Da Ferraris a Giorgi: La Scuola Italiana Di Elettrotecnica

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Da Ferraris a Giorgi: La Scuola Italiana Di Elettrotecnica Da Ferraris a Giorgi: la scuola italiana di Elettrotecnica ADRIANO PAOLO MORANDO Da Ferraris a Giorgi: la scuola italiana di Elettrotecnica Implicita nella Dynamical collocano in modo preciso, facendone Philosophy e nella espansione di una il continuatore, nel solco dell’opera rivoluzione industriale in atto, la nasci- ferrarisiana. Il primo, The foundations ta dell’ingegneria elettrica scientifica si of Electrical Science, del 1894, riporta articolò, postmaxwellianamente, nella a quell’approccio operativo di progressiva transizione dalla figura del- Bridgman che avrebbe in seguito in- lo scienziato (Maxwell), a quella dello fluenzato la lettura di Ercole Bottani. Il scienziato-inventore (Ferraris), a quel- secondo, del 1905, è legato alla Teoria la, infine, del fisico matematico che di- della dinamo ricorsiva, con la quale venta ingegnere (Steinmetz). egli, sulla scia di alcuni contributi Sottolineato lo stretto legame che, ferrarisiani ed anticipando la trasformata sul piano metodologico e fondazionale, di Park, propose un primo approccio correlò la Dynamical Theory maxwel- elettrodinamico alla teoria unificata del- liana ai contributi recati da Galileo le macchine elettriche. Ferraris alla teoria scientifica del trasfor- Prendendo le mosse da questi ele- matore e all’invenzione del campo ro- menti, verranno ravvisati, lungo il per- tante, si colloca, nel quadro della cultu- corso Mossotti, Codazza, Ferraris, ra e della società del tempo, la figura Ascoli-Arnò e Giorgi-Lori, gli elemen- dello scienziato italiano. Ne emerge, tra- ti portanti della scuola italiana di mite il suo maestro Giovanni Codazza, elettrotecnica. il ruolo decisivo che sulla sua forma- zione ebbero - oltre a Maxwell, Tait, von L’astuzia scozzese: la dynamical Helmholtz ed Heaviside - il maestro di philosophy questi: Fabrizio Ottaviano Mossotti. Con il netto rifiuto, da parte del- Delineata sommariamente, all’in- l’École, del modello amperiano, la domani della prematura scomparsa di Scienza Elettromagnetica assiste, già nei Ferraris, la scuola di Torino, si evi- primi decenni dell’Ottocento, al pro- denzia, accanto al contributo recato a gressivo declino del pensiero mecca- Milano da Riccardo Arnò, il ruolo for- nicistico. A fronte di tale negazione, non mativo svolto, in senso postferrarisiano, ricevendo risposte da una scuola di fisi- dall’insegnamento di un suo allievo di ca matematica sempre più inadeguata, particolare valore: Moisè Ascoli. l’indagine filosofico-scientifica oltre- Allievo di Ascoli, insieme a Ferdi- passa la Manica e si affida alla Dyna- nando Lori, fu Giovanni Giorgi. A lui si mical Philosophy . E sotto la sua in- debbono due contributi cruciali che lo fluenza - si parlerà in seguito di “astu- 431 ADRIANO PAOLO MORANDO zia scozzese” - modifica radicalmente le, di essere puramente metafisica. Il la propria lettura dei fenomeni naturali. secondo propone invece una lettura Non più di tipo a distanza, l’azione vie- meccanicistica del substrato elettroma- ne ad essere di tipo mediato. Con il ri- gnetico non osservabile. E conduce in sultato che a cambiare è il concetto stes- tal modo, quale modello dell’etere, al so di spazio: non più laplaceanamente vortice molecolare. Compiendone l’ana- visto come un semplice contenitore pas- lisi dinamica, svolta per via lagrangiana sivo di corpi, esso, faradianamente, si su un sistema a vincoli anolonomi, compromette con l’evento. Dà luogo Maxwell ha modo di introdurre il rivo- cioè ad un’ azione per contatto attuata, luzionario concetto di displacement e di in ragione dell’inerzia e dell’elasticità evidenziarne in modo conseguente il del medium, con celerità finita. Tramon- contributo magnetico. Muovendo da ta dunque, in quegli anni, il modello questa innovazione, egli formalizza newtoniano e nuovamente, come già al quindi, in accordo con l’ipotesi fara- tempo di Descartes, si torna a ritenere diana di azione per contatto, il carattere che nihl agit in distans nisi prius agit in ondoso dei fenomeni elettromagnetici medium. Con implicazioni quanto mai e ne propone infine formalmente una irte di difficoltà analitiche e metodolo- possibile unificazione con quelli ottici. giche: l’attraverso lascia infatti il posto Il terzo ed ultimo contributo è costitui- all’attraverso e mediante. to infine dalla Dynamical Theory pro- A partire dal 1831, anno in cui ven- priamente detta. A questo punto dell’in- gono resi noti gli studi di Faraday sul- dagine il vortice molecolare, ormai ri- l’induzione magnetoelettrica, le date dotto al ruolo di garante formale, è vi- cruciali di questa rivoluzione filosofi- sto solo come un “sostegno emotivo” co-scientifica riportano, lungo un per- rispetto alla Dynamical Philosophy. Al corso essenzialmente situabile tra il suo posto, in piena analogia metodolo- 1856 ed il 1888, all’opera di Maxwell gica con Fourier, si afferma definiti- ed a quella dei suoi successori: i post- vamente una concezione del tutto nuo- maxwelliani. Già all’indomani degli va di teorizzazione di un fenomeno. Per esperimenti di Faraday, questa rivolu- essa, teoria e messa in equazione vanno zionaria indagine inizia proprio con la visti come concetti simultanei e sinoni- trilogia maxwelliana. Il primo dei suoi mi. Ogni parallela lettura meccanicistica tre contributi consiste in un approccio del medium, dettata solo da un “biso- euristico alla teoria di campo fondato gno animistico” dell’uomo, viene ad sull’idrodinamica. Senza comprometter- essere del tutto destituita di fondamen- si con alcuna teoria, esso evidenzia la to. Non per questo, quale espressione precisa calcolabiltà del fenomeno elet- diretta della Dynamical Philosophy, la tromagnetico visto secondo la lettura teoria, superato il meccanicismo, ces- faradiana. Ed in tal modo la solleva dal- sa di essere dinamica in senso stretto: l’accusa, mossagli dalla scienza ufficia- parlando dell’energia accumulata nel 432 Da Ferraris a Giorgi: la scuola italiana di Elettrotecnica campo elettromagnetico, Maxwell esi- tutt’oggi immutata, l’ energetica elettro- ge in modo categorico di “essere preso magnetica sottesa. A tali risultati fa in- sul serio” quando afferma che quella fine seguito la fondamentale Electro- energia è a tutti gli effetti meccanica. magnetic Theory di Oliver Heaviside. Spazio e movimento continuano dun- Avvalendosi della moderna teoria dei que a restare i dati fondanti propri della vettori e del calcolo operatoriale, l’elet- pensiero scozzese. Nel 1873 il Treatise tromagnetismo viene finalmente presen- raccoglie, in forma organica e ormai tato nella sua forma attuale. Vi compa- definitiva, l’intero pensiero maxwel- iono la teoria dei campi e quella delle liano. Il formalismo adottato, costituito reti elettriche e magnetiche, nonché dall’approccio lagrangiano e dal paral- l’analisi delle linee a costanti distribui- lelo uso dei quaternioni, non gioca però te. Nel 1888, con l’esperimento di Hertz, a favore dell’immediatezza e della la metafora scientifica maxwelliana, le- fruibilità dei risultati. E le equazioni gata alla nozione di displacement, tro- stesse, cui resta laplaceanamente affi- va infine la sua piena conferma speri- dato il compito di dedurre la marche mentale: il campo elettromagnetico si naturelle dei fenomeni indagati, appa- propaga per onde alla velocità della luce. iono ben lontane da quei requisiti di L’esperimento subisce però, imme- chiarezza e compattezza che ci si atten- diate e severe, le critiche di Poincarè. derebbero invece da una teoria ormai Nel calcolo della frequenza naturale di consolidata ed evoluta. Sussiste inoltre oscillazione del circuito di misura adot- più di una qualche “perplessità” anche tato Hertz ha dovuto preventivamente sui contenuti. L’uso sistematico dei po- calcolare l’ induttanza e la capacità. Ma, tenziali scalare e vettore sembrerebbe per farlo, si è servito delle relazioni sta- negare “primarietà” alle linee di forza zionarie di Neumann. Ha dunque com- elettriche e magnetiche; l’integrazione messo il grave errore metodologico di delle onde si limita al solo caso monodi- dimostrare la validità di una teoria di- mensionale piano e l’indice di rifrazio- namica avvalendosi di relazioni proprie ne che se ne deduce risulta essere, in di una teoria statica. L’indagine hertzia- palese disaccordo con l’evidenza speri- na, e con essa la condizione stessa di mentale, indipendente dalla frequenza. validità della Dynamical Theory che vi Inoltre, non vi è traccia sostanziale di è subordinata, sembrano dunque essere bilancio energetico e la stessa distinzio- messe in seria discussione. ne tra tensione, differenza di potenziale Il 13 agosto 1889 - anno nel quale e forza elettromotrice abbisogna di si può datare la nascita della teoria elet- ripensamenti. Nel 1885, in modo del tromagnetica dei circuiti - Hertz riceve tutto autonomo, Poynting - ma soprat- una lettera da Heaviside. In essa, pren- tutto Heaviside - formalizzano l’integra- dendo atto delle critiche mosse da le primo delle equazioni di Maxwell e Poincaré, il fisico matematico inglese ne deducono, in una forma generale a aggiorna il collega tedesco su alcune 433 ADRIANO PAOLO MORANDO ricerche che egli, da tempo, sta condu- Theory, le nascenti tecnologie elettriche, cendo su tale tema. E lo informa di un che pure sono in fase di netta espansio- particolare risultato da lui raggiunto: ne, disdegnano qualunque reale contat- l’errore commesso con l’uso delle for- to con le complesse riflessioni filosofi- mule statiche di Neumann può essere co-scientifiche compiute dalla Scuola ritenuto numericamente accettabile nel Inglese. In quegli anni ’60-’80
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