : One or our most loved. iltHI most h.1ted, outdoor rerreiltion areils-Lilke Powell (the nooded Glen Canyonl-symbolizes connicting wildernf'�s ideills. Rhetoric il mong ilCl ivists fo r and ilgainst the proposill to restore Glen C.1nyon by drilining Lilke Powell (studied through lextuill ilnillysis or newsletters. books. ildvertisements. ilnd on-line milteriilll illustriltes perceptions of 'wilderness'. Motorized recreiltionists (motorist ) view the re�ervoir (billed ilS Americil's 41<1 Houseboilt Destiniltionl ilnd environs il� il rugged pl11yground. while those seeking to clrilin the reservoir (spiriluillistsl fo cus on the sa nctity of the river ilnd canyon. Person ill connection to plilce fo rms the emotional fo undillion fo r both side of the debate, but discourse fo cuse on less subjective 11rguments bil ed on economic ilnrl ecological ideologies. Lilke Powell serves as a case study of issues at the intersection of conservillion and recreation. Ker words: wilderness; recreillion; environmentill perception; Lilke Powell; Glen ilnyon. lntroduc:tion 'Wildemess' is a social rollslmctimt of span• fllttl is, to 1111derstate tire case, lllllltipl)' or11/Jigunus. CBertolils 1997, 99) Debate over the desirability of Lake Powell. the reservoir that fi lls Glen Conyon in southern Utah il nd nort hern Arizona, brings our society's perceptions of wilderness-what it is, and wh at it is good fo r-into fo cus. Th is debate, and others like it, not only illust rate the state of our per ceptions, but serve to fu rther develop our perceptions. Th is makes Lake Powell and other contested sites (Yellowstone ational Park, fo r example) excel.lentcases fo r studying the complexities of interaction wi th those lands often thought of as wilderness (even if not officio fly designated ils sud1). Though recreil tion on and around the reservoir was not a primary mo tivation for building Glen Conyon Dam (nor would it have been ac cepted ilS one), today it is Lake Powell's boaters and other recrea tionists who ore the lorgest il nd most voca l constituency for the va lue of the reservoir (Figure 1). Another group of recreillionisls have long fe lt thnl Glen Canyon was a treasure thai should never have been clnmmed (Figure 2). In recent years. these latter recrea tionists have orgil nized a 35 significant movement to drain Lake Powell. This movement is generating heated rhetoric on both sides of the issue. Congress has held hearings on the matter, newspapers have carried stories, and newslet ters from groups like the non-profit Glen Canyon Institute (proponents of draining the reservoir) and the Lake Powell Yacht Club (proponents of maintaining Lake Powe!D do their best to justifytheir views. Ta ken together these give a va luable snapshot of our wilderness perceptions and the ideas we use to support them. Te rm inolo� For the purposes of this paper I refer to "advocates fo r Lake Powell" and "advocates fo r Glen Canyon:' Also, though I do not want to oversi mplify the complexity of any individual's views, I use the terms spirilualisl and nwlorisl to define two important poles of the recreation spectrum (which generally parallel the division between those who support draining the reservoir and those who do not). Motorists enjoy and fu lly endorse the benefits of engines, engineered environments (air conditioning) and other technologies fo r direct use in outdoor recreation. Spiritualists, on the other hand, enjoy escaping from these very things for re-creation. Where a spiritualist sees wilderness as something that should be saved fo r its own sake, a motorist wants to determine and area's usefu lness to hu mans. Though my personal recreational preferences place me close to the spiritualist pole, my intention is to study both sides with curiosity and impartiality. What few judgements I (consciously) make at the encl are meant to be balanced, bearing constructive criticism for all parties. This paper fi rst provides a brief background on the canyon, dam and reservoir including history and statistics. This is a large topic, covered at length in many sources, and will be treated lightly here. Much of this information is not cited since it is repeated in numerous references, both books (Fradkin 1981, Mart in 1989, Reisner 1986, Bishop 1995, Potter and Drake 1980) and websites (from the Glen Canyon National Recreation Area, Lake Powell Chamber of Commerce, etc.). Recreation at Lake Powell and its attendant issues, are described before presenting the development of the current conflict, including both the movement to drai11 the reservoir led by the Glen Canyon Institute, and the resis tance organizing among Lake Powell advocates. Analysis of opinions expressed in various venues shows the inherent wilderness perceptions held by motorists and spiritualists . Implications fo r eventual resolution in the case of Glen Canyon/Lake Powell are presented in concl usion. Rat:.kground We have 11 curious msmr/Jie of wonderful fea tures-carved walls, royal arches, g/('115, 36 a/aJVegu lclres, lliOllllds, a11d IIIOIIUIIIfllls. Fro111 wlriclr of //use fea/urcs sir all we. sc· (l'cl a 1101111'? Wc dccidetl lo m/1 il Glcu Caii)'OII. ]olru Wes ley Po wc/1 0961, 232) It was only 130 years ago-1 869-that John Wesley Powell explored and named Glen Canyon. The canyon remained relatively unvisited until the late 1950s, when news of a dam on the drawing boards motivated wilderness lovers and archaeologists to experience and study 'the place that no one kneW. Bureau of Reclamation engineers surveyed the dam site from 1946 to 1948. Permits were completed in 1959, and trucks began to deliver materials for the clam and the new town of Page, just south of the site in Arizona. The first concrete was poured in 1960, the last in 1963, when the gates were closed and the reservoir began to fi ll. The building of Glen Canyon Dam is heralded by some as the 'birth of the modern environmental movement: Wilderness advocates like the Sierra used the event as a spri ngboard fo r increasing opposition to other dams proposed on the Colorado in the Grand Canyon. The Colorado River today, with some stretches protected as national park (and being considered for wilderness designation) and other stretches con trolled by dams, is emblematic of our mixed feelings about the utility and value of rivers. Part of the Sierra Club's successful efforts in protecting the Grand Can yon involved encouraging people to raft it so they would realize what was at stake. The popularity of running the Grand Canyon swelled, and by 1972 degradation of the riparian habitat necessitated the nation's first quota system fo r outdoor recreation. J•urpose and O(Jeration of the dam Glen Cilnyon Dam wils designed fo r severill reilsons: to store water (27 milf. about 2 yeilfs ilVerage now) so thilt upper basin states could uphold delivery commitments to lower basin stiltes per the Colorado River Compact. The volume is overestimillecl clue to dead storage (below the level of the out-take), ilnd it also shrinks steadily with siltation, so that current capacity is about 25 maf; to generate electricity-ilbout 1,300 MW; the neilrby coill-firecl Nilvajo Generilt ing Station ill Page generates 2,3 10 MW (Phoenix New Times. April 24, 1997). to fi lter sediment that would othen·viseacc umulilte in Lake Mead downstream, thereby reducing its capacity. Lake Mead supplies water directly to lower basin states, primarily southern California and metro Phoenix. 37 Though the project was to be primarily for water regulation, the Bureau of Reclamation (BuRec) until recently operated the dam for maximum hydroelectric power profits. This meant wildly fluctuating flows, rang ing fTom 1,000 to 30,000 cfs. at times causing the river to rise and fa ll as much as thirteen feet in a single day (Bishop 1994, 136) as the operators passed large flows to generate at midday demand peaks, then and shut down at night. Such fluctuations not only threatened people rafting the river, they had serious repercussions fo r riparian habitat. "loday over half of the beaches are gone, and the vegetation, aquatic insects, birds and other wildlife are faring poorly. The loss of beach campsites affects rafters as wel l. In January, 1994, BuRec bowed to public pressure and announced that clam releases would be driven by 'amenity resource values'- such as wildlife and recreation-over electrici ty production. This holds flows downstream of the dam to within a 3-4 foot variation (Zinser 1 995). In 1996, BuRec released a much-touted experimental floodthr ough the canyon in an attempt to simulate high runoffs that would naturall y occur with a free-running Colorado River, in the hopes of restoring beaches and habitat (Long 1997). Though researchers were pleased with the short�term results, optimism faded as continued routine operation of the dam quickly eroded the newly deposited sediment. After the manmade flood, the BuRec closed its Glen Canyon Environmental Studies unit, and the ecologist who had led the work there for 14 years, Dave Wegner, resigned to help start the non-profit Glen Canyon Institute, whose mission is to promote a free-flowing Colorado. (Letting the Colo rado 'run free' will be used in this paper for ease of understanding, but the phrasing's potency, much used by the Institute, should not be n1issed.) He now believes that "the present riverine ecosystem in the Grand Can yon is not sustainable in the long-term with the present opera tion schemes, even with periodic controlled floods ... If you want to restore the Grand Canyon ecosystem, removing the dam is the only long-term solution" (Higlr Courz/ry News, November 1 0, 1997). It is important to note that the reservoir does not supply wa ter directly fo r drinking or agriculture. If Lake Powell's waters were thus engaged, it would be much less conceivable that the reservoir be drained. As it stands, Glen Canyon advocates can reasonably maintain that the benefits of the dam-guaranteeing water to a sprawling Los Angeles and producing some electricity-are not the highest of needs. Description of Lake Powell and Glen Can}'on Lake Powell is the second largest reservoir in the country at 186 miles 38 long, spanning from northern Arizona, through southeast Utah, almost to Colorado. The truly remarkable aspect of the reservoir is its shore line, at 1,960 miles more than the west coast of the U.S. Th is shoreline is a reflection of the reservoir's dendrit ic, very un-lake-like shape (Figure 3). All this shoreline offe rs boaters lots of places to explore and anchor, though many places are not flat enough to actually set up camp. The surface area of the reservoir is 252 square miles, only half that of Lake Ta hoe (while the shoreline is more than 20 times that of Ta hoe). The water in the reservoir is described as clear and inviting, and by late sum mer has warmed to 70°F. From the l.ake one can access beaches (depending on reservoir level), hiking trails, and archaeological sites. Figure 3. Dendritic shape of Lake Powell Photo taken from Space Shuttle Columbia (note tail) of Lake Powell from an altitude of 170 miles. Glen Canyon Dam and Page, Arizona are at the lower left. The reservoir extends to the east along the San Juan River and the northeastal ong the Colorado River, with the Escalante River forming a significant arm flowing southeast into the Colorado about midway along the reservoir. (Lake Powell Magazine, Spring 1998) 39 Rainbow Bridge National Monument, with the world's largest natural arch, is a popular destination. Five marinas serve boaters, and buoys mark the safe channel and points of interest. Though several outfits ran float trips through Glen Canyon starting in the 1940s, the canyon was relatively unvisited. It had a character dis tinct from other stretches of the Colorado, and was described as being more accessible, both physically and psychologically. Writer Wa llace Stegner said, ''Awe was never Glen Canyon's province. That is fo r the Grand Canyon. Glen Canyon was for delight" (1969, 121). It is certain that Powell's imagination was inspired, leaving behind dramatic names like Hidden Passage, Music Te mple, Cathedral in the Desert, Dungeon Canyon, and Forbidden Canyon. Reports from those who did visit the canyon make much of the side canyons where one could explore, not knowing what you would fi nd around the next bend-a waterfa ll, a large stone blocking the way, or most likely, another bend. We no longer have Glen Ca nyon to speak fo r itself. so we are left with words and photographic images. Reueation at Lake Powell Lnke l'owe/1 is 111ore tlrnn just n fn ntnstic recreation nren. Awcso111e in its diiiiCIISions nnd Wlllplexilj� its desolate /lenutr rnnkcs it nn experience never to befo rgo/len. Yo u wn ('lljor this Grent l3nsin /Jcscrt pnmdisc IJ)' /)()n/. llefo re tire Wlllpletion of Glm Cnnron 1Jnr11 in 1963, these re111ote rugged cnnrons were n disconmging barrier to tire enrly pioneers niJ(l explorers. To dnr. Lnke l'owe/1 wir11Ls its wnr tlrnmglr this desert pnmdisc with excellent views of /lalnnci11g rocks, pinrwcles, /lu/lcs, nrc/res nnd nnrplritlrenters. Tire Wlllllinntiou of rlenr skies, crptnl rlenr wnlcr n11tl red snru:L� tone rock fo rmations 111nkes this nntionnl recreation nrcn nn it/en/ pltnc fo r tire orr/door crrtlrusinst. (www.visitlilkepowell.com) Lake Powell is one of the wo rld's premier vacation spots fo r houseboaters, water skiers, and jet skiers. Each summer, hundreds of thousands of visitors get out on the wa ter. Glen Canyon National Recrea tion Area (consisting of Lake Powell and the surrounding canyon lands) sees al most as many people as the Grand Canyon, and because visitors stay longer on average at Powell, the figures fo r 'recreational visitor clays' (" ...a fa r superior method fo r assessing the actual magnitude of use on site" (Zinser 1995, 94)) is almost exactly the same (see Table n. Glen Canyon NRA, alias Lake Powell, is one of the world's most visited 'wilderness' parks. Sizewise, Glen Canyon is the 5111 IMgest niltionillp<� rk unit in the lower 48 states (Table 2). Its 1.24 million acres, is slightly bigger thiH1 Cril nd Canyon NP, and two-thirds agilin the size of Yosemite NP. 40 Ta ble 1 Annual Visitorship at selected National Park Service units in millions recreation visits and millions recreational visitor days (from Zinser 1995, 93; RVD is 'recreational visitor days', the number of visitors multiplied by the length of their stay. ) Visits RVD Yellowstone National Park 2.92 8.44 Yosemite National Park 3.42 7.68 Glen Canyon National Recreation Area 3.18 5.71 Grand Canyon National Park 3.89 5.70 Ta ble 2 Largest National Park Service units outside Alaska in millions gross acres (from Zinser 1995, 88) Yellowstone National Park 2.22 Death Valley National Park 2.07 Everglades National Park 1.51 Lake Mead National Recreation Area 1.50 Glen Canyon National Recreation Area 1.24 Grand Canyon National Park 1.22 Glacier National Park 1.01 Note that three contiguous NPS units-Glen Canyon, Grand Ca nyon, and Lake Mead-amount to a recreation area of almost 4 million acres, making it the largest such area outside of Alaska (Figure 4). The Bureau of Land Management's new Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monu ment adds another 1.7 million acres to the total (this unit is not shown in Figure 4). The U.S. currently has about 100 million acres designated as wilderness, less than 50/o of its land area. Being that fu lly 620/o of this wilderness is in Alaska, only about 2.5% of the lower 48 are fo rmally designated as wilderness (Zinser 1995, 637). Many consider Lake Powell, though certainly not wilderness under the legal definition, an acces sible 'wilderness' experience, making it an important and rare place. Lake Powell is extremely popular with fo reign tourists, especially Europeans. Ken's OLD WEST Restaurant & Lounge in Page, Arizona, translates their website into French and German, unusual fo r the rural Southwest. Eileen Martinez, Park Ranger at Glen Canyon NRA. says that 750/o of the sixty special use permits she issues each year are to fo reign groups, fo r fi lming ads, movies, or travelogues. Estimates fo r the por tion of visitors from abroad ranges fro m 40% to 60%, according to the Page Chamber of Commerce. Learning about these visitors' views would be highly interesting-this is an area that needs more investigation. 41 "' Ill z� r. / i () (>.� / iii (>. :1 • z z �• � :1 z =:I:II> ( e Z ""-:� ·-'.. ·� .., \ � • u�"' ( :1 UJ z •c.. ., '> :!:' .5I:1 • "ii \ .r. �� z i l () :1 c - ! � z !! Ic: i 0 �() "' =• t c �Q. �0.,_ " .. " "' 0 � 5� • "'3:I • ·- • -· ··to (>. "0 z "' () 'iiic � <( 0 <( > w z <( z [( (/) 0 •-:I: z LL � _j ..c ·o � <( " .. C" 0 " :1 (/) Figure 4. National Park Service units in western states (from www.nps.gov) Note that three contiguous NPS units-Glen Canyon, Grand Canyon, and Lake Mead-amount to a recreation area of almost 4 million acres, making it the largest NPS area outside of Alaska. The Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument (not shown on this map) covers 1.7 million acres stretching west from Capitol Reef NP and north from Glen Canyon. 42 Uouseboating While there are many activities to partici pate in at Lake Powell-a typi cil l ad lists golfing, visiting museums, taking a jeep tour, photography, mountain biking, hiking, air tours-the major activities other than plain sigh tseeing is boating. Though sightseeing is typically brief, it does instill significant attachments and is therefore of great relevance to the politics of draining La ke Powell. This deserves more study. While the viewpoints of boaters are more easy to come by, those of sightseers are fo und on con1ment ca rds at visi-tor cen t ers, and could be more thoroughly researched with questionnaires. For this paper, the primary fo cus will be on motorists at Lake Powell-the boaters. Local recreation businesses call Lake Powell "A merica's #1 Houseboilting Destination:· Bonti11g Life Mngnzi11e (Apri l/May 1997, on-li ne) describes the experience like this: The sun sets iK ross the wilter, turning the lilke to liquid fire. You light the gri ll ilnd stilrt the steilks ilS your spouse and best friends join you on the deck to enjoy the session. '!(.>morrow you might tilke the runabout and try for some early-rising bass, go fo r a swim. teach Junior to slalom ski. and hike the wooded shoreline ... or you might just relax in the sun and listen to the wind and water. A daydream? Not if your rich uncle leaves you his lakeside collage-or if you rent a houseboat. If your mental picture of a houseboat is a noating sweill box inhabited by unshaven fi shermen, you need to get with the times. 'Ioday's custom-made dream boats are equipped with state-of-the-art entertainment centers, home-like kitchens, central heat ,1 nd air. and nicer fu rniture than your first apartment probably fe atured. 'They're like noating condos," says Mike Harris, publisher of Houseboat Maga zine. "A nd even better th,ln a condo, because if you don't like the scenery, all you have to do is move down the river or to another spot on the lake:' This 'roughing it easy' experience-having the greilt outdoors and still being able to enjoy a cold beer and a juicy steak-is common to much of U.S. outdoor recreation, fro m RVers to fishing trips and hunting lodges ilndcar camping. Like the Old Milwaukee beer ad says, "It just doesn't get any better than this:· Ex-Secretary of Interior James Wa tt, perhaps the consummate motorist. took a short raft trip down the Coloril do in 1981, and found it much too slow and labor intensive: "J don't like to paddle and I don't like to walk" (Nash 1982, 334). He would have been much happier at Lake Powell. Other types of boats are popular too. Power boats pull skiers and allow fo r getting around the reservoir fa ster, and personal watercraft (PWC a generic term for Jet Skis, Wave Runners, Sea Doos, etc.) are their own entertainments, allowing one to romp across the water. An advertise- 43 ment in Sunset Magazine (May 1998, 61), shows a houseboat and PWC out on Lake Powell's deep blue water with the requisite canyon backdro p: "When you're at Lake PowelL your houseboat is your castle, but there's only so much you can see at ten mph. So jump in a powerboat and open up the possibilities!" Here is he best of all worlds, having both a castle and a thrill machine. 'Opening up possibilities' echoes the con temporary advertising theme of 'no limits: which in turn echoes our attachment to a boundless fro ntier.As historian Jared Fanner says, this "indicates the cultural-and commercial-importance of the imagined primitive West" (1996, 219). Ironically, issues surrounding Lake Powell and the West in general are fundamentally issues of limits. Park Ranger Martinez says one of the great thing about Lake Powell is that with so many miles of shoreline, "there's enough space you can find your own spot. take off your watch and go by the sun, enjoy the clear, clean water, read a book. relax. There are 96 major side canyons to hike up to hanging gardens, and people really get out and explore:' She maintains that most boaters are there for "quality fa mily vacations," and that party boats are much less common than on Lake Havasu down stream, fo r instance. One of the things she really likes about the scene on the lake is that people help each other, that a sense of ca maraderie develops and people seem to be a part of a community while they are there. Boating in the U.S. Consumer expenditures on recreation more than tri pled from $18 bil lion in 1950 to $62 billion in 1982 (National Recrea tion and Parks Asso ciation, 1972 USD). This represents a growth from $1 19 per capita to $273 per capita, and the trend has no doubt con tinued in the last 16 years. Recreation is becoming the predominant fo rce shaping public lands in western states. A year ago Secretary of Agriculture Dan Glickman said, "Of the $130 billion that National Forests will contribute to economy in the year 2000, $98 billion will come from recreation" (I-figlrCo untry News, April 27, 1998). Recreation is not necessarily easier on the environment than traditional extractive uses such as logging, ra nching and mining. In that same issue, Higlr Country News cites an article fro m Bioscierrcc (Vol. 46) reporting that Smithsonian Institu te scientists fo und outdoor recre ation second only to water development projects in pushing species toward threatened or endangered status. One of the powerful players on the recreation scene is the American Recreation Coalition, comprising major auto, petroleum, and real estate 44 firms, manufacturers of powerboats, snowmobiles, motorcycles and other and hotel recreation vehicles, and resort chains. One conservationist describes ARC's commercial development interests as being to: "privatize, commercialize, and motorize" (Silver 1998, 56). Americans spend about twi ce as much on 'pleasure boats and accessories' as on 'bicycles and supplies'; the only recreational category on which we spend more is 'athletic and sport clothing' (U.S. Dept of Commerce 1994). The $11 billion spent on boating equipment in 1993 was a 9% increase for the previous year's sales, including a 350/o growth in PWC sales (Boatiug Iudustry). Arizona and Utah, the states containing Lake Powell, are especially keen on boating (see Table 3) remarkable given their aridity. Ta ble 3 Recreationa\ boats per thousand people in Southwestern states (adapted from Boating Industry annual report) Figures range nationally frorn a low of 20 in New Jersey to a high of 167 in Minnesota, 'land of 10,000 lakes'. Arizona 36 Otah 34 Nevadi! 32 Texas 32 California 26 Colorado 25 New Mexico 25 Fishing Fishing is one other form of recreation that should be considered, since it is dependent on the dam. The lake is stocked, and the Colorado River downstream now supports a range of sport fish due to cold water re leases. In the words of the Friends of Lake Powell, Lake Powell has cre ated a new realm for fishermen. Before Glen Canyon Dam was built, the Colorado River was so full of silt that only carp, catfish, suckers, and the Colorado River squawfish could survive in its murky waters. Now, abun dant game fish thrive in the clear waters of Lake Powell. Introduced species such as bass and crappie ·a s well as walleye, bluegill, and catfish challenge the avid fisherman. Carp, suckers and squawfish, none of them attractive for fishing, are native fish that spiritualists are apt to appreciate, believing in their right to exist and in the necessity of maintaining a natural order and biodiversity. The Friends do not mention the humpback chub, a native fish listed as endangered. 45 Wa ter quality The reservoir has water quality issues, some stemming from recreational use. Kevin Berghoff, a NPS hydrologist at Lake Powell, gave this run clown: Selenium, naturally occurring in Mancos shale ;m d also produced by agricul tural runoff upstream, collects in the reservoir. II bio-accumulates, and ill high levels poisons waterfowl. No tissue samples have been taken. Fecal waste, both human (from camping) and animal (from pets and fro m graz ing allotments that come to shoreline), fo rce the beach closures (twelve in 1995). Lake levels fluctuate50-60 feet a year, so anything left on shore. even if buried. gets in the water. Also, some houseboats have a sewage discharge port. which boaters are tempted to use out on the reservoir. The N PS is currently pursuing an aggressive educationill campaign to improve boilters' ilwareness of these issues. Motor fuel, especially at marinas where vent tubes overflow eoch time a boat is fueled, goes into the loke in significant quantities. 'li�o-cycle engines are the worst offenders, spilling up to 25% of their gas/oil mix into the water under normal operation. Some of this undoubtedly gets into the fo od d1ain, but most will volatilize quickly. ·Ia make downstream habitat more suitable fo r native fish, they are studying il $12 million proposal fo r a selective withdrawal system that would allow fo r bett�r temperature regulation of releases. ewe have been banned on Lake Tahoe and in most NPS units due to water pollution as well as noise. The EPA has ordered manufacturers to cut emissions, and Earth Island Institute has sued 16 manufacturers fo r building machines that dump carcinogens into Californiadrin king wa ter CHigl! Country News, August 4, 1 997). The viewpoints fa cing off over PWC use parallel those active in the debate at Lake Powell. Arrnaeolob.-i.:al fi nd.ings With the news that Glen Canyon was to be inundated, archaeologists mounted a concerted ca mpaign to document Anasazi sites in the area. The Glen Canyon Project, administered jointly by the Museum of North ern Arizona and the University of Utah, recorded 2,000 sites in the late 1950s and early 1960s. They found that Glen Canyon and local environs were ati excel lent setting fo r the study of hunter-ga therers and small scale agriculturalists. Phil Geib, in the introduction to a recent volume revisiting the archaeo logical significance of the area, says: The crush of visitors with easy boilt access to the back country and an attitude of indiffe rence or disrespect fo r cultural remains has resulted in such manage- 46 ment problems as deliberate vilndalism. looting. point collecting, and generill site degrildation. Most sites within about 2 km of the lake are in poor condition. especially those situilted in dry shelters. Restored sites used fo r interpretation and posted with signs h11ve become public restrooms ilnd graffiti billboards (e.g.. Defiance House) (1996, 3). The National Park Service has the difficult responsibility of informing the pub lic about Glen Cilnyon prehistory and encouraging interest in it, while simultil neously discourilging activities thilt result in site damage. Rec:reation jobs In 1994, 6.70/o of jobs in Arizona 004,000) were in the tourist industry. paying out $1.7 billion in payroll and bringing in $6 billion in business receipts and 0.9 billion in tax receipts (U.S. Travel Industry Association of America 1996). The economy of the town of Page is almost exclu sively reliant on recreation. Probably the largest employer is ARAMARK, the concessionaire managing Lake Powell's marinas. ARAMARK is a $6 billion corporation with operations in 11 countries (Pennsylvania State University 1998). In addition to Lake Powell, ARAMARK manages Denali and Shenandoah National Parks, which are listed under 'Sports and Entertainment Services' in their portfolio (along with one-third of all major league baseball stadiums). The original com pany name, stemming from their beginnings in the vending machine trade but perhaps also apropos to the managing and marketing of Lake Powell today, is 'A RA', standing for Automated Retailers of America. Seasonal jobs with ARAMARK pay minimum wage; renting a PWC fo r a day would take three days' wages. Class structure is explicit in ARAMARK's description of their employment opportunities: For those who want to enjoy Lake Powell in luxury. we offer quality ilccommo dations. fine fo od. delightful shopping. great entertainment, marvelous scenic boill tours of Lake Powell, ilnd unsurpassed service ... that is where you enter the picture! Wo rking il summer or a ca reer at Lake Powell can be an exciting and rewarding experience if you come with a balilnced view. The work is just that-work! Most jobs lack glamour, none ilre easy, many are routine, but all ilre important in , making sure our guests hilve iln enjoy11ble 11nd memorilble stay. Many of our jobs will not earn you il lot of money, but all are rich in the satisfilction that comes from honest work well done in il magnificent setting fu ll of recreational and social opportunity. Natural resource economists have estimated the joos impacts of expen ditures for recreation trips to the Lee's Ferry site on the Colorado River, just one of the recreational opportunities in the Page area. They found that non-resident Colorado River recreation trip expenditures generate 47 585 jobs lOouglas and Harpman 1995, 233-247). They conclude thil t their estimates "add further credence and policy weight to the assertion that the outdoor recreation sector of the economy is relatively labor inten sive:' Page is doing well economically, and of course does not want to see that change. The website for Old West Marine Services gave this brief update of the latest goings on around town, providing an interesting snapshot of booming development in a gateway community: The new [Sheraton] resort is progressing, it... in addition to the hotel, will have fa ctory outlet stores and a museum. A We ndy's is opening in Page across from Burger King on US 89. That is nlso where the new city jail is going to be built. One new hotel opened this year and two more (Days Inn and Best Western) ilre under construction. The Holidny Inn is now a Ramilda. The Current ConOid "]1151 ill cn.se you lwvm'l l1enrd, I heSicrm Clu/J, Glm Cnuyuii iHSiilulen11rl u1hcr.1 woul1i rw lly like lo hnve Lake l'owcll dmiuerl. If yu11 lhiuk llwl's n /Jnrl irlcn . .. I herr's 11yrcnl 11cw OI!JIIIIiw lioll, mlled frie111ls uf Lake l'uwell, llwl wuuld love lu henrjru111 you. They're rlerlimll'll lo I hi' prcsc1vn liu11 1y· I he lake, I lie mvimiiiiiCIII nud jm 111 propu11mls who seck lo rlmiu it" (Lake Powell Magazine, Spring 1998). The current conflict around Glen Canyon and the clam that turned il into Lake Powell is the extension of a decades-old conflict about the value and role of rivers and remote places. The present uprising is significant in several ways. First, the issue is so very current, and so geographically centered in the most contested wild region in the coun try, the canyon lands or southern Utah. Competing bills in Congress propose wilderness protection for millions of acres of Bureau of Land Management Janel, and President Clinton's put everyone on notice with his 1996 creation ofthe huge Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monu ment. Secondly, the conflict is not trying to stop construction of a cia m, but is pushing fo r tearing one clown years after the fa ct, reversing major infra structure in the name of wilderness. This situation has ra rely happened before, especially at such an enormous scale; Hodel's 1987 proposa l to study the draining of Hetch Hetchy reservoir, though not tilken too seriously, is a notable exception (Wilkinson 1991). The situation will serve as a precedent fo r fu ture discussions of clam decommissioning, and as a step in the inclusion of restoration with the pursuit of preservation. (Interestingly, this situation also places those opposite the environmentalists in a 'preservationist' position.) Lastly, and the main interest of this report, is that the controversy show cases our fundamental viewpoints on our relationship to wilderness. ls 48 a river fi rst a wild thing with its own rights, a deity even? Or is it a gift of energy and irrigation that we are fools not to exploit? Are wilderness areas playgrounds, or sanctuaries? Are we meant to improve on Nature, or to minimize our impact? The damming of the Colorado at Glen Canyon has been controversial (T om the start, but the environmental movement has only recently gain�rl enough power to consider a political campaign to drain the reservoir. The campaign is being taken seriously, as evidenced by the vigor with which Lake Powell advocates have organized a counter campaign. In September, 1997, the Congressional Subcommittee on National Parks and Public Lands (which has jurisdiction over Lake Powell as part of Glen Canyon National Recreation Area) and the Subcommittee on Wa ter and Power (which has jurisdiction over the Glen Canyon Dam) held a hearing on the proposal to drain Lake PowelL even though one of the chairs stated, "Personally, I think that this is a bizarre idea! However, there is so much misinformation about the lake and the clam in the media, I felt that a public hearing on the issue was warranted:' ln his statemen t at the hearing, environmentalist David Brower (who has convinced the Sierra Club leadership to support the draining of the reservoir) said, "It is unlikely that Glen Canyon Dam would have been approved had NEPA been in existence in 1956. Therefore, we are launch ing an unpreceden ted citizen-led Environmental Assessment this fa ll to present the truth as we see it ..." The media has been covering the proposal with articles under provoca tive headlines such as: "Can the River Run Again? Draining Lake Powell Isn't Such a Crazy Idea" CAriwrw Daily Star), "Dams Aren't Forever" (New Yo rk Ti mes), and "Draining Lake Powell Begins to Make Sense" CAsperr Ti rrres). The Glen Canyon Institute The primary organizer of the movement to drain the reservo ir is the Glen Canyon Institute, a non-profit organization fo unded in 1995. GCI's mission is "to provide leadership in reestablishing the free flow of the Colorado River through a restored Glen Canyon:· They intend to "ini tiate a Citizens Environmental Assessment on the draining of Lake Powell," and are raising fu nds to conduct some manner of public pro cess with scientificsupp ort. The Institute "believes the majority of Ameri cans would support restoring Glen Canyon if all the fa cts were known, so ... [the Environmental Assessment] would be in the public interest' 49 The Institute has many reasons fo r campaigning against the dam. Some reasons are rational (these are most talked about), while others are sen timental (these seem to run deeper). That there are both rational and sentimental reasons is an important matter, since they are often inter mingled in an unconscious way, and thereby obscured. John Wesley Powell saw western geography defined by watershed, and to one who has spent much time in the West, rivers are indeed the heart of a region. Likewise, damming a river spells heartbreak for some who love a region (as in the fabled case of John Muir). The damming of the Colorado at Glen Canyon was a painful blow fo r Sierra Club leader David Brower, writer Edward Abbey, and many others who loved the canyon lands, and it continues to affect new spiritualists who come to love the area, especially those drawn by Abbey's wri tings. The essence of Glen Canyon advocates' sentimental rhetoric on the matter is that "Glen Canyon used to be a pristine and astonishingly beautiful wilder ness, and without public reckoning, that birthright was laid to waste" (Farmer 1996). The injustice of being denied a full public reckoning feeds a sense of persecution, but is not central. The core feeling is of a para dise lost, that it wns wilderness, and now it is ruined. Their brochure refers to Glen Canyon as 'the most beautiful place on Earth,' 'a wonder land of adventure and beauty These statements will resonate with spiritualists, whose world view expects that beautiful places rou tinely get trashed by society at-large. Among the more rational problems with the reservoir that GCl lists are: the reservoir wastes approximately I mafannuall y (equal to 8% ofthe Colorado's annual flow) through evilporation and bank seepage there is danger of a catastrophic flood (in 1983 high flows almost destroyed the dam·s spillwilys) the dam is destroying Grand Cilnyon habitat fo r species like the endilngered humpback chub; consuming all the Colorado's water is killing the rid1 estuaries in the Colorildo River delta at the Sea of Cortez. GCI literature maintains that sediment that has been deposited under Lake Powell would be flushedqu ickly if the river were allowed to run free. The recovery is difficult to predict since we have yet to observe such a process. They also believe the "white bath tub ring" would weather away and be almost completely gone within as little as three decades, and that riparian vegetation would grow back almost immediately (al though it might be opportunistic, non-native vegetation). Regard ing electricity, GCI maintains that the dam produces only 30/o of the power 50 used in the Four Corners area, of which there is a surplus, and that any lost power could easily be made up with conserva tion measures. As fa r as recreation, they suggest that Glen Canyon could be every bit as valuable a resource as Lake Powell, pointing out the popularity of nearby parks: Canyonlands, Arches, Bryce, and of course, the Grand Canyon. But it is clear that even if such recreation, which can be fo und in all these other places, is popular at Glen Canyon as well, it is not as job-intensive and certainly not as equipment-intensive as the current style of recreation, and that means a loss of economic support fo r locals and corporations alike. And, it should not be d�scounted. the flavor of recreation would be much ch Page resideri.ts and lOJ1g-time visitors to Lake Powell are organizing in response to GCI's proposals. Two main groups. the Friends of Lake Powell (FPL) and the Lake Powell Yacht Club (LPYC) provide the fo cal point fo r this organization. The president of the FPL gives this optimistic assess ment of their movement in an ed itorial: Wo w! Who would have ever believed we could have come so far in such a few short months. Mission Statement, Washington, DC heari ngs. memberships now in from all around the country, massive governmental support, opposition be wildennent, donations co ntinue to now in, congressional visitations to Lake Powell, and despite media 'sensationalism', we are still standing strong and proud. Peqple possess power and we do and will continue to possess the right people. We can all sleep better knowing we are on the right path and with the quarter million members we will build to in 1998, so no "pro-drain" groups will gain ground in this beautiful ilrea of ours. This is clearly a patriotic mission, in which the "right people ... on the right path" must stand "strong and proud:' If the group comes close to generating 250,000 memberships they will hold substantial power. Let ters from Arizona congressional representatives support the groups, with one from Rep. Bob Stump calling the proposals to drain the reservoir "stupid" and "ridiculous:· The recrea tion equipment industry has every reason to support them as welL Utah Department of Natural Resources Executive Director Ted Stewart gave voice to a common viewpoint when he said, I know people whose entire fa mily recreil tional life is tied u p in Lake Powell. hate to have a knee-jerk reaction, but this looks like another example of a group of elitists trying to take away recrea tional opportunity fro m the common fo lk. Those with the physical ability and desire to hike want to win the battle at 51 the expense of those who enjoy boating. sightseeing. fishing. water-skiing il lld camping (Associnlcd l'ress, November 7. 1996). The image of environmentalists as elitists is not new, but is probably more accurately stated in geographic terms: environmentalists are, in good measure. middle class professionals from urban areas who enjoy the outdoors at their leisure, not as the location of their home and livelihood. Some comments written on visitor cards at John Wesley Powell Memo rial Museum in Page (and chosen fo r reprinting on the FLP website) give an idea of visitor sentiments: Before the lake. very few people could enjoy seeing Rainbow Bridge. Now hun dreds are able to see it because of boat travel. Many people such as myself would never be able to partake of God's wonders because of being in a wheel dlair. We have few enough places we can get to-PLEASE don't take Lake Powell from us. The beauty will never be what it was & to me it is gorgeous just the way it is! To even consider draining one of the most beautiful lakes in the world is by fa r the most ignorant thing I've ever heard of, if not an economicill disaster of the first magnitude. Awe & amazement is fo r the Grand Canyon, Lake Powell is fo r sheer delight and enjoyment. [A creative twist on Stegner's words about Glen Canyon, prob ably not deliberate.] Please. please. please leave it the way it is today fo r many people from all over the world to enjoy. Why even consider taking that aw,l)'· To me it would be a very fo olish move. SAVE TH E LAKE! None of us can return to Glen Canyon. any more than we can return to our childhood. Please prevent any inclination of clrilining Lake Powell -There is too much to see by WilY of water, too many jobs will be lost as well ilS recreiltional opportu nities. Whilt is clone is done. Leave everything as it is. We have gained more than we have lost. Pen:eptions of Wilderness " ...in the last analysis, wildemess is a matter of perception-part of the geography of tire mind." (Nash 1982, 333) In 1975, old-time river guide Ken Sleight (the model fo r Edward Abbey's character Seldom Seen in Tire Monkey Wrerrdr Gang) said of the Colorado through the Grand Canyon. "there's no wilderness left. only scenery�· That same year, a survey of Colorado river ru nners-a lmost none of whom had known the river before Glen Canyon Dam or the huge in crease in rafters-found that 91% of those polled thought of il as wilder- 52 ness (Nash 1982, 332). What we think of as wilderness is most certainly defined by what types of outdoor experiences we have had. Geographer Randy Bertolas conducted a study of Ve rmonters, Quebec ers, and James Bay Cree to "define, locate, and assess the value of wil derness [and provide] insight into each culture's framework regarding land use (e.g.. as a source of economic development? biodiversity? reli gious iconography?) and [expose] the mental scaffolding that undergirds their fundamental environmental val ues" (1997). His study verified that "in the Western tradition, wilderness implies a separated, rather than intertwined, relationship between humans and nature; one that is bridged only fo r resource development or brief en counters (sight-seeing, camping, fi shing, etcY' His fi ndings show that the native Cree related the idea of wilderness (really, our concept-they have no such word) to ancestors, home, and hunting and sustenance, connections described by virtually none of the Ve rmonters or Quebecoise. The Cree also said, more than the moderns, that wilderness evoked a in them a feeling. Recreationists-motorists and spiritualists alike-associate their preferred outdoor activities with pleasurable feelings. Spiritualists like Muir come to mind most readily, but indeed geographer and avid motorcyclist J.B. Jackson waxed eloquently about the joys of connecting to terrain through 'hot rodding' (1977). These feelings shape what individuals value most in wilderness, and in turnho w they come to conceive of wilderness. These perceptions are clear in rhetoric used to describe a place in its most positive light, since the speaker/author is revealing the things assumed to be important. StJiritualisb Glowing descriptions of Glen Canyon abound. Ty pical of them, and an excellent, concise example fo r our analysis, is one provided by Abbey's biographer. He describes the canyon this way: ...Glen Canyon was a place of exhilarating and mysterious beauty. In its many side canyons, thrushes, wa rblers, and mockingbirds sang in groves of cotton wood and thickets of redbud, tamarisk, and willow. Along its steep walls, cavelike natural shrines shielded hawks. swallows. and owls intent on raising and pro tecting their young. Deeper into the gulches and gorges ... flowering plants in small clefts hung on inner walls, as if some master gardener had planted and tenderly nurtured them. Below, along the river, waterfalls spilled into plunge pools; badgers, coyotes, wolves. a mule deer, and other mammals browsed near abundant supplies of fo od and water, certain that safe shelter was nearby .. (Bishop 1995, 123). 53 Such mythic nostalgia, with true-enough sensations amplified by time and a sense of loss, is a major inspiration for spiritualists, ye t also a potential source of confusion and mistrust fo r those with other views. Glen Canyon was hallowed territory, a temple. a 'natural shrine' where the 'master gardener' himself tended this garden of Eden. In his essay. "Down the River," Abbey asks us to "imagine the Ta j Mahal or Chartres Cathedral buried in mud until only the spires remain visible. With this difference: those man-made celebrations of human aspira tion could conceivably be reconstructed while Glen Canyon was a living thing, irreplaceable, which can never be recovered through any human agency" (1968, 152). In opposition to proposals fo r fu rther cia ms on the Colorado (which were being touted as providing better views of the ca nyon), the Sierra Club ran a fu ll-page ad in the New Yo rk Ti mes headed by. "Should we also flood the Sistine Chapel so tourists can get nearer the cei ling?" By definition, to spiritualists wilderness is sacred, a sanctuary. a place of worship. We hear in the above passage that Glen Canyon was a benign, sustain ing place, where could be fo und "abundant supplies of fo od and water" and "safe shelter," not only fo r us by for our fe llow beings, the badgers, coyotes, wolves and mule deer, the hawks, swallows and owls. This re flects complex feelings that spiritualists seek through recrea tion: one, an experience of wilderness as nurturing provider even while one fa ces the brutal vulnerability to a wilderness so powerfu l that it can destroy you at any moment; and another, the intrigue of approaching other living beings in their own space. We also hear that it was an intimate, erotic place, with "plunge pools," "gulches and gorges," and "flowering plants in small clefts hung on in ner wal ls:· There is mystery and magic. harmony and life. Th is is Eden. the paradise we lost, a 'place no one knew: Even setting aside the sub jective appreciation of the place, it is truly stunning to consider that 40 years ago there was a place called Glen Canyon, and now it is gone. Few other. places are so effectively destroyed. In his ode to Glen Canyon. poet Richard Shelton wrote: fa ll gen tly rilin upon the surface of this lake shine softly moon and stilrs it is no mirror fo r your light it is the tomb of beauty lost forever and it is despair the dilrkness in ourselves we fe ilr (Tri mble il lld Williilms 1996, )4-5) Areas of wildernessare deemed places with more soul than others. Abbey reasoned, "For a civilization to annihilate the wildness of such a river sn 54 casually ... was tantamount to destroying a part of the Southwest's very soul ... any civilization that could act so senselessly, he concluded, was no civilization at all" (Bishop 123-5). Abbey and others see the chief threats to these places as machines and those who use them-motorists. With his writing, Abbey made war on machines, railing against indus trial tourism and pronouncing parks fo r people, not cars (now one would add ATVs and PWCs to that list). To Abbey, and spiritualists, it is clear that motors and motorists are the antithesis of wilderness. Even those desiring restoration of the canyon often remain somewhat able to appreciate the fl ooded landscape. On a trip to Lake Powell with a team of researchers, Abbey describes lying on top of the "flat roof of Professor Reynold's houseboat and watched glit tering Orion blaze over head and green-gold meteors slash across the sky. Despite the garbage, I thought, and despite the damnation of the dam, this is still a magnifi cent place to be " (I 988, 90). Wallace Stegner almost agrees. He writes, " ...Lake Powell is beautif·ul.It isn't Glen Canyon, but it is something in itself" (1969, 126). However, he concludes, "A wilderness that can be approached by powerboat is no wilderness any more, it has lost its magic" 032). Motorists While certainly less personal than the writings of individuals, adver tisements for Lake Powell give a sense fo r motorists' feelings about Powell. This ad from ARAMARK's VisitLakePowell website illustrates the pleasure of motorists' recreation: Come play with abandon. Relax as never before. Immerse yourself in Lake Powell's watery canyons. Yo ur life will be fo rever changed. And you'll return again to this desert wonderland. Because the d1ild inside wants to play outdoors. Here, too, there is something religious speaking, but in a more Biblical, almost evangelical sense, with immersion into wat er, honoring the rebornch ild, a wondrous desert holy land, returnpi lgrimages and lives forever changed. Sex is here as well, with playful abandon, immersion in wet canyons, and the ultimate relaxation. And finally, there is the celebration of ch ildhood innocence, going outdoors to play. This interesting mix of hedon ism and church-going righteousness is another version of paradise. This is a pa radise fo und more than lost, a paradise created by the hand of engineers. As a myth, it has an attractive tangibility to it; it is accessibly close to the mainstream. Differences To motorists, we are shapers of the world, engineers. To spirituali sts, we 55 ilre dependent dwellers within a world that tril nscends humilnity Com pMe the contrasting views on ou r reliltionship with the naturzd world evident in the following quotes: The Mchitecl, I he life-gi ver, ond I he modern lor of Glen C. 1r1yor1 is I he Color·;1do River ... you don't quilc Cil lch I he river in the ilct ofsnrlpluring. bul l he co lor of the Colorado ilSSured you I hill cre,llion was still go ing on (Porter 1988, II). Lil ke Powell is .. God's rnunlry ..where Mother Nature did some of Her besl work .. lShel siMied lhe process il nd man cnmpleled its spl<"rHicn (W\V\v.l pynch lrltrb.or gl Such stillements make clea r the close fi t between Lake Powell ildvoca tes ilncl the motorist stereotype, and Glen Canyon advocates and the spiri tualist stereotype, A correspondence (reprinted on I he FLP website) be tween an active member of the FLP (KR) and a likewise active member of the Glen Canyon Institute OU, provides a co nvenien t W ...1\ 'e must look cl t long lerm costs cl rHI benefils as seriously as short lerm ones .. [should] we hilppily ,1 l101V the hundreds of thousands of speedboals, jel skis il !ld houseboills In cnnlinue lo have at it, keep our blinders on ilbnul I he f1 rture, cl S millions of Ions of sedimenl, toxins, unburned fuels, cl lld hillleries pile up benealh our very slwrl sighlcd view) I propose we ilre Cclpablc of more vision. Semantics themselves are contes ted: As you m,1y have noticed, I hesililte to call it il lnke, bec,1use il· isn'l one. Ye s. there is some he,luly lhal survived, hu1· it is ,1 11 unnaturil l place-;1 dec,1denl display of arrogance il lld lVclste. Words like "clecildent" and "arrogilnce" Me Though there Me substilntive disagreements about technical det;_1ils, the main fe a ture of the letters is the disparil te worl d views they reveal. Much of wh,lt Rogalin hils to Sil)' (and her lett ers Me lengthy) seems generally reflective of the views of Lake Powell advocates (they did, after il ll, post the letters on ,1 website). While environment 56 continue to explore the philosophy behind the spiritualist world view, the motorist world view is much less intellectualized. It is this counter view on wilderness that Lake Powell cul ture brings to the surface so nicely, so here I present a sampling of KR's views on selected subjects, with comparison to Jl:s where necessary fo r clarity. 011 tile fu ture of Pnge, AZ. An issue in which KR and other locals have an undeniable stake, and one of her most cogent arguments. In response to Jl:s projection that Page would thrive with the reservoir drained, KR replies: Where in your canyon are [the millions of visitors) going to go? The [Glen Ciln yonl lnstitute literature stiltes thilt people would use a drained L1ke Powell ilS mud1, implying that river-running would be the main use. I should point out that only approximiltely 60,000 visitors a year raft the river below the clam ... How will the inaccessible attractions compensate fo r the loss ofthe Lake's easily accessible attractions ...? ... these are serious matters we're discussing. These ilre people's lives, their dreams. their joys, the fruits of their labor, their pain, their suffe ring, their lifetimes of hard work we're talking il bout disrupting. You give more fo cus to the Colorado squawfish than you do to the concerns ofthe people whose lives are involved with the Lake ... Yo u show no remorse in the consequences of this action. JL does in fact care a lot about the squawfish and other aspects of the canyon habitat. which she equates with the "long-term view:· Th is is a genuine source of disagreement, in that JL sees the economic interests of Page residents as short-term. 011jnct mrrl selllitllerrl. KR accuses JL of manipulating facts to support her sentiments. Though KR is very suspicious of JL's fa cts, she herself holds up facts as the basis fo r decision making, and her arguments are also based fundamentally on sentiment. As she says, "How can anyone de bate with the logic and reason of fact against the emotional substance of a fa ith?" She challenges JL about her characterizations: "A re you demonizing to conceal and overcome a shortage of fa cts?" This, too, goes equally well both ways. JL admits, "even if the reservoir didn't have such a finite lifespan, I would work toward restoration of a free flowing river' Fa cts about the dam's operation are secondary, though they were the ostensible topic fo r much of the discussion. She continues, 'The decision of what's pref erable-the reservoir or a free flowing river through a restored Glen Canyon-is a value juclgemen t. But decisions we make as a country are, plain and simple, value judgements:· KR responds: Yo u are right in your conclusion that ultimiltely our decisions are value judg ments. Whether, by keeping the Lake in this case, we wil nt to enjoy the intelli- 57 gence of human crention in harmony with nature, celebrate the enhancement of human existence through the expansion of the natural environment ilnd honor that existence through responsible stewardship of that in which we illl can partake and respect or, if by destroying the Lake, we want to blindly at tempt to returnto some never-existent cruder and vulgar solipsistic way of life. The choice should be the peoples', not the members of elitist special-interest groups. Here she is dear that "the people," if they know the whole situation. will agree with her, just as environmentalist David Brower. in his statement to the Congressional hearing in support of draining the reservoir, fe lt sure that the people are on his side. "Elitist special-interest groups" are a buzz word from conservative critics, and there are many references that indicate a world view fashioned in large pari by right wing doctrine. On environlllenlnlisls. KR says that she has: come to recognize the telltale parlance of your type of special interest group which has the foregone conclusion that you occupy some mythical moral high ground ... you use self-serving code-phrases to justify. aggrilndize and moralize your viewpoint. Wo rds such ilS 'our organization's vision extends into the fu ture: ·n,is implies that I'm disingenuous and greedy and you are logicill il nd benevolent. What makes the GCI think they are so righteous? ...[Yo u think] il ll other divergent points of view are inferior. I understilnd thilt relying on preventive measures [to deal with any problems with the dilm or reservoir] employs technology, which your type of speciill interest group dislikes. It illso dilutes one of your strongest sil les tools used to get your way. the panic of impending doom. She doubts that environmental problems are as bad as people are led to think: ... [such as] the destruction of our fo rests by acid rain (which $700 million dollars of studies have fa iled to fi nd any evidence of), or the ildVil nce of the world deserts (which studies also have totally debunked), or the warnings about the increase in cancer from d1emicnl pollution (even though cancer not refilled to smoking has declined by 150/o since 1950), or the depletion of our niltural re sources. of oil by the 80's .... Fn itl! in wgineering. In discussing the steady siltation of the reservo ir, KR says, It seems to me thilt if we built the Dam in less than 120 yea rs. we can refllrbish it in something less than thilt too ... when we decided to go to the moon, we had no technology to get us there. That's what humans Ciln dol They can create, solve, resolve il nd benefit tool" When Jl mentions the 1983 incident where high flows ca me close to catastrophically floodingth e spillways, saying that, "the BOR engineers are overly confident in man's ability to outwit nature," KR replies hotly: 58 [You] fo cus on the doomsday scenario of spillway fa ilure ... employing the tact of 'impending crisis: ...Yo u f11 il to explain the probability, if any, of that occur ring and why those 'responsible' would ever let thilt happen? [These are] things operating engineers de11l with ALL TH E TIME TO MAKE OUR WORLD WORK AS FLAWLESSLY AS IT DOES TAKING INTO CONSIDERATION TH E IMMENSE COMPLEXITY AND HIGH STANDARDS OF LIVING WE NOW ENJOY COM PARED TO OUR ANCESTORS! ...Suff ice it to say that the Dam WO RKED. It didn't fail and it was improved after the [1983] event. And man learned so 11s to be better prepared so there won't be a next 'crisis: It is interesting to contrast KR's high level of fa ith in the BOR engineers who manage the dam with her skepticism rega rding data that comes fro m the same organization (when used by JL) and her criticisms of big government. This is a key inconsistency. 011 l!nvi119 nn opm public process. JL asserts that the N EPA-style process they want to undertake will help everyone "come to informed decisions in an open, public debate:· KR responds, reasonably, that "Given the Institute's already predetermined position on the Lake, can we, the public, expect an unbiased factual report from the Institute?" And, with more sense of persecution: I suggest that the your type of special interest group is incapable of providing il lld abiding by an open, honest public debate. For example, on globill wilrming, has an open, honest debille been allowed to occur, in Kyoto or anywhere else officiillly in the U.S.? No credentiilled opponent to the theory of anthropogenic glob11l w11rming is even illlowed to actively pilrticipate. 011 l!ummrily's place i11 rrn/ure. KR's views on the role .humans should take in shaping the environment are at odds with JL. who asks, "what right do we have to decide that trout are nicer than Humpback Chub, to the point that we cause the latter to become extinct because the fo rmer are so much fun to catch?" The idea of Nature having rights is fo reign to KR. and is anti-people. Spiritualists' view of wilderness, which involves solitude, does normally include fewer people than that of motorists. As KR puts it: What you are saying is thilt nilt11re should be allowed to determine its course. We ll, man is part of nature too. And if miln is putting trout in the area to satisfy his needs, why he's just acting ilccording to his nature. Therefore, nilture is illlowing itself to fo llow its 'niltuml' course ... Yo u imply retu rning to some imagi nary state of nature devoid of any human activity except that which the Insti tute deems appropriate ... [you think] the intelligence of mankind not only is incapable of rightfully piirticipilling in ilnd co-existing with nature but is the antithesis to it. The conclusion of that belief is the enslavement ilnd inevitilble extinction of the humiln rilce. Yes, Glen Canyon was il beilutiful place before Lake Powell, as were a lot of places on this planet. But mankind and the children have a plilce too! And it has become Lilke Powell. And Lake Powell is il beautiful place too! The current ecosystem at Lake Powell now il lso fu lfills m<�ny of nature's mandilles, which includes the humiln element. Yo u seem to fo rget thill milnkincl is illso part of the equillion. 59 KR's commen ts offe r a baseline fo r the views of La ke Powell i1 dvoc.lles, and motorists in general. They illustrate the potential fo r f·urther quali tative interviewing on the subject, and make clear the depth of the schism between recreationi11 motorists and spiritualists. Commonalities In an article about the persistence of wilderness at Glen Canyon, histo rian Jared Fa rmer describes a sense of exploring that is common to both the Glen Canyon experience and the Lake Powell experience. In the canyon, the sensation was one of "discovery-that exciting feeling, as you move into a slot canyon, that you just might be the fi rst to go there; that you have fo und a wi ld setnctuary and fo rsa ken the world" (1996, 212). On Lake Powell. the sensi1tion is of a "wilderness where you could pilot a boat, a reservoir where you could feel like Columbus" (2 1 6). Especially when the reservoir first fi lled, it was "Terra lncogn iti1. Th is created landscape literally had never been seen before" (21 7). Early recreettionists had to be i1dventurous, with no marinas fo r f·ueling, and no rescue fa cilities. Fi1 rmer points out that " ...the se slickrock fj ords ... do lead to 'ni1tUri1 1' areas, oases of soli tude," (21 9), and that the reservoir does in fi1 cl allow people to have some sort of wilderness ex perience. He feels that "the language, and at times even the experiences of those who mourn Glen Canyon etnd those who delight in Lake Powell Me parallel," and sug gests that Glen Canyon advocates may be taking too limited a view: Even well-pl�ced sorrow c�n turn into self-pity: I came too I I fi nd that there more divergence in rhetoric than parallelism. However. this overlap on the topic of 'exploration' may in the long term offe r a potentially va luable commonality. For now the how's and why's of exploration fo r motorists and spiritualists differ too greatly. During informal conversations with Glen Canyon advocates, I have heard no confidence that boaters might learn a more 'spiritualist' approach to exploring the reservoir's landscape. Like Farmer, I am troubled by the consumer approach to 'discoveri Ye l 60 the desire for discovery as a fo rmat fo r encountering the wild may be a very good thing, if indeed it can be unhooked from consumerist drives. Natural exper.ienc:es John Adams at the University of Missoula has defined a 'natural expe rience' as one that happens only in settings where the works of humans are ofsecondary impor tance; allows a sense of solemnity. which can be equated with solitude, privncy, and respect; stimulates us with the "natural order of information" that we evolved to inter pret. and which therefore reacquaint us with our animal nature; presents us with opportunities to engage with the Other-other living beings. the latent presence of rocks. water and sky. "To the extent that the naturalworld fu nctions simply as a stage on which people act. with plants and animals as props. we are not engaging with nature" (1998). In reviewing the experience of ORV (off-road vehicle) users, he con cludes that they are equipment focused, and see terrain as little more than an obstacle course with a pretty backdrop; this is not a 'natural experience: A less polarized view might argue that such use is a dirrrill islJed natural experience as defined. This definition provides a good un derstanding of spiritualists' reckoning of how outdoor recreation should ideally be conducted. Conclusion: Interaction and Resolution ""/Jre fiiViWIIIIIf/11111 IIIOVeiiiCIII ri9lil I lOW is 1101 listmi119. We are r119119Cd ill II r/ietoric liS str0119 1111d as 1199ressive as tl1e so-mlled owositio11. I would Love to see tile whole 110lio11 of opposilio11 dissolved, so there's 110 lo119er the sliailow claiice betwew '11s' 1111d 'tlie111.' I woulcl love fo r us to listm to 011e 11110ll1er 111111 try to say, 'What do we Wil li I as llll'lllbers of the Wllllllllllity? What clo we Love? Wlwl clo wefe ar? Wliat are our coucems? How clo we clreaw our fu ture? How clo we l1e9i11 to ileji11e howe?' l11m we wuulil liave suwetl1i119 to l!uilcl fruw, miller tlia11 COIISI11111Iy tumi119 u11e 111101l1er i11tu abstmctium mul stereutn1es CII!JII!Ieil ill wili tary cowbativmess: Te rry Te mpest Williams (Jensen 1995, 316) Neither spiritualists nor motorists fi nd it easy to understand each other, but this is precisely the task at hand. In his research around the James Bay Hydro Quebec issue. Bertolas noted that "ideological stereotypes abounded (e.g., 'rabid environmentalists,' 'rapacious developers,' 'noble savages'), [and] there was little productive discussion between the groups most likely to be affected by the expanding project" (1998, 110). This seems to be the case in the Lake Powell/Glen Canyon issue as well: the Lake Powell Yacht Club calls those suggesting the draining of the reser voir "fanatical followers and brain dead:' In pointing out the websites 61 for Glen Canyon Institute and the Sierra Club, the LPYC writer wa rns readers to "have your air sick bag ready' Though more restrained and polite, Glen Canyon advocates express similar disdain for their coun terparts. Communication will certainly be furthered when spiri tualists come to honor the validity of people's desire to protect their home and livelihood and to choose their own fo rm of recrea tion, and when motorists acknowledge that others have a real spiritual connection to wilderness and villid reasons fo r criticizing technology. La ke Powell advocates want to be seen as more than pure motor jocks: They [Glen c�nyon �dvocatesl w� nt the whole world to believe that everybody that comes to L�ke Powell sits on � houseboot and does nothing but drink beer ... [Whorl about the millions of children and teen�gers who are here with fheir parents, gr�ndparents, family and friends on �n ilnnu�l vaca tion-� v,lca tion destination of their choice. Are the rad icals �!tempting to dictate how John Doe recreotes ilncl v,lcations7 If so, this is �s ignomnt �s thinking everyone who owns � boilt is wealthy' It's illso ignorant to think that visitors do nothing but put the throttle down il nd go. When in fact, they enjoy hiking, fishing, mountilin biking, seasonal hunting, 4-wheel drive explor�tion, k�yaking, swimming. horseb�ck riding, il nd backcountry c�mping ..." Spiri tualists, likewise, do not want to be identified two-dimensionally as out-of-touch radicals. Their concerns about the environ ment are at root about the human condition, and they need to be seen as not driven by some simple anti-people mentality. Mixing sentiment and rationality confused the communication between KR and JL. making them less trustful of each other. The debate over Lake Powell comprises both deep feelings and a plethora of technical information. Communications will also improve when discussants ac knowledge the essential roles of both sentiment and ra tionality, and are able to distinguish between the two. All sides would benef it by developing consistency in their views. Fo r example, Lake Powell advocates should not on one had tout increased access to Rainbow Arch (which is now visited by 325,000 people each year), a spot with great religious significance to Native America ns, and on at the same time claim that draining the reservoir would be unfair to those fa milies who have scattered ashes in Lake Powell. If sacred places are to be revered, they should be consistent about it, or declare explic itly that neighboring Indian tribes do not count as much as other Ameri cans. Advocates fo r Lake Powell are in the position of arguing fo r 'preserva tion,' while Glen Canyon advocates are in the position of encouraging the alteration of an existing habitat. These unusuill roles offe r an op- 62 portunity to understand the other's position more readily. In a letter to Congress, FLP refers to Lake Powell as "one of the jewels in the crown of the southwest's National Parks including the Grand Canyon, Monu ment Valley, Zion and Bryce Canyon. We are lucky our ancestors had the foresight to preserve these beautiful areas. Let's continue the tradi tion of preservation so our future generations can enjoy them, too:· Issues of foresight and preservation have meaning fo r both. sides of the Lake Powell/Glen Canyon issue. Dave Tate, Editor of Lake Powell Mngnzi11e, writes, "Few visitors to the lake would ever dream of draining the spectacular 190-mile wonder" (Spring 1998). He is probably right. Then again, few visitors to the Grand Can yon would ever dream of flooding its splendor. Glen Canyon is not present for visitors' comparison-it can speak only through our imagi nations. Regardless of whether we are left with Lake Powell or a recov ering Glen Canyon, regardless of the painful aspects of the dialog, this churn ing confluence of views on wilderness and recreation is inevitable, essential. and right at home on the river of the West. References Abbey, Edward. 1968. IJeserl Solilnire. New Yo rk: Simon & Sdn1ster. ___ 1988. 011e Life AI n "li111e, l'lcnse. New Yo rk: Henry Holt ilnd Company. Adams, John C. 1998. 'li-cntllllnrks 011 lile Vir!) ill Ln11tl: Tile Nnlurnl Experimce n111/ Moloriwl Ve ilicles. Chapter 3 of unpublished Milsters thesis, University of Montana. ARAMARK. wv.rw.aramark.com. April l998. ___. wv.rw.visitlakepowell.com. May 1998. Berghoff, Kevin. Glen Canyon National Recreation Area. April 29, 1998. Personill com munication via telephone. Bertolas, Randy James. 1998. Cross-culturill environmental perception of wilderness. '/lie l'rofess iollnl Geogrnpilei; 50 (1): 98-111. Bishop, James Jr. 1994. lpilnpil fo r n /Jescrl Aunrcilisl: Tile Life n111/ Legncy of ldwnrtl A/J/Jey. New �\JI'I\: '/imc/iSIOile. l!onlill!) 1111111slry. 1994. January: 35-41, 44-50. Douglas, Aaron J., and David A. Harpman. I 995. Estimating recreation employment effects with 1M PLAN fo r the Glen Canyon Dilm region. /oumnl of Ellvirollllielllnl t\llnlln!Jei iiCIII, 44(3): 233-247. Fa rmer, Jared. 1996. Field notes: Glen Canyon and the persistence of wilderness. Wes lc'l'll Hisloricnl Qunrlcrly 27: 211-22. Fradkin, Philip L. 1981. A /{ivcr No More: '/lie Colorntlo n111l llie Wes l. New Yo rk: Alfred A. Knopf. Friends of lake Powell. www.lakepowell.org, April/Mily 1998. Geib, Phil R.. ed. 1996. Gle11 Cn 11yo11 /{rvisilc·d. Salt Lilke City: University of Utah Anthropo logical Press. Glen Canyon Institute. www.gci.org. April/May 1998. Jackson, John llrinckerhoff. 1977. The abstract world of the hot-roclcler. In C/Wil!)ill!J Rurnl Lnlldscnpes, eds. Ervin H. Zube and Margaret J. Zube, 140-151. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. Jensen, Derrick. 1995. Lislmiug lo lile Ln11d: Co11versnlimis nlwul Nnlurc, Cullurr, n111l Eros. San Fril ncisco: Sierra Club Books. Lnke l'owell Mnynzi11c. Spring I 998. 63 take l'owell Yacht Club. www.lpyilrhtdub.org, Mily 1998. tong, Michael E., 1997, ··n1e Gmnd Milnilged Cilnyon." n1iu11nl Gwympl1ic, July: 117-155. Mart in, Russell. 1989. A Slury 'llwi Sinlllls Likr n 1Jn111: Glm Cn11yu11n111l lhr lni!J!Jif fu r lhr Su11l llf lhr Wcsl. New York: llenry Holt & Co. Martinez, Eileen. Park Ranger. Glen Canyon Niltional Recreation Area. April 27, 1998. Personill communiciltion viii telephone. Nash, Roderick. 1982. Wildrmrss n111l lhr A111rrim11 Mimi, J"' Etfiliu11. New Haven: Yale Uni wrsity Press. National Recreation and !'arks 1\.�sociation. 1984. 1Jmw111l fu r Rrcrrnliu11 i11 A111r1im. /\lexilJHiriil, Virginiil. Pe nnsylvania State University. www.hrrm.psu.edu/news/Neubiluer.htm, April 4, 1998. l'orte•� Elliot. 1965 . Thr l'lncr Nu 011r K111w: Glm Cn11yu11 011 fhr Culumdu. Salt Lake Ci ty: Per eg rine Smith Books. l'ottcr, to rt: n D., and Charles L Drake. 1980. Lnkr l'uiVrft: Viryi11 ffuiV lu IJyJJniiiU. Albu querque: University of New Mexico Press. l'owell, John We sley. 1961. '111r bfllllmliull uf lhr Culumdu l 64 Abs urdist Cartography: The Dada Millennium. Map of the United States Da Ne111eth and Da Kaplan University of Toledo What might be the outcome of bending the traditional ru les of cartog ra phy in favor of chance? Our answer is "something Dada:· What does chance have to do with cartography and Dada? Ta king the last first, Dada is a recent expression of the ancien t absurdist spirit of relativism which, as an antidote to rationalism, is as old asAl ley Oop and Protagoras. As a protest movement a gainst the excesses of a rational society, Dada mushroomed briefly in t he immediate aftermath of the First Wo rld War. It arose among French and German intellectuals out of their sheer moral exhaustion and nausea over that War. By 1916 the absurdity of the systematic slaughter of men and mules and its ties to the Age of Reason were becoming appallingly apparent: masses of patriotic soldiers were being mechanically marched offby the Wa r Administrators to die 111 eaningless deaths in miserable battlefront trenches. The story of the birth of Dada in the chaos of wartime tells us that one day in 1916 some of these soldiers, fully knowing they would all be gassed, maimed a nd slaughtered, suddenly and spontaneously burst out into a cacophonic bleating-like sheep-instead of singing their patriotic marching songs. This absurd spontaneous gesture by the walking dead in protest of the dehumanizing Death Machine was the birth of the Dada movement. which was always more about protest than about art. Thus, when viewed against the logic of the trenches, the insanity of Dada-the sweeping antilogic of its protest-spectacularly demonstrated some subversive potential in dysrational critique. Among the countless contradictions that characterized Dada protests are its exuberations over life through embracing nihilism. From within the organizing engine of insanity that was Dadaist cosmology in 1916, life intuitively appeared to be a series of irrational collisions ruled by chance: if the Cruel War just happened, then life was considered all the more precious and precarious because of its meaningless extinction on the battlefields. Dadaists in the aftermath of the Big War shared a revo lutionary state of mind that used, fo r effect, warlike violent shock tactics in its war against War-in art, in dance and in literature-macabre and absurd humor, for example-to suggest that life, absurd as it might be, was the only thing that ever matters. Thus, the Dadaists expressed through their excesses their contem pt for a "world gone mad:' 65 Dada was more generally a protest against the hypocritical va lues of an arrogant self-satisfied world that preached aesthetics and progressive thoughts while squandering life. Dada especially questioned the pre tentiousness of Establisment art by creating its own absurd juxtaposi tions of anti-art. Dada's usual method-its modus operencli-wils to wage il guerrilla warfare against Establishment materialism by employing the and language of that materialism as its own wea pons of il ttilck. Which brings us fi nally to the topic of cartography, and to the introduc tion of our Dada Millennium Map of the Un ited States. We were sur prised to discover that peacetime and wartime cartography was never either in its art, or in its science- a target fo r Dada anti-War protesters. This is strange consideri ng the extent to which ra tional ca rtography served the Wa r milch ine and subsequent destructive developments dur ing the interwar period. Cartography also contributed to the carnage of the Second Wo rld War, and since then has increasingly served myriad exploitive corporate machinations against humanity il nd nature that have raised profi ts while squandering plant, animal and human life around the world, right on clown to the present. "Down to the present" is the appropriate phrase here. It conjures our ilbyssmal fu ture, given present trends. We appreciate that Dada nihil ism, as expressed in its art fo rms, WilS against both the world "as it is" and the future. What W. B. Ye at's, Leonard Cohen, Joseph Heller, the Dadaist poets and ourselves all protest in common is that the world "as it is" stinks, and the that the fu ture is murder. This sentimen t is often ca lled Nietzschean nihilism, after the philoso pher-gone-mad Friedrich Nietzsche. Nietzsche's dysrational anti-phi losophy valorized the insidious power of the absurd to destabilize any progressive thought or ra lional-u til itarian order. In geography. the underground Globehead! journal of extreme geography, launched by graduate student cartographers at Penn State in 1994, anticipated our Dada map by exploring the destabilizing potential of cri tica l, ilbsurclist and transformative cartogrilphies. Our own absurdist Dada cartography as presented in this map of the United States is inspired by Nietzsche's philosophical aphorisms. On the reverse of our map we juxtapose some of his aphorisms to a run ning contemporary ch ronicle of local events: Dadaists once read the daily newspapers aloud and ca lled it poetry. Likewise, we fi nd, salvage and recycle old news text to empower the insignificants of the past-and then ca ll it "philosophy:· The map side protests the logic of points, lines and polygons by instead 66 evoking image fragments in stamp art that correspond ambiguously to vaguely familiar places. While not all stamp art is protest art, some of our stamp images, in the eyes of each beholder, may be perceived as vivid metaphors that employ the most abstruse absurdities to reveal the overall irrelevance of an absurd empirical world dancing on its own deathbed. If the beholders of our map want to add their own images to express their own protest, space is available. One of the absurdities of the Dada Map is that it is never complete; always a work in progress. To gether, the text and images constitute a critique of socio-economic and environmental conditions across the United States on the threshold of the second millennium. The deliberate irrationality of our Dada map negates the laws of beauty and organization in traditional mapping. Designed to be mailed instead of fi led, framed or referenced, our absurdist cartography partakes in an interdisciplinary, international, and largely underground correspondence art movement whose members most likely would be amused instead of outraged by the emergence of an anti- or parallel cartography. And, as a mailed item, our Dada map "corresponds" to the world in an ambiguous sense of the word, by refusing to correspond to the Establishment's traditional perceptions of what constitutes an acceptable representation of the rea l, or a cartographic truth. In its typography, layout and philosophy, the Dada Millennium Map of the United States defiantly violates all the conventions of good taste in cartographic publishing. In conclusion, we began by asking "What might be the outcome of bending the traditional rules of cartography in favor of chance?" One outcome is our Dada Map, a product of an alternative cartography that is appropriate to serving-not another Wa r Machine-but serving as everyone's own doormap to the end of the millenium. Look to your mailbox soon for the Dada Millennium Map. Unfold it. Behold it. Wipe your feet on it. The next two pages show reduced sized illustrations of the full Dada Millennium Map of the United States, which will be mailed separately to all members of the California Geographical Society. 67 68 69 70 Thiessen's ReiDarkabl e Polygons Mnrk P Ku111lcr California State University, San Bernardino Abstract: This article presents iln onolysis of Alfred Thiessen's 191 1 work which intro duced geographers to the concept of Th iessen polygons, also known ilS Dirichlet regions or Vo ronoi polygons. 'l11e investigntion reproduces Thiessen's example fo r precipitiltion dota and reveals a remarkoble, cu rious naw. Although Thie�sPn described correctly the procedure fo r delineoting the polygons, his exilmple oppears to hove been mis-delineoted, perhaps intentionolly, such thilt the areil-weighted averoge would yield precisely the some ilnswer that would be obtained if the precipitation value was known everywhere. Possible reasons fo r this deception are considered, ami a reconsideration of the polygons' name is recommended. Key Wo rd s: Dirichlet regions, Vo ronoi polygons, Wigner-Seitz regions, pil tlwlogical science. Introduction In the July 1911 issue of Monthly Wea ther Review, Alfred Thiessen pre sented a procedure fo r estimating the average fo r an area in wh ich the locations with known values are unevenly distributed. The technique relies on the delineation of boundaries about each observa tion point to create polygons that enclose all points nearer one observation point than any other (Th iessen 1911). These polygons have come to be known as Tl!iessm polygons, and they are widely used in geographical and other spatial studies. For an exhaustive review of these polygons (over 600 references), including their definition, history, computation, statistical properties, and applications, see Okabe, Boots and Sugihara (1992). This paper will reveal a flawin Thiessen's original presentation - a flaw that gave his polygons a rather remarkable property - and it will put fo rth some possible explanations fo r the mistake. Baffiground Alfred Thiessen was a climatologist with the United States Army. He was also a Councillor and· charter member of the American Meteoro logical Society, and he served as Observer, District Forcaster, and District Editor for the U.S. Weather Bureau in the early 1 900s (Bulletin of the AMS, 1936). In Thiessen's early years as an Observer fo r the We ather Bureau, he contributed numerous reports on advances in a wide va ri ety of scientific disciplines related to climatology, including "Dust in the Atmosphere", "Snow Rollers", "The Blue Color of the Sky", and "A n Expla nation ofWireless Te legraphy" (Thiessen, 1899a, 1899b, 1899c, ancl 1902, respectively). From July 1909 through 1913 the Monthly Wea ther Review included climatic summaries fo r each of twelve large wea ther 71 districts of the U.S., which corresponded roughly with the country's largest drainage basins. During these years Thiessen served as District Editor fo r District No. 10, Great Basin, and he authored monthly sum maries of the district's climate. The summaries often included a deli tiona! information, related to the interests of the individual editors, and they often served as "sounding boards" fo r the editors' ideas. It was in the July 191 1 issue of Monthly Wea ther Review that Thiessen published his now-famous description of a procedure fo r determining the bound aries fo r an area-weighted average. Thiessen's Problem, and His Perfed Solution Thiessen presented his idea as a question about how to estimate the average rainfall over an area in which the observa tion points are ir regularly distributed. In his hypothetical example the true preci pitation was known fo r weather stations at the centers of each square in a fo ur by-four matrix of sixteen squares, and three scenarios were considered in which only six of the sixteen stations reported thei r precipitation values (as might be the case if there were communication problems caused by bad weather). Thiessen's example is reproduced here as Fig ures 1-4. Figure 1 (Case 1) is the "truth", where the precipitation is known fo r all sixteen stations, and Figures 2, 3, and 4 are the three possible cases. The simple, unweighted average of the complete set of sixteen mea surements was 1.875 inches (rounded to 1.88 inches in the original). The simple unweighted averages fo r all cases are presented in Ta ble 1, along with the error, or "variation" of each estimate, which Thiessen reported as a percentage "too high" (above) or "too low" (below) the !rue value. Th iessen highlighted the fa ct that the simple averages yielded errors ("variations") ranging fro m 24 percent too low to 15 percen t too high, and then presented his proposed "solution": "The discord station should represent the amount fo r only that region inclosed by ,1 line midway between the station under consideration and the surrounding stations. Giving, therefore, each station its proper weight in reference to the area which it represents, we have instead of the fo rmer equation the fo llowing.. :· (Thiessen. 191 1, p. 108)) Th iessen proceeded to illustrate his solution by considering Case 3. He identified boundary lines between the regions - ostensibly by fo llow ing the rules described above (reproduced here as Figure 5) - and he computed a new area-weighted average. Using weights proport ional to 72 the areas of the regions he delineated, Thiessen obtained a value of 1.88 inches "which is the true average for the area" (i.e. it equaled the aver age of the entire set of sixteen values). Yes, it appeared somewhat re markable that Thiessen had acquired the exact solution, with a sample of only six of sixteen observations and a novel set of boundaries and weights. Thiessen's Flaws A few trivial errors occur in Thiessen's example. Case 1 ("the truth") is reported as having an average of 1.88, whereas the exact value is 1.875. While it may be argued that this .005 difference is a simple effect of rounding, and not an error per se, it has repercussions in succeeding calculations. In Case 2, the average is reported as 2.17 instead of2.166 ... , leading to a reported variation of 15% instead of the more accurate 16% (the exact value is 15.55 ...%). In Case 3, the average is reported as 1.83 instead of 1.833 ... , leading to a reported variation of 30/o instead of the more accurate 2% (the exact value is 2.22... %). And in Case 4, a single digit appears to have been transposed in the recording of the average as 1.43 instead of the exact 1.33 ... ; this led to the variance being mistak enly reported as 24% when in fact it is 28.88 ...0!o. All of these numbers are presented in Table 2. The above errors would not be noteworthy if it were not fo r the one gross error that Thiessen made: a severe mis-delineation of the bound aries between the regions. Figure 6 depicts both Thiessen's delineation and a proper delineation for Case 3-the proper delineation having been obtained by following the procedure outlined correctly in Thiessen's own text. Note that Thiessen did not include boundary lines between regions with the same value, as they had no effect on the average, but they are included in Figure 6 to fa cilitate this comparison. To further facilitate a comparison of the two delineations, several "nodes" have been identified at intersections of boundary lines with each other or with the region's perimeter, as well as at all bends along a line. The nodes are labeled with lower-case letters, and their shifts-between Thiessen's delineation and a proper delineation-are indicated with ar rows in Figure 6b. Note that it is necessary to infer the locations of some of these nodes, since there is not a one-to-one relationship between physical nodes in the two networks. Nodes c, d, and e, for example, are not intersections in Thiessen's delineation, but their locations have been inferred. Similarly, nodes h and i are present in Thiessen's delineation at breaks in direction along lines, but in the proper delineation there are no such breaks. Where it has been necessary to infer the location of a node, the most generous location possible has been selected, i.e. the 73 node has been located such that the difference in location between the two delineations is minimized. Consider the differences in the delineations by first examining the bound ary line between the 'T' and the "2" in the lower left quadrant. Th iessen has drawn a boundilry vertically from "d" to "h" and then at a slight angle to "j", whereas the proper boundary would fo llow the perpen dicular bisector between the centers at a 45° angle (illustrated in 6b). Similarly, the boundary between this same "2" and the 'T' in the lower right cornershould fo llow the perpendicular bisector, not the irregu lar "f" to "i" to "k" boundary drawn by Thiessen. Additional discrepancies occur between the interior "2 " and the 'T' in the upper-left corner, and between the interior "2" and the "4" in the upper-right. These errors in the delineation of region boundaries are not trivial. As drawn by Thiessen, they yield a weighted average of 1.88, wh ich is pre cisely the same answer he obtained from all sixteen observations. When properly drawn, an area-weighted average yields a va lue of !.9375, or approximately 3.33% "too high". A Simple Mistake, Pathological Science, or Just t•lain Fraud? Whereas the minor flaws detailed in the beginning of the previous section may all be considered simple mistakes, as they appear to be inadvertent and they do not affect significantly the conclusion, the mis-delineation, which led to polygons that yielded precisely the Silme answer that one would have obtained if the values at all sixteen stations were known, is a significant error and begs an explanation. Was this inadvertent, subconscious, or just plain fril udulent? Referring again to figures 6a and 6b, one can see that. fo ur nodes were mislocilted. Perimeter nodes a, b, c, g, and k are all in their proper loca tions, but internalno des d, f, and i were mis-located by one-half cell, as was perimeter node j. If one were to give Th iessen the benefi t of the doubt-i.e., assume that he was just a bit careless wi th. his numbers, i.lS evidenced in the trivial errors-one might assume that i.l few such mis-locations are understandable (or at least typical), and they should be dismissed as relatively unimportant to the presenti.ltion. One might fu rther assume that mis-loca tions of one-halfa cell edge Me rei.lsoni.lble errors, or at least reasonably acceptable given thi.lt one is being i.l bit sloppy with the geometry Wi th these generous assumptions, let us consider Thiessen's errors. Fnu r internal nodes were misplaced by one-hillfce lL and one perimeter node 74 was misplaced by one-half cell. Each of the internal nodes could have been mislocatecl by a half-cell in fo ur diffe rent directions, and the pe rimeter node could have been misloca ted be a half-cell in either of two directions. There are thus 4 "4 possible combinations of mislocations of the four internal nodes, plus two possible mislocations of the perimeter node, for a total of 4 "4*2, or 512, possible ways to make this number of these kinds of errors. If one considers the possibility of stumbling on the correct locations fo r some of these nodes (thus factori ng in the pos sibility of making fewer errors), the number swells to 1874 (5 "4 * 3- 1, the 1 being the correct solution) possible ways to mislocate some or all of these five nodes. Of this very large number of possible ways to make these kinds of errors, it is, in this author's opinion, truly remarkable that Th iessen stumbled on one mis-delineation that generates a weighted average of exactly 1.88 inches. Given that it seems quite unlikely that Thiessen stumbled on such a perfectly erroneous solution by chance, we must consider whether it was an intentional deception or a case of pathological science. The term "pathological science" is credited to Nobel-laureate Irving Langmuir (1881-1957). Langmuir spent many years pursuing Nobel-caliber research in chemistry; he also had a hobby of investigating science that he termed "pathological". Langmuir characterized these cases as " ... where there is no dishonesty involved, but where people are tricked into fa lse resu lts by a lack of understanding about what human beings can do to them selves in the way of being led astray by subjective effects, wishf"L1 l think ing, or threshold interactions" (Langmuir 1953). Langmuir invest igated and revealed several such cases in particle physics, isotopic chemistry. and parapsychology (extrasensory perception). More recently the term has been applied to several cases in the fi eld of nuclear chemistry, the most notable being the much-publicized "discovery" of cold f"L1sion by Pons and Fleischmann (reviewed in Rousseau 1992, and Cromer 1993). Langmuir listed six symptoms that he considered characteristic of patho logical science. Two that might apply to Thiessen are "claims of great accuracy" and "the effect is of a magnitude that remains close to the limit of detectability" (Langmuir 1953). There is no question that Thiessen's polygons were highly accura te: their weighted average led to a perfect estimate. But what was the magnitude of the effect? How much improvement was effected by using Thiessen's approach instead of the simple unweighted average? Ta ble 2 presents both the simple unweighted average and the (prop erly-delineated) Thiessen-weighted average fo r each of Th iessen's three cases. Note that in Cases 2 and 4 the Thiessen-weighted average yields a significantly better estimate than the simple average does, but in Case 75 3-the case that Th iessen unwittingly selected to illust nte his point-the simple unweighted average is in fa ct more accuril te. The simrle unweighted average yields an estimate 2.22 ...0/o "too low", while il prop erly-delineilted Thiessen-weighted average yields an estimate 3.33 ... % "too high". Not only is the magnitude of the effect ril ther slight, it is in the wrong direction; if Th iessen had not mis-clelineatecl his polygon boundaries, his ilreal-weighting would have increased the magnitude of the error of the estimate by a f1. lll SOO/o ! In trying to assess whether the magnitude was near the limit of detect ability, one must consider both the apparent effect (based on the mis delineation) and the real effect. The apparent effect was dramiltic-an elimination of all error, whereas the real effect is equally dramatic-the estimate does not improve at all but in fact becomes worse. Considering both possibilities, it seems inappropriate to characterize the effe ct as "near the limit of delectability". Th iessen's example then meets only one of the six symptoms that Langmuir offered for pathological science, and it seems unfair to characterize Th iessen as a self-deluded pilthological scientist. The one remaining possible explanation, however. is even less chari table: that Thiessen's mis-delineation was simply fra udulent. It could be that Th iessen, hoping to promote his idea, may have stMted with a proper delineation and then manipulated the boundilries until he ob tilined a weighted average that matched precisely the true average. This is no simple feat-as the reader might discover by trying to adjust bound aries from figu re 6b to achieve an average of exactly l.B75-but it could be done. Condusion Thiessen's polygons were tnlly remarkable. Although Thiessen described correctly the procedure fo r their construction-a procedure that is widely used today in many geographical studies-he illustrated his idea with a perfectly erroneous delinea tion. In his example, properly-constructed Th iessen polygons yield a weighted average that is 3.33% greater than the truth, yet Th iessen's mis-delineated polygons yield the exact truth. Whether this was inadvertent. a case of pathologica l science, or mere fTa ud we shall never know. But it certainly appears unlikely that it wi.ls inadvertent. These polygons - or regions thi.ltencom pass all points nei.lrer an obser Vi.ltion point thiln any other point - have been "discovered" indepen dently by mi.lny individuals in i.l vilriety of fi elds. In mathematics they are known as Diriclrlct rcgio11s or Vo rorwi polygo11s, afier mathematiciilns who 76 introduced them in 1850 and 1908, respectively (Dirichlet 1850, Vo ronoi 1908). In physics they are known as Wig11cr-Scilz regions (Wigner and Seitz, 1933) or "domains of the atom" (frank and Kasper, 1958). And in ecology they were introduced relatively recently as "plrml polygo11s" (Mead, 1 966). Given the errors that Thiessen made in his original presentation, I rec ommend that henceforth these polygons be known no longer as Tl1iesscrr polygons, but ra ther as Diriclllcl regiorrs, after the mathematician who first introduced them to the scientific cotTtmunity in 1850. Referenc:es Boots, B.N. 1986. Vo ronoi (Thiessen) Polygons. Concepts ilnd Te chniques in Modern Ge ography (CArM OG) 45, (Non�·ich, UK: Geo Books), 51 pages. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, Januilry 1936, 17(1), p. 18. Cromer, A. 1993. Pathological Science: An Up dille. Skeplicnl lllqllim; 17(4):400--407, Summer. Dirichlet, G.L. 1850. Uber die reduction der positeven quadratischen fo rmen mit drei unbestimmten ganzen Zilhlen. /oumnl fiir die Rei11e 111111 A11gewmu/1e t\tlalllr'l llnlik, 40:209-227. Frank, F.C. and J.S. Kasper 1958. Complex Alloy Structures Regarded ilS Sphere Pilckings. I. Definitions ilnd Bilsic Principles. A cia Cryslnllogmpllicn, 11:184-1 90. Horton, R.E. 1917. Rational study of rilinfall diltil makes possible better estimiltes of willer yield. E11gi11eeri119 News-l�emrd, 79:21 1-213. IOka] La ngmuir, I. 1953. Pilthological Science. Transcribed ilnd edited by R.N. Hilll from a microgroove disk fo und among Langmuir's pilpers in the Library of Congress of il collo 13 1953. 2 36-48, quium given at the Knolls Research Laboratory, December l'hysic.� 'lurlay. 4 : October 1989. Mead, R. 1966. A Relationship Between Individuill Plilnt Spacing and Yield. A111111ls of llolm1y. N.S., 30:301-309. Okabe, A., B. Boots, and K. Sugihara 1992. Spiltiill .lessellations: Concepts and Appli Ciltions of Vo ronoi Diagrilms. (England: Wiley), 521 pilges. Rousseau, Denis L. 1992. Case Studies in Pathologicill Science: How the loss of objectiv ity led to fa lse conclusions in studies of polywater, infinite dilution, ilnd cold fl 1sion. A111crim11 Scimlisl, 80(1): 54-63, ]il nuil ry. Thiessen, A. H. 1899a. The Dust in the Atmosphere. Mo111lily Wea lher Rn•ifl1\ 27(2): 63, February. ___ 1899b. Snow Rollers. Mcmlhly Wea lher l�l'view, 27(3): 100, Mitrch. ___ 1899c. The Blue Color of the Sky. Mv111hly Wrn lher /�eview, 27(3): 11.3-1 14, Milrch. ___ 1902. An Explilniltion of Wireless ·lelegrilphy. Mo111hly Wea l her l�cview, 30(12): 570- 576, December. 1911. 39(7): 1082- ___ Precipitation Averages for Large Areils. Mmrlhly We alher Revinl\ 1084, July. Vo ronoi, G. 1908. Nouvelles il pplications des pilrilmetres continus ilia theorie des fo rmes qtlildratiques, deuxieme memoire, recherches sur les pil rillleloedres primitifs. /uuma/fiirr/ir Rime uud A11gewrmdle Malhmralik, 134: 198-287. Wigner, E. and F. Seitz 1933. On the Constitution of Metilllic Sodium. l'hysiml Rcvir'W, 43:804-810. 77 Ta ble 1 Averages and variations from true amount for Thiessen's cases. Number Average of ppn, in Variation stations inches from true amount Case 1 16 1.88 0. Case 2 6 2.17 15 percent too high. Case 3 6 1.83 3 percent too low. Case 4 6 1.43 24 percent too low. Ta ble 2 Averages and variations from true amount for Thiessen's cases. The leftmost four fields in this table are verbatim from Thiessen's original article. Number Average of ppn, in Variation Exact Exact stations inches from true amount Average "Variation" Case 1 16 1.88 0. 1.875 0.0 Case 2 6 2.17 15 percent too high. 2.166 ... 15.55 ...% high Case 3 6 1.83 3 percent too low. 1.833 ... 2.22 ...% low Case 4 6 1.43 24 percent too low. 1.333 ... 28.88 ...% low Ta ble 3 Simple unweighted and Thiessen-polygon-weighted averages for Cases 2, 3, and 4. Number Simple Error Thiessen- Error of unweighted or weighted or stations average "Variation" average "Variation" Case 1 16 1.875 0. 1.875 0.0 Case 2 6 2.166... +15.55 ...% 1.825 -2.66 ...% Case 3 6 1.833 ... -2.22 ...% 1.9375 +3.33 ...% Case 4 6 1.333 ... -28.88... % 1. 7265625 -7.9166 ...% 78 1 2 3 4 1 3 4 1 2 3 3 3 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 Case 1, Fig. 1 Case 2, Fig. 2 1 2 4 1 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 Case 3, Fig. 3 Case 4, Fig. 4 ' I I I I 1 2 I I 4 ------L - _.J____ I I I I I I I I ---. ---- ,- I - I I I 2 I I -- ___ .J ____ I - \-- I I 1 1 I Fig . 5 Figures These figures are re-drawings of those in Thiessen's originalarticl e. The 1-5. - figures and cases are numbered here as in the original, for ease of comparison. 79 a b a b 1 2 I I 4 ----'- _ .J ____ 1 - c 1 Thiessen 's Polygons Proper Thiessen Polygons Figure 6. Thiessen's incorrect delineations (a) and the proper delineation (b) I I 3 I I 3 1 4 1 I I 4 ___ .J __ - '- --- I - 3 I I 3 I I I �--- - I y·I I I I ___ .J ______J ____ I I I I 1 1 1 I I 1 I I Case 2 Thiessen Polygons for Case 2 1 1 3 1 1 ----'--I 1 1 1 1 1 ] Ca se 4 Thiessen Polygons for Case 4 Figure 7. Thiessen's Cases 2 and 4, and their corresponding Thiessen polygonizations. 80 Geographi£ Chroni£1es 81 Ve ntura Meeting The 53rd Auruwl Mecliug of tire Califomia Geogmplriml Socictr was lll'ld 011 April 3D, May 1-2, 1999 at CS U, Clraurrl'l Tslmuls. t•OSTERS: Philip Capo, Loan Le, and Nathaniel Kelso, Humboldt State University Huurlmltl/ Bay Area Tm rrsil Map To m Carlson, University of California,Davis Tire EJfefls of ClirrrnlcVa riatiorr orr Su/J alpiue Trecliuc, MI. Shasta, Califorrria Melanie A. Casey, Palomar College The Rclatiousllip Bctweeu Rairifa ll aud Wildlmrd Fires Barbara Feist, Cosumnes River College Cu/Ja: tire errd of the Soviet lcgacr /Jriugs uew ewuouric policy Verena Kellner and Doug Morton, Humboldt State University Tmvcrsiug Ji·initlad, Califorrria Christina Kemp, Cosumnes River College Spirits of tire Dead: tire lmrrrrs of Matlagasmr Matthew Rosenberg, CSU, Northridge Geograplliml a111/ Hierardriml Distributiou of Los Augclcs Couutr Bookstores John N. Schmidt, Cosumnes Rjver College CorrsetJIIcrrces of Dcrrrograplric Clrauge i11 tire Federal Republic of Gmrrwrr Siuce 1945 Nikki Stuart, Cosumnes River College Will Opeuirrg Ivory Trade Lead to EleplrnutSlaughte r? Larry Wi lliams and John Carey, CSU, Chico Tire Bulle Creek Wa tcrs/r('{l Adam Wright, Karen Mino, Mike Mercurio, Humboldt Slate Un iversity Carrrpus Crirrrc at HuuriJOidt State Urrivasity 82 StJedal Poster Exhibits (non-c:omtJetitive) Wi lliam Bowen and Geogra phy Department, CSU, Northridge Geogmplry i11 tire Field mrd i11 tire La/J Alan Rice Osborn,and Barbara Fredrich, San Diego State University T/rcoplrmstus to Tm rsley: a prclinrirwry 111odel of tire evolutio11 of vcgetatio11 studies Gregory Reed, Southwest Texas State University Califomia's Nortlreast Border: pcrccptio11, pmg111atisr11, and pug11acity Kathryn Gerber, CSU, Northridge Etlmic Niclres: cliscoveri119 tlreir place to place variatio11 i11 Permsylva11ia n111l Massaclwsells Deborah Lupo, CSU, Northridge Wa ter Scm·city mrd To mis111: mr mralysis of tire isla11cl of Malta Michael Alan Reed, San Diego State University Mobility, Nature, a11d Place i11 Swji119 Sulnulture Guy King, CSU, Chico Desert La11dscape Perceptio11 /Jy Califomia Trail E111igm11ts Chris Lukinbeal and Larry Ford, San Diego State University Sa11 Diego's Role i11 tire Westei·11 Lomtio11 Protluctioll Market James P. Allen, CSU, Northridge Spatial Pattems of Etlr11ic l11tegmtio11 in Soutlrem Cnlifomia William A. Selby, Santa Monica College Plmmi119 fo r More Diversity n11d Clw11ge i11 21st Cc11tury Califomin Betty Smith, Eastern Illinois University Effectivmess of Cnlifomia Developnwrt Agrwrrmt Legislatio11: perspectives of tire loml ln11d use plm111er George N. Nasse, CSU, Fresno Kosova (Kosovo): past a11d presmt John R. Miller, Porterville College Gm11ite Bnsi11s of tire Sierra Nevada 83 Irisita Azary, CSU, Long Beach Using tire Rosgen Classificntion System as a Pedagogical To ol Steve Berger; CSU, Los Angeles and Karl Te rrey, ESRI Sycnmore Beaclr Nears/rare Bar Project Ken Hagan, CSU Northridge Soutlr of tire Boulevard: tire gcograplry of a wenltlry residmtial wnHrrrrrritr irr soutlrmr Califomia Jessica L. Perry, Humboldt State University Rediscoverirrg tire Riclr History of Requa Eric K, Lowe, CSU Northridge Trm rsportatiorr Srstems irr tire Sarrta Clarita Va lley Kyle Oden, CSU Northridge Effe ct of Rapid Pnprrlatiorr Growtlr orr Air Quality in tire Smr ]oattuirr Va lier William Harmon, San Jose State University Multimedia Descriptions of tire Califonria Missiorrs orr tire lrrtenrct Alex A. Alonso, University of Southern California Gang Territorialitr, Graffi ti, a111i Homicides irr Los Angeles Mia Leann Dittmer, CSU Northridge Agricultural Clrarrge irr tire Sarrta Ynez Va lley, CA William Harmon, San Jose State University More Larrd irr Transition-an Examination of Indrrstrial Areas in San )nsc, CA Joseph Leeper, CSU, Humboldt Hwrr/Joldt Co untr's Altenrative Economr Revisited Cal Wilvert, Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo Population and Land Use Changes in San Luis Obispo County Bill Preston, Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo Tire Soul/rem San ]naquirr Va lley as Portrayed Tlrrouglr Litlrograplrs in tire 1880s mrd 1890s: mirror or nriragcl Kris Jones, Independent Scholar Tire Smse of Place fo r Ojai, CA 84 Stina Perry. San Francisco State Universi ty Mapping tire Food Sired: nsing W11r11rwrity 111appi11g to idmtifr fo od i11scwril)' and develop COIIIIIIUIIil)' initiatives fo r i111proving low/fo od srstmrs James R. Hotchkiss, CSU, Chico Conceptualizing Co111plex Hu111mritnrimr E11rcrgendes Cary L. Karacas, San Francisco State University Spaced Out in tire Citr: lro11rrlessness and tireJig lrtfo rpu/Jiic space i11 San Francisco John Rogan, San Diego State University Monitoring Alteration in Regiorwl Forest Stnrcture Using Multitmrporal Re111ote Smsing Daniel J. Dempsey, Humboldt State University Tire Specter of Vo lcmric Cntndrsnr in Norl/r A111crim's Pacific Nortlrwest Te rrence Hollingsworth and Erica Chenoh, Humboldt State University Tire Effects of the Glen Canyon Dn111 on the Riparian Vegetation of tire Color(J(/o RivL'I; Grmrd Cmrron Lucretia C. Melcher, CSU San Bernardino Rlnusnnd AIJ(Jfenreut in Cntlrulral Citr Hans Lechner, Humboldt State University The Armin Marsh mul Wildlife Sanctumy: tire benefits of redninred wctlalllls Michael Wa ngler, Cuyamaca College Tmorporating Local Site Diversitr into tire Physiml Geograplrr Lnl! Richard Taketa, San Jose State University To ols fo r Crmling Interactive Tnstnrclionnl Medin frolll ArcView Stephen Koletty, El Camino College Finding Nature in the Citr: tire teaching value of ur/]{111 rwture cmters Richard S. Hyslop, Cal Poly, Pomona Preventing Disaster: geography's increased role in mitigating hazards Matt Ebiner, El Camino College Plrotgmphic Principles fo r Geographers John Aubert, Palomar College Rethinking Lecture Based lnstnrction: mr active lcaming lllodclfor plrrsiwlgcograplry allll other introductorr courses 85 Bill Holder, Orange Coast College Hu111or iu tile Cultural Lmulsmpe Marcia Holstrom, San Jose State University Distance Lenming: wllat, wllere, wllo, llow? Maureen Kelley, San Jose State University Visual Perception of Orimted Po iut Sy111/Jols for Mapping Timothy W. Collins, CSU Chico Cllauging Pal/ems nf lutematiorwl Terrorism in tire Modem Era James McKay, CSU, Chico Tile Finaucing mrd State Support of Te rrorism Camron King, Sierra College Camer in Arnerim Robert Errington, CSU Northridge Jrrvasion of tile Fire Ants Jessica Epperson, Sierra College Crrituml Landsmpcs of Clliclrm-itza Larry Wi l liams, James Miel ke, Rhonda Vlask, Mary Ann Weston, and John Lance, CSU, Chico Gelling Tllcrc: Clriw to tire C/rmurc/ lslnruls Awards - not available at this time Outstanding Te aching Awards Beaton Poster Awards McKnight Paper Awards Christopherson Geosystems Award Lantis Scholarships Friend of Geography Outstanding Educator Distinguished Service Award 86 Sli111. Bauer - A Note froiD Elliot Mcintire I was delighted to see the dedication to Slim Bauer and "lorn McKnight's comments. Slim taughr fo r a couple of years at UC Riverside while T was an undergraduate there, and I took fi eld geography and a couple of other classes from him. I was also at that going away party that ·lam talks about where the Swan Lager was the star attraction. That was the work of Dick Gates, who went offto Madison fo r graduate work and was killed in a plane crash while he was there. Dick not only called the manager of the brewery and convinced him to send it, but convinced some cabin crew for Qantas to slip it aboard, and he went in to LAX to pick it up from them when it arrived. It was a great party, and we really missed Slim afterhe left. On one of our Saturday field course excursions I made a disparaging comment about the small town we happened to be passing through in the van. A few weeks later we met for the class Saturday morning with no indication of what was on for that day. As we pulled into that same small town Slim stopped, told me to get out and he would pick me up at 4 pm. In the meantime I was to fi nd out everything I could about the place - map it, history, economy, everything. He then dropped the other students in similar small towns. T learned an enormous amount from Slim, and saw him occasionally while he was at CSU Hayward. I too, meant to write in recent years, bu t never got to it. Maybe there is a lesson there fo r us; Thanks fo r putting Slim back in to my life with this issue. Elliot Mcintire Interim Associate Dean College of Social & Behavioral Sciences California State Universiry, Northridge. 2/5/1999 87 A Call fo r Authors Salem Press. an established publisher of award-winning reference books. is launching a new encyclopedia of world geography to be published in 200 1 and is seeking geographers to write fo r it. The heavily illustrated eight-volume work will be aimed at students from middle schoolers through college undergraduiltes-ilnd general readers. Stressing clear, il uthoritative explanations of basic concepts and facts, it will cover both physical and cultural geogra phy in volumes organized around major regions. It will also contain extensive gazet teers and il lengthy glossilry. The Editor wi ll be Dr. Ray Sumner. If you are interested in writing fo r this project, contact Salem Press as soon as possible to obtain a fu ller description and a list of topics to be assigned. When you apply to write, you will be asked to submit a cur rent curriculum vitae and a statement outlining the areas in which you have special interest or expertise. To part icipate in this exciting project, please contact Sillem Press imme diately, as writing assignments will be made in mid-October. The project will continue through the coming year, so don't hesitate to respond, even if you cannot meet the immediate deadline. Contact : Acquisitions Editor, Sillem Press Wri te to: 131 North El Molino Ave., #350, Pasadena. CA 91011 Te l: 626-584-0 106 fax: (626) 584- 1525 E-mail: [email protected] 88 Geographic Education 89 LBCC students in Anza Borrego Desert State Park 90 A Regional Con1parison of the Geography of the United States Mnrcin M. J-folstrolll San Jose State University Abstract: This report describes the instructions ilnd results of i1 regionill study to i1 U.S. Geogrilphyclilss ill Siln Jose Stil le University. A student project compilring regions of the United Stiltes c,1n be ilS complicilted or ilS simple ilS the course curriculum illlows. with the results of thill compilrison renecting the depth ilnd breadth of compilrison criteriil ilS signed. Delimiting regions is the first of many choices the instructor must make in con structing a project of this type for students. Th is project Ciln be modified fo r miln)' grilde levels depending on the student level. access to dillil, il nd desired instructionill outcome. Summary of J•rojcd Students were given three pages of wri tten instructions and complete instmctions verbally in class. They were given the opportunity to ask additional questions in class on several occasions. Using specific criteria listed below, students reported on observed dif fe rences and similarities among ten counties (or equiva lent political unit), one in each of ten diffe rent regions of the United Stales. The fi rs! part of this project was an eight to len page research paper, and specific instructions were included not to make a "list" of the required criteria fo r each county. Rather, the written portion of the project was to be a narrative describing the various counties, giving !he reader a "sense of place" for each county as well as a sense of the differences and similari ties among regions in which those counties were loca ted. The project assignment also included a three to five minute in-class oral presentation describing one or two important comparisons stu dents may have discovered in their investigation. The presen tations were fo llowed by a question and discussion period of about the same length of time. The oral presentations began about a week after the graded written reports were returned to !he students. This timing allowed the students to note suggestions fT om the instructor concerning the information the students had chosen to convey. Students could use these suggestions to upgrade the information presented in class, and potentially improve their grade if needed. The regions were a combination of physical and cultural ones as delim ited in the text used fo r the course, and regional maps were readily available in the text. The regions used in this project were: 91 Atlilntic Northeilst Inland South Mega lopolis Southeastc>rn Co.1st Appalilchians/Ozarks Heartland Greill Plilins/Prairies Intermontane We�t North Pacific Coast Jn selecting counties fo r this project, students needed lo fa miliarize !hem selves wi th the regional boundaries as designalecl by their tex l book. They then entered their initials on their chosen counties on a U.S. Geo logical Survey wall map of the conterminous United States which had only political boundaries fo r states and counties. For this projecl, Hawaii and Alaska were not included. The USGS map was poslecl in lhe classroom withou t the regional boundaries. By entering their inilials on the map, all students were req uired to choose diffe rent counties with no duplication except fo r Santa Clara Coun ty, which was required In be included by all students. For one county in each of nine regions and Santa Clara County (home of Jose State University) they were required to fi nd !he fo llowing informal ion: Absolute and Relative Location Name and reliltive lociltion of the County Seill Po pulation of co unty and population of IMgest city Urban-rur11l population distribution Climilte ilnd other significant physical geography fe atures Dominant type of economic activity Studen ts were also asked to find other geographic informalion about the country that might be significant in providing a basis of compari son to counties in their study. Results Making regi onal comparisons can be a complicated pursuit even fo r Geography instructors, but fo r students who have had little or no pre vious instruction in spatial concepts as applied to geographic fea tures, it sometimes becomes nearly impossible. Many of the students this class had not had a previous Geography course, and !heir K-12 geography instruction was sporadic and of inconsistent quality, as is com mon in Californiasc hools. There were those, of course, who were able grasp the - concept more easily, and who produced interesting, in depth reports. For exa mple, a few students connected climatic diffe rences, differences in economic activity, and economic activity with rural-urban popLilation differences. Some studen ts were able to associate the relative location of the county seat with the regional historical geogra phy, observing set tle ment and recent development patterns. One student commented on 92 the location of garages in some parts of the country when compared to our Californiasty le, and several students investigated the differences in population demographics when to the various ethnic groups. Most students were unclear on the intention of the classroom presenta tion. However, the instructor used this opportunity to review much of the lecture and text material by asking certain questions and making comments that were intended to help all students see how certain geo graphic fa ctors in the presentation applied or did not apply to specific regional characteristics. An interesting side effect of classroom presentations was the lack of attendance on the part of students who did not have to present that day. Presu mably this would not be as much of a factor in a high school situation, where attendance is less voluntary. Many of the students used visual aids during their presen tation. Use of these aids was a casual suggestion made by the instructor, and some the students seemed to take this ball and ru n with it. Many of the students in this particular class are fu ture Middle or High School teachers, which may explain the penchant fo r constructing posters and graphs. The use of these visual aids gave the students an excellent opportunity to experiment with materials they may use in fu ture ca reers, and gave the instructor an opportunity to comment on the value of certain types of visual aids. Observations Using only one county in a region - fo r example - as ex tensive as the Great Plains, compared to one county in Megalopolis, and Santa Clara County, does not in itself a regional comparison make. However, fo r students who have had little instruction in Geography, this project allowed them to begin to make connections and comparisons, and to deduce some reasons fo r t·hose connections. Counties located in or near the transition zone between regions may have presented a misleading similarity with a county in a neighboring region not indicative of the entire region. Because students chose coun ties from any part of the region, many of those counties were outside the core area where regional homogeneous factors were manifested more intensely. Attendance fo r classroom presentations could be improved consider ably by explaining to students that the question and discussion portion after each presentation wou ld be used as a review of the text and lecture material. Classroom presentations take a considerable amount of time, and this part of the project could not be used in a class of more 93 thun 15 or 20 students. depending on the structure of the course. Va riations of the assignment could involve choosing counties from the core ureu - if that cun be satisfactorily determined. The assignment could also include fewer criteria unci those criteria could be exa mined more depth. Another vuriation could involve assigning only two or three re gions to diffe rent students und requiring more information on counties in that region. When students make classroom presentations. the overall picture could be painted, with gentle prodding by the instructor. Regional comparisons by students invariably produce il wide va riety of results, based on information processed by the student prior to writing and presenting to the class the results of their investigation. Th is particular experience was no exception. The following pages (94-97} are the student handout. No tes Time/date selected for class presentation ------ Counties selected: Region County State Atlantic Northeast Megalopolis Inla.ndSouth Southeastern Coast A ppo.lochians/Ozarks Heartland Great Plains/Prairies Intermontane West North Pacific Coast AND SantaClara County California 94 Geography 140 - The United States INs-mucrOR: M. Hol.s-mOM TIH0900 -1015 Office: WSQ IIIC BC212, Code#16517 408-924-�97or [email protected] OfficeHours: MWF 1000-llOO TTH 1030-1130 or by appointment The Geography of The United States of America Instructions for RI!!Search Paper and Class Prt!Sentation .5hld£nts will prepare an 8-10 page n!SI!Ilrch paper describing the results 6f dn investigation of the gcwgrophic fcwtun!S of 10 counties in the United States. Ea.ch student will molce a presentation to the class describing the resultsof the invest·igation. Each studentwill chooseone county from wch of the followingregio ns, which are described cartogrophically on the inside front covu of the textbook. (Numbers are from the map.) AtlanticNorthmst (6) Inland South(10) Megalopolis{8) Southmstern Coost (11) Appa.lachions/Ozarks (9) Heartland (12) Great Plains/Prairies (13) Intermontane West (15) NorthPacific Coost (18) PLUS SontqClaro County All studerrts must choose diffe�nt counties in wch region, but must include Santo Claro County. A county map of the United States is posted in the classroom. StodeniS should eftter theirinitials (3) IN PENCIL on the !!14p as theyddermine -.hich counties they will investigate.. All initials must � ent� by the end of class on Thursday, Morch 5. Mo� certain thecounties chosenare in the appropriate regions. DO NOTenter initials in SantoClaro County. Content of Paw The research paper will descri� the following feotu� of eachcounty: Absolute ond �lotive location Climate and other significant physico.!geography feotu� Type of economicactivity Urban-rural population distribution Population of county ond population of largest city Nameond �lative location of the county seat The popersho uld also include othu gcwgrophic information about the county that the student feels is important in giving the �er a •sense of place·. 95 The paper will include a comparison of the. above features among the 10 counties and observations on the. possible. reasons for differences andsimilarities. Do not make a •nst• of the above features for each county. A combination of all of the aboveinformation should tell a story about a YOrie.ty of places. andgi ve the reader (and writer) an understanding of what these places are like andwhy. A conclusion to the. paper should describew hat the student discovered in this investigation. Format The paper must be'typed or computer ge.ne.roted. Use a size 10 or smaH 12 font. double spacet he text, and use t• marginson the. top, bottomand sides. NO handwritten pages will beaccepted. Include a CO'ver page but no plastic or other special cover. Include a bibliography but no footnotes or endnotes. Web sites used should be fisted in the bibliography with the exactaddress so they con be checked. Other bibliographic references should include page numbers where releYOnt information was found. The paper must be at least 8 pages in length, but no longer than 12 pages. The cover page and the bibliographyare not included in this page. numberrequirement. Any stl.ldent who chooses to cortographicolly display some of the required information should consultthe. instructor before beginning the project. Otherwise, any YOriation in the required format will result in points being deducted. Style and form of wl"iting, spelling, punctuation and gl"ammar will be included in grading aiterio.. Class Presentation Each student will present to the class the re.sutts of her/his investigation. Students will have r«eived their gr-aded papersapproximately onewu.k beforepresentations begin. They should take adYOntage of this time to cor� anypro blems in their' papersthat might reflect in a lower gr-ade on theclass presentation. Comments on the retul"ned paper should make thesepossible problem s apparent in adYOnce. Each presentationshould last appro)(imotely 5 minutes, with an additional .5 minutes or so for questions and/or discussion. The presentations will take place during the class periods on Thursday, April 23. Tuesday, April 28, and Thul"sday, April 30. There will be no presentations accepted at any other time. Sign up sheets fol" class presentation times will beposted in the classroom. Students are responsible for entering their I'ICliM5 in times they concommit to without changes. 96 Point Distribution for Project Grode Written presentation 100 pointsas follows �ccuracyof data 20 points Style. form, language skills 20 points Inclusion of required information 20 points Description of comparison 20 points Conclusion 20 points Class presentation 50 poirrts as follows Organiz.ation (including timing) 25 points Descriptive skill 25 points Schedule and Rules Sfuderrts who have not entered their initials on counties on the map by the end of class on Thursday, March 5. will have 5 points deducted for every class period counties ere not chosen. Make certain initials are easily read and IN PENCIL Any student using a pen on the map will purchase a new map for the instruCTor. Maps are :JVoi iabie at the U.S. Geological SurYeyMap Store in Menlo Park. Papers received byany method of delivery after 9:00 a.m. on Thursday, April 9, will have 10 points deducted for every class period the paper is late. Students who are not in class for the �cheduled time of their presentation wi ll not receive credit for this portion of the project. Que.stions? Please do not hesitate to visit the instructor during office hours or communicate by telephone or e-mail as listed at the beginning of these instructions. This project is intended to be fun and interesting and to contribute to the student's understandi119 of places in the United States. �llow plenty of time to find the data, which is readily avai lable in reference books and through the World Wide Web. The secret to success? START NOW. Don't wait until you do not have enough time to successfully complete this project. Plan ahead. 97 GIS Wo rkshop: An Introduc::tion to Arc::Vi ew Kntl!y Durcl Antelope Valley College Riverside Co m munity Co llege was host to a GIS workshop sponsored by ESRI (Environmental Research Systems lnstitute) on February II b 12, 1999. A growing number of community colleges ore including CIS courses into the cu rriculum. This interest has resulted in cl need f()r community college fa culty to beco me more fo miliM with vMious ospects of GIS in order to provide quality GIS instruction. There is il lso o need fo r stimuloting ond chollenging curriculo, colleague interi1 clion, <1ncl networking on the new GIS frontier - <1 ll of this wos provided il l this workshop. The two-cloy course at Riverside Co mmunity College wos made possible with i1 gront of $5 1 ,000 fro m the ColifornioChancellor 's Office. Economic Development, obtoinecl by Mars hall Gartenli1ub, Director, Applied Competitive Te ch nologies, Fresno City Col lege. The gr<1nt will enable continued training in GIS of fa culty throughout the stclte. The Gr By assisting in the training of over 60 instructors from a diversity of ocademic and voci1tioni11 fi elds these fi rms h<1ve mode possible the transfer of new technologies to many hundreds of students. ESRI i1 nd Autodesk have agreed to supply software to support the ongoing trilining of College Filctilty. Twenty-two participi1nts fro m several southland colleges such as Ante lope Va lley College, Pierce College, Rio Hondo Community co llege. P<1lomar Community Co llege, to name a fe w, attended the Riverside intensive training in the 3.1 version of the GIS softwMe ArcView. Rubbing elbows with <1llof us were NCGE president, Gilil Hohhs, cl nd "CaliforniaGe ogril pher" Editor, Ray Sumner. 98 Authorized ESRI instructors. Mike Klinefe lter of UC Riverside If you are interested in the ArcView GIS software, visit ESRI's Vi rtual Campus at: http://ca mpus.esri.com. GIS Workshop - Instructor Chris Crown (far right) 99 Book Review EnrtlllJ!Wkes: Science nnd Society by David S. Brumbaugh Eartl1quakcs: Science nnd Society by David S. Brumbaugh is more than a textbook on earthquakes. Although written fo r a one semester college geology class fo r non-science majors, its subject matter is import Let our analysis begin with a well organized table of contents. Should a reader wa nt to look fi rs t at a particular subject, no problem! It will appear in one of the twelve chapters where all the major subjects are listed in a clear outline fo rmat with just enough detail so as not to overwhelm you. And in three appendices, the author gives some very important information that will be helpful to fi nd such things as the nearest government agency where anyone can get more information. Phone numbers of <1!1 the agencies are listed. If this does not convince you to go out and fi nd this book at your local bookstore, then maybe the Computer-based Earthquake information in Appendix B wi ll entice you with its comprehensive list of web sites. In Appendix C. the author has listed some of the best sources in print on earthquakes in chrono logical order beginning with 1927 and continuing to 1997. In addition, suggested readings are listed by date, title, author, and page number, including recent relevant articles in the National Geographic, Newsweek, and Time are listed. What I fo und to be another high point is the attent ion to detail by providing clear illustrations fo r those of us (myself incl uded) who need to visualize what appears in print. The author has gone above and beyond the call, I believe, by providing the reader with information about each illustration by author, publication, date, pages, etc. Now fo r a brief view of each section. Part One begins with a timely and 100 concise discussion of the myths, legends, and the understanding of the theories of Earthquakes. Brumbaugh uses elastic rebound theory to help explain the San francisco Earthquake of April 18, 1906. Foe example, on page 16 in Box 1.2, the author illustrates how elastic rebound works when rocks ure deformed to their elastic limits and break in response to relentless fo rce. A two page summary fo llowed by a listing of key words helps the reader fo cus on the import;mt ideas here. Chapter Two con tinues to lead the reader to a more complete understanding of Eorth quakes by tackling the subject of measuring the strength of Quakes in terms of ground shaking and damage to the land and structures. Even the design of seismometers is discussed and illustrated. As early seis mometers involved pendulums, the fo rmula fo r understanding the back and fo rth (period) motion of the pendulum is explained in clear lan guage. The author takes us a step fu rther when he discusses seismic waves, i.e., P and S Waves. He provides the fo rmulae that describe the relationship between these shock waves, their speed, and the physical properties of rock. This part concludes with a discussion of eorthq ua kes, fa ults, topography, and how to recognized the role of fa ults in the development of landforms we see everyday in our commute to work or the trip to the market Illustrations of fa ult sca rps and blind thrusts should turnyou on especially if you ex perienced the eart hquake in Northridge, California,at 4:31 AM on the morning of January 17, 1994. Part Tw o moves from the landscapes fo rmed by Earthquake fa ults to data analysis and the contributions to science this analysis has made. first: how do seismologists pinpoint the ground zero or where an earth quake originated? And more importantly, how do scientists figure ou t how fa r below the surface the break occurred? The answers to these questions along with earthquake size, ground motion, and the fa ult plane solution help give the reader the ability to understand earth quakes and how they are not all the same. In the treatment of earth quake modeling, the ability to predict where stress is building and where future quakes make occur may not excite real estate agents, but this should excite you and cou ld even help to determ ine where to buy or not buy a home. If this reviewer were to single out a chapter that will help readers un derstand why Earthquakes occur where they do, then Chapter Six is the chapter to read caref-ully. Th is Chapter on Plate tectonics begins with an introduction on page 105. By its conclusion on page 121, the reader realizes that earthquakes are associated wi th mountain bu ilding wh ich occurs at the boundaries of large pieces of the earth's crust e<11led crustal plates. Here is where they are pulling apart, merging and sinking, or as in the case of California,si deswiping one another like some minor fe nder bender we hear about on the radio each morning and afternoon of our 101 daily work commute. If the shapes of the vehicles involved changes a bit, so does the shape of the land where these processes are occurring. The author shows a great picture of this kind of activity along the San Andreas Fault in Palmdale, California. In Chapter Seven, Brumbaugh takes us on a journey to the center of the Earth using seismic waves like an x-ray to look more intimately as the Earth's interior. Get ready fo r a little geometry and some straightforward fo rmulas to give a more com plete picture. Maybe more of us would cuddle up to math if earthquake geometry had been used in more of our math classes. Now that you have a very good idea of what to expect from Enr/111/wrkcs, why buy the book? You need to consider the subject matter of the this last section if you are wondering when the next damaging quake will occur. Will it destroy my house, condo, or apartment unit? Will it kill me or my loved ones? What will be comforting is that many of these questions will be answered clearly. And you wi ll learn how to better prepare fo r the next one which could be the big one. With all the sci ence we have developed to this point, we still have no accurate idea of the magnitude of the fo rces that are in motion that lead to earthquakes. But know this: if you learn from Brumbaugh the nature of quakes and how human evolution is associated with plate tectonics, then you be on par with the seismologists. And if you look at your place of wo rk and home, and fo llow Brumbaugh's simple plan, much of the fe ar of earthquakes will disappear. Many of the lessons of Brumbaugh's analysis of Global Earthquake risk zones will allow you to travel as a well informed scientist. Yo u will know where there is active mountain building and thus you ca n avoid some of the life threatening risks of solifluction, tsunamis, landslides, and avalanches that could put a finalend to your visit. Lastly, David S. Brumbaugh has written what I feel is a solid book in a straight fo rward approach without the pretension of an academic trying to impress his peers. Tf you are curious, know that this book covers every fa cet of earthquakes. Yo u live in Earthquake county! Buy and read the book to help prepare and protect you r loved ones! Richard Raskoff, Professor of Geography, LA Va lley College. [email protected] 102 EDITORIAL POLICY The California Geographer is i1 refereed ilnnuill publiciltion of the Cil liforniil Geo graphical Society. The Society welcomes milnuscripts in the fo llowing Ciltegories: I. Geographic:sc:holarship - refereed il rticles that reflect the diverse interests of our membership. Submissions mily include il ll regions, sub-fields, ilnd geogril phic techniques. 2. Geographic: Chronid,�s - shorter items of general geogmphic interest, including thesis abstracts and preliminary research findings, notices of professional meetings, grant and study opportunities, travel advisories, book reviews, discussions of current debates, literature and theory related to geography (subject to editorial review). 3. Geographic: Educ:ation - articles, teaching techniques, innovative classroom ac tivities, and other items that stimulille geographic education at all levels. Guidelines fo r submission: I. Papers are subject to anonymous review and should not identify the author except on the cover page. 2. Papers thilt hilve been previously published or ilre currently being considered fo r pub licil tion elsewhere Cilnnot be considered. 3. Pleilse submit three pi! per copies, typed il nd double spilced. These will not be returned. Milnuscripts illso submitted on disk ilre preferred, either ilS iln ASCII fi le, or in a com monly used word processing progrilm. 4. Manuscripts should conform to the general gu idelines published each yeilr in the Milrd1 issue ofThe ANNALS OF TH E ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN GEOGRAPHERS. All photo graphs, diagrams ilnd milps must be numbered ilS figures ilnd be cilmeril-reildy, or in digitill fo rm. 5. Origir1ill research ilrticles should not normally exceed 10 000words. Please indicate the total number of words on the cover pilge. 6. Both manuscript ed iting il nd review by referees will fo cus on clilrity il nd succinctness. Please address manuscripts il nd inquiries to Ray Sumner, Editor - The Cnlijim1in Gcu!]rnplier, Long Beach City College, 490 1 East Cilrson St, Long Beilch CA 90808, or [email protected] 103 Subs.:ritJtion Information The CaliforniaGe ographer domestic subscription ra te is $10 per year, the fo reign rate is $14.95. Questions re garding subscriptions should be directed lo: The CaliforniaGe ographical Society I 149 E. Steffen Street Glendora, CA 91741 104 I Ernst Klett I Haack-Perthes Maps Attention: Geography & Social Science Depts. Fur more than 200 years Perthes has been the leading producer of high quality Wall Maps. Our Haac:k-Perthes Maps are known fo r their qual ity all over the world. Many colleges purchased these maps through a f w of our US sources up to 15 or 20 years ago. I aiU happy to say the I aack-Perthes maps are once again available. i\l y company has set up distribution of these maps direcllyfrom Stutt gart, (, rmany and has been shipping since January 1999. We have a direct � urce to import Klett maps fromGer many through the West coast. We c ·e making at least 4 to 5 shipments per year into the US market. 'e have introduced many new products at a very good price. Our test special is our 2-sided map with either a political/physical or ttline map on each side, all for only $99. For color views of maps see www.desiguer-web.com/geo-klett-maps �\<" also still make the large map of all regions and the New World English map. All L;r·ge maps have cloth backing and two different vers.ions - Laminated or Non-Laminated ,tfJ in the English language. Pe rfiles also makes many diffe rent Transparencies and we are building up our English version on Transparency Books this year. ·1 place an order or if you need additional information, please contact me. I I ok fo rward to working with your schools and introducing these wonderful oraps back into the US market. Kirk Fullmer Emst Klett-Perthes Maps 19409-68th Ave. NE, Kenmore, WA 98028 Te l: 425-488-8533 I 800-420-8533 Fax: 425-806-561 1 Email: [email protected]