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Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-51441-5 - Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History Ira M. Lapidus Index More information

INDEX

Abbas I (Shah), 496–500 Abu Madyan al-Andalusi, 380 Abbasid Caliphs, 94, 127, 217–218 Abu Muslim, 103 Abbasid Empire, 91–104, 105–113, 126–140 Abu Said b. Abi Khayr, 282 Arabic literature, 131–134 Abu Said Kharraz, 170 Baghdad, 91–93 Abu Talib, 40–41, 49, 94 Caliphate and, 87–90, 126–131 Abu Yusuf, 158, 196 central government, 93–97 Aceh, 568, 574–576 culture, legitimacy and state, 139–140 Achaemenid Empire, 10 decline of central government, 105–108 adab Hellenistic literature, and philosophy, deﬁned, 659 136–139 literature, 276, 386 local government, 99–102 adab al-qadi, 303 Persian literature, 134–136 adat, 659 provincial autonomy and rise of adl, 659 independent states, 109–113 administration provincial government, 97–99 Abbasid Empire, 93–97 resistance and rebellion, 102–104 Algiers, 413 abd, 659 Arab-Muslim Empire, 61–65 Abd al-Aziz b. Saud (Ibn Saud), 488 comparison of Islamic states, 366 Abd al-Malik (Caliph 685–705), 70, 86–87, 116 Hafsid dynasty, 408 Abd al-Mu´min, 378–379 Marwanid Caliphs, Egypt, 71 Abd al-Qadir (1776–1806), 609 Marwanid Caliphs, Mesopotamia, 70 Abd al-Rahman al-Rashid (1786/87–1800/01), Mataram, Java, 571 622 Ottoman Empire, 438–441, 442 Abd al-Rahman I, 383 Sokoto Caliphate, 611–613 Abd al-Rahman II, 383 Afghanistan Abd al-Rahman III, 383–384 Britain and, 508–509 Abdallah b. Yasin, 377 India and, 507–509 Abdallah ibn Abi Bakr, 39 language, 508 Abu al-Ala´ al-Marri (poet), 254 Pashtun tribes, 508 Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, 440 Russia and, 508–509 Abu Bakr al-Khallal, 165–166 Africa, 581–587.SeealsoEast Africa; North Abu Bakr (Caliph 632–634), 55, 58, 59, 80–81 Africa; West Africa; speciﬁc countries by Abu Hafs al-Naysaburi, 169 name Abu Hanifa, 165 Central, 628–630 Abu Hashim, 169 colonialism, 586–587, 631

731

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-51441-5 - Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History Ira M. Lapidus Index More information

732 Index

Africa (cont.) Ali b. Dunama (1476–1503), 595 diffusion of Islam, 352 Ali Mughayat Shah (Sultan), 574 Islam, 581–585 Ali Qapu palace (Sublime Porte), Isfahan, slavery, 585–586 497 South Africa, 630 Alids, 326–329, 660 Sub-Saharan, 350–353, 589, 594 alim (pl. ulama´), 364–368, 660.Seealso agha, 659 ulama´ (scholars) Aghlabid dynasty, 370–374, 379 aljamiado, 393 agnatic clan, 183–184 Al-Karkhi, 165 agriculture 35.Seealsoeconomy; trade al-khass (intellectuals and theologians), Brazil and the West Indies, 653 129 Spanish-Islamic civilization, 383 al-Khayzuran, 149 Syria and Mesopotamia, 68 al-Mahdi (the Savior), 127 West Africa, 585 Almohads, 375–379, 389–390 Yemen, 35 Almoravids, 375–379 ahdath, 272 conquests in North Africa, Spain, and ahi, 659 Mediterranean in late eleventh century, ahi al-bayt, 659 376 ahi al-hadith, 659 countering Christian advance in Spain, ahl al-dhimma (Peoples of the Book), 63, 389 659 West Africa, 591 ahl i-hadith, 659 Alptigin, 228 ahl-khurasan military units, 95 al-Rashid (the Rightly Guided), 127 Ahmad al-Jazzar, 485 alternative Islam, 315–319 Ahmad b. Hanbal, 219 American revolution, 656 Ahmad b. Taymiyya (Ibn Taymiyya), 295 Amharic language, 626 Ahmad b.Tulun (r. 868–884), 109 amin, 660 Ahmad ibn Hanbal, 129, 162, 165, 196 al-Amin (son of Harun al-Rashid), 105 Ahmadiyya Sufi order, 628 amir, 660 Ahreman, 15 amir al-mu´minin (commander of the Ahura Mazda, 15 believers), 80, 83, 123, 660 Aísha (wife of the Prophet), 184 amir al-umara´ (general-in-chief), 111, 660 Akbar (1556–1605), 522, 525 Amirids, 387 Akbar, marriage of, 523 Ammar al-Basri, 200 akhbari school, 178, 502–504 analytic and comparative historical approach, akhi, 659 1–2 akhlaq, 659 Anatolia al-amma (common people), 129 conquests and conversion to Islam, al-Aqraba, battle of (633), 59 347–350 alaras, 578 local dynasties, 474 Alawi dynasty, 417–420 Sufi-led resistance against state domination, Aleppo 461–462 under Ottoman Rule, 484–485 Andalusian immigration to Tunisia, 411 spread of Catholicism, 458–459 anjuman, 660 Alexander the Great, 10 annulment, marriage, 269 Alexandrian school, 137 ansar, 142, 660 al-fitra, 307–309, 329 apostasy (Ridda) wars, 80–81 Alfonso X, 399 aql (rational judgment), 307–309, 329, 660 Algeria, 412–414 aql al-kull (universal intelligence), 175–176, Alawi dynasty to French protectorate, 274 417–420 al-Aqsa, 148 states and Islam, 422 Aqsa mosque, 121–122 al-Hadi (the Guide), 127 Arab conquests Alhambra, 393–394 effect on language, 255–256 Ali (Caliph 656–661), 55, 58, 81–82 Mediterranean, 644–645

Index 733

Arab provinces Fatimid dynasty, 241 local dynasties, 474 Hafsid dynasty, 409 under Ottoman rule, 482–486 Hispano-Arabic civilization in Mudejar and Arab Shiis, 495 Christian Eras, 393–395 Arabia, Mamluk period, 249 clans and kingdoms, 34–16 Middle Eastern states, 254 conversion to Islam, 346 Ottoman, 446 Judeo-Christianity and, 33, 36–37 Ottoman, European influence on, 476 language, poetry and gods, 37–38 Spain, Caliphal era, 386 Mecca, 36–37 tombs and mosques, 258–259 origin of political and religious identities Umayyads, 118–122 for Middle Eastern societies, 330–331 Archons, 457 slavery and, 586 arif, 358–368 Wahhabi movement, 360 Aristotelianism, 200, 397–398 Arabian kingdoms, 31 Aristotle, 136 Arabian Peninsula, 486–489 Organon of Aristotle, 163–164 Gulf, 488–489 philosophy in Spain, 386 Saudi Arabia, 488 Armenian Christians, 455–457 Yemen, 487 art Arabic language comparing Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal during Arab-Muslim Empire, 78–79 empires, 540 Christian literature in, 199–200 Indian, Mughal Empire, 526 in Ghana and Mali, 592 Ottoman, European influence on, Arabic literature, Abbasids, 131–134 477 Arab-Islamic renaissance phase, 212–213 representation of people and animals, Arabization, resistance to in Spain.Seealso 124–125 Arab conquests Timurid-period paintings, 260–261 Arab-Muslim Empire Umayyad, 123, 124 to 750 CE, 62 asabiyya (group solidarity), 34, 660 Arabic and other Middle Eastern languages, asabiyyat, 279–280 78–79 Asawira, 73 conquests, 58–61 asceticism, 167–173, 380 conversions to Islam, 75–78 Asharis economic and social change in Egypt, defined, 326–329 70–71 theology, 313–314 economic and social change in Iran, 71–72 Asharism, 153–154 economic and social change in Iraq, 66–68 ashraf, 358–368, 660 economic and social change in Syria and ashura´, 274, 328–329, 660 Mesopotamia, 68–70 Asia.SeealsoInner Asia; Southeast Asia elite’s resistance to mass conversions, 75 Asian empires as Islamic states, 540–542 integration of conquering and conquered empires and societies, 425–426 peoples, 72–75 Askiya Muhammad Ture, 593 overview, 55–57 Assyria Empire, 10, 22 socioeconomic bases of, 61–65 Astarabadi, Fadlallah, 491–492 Arabs Astrakhanid dynasty (1599–1785), 552 resistance and rebellion under Abbasid atabeg (tutor; regent), 231, 660 rule, 102–103 Auliya, Nizam al-Din, 517 Spanish-Islamic civilization, 382–383 Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), 527–531 architecture authority Abbasids, 130–131 Caliph, 83 comparing to Ottoman Empire, Safavid religious, 286 Empire, and, Mughal Empire, 539 scholarly, 286 Delhi Sultanate period, 526 autopragia (independent estates), 71 development (transformation) of Islam Avesta (Zoroastrian scripture), 21 and, 213–214 awan (helpers), Abbasid, 101

734 Index

awqaf (trusts), 236 baraka (power of blessing), 276, 356, medieval colleges, 276 358–368, 415–416, 514–515, 661 nonroyal elite women, 266 Barani, 512 royal women, 266 barbarians, 9 al-Awzai, 165 barid (messenger and information service), Awzai school of law, 165 96 ayan, 660 Barmakid family, 97 ayatollah, 364–368, 660 Basra, 63 Ayn Jalut, battle of, 247 recapturing Arabic of the Quran, ayyarun (gangs), 190, 272, 287, 660 146 Ayyubids, 246–247, 248–249, 291 stimulating agricultural output, 68 Azarbayjan, 257 Sufis, 169 Azariqa, 326–329 batin (inner, esoteric truth) defined, 661 Baba Farid (Farid al-Din Ganj-i Shakr), Ismaili Shiis, 179 514–515 baya, 661 babas, 427, 660 Bayazid I (Sultan 1389–1402), 438–439 Babur, 521–522 Bayazid II (Sultan 1481–1512), 439 Babylonian yeshivas, 208 Baybars (Sultan 1260–1277), 249, 291 Babylonians, 204 Bedouins, 34 Baghdad misr (pl. amsar) (garrison city), 63 Abbasid Empire, 91–93 under Ottoman Rule, 484 architecture and court ceremony, poetry, 34 131 Bedreddin, 461 in early Abbasid era, 92 Bektash, Hajji, 428, 461 madrasa, 275–276 Bektashis, 461 post-Abbasid era, 254–255 Bello, Muhammad, 611 transformations in legal education, benefices, European feudal system, 251–252 165 Bengal Baghdadi Shiis, 174–179 British power in, 536 Baghdadi tendency, Sufis, 171 conversion to Islam, 514 Bahmanid regime, 513 Faraídi movement, 360 Baisunghur, 260 Mughal Empire, 530 Bakr tribe, 59 Berbers, 370 Balkans Almohads, 378–379 conversion to Islam in, 347–350 Almoravids, 375–378 local dynasties, 474–475 Kitama, 239 movement toward national independence, Lamtuna and Sanhaja, 597 478–479 Marinids, 414–415 Ottoman conquests, 431 Morocco, 374 trade during Ottoman Empire, 471–472 Spanish-Islamic civilization, 382–383 weakening Ottoman Empire and, 470 Western and Central Sudan, 588–590 Banten, Java, 569 beylerbeyliks, Ottoman Empire, 443 Banu Furat faction, 107–108 beys, 410, 427 Banu Hashim, 39, 49, 88 Algiers, 412–413 Banu Hilal Arabs, 374–375 defined, 661 Banu Jarrah faction, 107–108 Bihafarid rebellion, 103 Banu Nadir, 50–51 Bihzad, 498 Banu Nawbakht, 176–177 Bijapur, 513 Banu Qaynuqa, 50–51 bilateral kinship system, 466 Banu Umayya, 84 bishops, 14 baqa´ (persistence in the self), 170, 307–329, al-Bistami, Abu Yazid, 170, 321 660 Bofo Abba Gomol, 627 al-Baqillani, 323–324 Bohras, 533, 661 al-Baqir, Muhammad b. Ali, 178 Bornu, 595, 613

Index 735

Britain Umayyad monarchy (661–685), 83–86 Afghanistan and, 508–509 women and family in Caliphal era, 185–187 assumption of Niger Company’s territories, Caspian region, 99, 102 633 Catherine the Great, 549–550 colonialism and defeat of Muslim Catholicism, spread of, 458–460 expansion, 630–632 Central Africa, 628–630 expansion into Inner Asia, 555 central government, Abbasid Empire, 93–97, facilitating Iran’s entry into international 105–108 commerce, 498–499 Chaghatay heritage, 525 Gulf region, 489 Chagri Beg, 231 imports, 471 Chaldiran, battle of, 434 Industrial Revolution, 656 China partitioning East Africa, 634 from Mongol conquests to nineteenth trade in India, 652–653 century, 555–560 trade in Southeast Asia, 569 role in Java, 573–574 trade with Ottoman Empire, 470–471 Ching dynasty (1644–1911), 558–559 Zanzibar and, 633 Chinggis Khan, 233–234, 648 British East India Company, 470–471, 536 Chist, Muin al-Din Hasan, 517 British Indian Empire, 536–537 Chisti Sufi order, 517, 520, 532–533 brotherhoods, Sufi, 355, 358–368, 418, 516–517 Christians and Christianity, 197–203 Bukhara, 553–555 in Arabia, 33 Bulgaria, 478–479 Banu Jarrah faction and, 107 Bursa, 447–448 Christian literature in Arabic, 199–200 Buwayhid dynasty, 111, 227–228 Crusades, 200–201 defined, 225 divorce, 21 efforts to maintain authority, 263 early history of, 14–15 iqta (land tax allotment), 250 early Islamic era to ninth century, 197–199 Byzantine Empire (Late Roman), 10.Seealso Egyptian copts, 201–203 Roman Empire Ethiopia, 626 Arab-Islamic conquests and, 60 Greek Orthodox and Armenian, 455–457 Chalcedonian creed, 14 Hispano-Arabic society in Christian era, influence in North Arabia, 31 393–395 religion, 13, 18 Islam, 195 religious authority of emperors, 127 Muslims under Christian rule in Spain, religious policies, 18 390–393 in North Africa, 203 cadenza, Quran, 45 in Ottoman Near East, 458–460 Cairo, 362 reconquista, Spain, 389–390 Caliphate, 80–90, 217–220.SeealsoAbbasid resistance to Arabization, in Spain, 385 empire; Imperial Islam seclusion, 23 Abbasids and, 87–90, 126–131 sexual morality, 21 Caliph, defined, 364–368 similarities to Zoroastrianism, 13 disintegration of, 273 similarities to Judaism, 13 formation of, 331–332 treatment of Jews, 203–204 integration of state and community, 638 veiling, 23 judge appointments, 96 wars with Muslims in Mediterranean, Marwanids (685–750), 86–87 645 Muslim landowning class, 67 city-state, Mediterranean region, 69–70 opposition to under Abbasid rule, 103–104 civilization, effect of Islam on, 2 post-Abbasid era, 262–263 clans and kingdoms Rightly Guided Caliphs, 55–56, 58, 80–83, agnatic clan, 183–184 126, 217, 668 Arabia, 34–36 Sokoto, 610–613 Funj kingdom, 619–622 Spanish, 384 Ghassanid kingdom, 31 Umayyad dynasty (661–750), 55–56 Gonja kingdom, 602

736 Index

clans and kingdoms (cont.) Copts, 201–203, 456–457 Himyarite kingdom, 36 court (royal) protocol Innarya kingdom, 627 Abbasids, 130–131 Kunta clan, 599–601 Fatimid dynasty, 239–241 Lakhmid kingdom, 31 Umayyads, 332–333 Nabatean kingdom, 35 court, legal Parthian clans, 12, 16 women and family in Ottoman era Sudan, 588–591 (1400–1800), 464–465 class distinctions, development of, 73 women’s access to in medieval times, classical Islam, 302 270–271 clientage (mawla;pl.mawali), 74, 666 Created Quran theological position, clienteles, under Abbasid rule, 102 162 colleges, 440.Seealsoulama´ (scholars) crown lands, Abbasid government, 99 madrasa, 275–277, 289–290, 665 crusades colonialism, Africa, 586–587 Christians and Christianity, 200–201 commercialization, Ottoman Empire, 470–472 Syria and, 243–247 communal authority, Ismaili Shiis, 179 culture communal independence, 287–288 Abbasids, 139–140 communities continuity and change in historic cultures dhimma (protected communities), 196, 202 of Middle East, 211–221 formation of Islamic legal traditions, 157 Jewish, in Islamic context, 209–210 hunting and gathering, 7 Middle Eastern states, 254 Muhammad and, 39, 43 Ottoman Empire, 444–446 ummah (community), 141 regional, post-Abbasid Middle Eastern concubinage, 21 state system, 254–262 concubines, 265 Cyrenaica, 407–408 Congress of Berlin (1884–1885), 586–587, 633, 653–654 Daendels, Marshal, 573 conquests. See Arab conquests; Arab-Muslim Dagomba kingdom, 602 empire; Inner Asia daís (missionaries).Seealsomissionaries Constantine (306–337 CE), 10, 17–18 defined, 364–368, 661 Constantinople, 10, 539, 644.SeealsoIstanbul Ismaili Shiis, 179 Constitution of Medina, 49–50 Dakhni language, 518 conversion to Christianity, Spain, 404–405 Damascus, 484, 485 conversion to Islam, 343–353.Seealso Damascus mosque mosaics, 121 diffusion of Islam (Islamization) damin (guarantor), Egypt, 98 during Arab-Muslim Empire, 75–78 Daqiqi (poet), 256 Christianity, 198 dar al-hadith, 289 clientele and, 102 dar al-hadith al-kamiliyya, 290 jihads and, 617–618 dar al-harb, 661 Mamluk era (1250–1517), 202–203 Darfur, 622–623 mass conversions, 284–285 dargah, 358–368, 661 Muslim communities in India, 513–516 Dari (language), 255–256 non-Arabian peoples, 346–347 Darqawa Sufi Brotherhood, 418 in North Africa and Middle East, 343–347 darughas (representatives), 236 in Southeast Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, dawa (dawah), 661.Seealsomissionaries 350–353 dawla, 661 Turkish conquests and conversions in Daylam, 99 Anatolia, the Balkans, Middle East, independence of Caliphate, 111 Inner Asia, and India, 347–350 resistance and rebellion under Abbasid convivencia rule, 102 breakdown of, 400–401 decentralization of Ottoman Empire, 479–481 defined, 390–392 dehqan, 12 Coptic church, 199 Delhi Sultanates, 510

Index 737

conversion and Muslim communities, East Africa, 619–634. See also specific countries 513–516 by name Muslim conquests and, 509–513 coastal cities and Swahili Islam, 623–625 Muslim holy men and political authority, Darfur, 622–623 519–521 diffusion of Islam (Islamization), 351–352, varieties of Indian Islam, 516–519 581–582 desert palaces (royal court), 122–123 Ethiopia and Somalia, 625–628 development projects, Sasanian Empire, 11 European colonial empires and defeat of devshirme, 438–439, 661 Muslim expansion, 630–634 Deys map, 620 Algiers, 412–413 slavery and, 585–586 Tunisia, 410 Sudan, 588–591, 595, 619–622 dhawq, 307–329 Eastern Turkestan, 555–560 dhikr (Sufi ceremony), 172, 661 Ebu´s-suud, 441 dhimma (protected communities), 202, 452 economic status.Seealsowomen and family defined, 661 nonroyal elite women, 266 non-Muslims, 196 royal women, 266 Dhu´l Nun al-Misri, 170 working women, 267–268 diffusion of Islam (Islamization).Seealso economy conversion to Islam Arabia, 33 Java, 564–565 Bornu, 595 Kano, 596 commercialization in post-classical Katsina, 596–597 Ottoman Empire, 470–472 South Africa, 630 Funj kingdom, 621–622 West Africa, 582–583 India, 536–537 dihqans, 101, 661 India, seventeenth and eighteenth Dipanegara (Prince), 574 centuries, 529–530 divan bagi, 495 international, India and, 536–537 divine reality, Sufi concept of, 171–172 Mali, 592 divorce, 187 Morocco, 418–419 medieval Muslim jurists, 270 Ottoman empire, 446–450 Middle Eastern societies before Islam, Sokoto Caliphate, 613 20–21 Tunisia, 411–412 women, Ottoman Empire, 464 Zanzibar, 625 diwan al-azimma (controller’s office), education.Seealsomadrasa; schools of law 96 akhbari school, 178, 502–504 diwan al-jaysh (army bureau), 96 Alexandrian school, 137 diwan al-kharaj (tax collection bureau), 96 colleges, 440 diwan al-marafiq, 108 nonroyal elite women, 266–267 diwan al-musadarat, 108 theological schools, 328–329 diwan al-rasaíl (chancery bureau), 96 working women, 267 diwan al-tawqi (drafting agency), 96 Egypt.Seealsotaxation diwans (bureaus).Seealsoadministration Abbasid empire and post-imperial era, 110 Abbasid government, 96 under Abbasid rule, 98 defined, 661 under Abbasid rule, district hierarchy, 99 Dome of the Rock, 118–119, 120 under Abbasid rule, resistance and Donme, 455 rebellion, 102 Dost Muhammad, 508 administration, Marwanid Caliphs, 71 Dutch Arab-Islamic conquests, 59–60 Indian Ocean area, 652 Copts, 201–203 return of Java to, 573–574 Crusader states in the twelfth century, 245 Southeast Asia and, 566–569 damin (guarantor), 98 Dutch East India company, 499 economic and social change under Dyula lineage, 603–604 Arab-Muslim Empire, 70–71

738 Index

Egypt (cont.) Roman, 10 economic prosperity, 113 Sasanian, 11 establishment of system of state control, empires.SeealsoCaliphate; clans and 249 kingdoms; specific empires by name Jews and Judaism, 206–207 Asia, 425–426 Mamluk period, 248 religion and, 217–220 mass conversion to Islam, 284–285 English East India Company, 499 under Ottoman Rule, 482–484 Ethiopia, 625–628 post-Abbasid Middle Eastern state system, Euphrates River, 66–67 238–243 Eur-Asian Empires, 426 during Roman Empire, 11 Europe. See also specific countries by name slavery and, 586 colonialism and defeat of Muslim Sufi orders, 283 expansion, 630–634 Tulunid dynasty, 109, 238 colonialism in Africa, 586–587 Elias of Nisibis, 200 domination over Muslim and other lands elites.Seealsoulama´ (scholars) (1815), 655 Archons, 457 effect on Ottoman culture, 476–477 Caliphate and court versus scholars and European colonial empires and defeat of Sufis, 333–334 Muslim expansion, 630–634 changing balance of power, Ottoman feudalism, 251–252 Empire, 474–475 imperialism and beginning of modern era, collaboration of military and local religious 654–658 elites, 291, 292 rise of, world economy and, 649–651 European versus Muslim in nineteenth and role in Java, 573–574 twentieth centuries, 657–658 trade, naval power and empire, 651–654 Funj kingdom, 621 war with Ottomans, 435–436 Hausaland, 596 evliadi, 356–357, 358–368, 661 Iranian, Ilkhans alliance with, 236 Exilarchs, 13, 205 Jewish merchants, 204–205, 206–207 Mataram, Java, 570–572 Fakhr al-Din, 485 Mughal Empire, 522 falasifa, 661.Seealsophilosophy non-Muslim women, 268 family. See women and family Ottoman empire, 451–453 fana´ (annihilation of self), 170, 307–329, 661 persistence of, despite decentralization of faqih (pl. fuqaha´), 364–368, 662 Ottoman Empire, 477 faqis, 621, 662 Phanariots, 456 al-Farabi, 138–139, 298, 326–329 Qarakhanid, 230 Faraídi movement, 360 religious, 379–381 Farghana, 99 religious scholars, 285–286 from Mongol conquests to nineteenth religious teachers, 190–191 century, 550–555 Shaybanid dynasty, 551–552 resistance and rebellion under Abbasid slave regiments, 247, 249–250 rule, 102 slave regiments under Shah Abbas, 496 Farid al-Din Attar, 257–258 Spanish-Islamic civilization, 385 al-Fashir, 622 tax farming, 474 al-Fasi, Issac, 395 Timbuktu, 597–599 fata (pl. fityan), 662 transformation of relation to state, under Fatimid Empire, 111, 202, 374–375 Ottoman Empire, 479–480 celebration of mawlids, 149 ulama´, 272–273 Egypt, post-Abbasid Middle Eastern state Yemen, 35 system, 238–243 emirs, Timurid dynasty, 236 Sitt al-Mulk, 265 emperors Syria and, 243 religious authority of, Byzantine Empire treatment of Jews, 209 (Late Roman), 127 fatwa (pl. fatawa), 277, 303–329, 662

Index 739

fay´ (conquered property), 63, 67–68 alliance of Sufism with, 283 felt-cap industry, Tunisia, 411 conflict with devshirme, 438–439 feudalism defined, 662 Europe, 251–252 Ghaznavids, 228 Middle Eastern, 250–254 conquest of India, 509 fiefs, European feudal system, 251–252 defined, 225 fiqh (law), 156, 303–329, 662.Seealsolaw efforts to maintain basis for authority, 263 Firdawsi, 256 iqta (land tax allotment), 250–251 firmans, 441–442, 662 Middle East, early eleventh century, 229 fitra, 662 ghulam (Turkish military slave), 106 fityan, 287 concept of, 250 France defined, 662 colonialism and defeat of Muslim Ghulam Ali (Shah), 532 expansion, 632–633 ghulat (religious extremism), 175, 662 imports, 471 Ghurid dynasty, 509 Java and, 573 Ghuzz peoples, 233 trade with Ottoman Empire, 470–471 gnosticism, 128, 174, 320, 327 free will, Asharism view of, 153 Golconda, 513 French East India Company, 499 Golden Horde, 544–545, 648 French protectorate, 417–420 Gonja Kingdom, 602 French revolution, 656 government.Seealsoadministration French-Ottoman treaty of 1604, 458 central, Abbasid Empire, 93–97 Friday mid-day prayer, 328–329 local, Abbasid Empire, 99–102 Fulani, 610, 617 provincial, Abbasid Empire, 97–99 Funj kingdom, 619–622 provincial, decline of Abbasid Empire, Fustat, 63 109–113 Futa Jallon, jihads, 608 provincial, Ottoman empire, 442–444 Futa Toro, jihads, 609 Granada, 390, 393 futuwwa, 662 greater occultation, 177 Greece Gabirol, Solomon bin, 396 Greek Orthodox Christians, 455–457 Galen, 386 literature and philosophy during Abbasids Galla (Oromo) peoples, 626 era, 136–139 gangs, 272, 287 Philosopher-King literature, 298–301 Gao, 593 philosophic political theory, 298–301 gaons role of women, 19 Babylonian yeshivas, 208 women and property, 22 Palestinian yeshiva, 207–208 Greek Orthodox church, 198 garrison city (misr;pl.amsar), 63, 666 guilds, Ottoman Empire, 450 Geniza Era, Judaism, 206–207 The Gulf, 488–489 Gerard of Cremona, 398–399 Gur-i amir, 260 Germany Congress of Berlin (1884–1885), xxiii, Habib ibn Khidmah Abu Raitah, 586–587, 633, 653–654 200 East Africa and, 634 Habsburg dynasty, 435–436, 468 imports, 471 hadith, ghadir khumm, 274 defined, 662 Ghana, 591 divinity of Muhammad, 147–148 Ghassanid kingdom, 31, 36 humanity of Muhammad, 147 ghazal (lyric), 254, 257, 662.Seealsopoetry influence on Muslim historiography, 133 al-Ghazali, 294, 297–298, 306–313, 388 Sunni Islam, 159–161 Ghazan (1295–1304), 234 supporters’ opposition to Mutazili concept ghazis (frontier soldiers), 109, 230, 287, 427, of tawhid, 152–153 429 Hadramis, 625

740 Index

Hafsid dynasty, 408–410 hijra, 663 hajib, 383, 662 hikma, 663 hajj, 328–329, 662 hila (pl. hiyal) (manipulation of law), 162, al-Hajj Umar, 614–615 304, 663 al-Hajjaj, 67–68 hilm (self-control), 663 al-Hakim (Caliph), 269 himaya (protection), 108, 663 hal (God’s grace), 170, 307–329, 662 Himyarite kingdom, 36 Halevi, Judah, 396 Hinduism, 350, 507 al-Hallaj, 170–171 Islam and, 515–516 halus, 571 under Mughal regime, 367 Hama, 68 hisba, 279 Hammurapi, 8 Hisham (Caliph, 724–743), 134 Hamza Fansuri, 575 Hispano-Arabic society, 384–386 Hanafi school of law, 157, 165 Caliphal era, 386–388 adoption of madrasa form of instruction, Mudejar and Christian era, 393–395 277 post-Caliphal era, 388 inquisition, 129 historians and sources, 26–30 origins of, 275 historic cultures of Middle East, continuity and Hanafis, 77 change in, 211–220, 221 Hanbali school of law, 165 historical literature, 132–134, 146–147 origins of, 275 Hittite empire, 10 transformation to religious movement, holy men, Muslim, 519–521 279–280 hujja (proof).Seealsodaís (missionaries) Hanbalis, 192 defined, 364–368, 663 attitude to worldly actualities, 337 Ismaili Shiis, 179 reformist mentality, 359 hujjatollah, 364–368 theology, 313, 333 al-Hujwiri, 305 hanif, 662 hukama, 169 Hapsburgs. See Habsburg dynasty Hunayn b. Ishaq, 200, 326–329 haqiqa, 461, 662 Hungary, 435–436, 646 haram, 37, 38, 265, 463, 662 hunting and gathering communities, 7 haratin, 417 Hurufiyya Sufi order, 461, 491–492 harb, 53 Husayn (son of Ali), 85 al-Hariri, 254–255 Husayn Bayqara (Sultan, r. 1469–1506), al-Harith al-Muhasabi, 171 237–238 Harun al-Rashid (Caliph 786–809), 97 ibada (pl. ibadat) (ritual regulations), 166, Christian persecution, 198 307–310, 329, 663 judge appointments, 156–157 problems of succession, 105 Ibadism, 326–329, 489 treatment of non-Muslims, 195–196 Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, 488 Hasan al-Basri, 168–169 Ibn al- Hajj, 269 Hasdai ben Shaprut, 395 Ibn al-Abbas, 160 Hastings, Warren, 536 Ibn al-Arabi, 319–321, 388 Hausaland, 596–597, 611 Ibn al-Árif, Abu al-Abbas, 388 Hayyuj, Judah b. David, 395–396 Ibn al-Mujahid (d. 935/6), 46 Hellenism, 17, 216 Ibn al-Muqaffa, 127–128 Hellenistic literature Ibn al-Tabban, 380 Abbasids, 136–139 Ibn Batta, 294 political theory, 298–301 Ibn Battuta, 564 translation of literature from Greek to Ibn Hazm, 388 Arabic, 199–200 Ibn Hisham (d. 833–834), 39 Heraclius (610–641), 10 Ibn Ishaq, 39 Herat, 237–238, 260–261 Ibn Jurayj, 160 Hijazi merchants, 61–63 Ibn Khaldun, 315

Index 741

Ibn Qutayba, 135 conversion to Islam in, 347–350 Ibn Quzman, 388 international economy and British Indian Ibn Rushd (Averroes), 298–299, 326–329, 388 Empire, 536–537 Ibn Sina (Avicenna), 316–318, 326–329 Mughal empire and, 521–525 Ibn Surayj, 163, 165 Muslim chronology, 511 Ibn Tumart, Muhammad b. Abdallah, 378 Muslim holy men and political authority, Ibrahim Musa (Karamoko Alfa), 608 519–521 Ibrahim Sori, 608 reformism, 360 iconoclasm, Imperial Islam, 124–125 slavery and, 586 id, 663 varieties of Indian Islam, 516–519 id al-adha, 324 Indian Ocean, 644–647 inquisition, 328–329 Indonesia, 350–351, 353.SeealsoJava; id al-fitr, 324, 328–329 Sumatra; other regions by name idda (divorce waiting period), 187 Industrial Revolution, Britain, 656 identity inheritance.Seealsoproperty and inheritance collective, 38 India, Mughal Empire, 524–525 Islamic, 285–286, 363 Middle Eastern societies before Islam, Ottoman, 444–446, 476–479 21–22 ideology, Ottoman Empire, 476–479 Innarya kingdom, 627 Idris b. Ali (1570–1602), 595 Inner Asia, 647–649.SeealsoAfghanistan; Idrisid regime, 374 specific countries by name ijaza chronology, 547–560 defined, 663 conversion to Islam in, 347–350 Sufis, 282 diffusion of Islam, 352 ijma, 663 Eastern Turkestan and China, 555–560 ijtihad, 274, 663 provinces, defined, 99 Ikhshidids, 238 provinces, resistance and rebellion under Ilkhans, 234–236, 259 Abbasid rule, 102 illustrated manuscripts, 260–261 scholars, 353–354 ‘ilm (knowledge), 276, 303–329, 663 Turkestan (Transoxania, Khwarizm, and iltizam, 663 Farghana), 550–555 imama (theory of collective organization) law Western and Northern Steppes, 544–550 category, 166 inquisition Imami, branch of Shiism, 174–176, 177 mihna, Abbasids, 128–130 imams, 123, 176 Spanish Inquisition, 402–403, 404 defined, 83, 328–329, 364–368, 663 insilimen, 358–368, 663 Ismaili, 240 institutions, Islamic, 343–368 Shiiviewof,175–176 Islamic states, 365–368 imamzada, 663 Muslim elites and Islamic communities, iman (faith), 314, 315, 663 353–358 imarets, 449, 663 North Africa and the Middle East, 343–347 Imperial Caliphate. See Caliphate the reform movement (Tajdid), 359–361 Imperial Islam, 57, 117–125 social structures of Islamic societies, desert palaces, 122–123 361–365 iconoclasm, 124–125 institutions, Ottoman Empire, 472–475 Umayyad architecture, 118–122 integration Umayyads and ancient empires, 123–124 Arab and non-Arab, 61 Imru al-Qays b. Amr, 35 of conquering and conquered peoples, India, 507–537.SeealsoDelhi sultanates; 72–75 Mughal empire intelligentsia, 203.Seealsoelites Afghanistan and, 507–509 iqta (land tax allotment), 108 British East India Company, 652 defined, 663 conversion and Muslim communities, Middle Eastern feudalism and, 250–254 513–516 iqta istighlal, 100

742 Index

iqta tamlik, 100 treatment of Jews, 205–206 Iran.SeealsoSafavid empire irrigation Abbasid empire and post-imperial era, 110 Persian Gulf region, 489 under Abbasid rule, district hierarchy, 99 Spain, 383 under Abbasid rule, resistance and Isfahan, 496–498 rebellion, 103 ishan, 358–368, 663 chronology, 237–263 ishq, 307–329 collaboration of military and local religious Iskandar Muda (Sultan 1607–1636), 564, elites, 291–292 574–575 conversion to Shiism, 500–501 islah, 664 conversions to Islam, 78, 285 Islam.Seealsoconversion to Islam; diffusion crown lands, 99 of Islam (Islamization) dihqans, 101, 661 Africa, 581–585 under early Safavids, 493–496 alternative, 315–319 economic and social change under beginning of modern era, xxii–xxv Arab-Muslim Empire, 71–72 beginnings of in Middle East, xviii–xxi Iranian type of Islamic society, 639–640 changing view of, during Ottoman Empire, Mithraism, 16 477–478 occupational assimilation, 74–75 chronology of, 56 post-Abbasid Middle Eastern state system, defined, 307–329, 664 227–230 development of, 141–145 quarters, 271–272 dialogues within, 324–329 under Safavids, 503 global diffusion of to nineteenth century, Sasanian dynasty and, 11–12 xxi–xxii scholars, 353–354 normative, 302–304 Sijistan, 109 view of Judaism and Christianity, 195 state and religion under late Safavids, Islamic societies, comparison of, 635–643 501–504 Islamic titles, 364–368 Sufi orders, 283 Islamization. See diffusion of Islam tax-farming, 108 (Islamization) transformation of schools of law to Ismail (Shah) religious movements, 279–280 authority of, 492–493 Turkestan and, 550–551 conquests, 493 Iraq coping with Quizilbash enthusiasm, 494 Abbasid empire and post-imperial era, 110 overview, 176 under Abbasid rule, 98 Ismail, Maulay (1672–1727), 417 under Abbasid rule, district hierarchy, 99 Ismaili Shiism, 104, 179–180, 364–368.See crown lands, 99 also Shiism (Shia; Shii Islam) development of Shiism, 174–175 defined, 326–329, 664 dihqans, 101, 661 imams, 240 in early Abbasid era, 92 Ismailism, 109–111.SeealsoIsmaili Shiism economic and social change under isnads (chains of transmission), 160, 302, 664 Arab-Muslim Empire, 66–68 Israel, 147–148, 626 economic regression, 112–113 Istanbul, 362 formation of cities, 7–8 reconstruction of, 449–450 Hanafi legal activity, 157 Sultan Ahmed (Blue) Mosque, 447, 448 Kitab al-Kharaj, 158 istislah (public interest), 162 Marcionites, 17 Italy, xxiii, 634 Nestorians, 199 ithna ashari (“twelver”), Shiism, 177–178, post-Abbasid Middle Eastern state system, 273–274, 364–368, 494–495 227–230 defined, 326–329, 664 Sasanian dynasty and, 11–12 imposition of by Safavids, 495 Sufi orders, 283 madhhab school of law, 178–179 tax-farming, 108 iugum, 69

Index 743

Jacobites, 458 inner, 377 Jafar al-Sadiq, 169–170, 175, 178 jihad states, nineteenth century, 616 jagirs, Mughal Empire, 522, 664 late nineteenth century, 615–617 Jahan (Shah 1628–1657), 526–527 Senegambian, 608–613 Jahangir (1605–1628), 526 Uthman don Fodio, 610–613 al-Jahiz, 135 Jilan, 99 jahl (passion, ignorance, and thoughtlessness), jinn, 584, 664 48 Jirga, 508 Jakhanke lineage, 604–605 jizya (tribute; poll tax), 51, 67, 195, 197, 664 jamaa, 664 Jogyakarta, 570 jamatbandis (collective associations), 362, 664 John of Damascus, 199 jami, 664 Jordan, 68, 653 janissaries, 412, 469 Josephus, Flavius, 19 defined, 664 Judeo-Christianity, 33, 36–37 Ottoman Empire, 438–441 judges, 96, 156–157, 191, 278, 441 Patrona Halil revolt, 475 Julianites, 33 jarib, 67 al-Junayd, 171 Jats, 514 Junayd (Shaykh), 492 Java, 573–580 Jundishapur, 136 Aceh, 574–576 al-Juvayni, 259 Malaya, 576–577 Minangkabau, 578–580 Kaba, 36, 38 pesentren, 566 defined, 664 pre-Islamic culture, 562 pilgrimage to, 36 state, ulama´, and peasants, 569–573 Kabul, 99, 102 Jelali rebellions, 469–470 Kadizadeli movement, 477–478 Jenne, 592 kafir, 664 Jerusalem, Crusades and, 244–246 kalam (Muslim theology), 215, 313–314, Jews and Judaism, 203–210 324–325, 664 in Arabia, 33 Kanem, Sudan, 595 divorce, 21 al-Kanemi, 613 early history of, 13–14 Kano, 596 Egypt and North Africa, 206–207 kanun code, 441–442, 664 Islam view of, 195 kapikullari, 439 Jewish culture in Islamic context, 209–210 Karaite Jews, 205 marriage, 20 al-Karaki, Ali, 495 Nagid, 209 karamat, 358–368 in North Africa, 403–404 karamoko, 664 Ottoman Empire, 453–455 Karim Khan, 506 role of women, 19 Karlowitz treaty, 476 seclusion, 22–23 Karrami movement, 169, 191–192, 275 sexual morality, 21 kasar, 571 similarities to Zoroastrianism, 13 kasb, 665 in Spain, 384, 395–398 kashf, 307–312, 329, 665 veiling, 23 Kassite empire, 10 women and inheritance, 22 Katip Chelebi, 476 women and property, 22 Katsina, 596–597 yeshivot, 207–209 Kay Kaús, 296–297 Jibril b. Umar, 609 Kazakhs, 545–546 jihad (holy struggle), 53 al-Kazaruni, Shaykh Abu Ishaq Ibrahim, Africa, 584–585 281–282, 285 conversion and, 617–618 Kazaruniyya Sufi order, 517 defined, 664 Keira lineage, 622 of al-Hajj Umar, 614–615 Keita dynasty, Mali, 592

744 Index

Khadija (wife of the Prophet), 184 al-Kulayni, 178, 274 Khalaf, Dawud b., 165 Kumasi (Ashanti), 603 khalifa, 282, 358–368, 492, 665 Kunta clan, 599–601 khalifat Allah (God’s deputy), 83, 126 al-Kunti, Sidi al-Mukhtar (1728–1811), 600 khalifat rasul allah (deputy of the prophet of kura district, 99 God), 83, 123 Kurds, 231, 408, 539 Khalji dynasty Kuwait, 489 conquest of India, 509–511 Sufis under, 520 Lakhmid kingdom, 31 khanaqa (residences; retreats), 191–192, 237, language 280–282, 283, 290–291, 309 Afghanistan, 508 Chisti, 517–518 aljamiado, 393 defined, 358–368, 665 Amharic, 626 khans, 275, 545, 665 Arabia, 37–38 kharaj (land tax), 67, 665 Arabic, 255–256 Kharijis, 86, 149–150, 191, 218, 370, 379 Arabic, in Ghana and Mali, 592 Kharijism, 326–329, 665 during Arab-Muslim Empire, 78–79 khatam (keeper of the seal), 96 Christian literature in Arabic, 199–200 khatib, 364–368, 665 Christians, 199 khawajas, 556–557 former regions of the Abbasid Empire, 254 Khazars, 89 Hebrew, 396 khirqa Indian, Sufism and, 518–519 defined, 358–368, 665 Jews, 210 Sufis, 282 non-Muslims in Spain, 384–385 Khojas, 665 Persian, 255–257 Khokand, 555 Sufism, 171 Khurasan, 72 Swahili, 624 Abbasid Empire and post-imperial era, 110 Latin Crusaders, 243–244 Abbasid revolution, 89–90 law, 324.Seealsoschools of law under Abbasid rule, 98, 99 central concepts in, 303–329 under Abbasid rule, district hierarchy, 99 hila (pl. hiyal) (manipulation of law), 162, madrasa, 275 304, 663 role in war between al-Amin and Ottoman Empire, 441–442 al-Ma´mun, 105 Sunni Islam, 156–158 Khurasanian tendency, Sufis, 170–171 laylat al qadr, 328–329 khutba, 328–329 laylat al-miraj, 328–329 Khwaja Ahrar, 237 Lebanon khwajas, 356–357, 665 Druze religion, 242 Khwarizm, 72, 550–555 under Mamluk rule, 201 al-Kindi, 138, 326–329 under Ottoman rule, 485 kingdoms. See clans and kingdoms lecturing and note-taking system of learning, kingship. See clans and kingdoms; empires 28–29 Kitab al-Kharaj, 158 legal schools, 165–166.Seealsoschools of law Kitama Berbers, 239.SeealsoBerbers legists, 167 Kochu Bey, Mustafa, 476 legitimization, Islamic states, 365–366 koine, 37 lesser occultation, 176–177 Kong, 603 Levant Company, 470–471 Koprulu, Mehmed, 473 Libya, 406–408.SeealsoNorth Africa Kubrawi order, Sufi, 491 lineages.Seealsoclans and kingdoms Kuchuk Kaynarca treaty, 468–469 Dyula, 603–604 Kufa, 63 Jakhanke, 604–605 stimulating agricultural output, 68 Keira, 622 Sufis, 169 Sufi, 358–368 uprising, 174 literature.Seealsopoetry

Index 745

apocalyptic, 194 Khurasan, 275 Arabic, 131–134 Marinids and, 414 Arabic, during Abbasid era, 131–134 Saljuq use of, 289 Christian, in Arabic, 199–200 maghazi, 27, 39, 147 comparing in Ottoman Empire, Safavid al-Maghili, 607 Empire, and, Mughal Empire, 539–540 mahalla, 665 development (transformation) of Islam Mahdawi movement, 519 and, 214 al-Mahdi (Caliph 775–785), 137 Hafsid dynasty, 409 mahdi (messiah), 175, 665 Hebrew poetry, 396 Mahmud of Ghazna, 257 Hellenistic, during Abbasid era, 136–139 mahr, 665 Hellenistic, political theory, 298–301 Maimonides, 396, 397 Hispano-Arabic culture, 386 majlis, 665 historical, 132–134, 146–147 makhzan, 665 Indian poetry, 518–519 maktab, 665 mirrors for princes, 295–298 Malacca, 564 nineteenth century, promoting Muslim Malamatiyya (wandering dervishes), 461 rebellion, 559 Malamatiyya movement, 169 Ottoman Empire, 445–446 Malaya, 576–577 Persian, 134–136, 254–255 pondoks, 566 Samanids, 256 reformism, 361 Sufi, 305 Mali, 591–592 Sunni shift to written literature, 145 Malik b. Anas, 165 Syriac, 136 malikane, 473 translation of Hellenistic literature from Maliki school of law, 157–158, 165, 379–380 Greek to Arabic, 199–200 origins of, 275 translations into Latin and Castilian, Spain, 386–387 398–399 mallam, 665 usul al-fiqh (legal methodology), 163 mamaluk, 665 Zoroastrian, 194 Mamluk Empire (1250 -1517), 202–203 liwans (galleries), 249 office of Raís al-Yahud, 209 Lobbo, Ahmad, 613 post-Abbasid Middle Eastern state system, local government, Abbasid Empire, 99–102 247–249 lords, European feudal system, 252 religious architecture, 291 love of God, role in Sufi teaching, 306 treatment of Jews, 209 love poetry, pre-Islamic, 132 al-Ma´mun (Caliph, 813–833), 99, 105–106 lower-class women, 189 Caliphate and, 218–219 Lugard, Frederick, 633 Created Quran theological position, 162 hellenistic literature and philosophy, Ma Ba (1809–1867), 615 137–138 Ma Hua-lung, 559 inquisition, 128–129 Ma Ming-hsin, 558 resistance and rebellion, 102 madaris (schools). See madrasa Mangit dynasty (1785–1920), 552–553, 560 madawaki, 596 Mani, 46–47 madhhab school of law, 178–179, 665 Manicheanism, 17 madinat al-salam (City of Peace), 91 manor, European feudal system, 251–252 Madinat al-Zahra (city), 386 mansabdar system, Mughal Empire, 522 madrasa, 237, 275–277, 289–290 al-Mansur (the Victorious), 127 adoption of form of instruction, Hanafi al-Mansur, (Sultan 1578–1603), 416–417 school of law, 277 al-Mansur Qalawun, 248 al-Mustansiriya, 409 manuscripts, illustrated, 260–261 Baghdad, 275–276 maqam (efforts), 170, 307–329, 666 defined, 665 maqama, 396 for Kanuri students, 595 Maqamat (al-Hariri), 254–255

746 Index

maraboutism, 380–381 style of Quran in Medinan period, 45 Maratha movement, 530–531 Mediterranean Marcionites, 17 in late eleventh century and Almoravid Mardawij b. Ziyar, 111 conquests, 376 marifa, 307–312, 329, 461 in ninth century, 371 Marinid state, Morocco, 414–417 Ottoman expansion into, 436 marja-i taqlid, 364–368, 666 Mediterranean Ocean, 644–647 market economy, 9, 271–273 Mehmed I (Sultan 1413–1421), 439 Maronites, 458 Mehmed II (Sultan 1444–1446, 1451–1481), Marrakesh, 377 431–434, 439 marriage.Seealsodivorce; women and family Mehmet II, 444 Islamic, overview, 186–187 Melkites, 14, 458, 459 medieval Muslim jurists, 269–270 translation of literature from Greek to Middle Eastern societies before Islam, Arabic, 199–200 20–21 mellahs, 403–404 polyandrous, in late antique Arabia, 183 merchants.Seealsoeconomy; trade polygamous, in late antique Arabia, 183 under Abbasid rule, 112 Martel, Charles, 382 Christianity and, 33 Marwanid dynasty (685–750) kingship and empires, 9 administration, Egypt, 71 West Africa, 597–599, 601–604 administration, Northern Mesopotamia, 70 Mesopotamia Caliphate, 86–87 Abbasid empire and post-imperial era, 110 masjid, 328–329, 666 administration, Marwanid Caliphs, 70 Masmuda, 370.SeealsoBerbers economic and social change under masnavi (rhyming couplet), 257, 666 Arab-Muslim Empire, 68–70 ma’sum, 666 economic regression, 113 Mataram, Java, 569–572 kingship and empires, 8–10 Mataram dynasty, Java, 562 pre-Islamic, 7–8 al-Maturidi, 154 veiling, 23 Maturidism, 154 messiah (mahdi), 175, 665 Mauritania, 351–352, 583, 599 Mevlevis, 462 al-Mawardi, 294 Miaphysitism, 14, 15 mawla (pl. mawali) (clientage), 74, 666 Middle East, 330–340, 482–489.Seealso mawlid, 148–149, 322–323, 666 speciﬁc countries by name mawlid al-nabi, 328–329 Arab provinces under Ottoman rule, Maydan, Isfahan, 497 482–486 Maydan-i Shah square, Isfahan, 497 Arabian Peninsula, 486–489 mazalim court, 96, 278 continuity and change in historic cultures Mazdakism, 16 of, 211–221 Mazdakite opposition, 194 conversion to Islam, 343–347 Mazhar, Mirza, 532 conversion to Islam in, 347–350 Mecca eve of Muslim era, 32 Arabia, 36–37 feudalism, 250–254 muhajirun (exiled Meccans), 142, 666 fragmented, states and communities in, Muhammad’s conquest of, 51 334–336 Quraysh opposition to Muhammad’s Imperial Islamic society, 331–334 revelations, 41 language, during Arab-Muslim Empire, Medina 78–79 Mosque of the Prophet, 121–122 post-Abbasid state system, 225–263 Muhammad’s conversion of, 49–50 state and religion in medieval Islamic Muhammad’s political agreement with, 42 paradigm, 338–340 Muhammad’s revelations and religious views of worldly life, 336–338 differences, 42–43 Middle Eastern societies before Islam, 7–25 pre-Islamic, 49 religion and empires, 17–19

Index 747

religion and society, 12–17 expulsion of Muslims, 404–405 Roman Empire, 10–11 Hispano-Arabic society, 384–386 Sasanian Empire, 11–12 Jews in Spain, 395–398 women and family, 19–23 Mosque of the Prophet (Medina), 121–122 migration, Arab-Muslim, 61 mosques Mihr, 15 architectural change of, 258–259 mihrab, 666 design development, 122 military slavery, 249–250 Mosque of the Prophet, 121–122 millets, 460, 666 origin of, 115 Minangkabau, 578–580 Umayyad mosque of Damascus, 120–121 minaret, 666 Mozarab population, 385, 392, 398 minbar, 666 muamalat (rules of social relations) law Ming dynasty (1368–1644), 557–558 category, 166, 307–329, 666 minorities. See non-Muslim minorities Muawiya (661–680), 82, 83–85, 126 Mir Damad, 500–501 mudarris, 364–368 miraj, 666 Mudejars, 392–395, 400–401 Mirghaniyya Sufi order, 628 muezzin, 328–329, 364–368 misr (pl. amsar) (garrison city), 63, 666 muftis (juris-consultants), 166, 277–278, missionaries, 242 364–368, 666 Catholic, during Ottoman Empire, 458–459 Mughal Empire daís (missionaries), 242 authority and legitimacy, 525–526 defined, 364–368, 661 compared to Safavid and Ottoman Indian, 533 Empires, 538–542 Ismaili Shiis, 179 compared to Safavid Empire, Mughal to Southeast Asia, 566 Empire, 538–540 West Africa, 601–604 decline of, 526–531 Mithraism, 12, 16 Indian culture and, 521–525 mobad, 666 Islam under, 531–535 Mogadishu, 624 type of Islamic society, 641–642 Mongol Empire, 648 muhajirun (exiled Meccans), 142, 666 1605–1707, 528 Muhammad, Anatolia and, 428 community and politics, 39, 43 connections between Iran and Inner Asia family of, 41 and, 544 Judeo-Christian and Arabian heritage, 40, Mongol conquests to nineteenth century, 54 544–555 overview, 39–43 post-Abbasid Middle Eastern state system, Quran, 41–43 233–236 as source of law, 159–161 Qarakhitay, 233 Umma of Islam, 53–54 role in advancement of Persian-Islamic Muhammad b. Karram (Ibn Karram), 281 literature and arts, 259 Muhammad b. Masarra, 387 thirteenth century, 235 Muhammad Rahim I (1806–1825), 555 monotheism, 13, 143, 515 muhtasib (market and morals inspector), 272, Mori-Ule Sise, 615 278–279, 364–368, 666 Morocco, 374.SeealsoNorth Africa mujaddid, 666 Alawi dynasty to French protectorate, Mujaddidiyya order, 532 417–420 mujtahid, 278, 364–368, 502–504, 666 Marinid and Sadian states, 414–417 al-Mukhtar, 174 states and Islam, 422–424 mukhtasar, 303 treatment of Jews, 403–404 Mulla Sadra, 500 Moshfegh, David, 203–210 mullah, 666 breakdown of convivencia, 400–401 multi-religious community concept, 114 expulsion of Jews from Spain and Portugal, muluk al-tawaíf, 387–388 401–404 mu´minun (believers), 47

748 Index

muqallids, 278 Nasir al-Din (Imam), 607–608 al-Muqanna (the veiled one), 103 Nasiriya Sufi Brotherhood, 418 muqarnas (stalactite-like projections), 259 Nasrallah, Amir, 553 Muqatil b. Sulayman, 169 nass, 667 muqqadam, 364–368 nationalism al-Murabitun movement, 377.Seealso Balkans and Arab provinces, 455 Almoravids European, 633–634 Murad I (Sultan 1360–1389), 439 Ottomanism displaced by, 460 Murad II (Sultan 1421–1444), 439, 444 natiq (prophet), 179 Murjia, 77, 150–151, 191, 326–329 Navaí, Mir Ali Shir, 260 murshid, 358–368, 492, 666 naval power, Europe, 651–654 murshid-khalifa-murid, 358–368 Nawruz, 324 Musa, al-Kazim, 176 Neo-Platonism, 172, 216–217, 397 Musa, Mansa, 592 Nessana (Negev), 69 Muslim Nestorians, 14, 17, 199 defined, 47 networking, Ottoman Empire, 475 states and populations (900–1700), 344 New Teachings (Hsin-chiao) movement, 558 al-Mutanabbi (poet), 254 Ngazargamo, 595 al-Mutasim (Caliph 833–842), 106, 137–138 Niffari, 171 al-Mutawakkil (Caliph 847–861), 129–130 Niger, 612 Christianity and, 107 Niger Company, 633 treatment of non-Muslims, 196, 198 Nigeria, 613, 630.SeealsoHausaland view of Quran, 219 Nishapur wazirs, 107–108 mystical-ethical movements, 169 Mutazila, 150, 151–153 transformation of schools of law to defined, 326–329 religious movements, 280 theology, 313, 333 visual arts, 258 Mutesa I (King 1856–84), 629 niya, 667 al-Muwahhidun, 378.SeealsoAlmohads Nizam al-Mulk, 277, 296–297 muwalladun, 385 Nizami (poet), 257 muwashshah, 396, 667 Nizari Ismailis (Assassins), 242 muwashshahat poetry, 386, 388 Nizaris, 533 Muwatta´ of Malik, 157–158 nomads, 228–230.SeealsoBedouins; mysticism, 167–173.SeealsoSufism (Sufis) pastoralism intellectual, Ibn Sina’s philosophy as, non-Muslim minorities, 193–206 316–317 Christians and Christianity, 197–203 Jewish, 397 early Islamic era, 194–195 Jews and Judaism, 203–210 Nabatean kingdom, 35 legal rights under Ottoman Empire, 453 Nadir Shah, 505–506, 530 Muslim legislation for, 195–197 nafs, 307–309, 329, 667 treatment under Iranian Shahs, 501 nagaris, 578 Zoroastrianism, 206 Naghrela, Samuel bin, 396 normative Islam, 302–304 Nagid, 209 North Africa, 369–381.SeealsoAlgeria; Naima, Mustafa, 476 Morocco; Tunisia Najran, 33 Almoravids and Almohads, 375–379 Nan Rincheh, Tuanku, 579 Arab-Islamic civilization in, 370–374 Nan Tua, Tuanku, 579 Arab-Islamic conquests, 60 naqib, 667 attacks from Europe, 375 naqib al-ashraf, 364–368, 667 Banu Hilal Arabs, 374–375 Naqshbandi order, 359, 532, 551–552 Christians and Christianity in, 203 al-Nasafi, 239 conversion to Islam, 343–347 Nasi, Joseph, 451 Fatimid dynasty (909), 111, 374–375 nasiha, 667 fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, 391

Index 749

Jews and Judaism, 206–207 padishah, 667 in late eleventh century and Almoravid Padri movement, 361, 579 conquests, 376 paganism, 13, 17, 143, 230 Libya, 406–408 Palestine, 68, 653 Muslim states to the eleventh century, Palestinian yeshiva, 207–209 370–374 Palmyra, 35 in ninth century, 371 pançasila, 667 outline chronology, 372–381 Parsi (Pahlavi; Middle Persian), 255 scholars and Sufis, 379–381 Parthian clans Zirid empire, 374–375 Mithraism, 16 Northern Steppes, Inner Asia, 544–550 Sasanian dynasty and, 12 Nur al-Din, 244–246, 249, 291 Parthian Empire, 10 Nurbaksh, 492 Pasai, Shams al-Din, 575 Pashtun tribes, Afghanistan, 508 Oghuz peoples, 230–231 pastoralism Ohrmazd, 15 Galla (Oromo) peoples, 627–628 Oman, 59, 489, 625 North Africa, 375 Organon of Aristotle, 163–164 unification under Islamic religious orthoprax-Sufi position, 336, 358 leadership, 363–365 Ottoman Empire, 427–467 Patio de los Leones, Alhambra, 394 Arab provinces under Ottoman rule, Patrona Halil revolt, 475 482–486 patronage, under Abbasid rule, 102 Christians in Ottoman Near East, 458–460 Paul of Antioch, 200 commercialization, 470–472 peasants, Java, 569–573 compared to Safavid and Mughal Empires, pengbulu (village headman), 576, 667 538–540, 542 Peoples of the Book (ahl al-dhimma), 63, 659 Cyrenaica, 407 Persian court dress, Safavid period, 505 decentralization, 479–481 Persian Empires. See Mongol empire; Safavid economy, 446–450 empire; Sasanian empire; Timurid expansion of, 432 dynasty Greek Orthodox and Armenian Christians, Persian literature 455–457 Abbasids, 134–136 ideology and identity, 476–479 mirror literature, political theory, 295–298 Janissaries, civil and religious pesantren, 566 administration, 438–441 defined, 667 law, 441–442 Mataram, Java, 572 legitimacy of ruler, 365 Peter the Great, 546 Mediterranean and, 645–646 Phanariots, 456 Muslim communities, 460–462 philosophers (falasifa), 326–329 networking, 475 philosophy overview, 431–437 alternative Islam, 315–319 patrimonial empire, 437–438 Aristotle, in Spain, 386 political institutions, 472–475 Hebrew culture and, 397–398 provincial government, 442–444 Hellenistic, Abbasids and, 136–139 rise of, 429–431 Hellenistic, political theory, 298–301 royal authority, culture, and Ottoman Ibn Hazm, 388 identity, 444–446 Muslim philosophers, 138–139 rulers, 430 Neo-Platonism, 172, 216–217, 397 rulers and subjects, 451–455 Plato, 136, 386 scholars, 353–354 pilgrimage, 627, 641, 647.Seealsohajj Tripolitania, 407 pir, 358–368, 667 Tunisia, 410 pirzada, 532–533, 667 type of Islamic society, 640–641 Plato, 136, 386.Seealsophilosophy women and family (1400–1800), 462–467 pluralism, 650–651

750 Index

poetry, 131–132 Syria, 243–247 Arabia, 37–38 Timurids, 236–238 Baghdadi, post-Abbasid era, 254 post-imperial succession regimes (late tenth bedouins, 34 century), 226 court, Ottoman Empire, priyayi, 571–572, 667 ghazal (lyric), 257 property and inheritance Hebrew, 396 India, Mughal Empire, 524–525 Hispano-Arabic culture, 386 medieval Muslim jurists, 270 Indian, 518–519 Middle Eastern societies before Islam, Mahmud of Ghazna, 257 21–22 masnavi (rhyming couplet), 257 women, Ottoman Empire, 464 new blend of Arabic literary form and oral women and family, 187–190 Iranian literature, 256 protocol, royal court qasida (panegyric), 132, 254, 256, 257 Abbasids, 130–131 romantic, Azarbayjan, 257 Fatimid dynasty, 239–241 rubai (quatrain), 257 Umayyads, 332–333 saz shairi (itinerant minstrel poets), provincial government 461–462 Abbasid Empire, 97–99 Sufi, 257–258 Abbasid Empire, decline of, 109–113 Sufi, post-Abbasid era, 254 Ottoman empire, 442–444 Turkish, European influence on, 477 Pumbedita (Babylonian yeshivas), 208 political institutions, Ottoman Empire, 472–475 purification, Sufi, 309–313 political theory, 293–301 al-Qabisi, 380 Greek, philosophic political theory, 298–301 qada´, 303–329 Persian mirror literature, 295–298 Qadaris (theological school), 150, 326–329 Sunni theory, 293–295 qadi (judge), 96, 156–157, 278, 364–368, 667 Polo, Marco, 564 al-Qadir (Caliph), 289 polyandrous marriage, 183 Qadiriyya Sufi order polygamous marriage, 183 Somalia and Eritrea, 628 pondoks, 566 Sufis, 283 popular Islam, 327–328 in West Africa, 600 Porphyry, 137 qaíd, 667 Portuguese al-Qaím (Caliph), 289 colonialism and defeat of Muslim Qajars, 506 expansion, 630 Qalandariyya, 461 colonialism in Africa, 586–587 qalb, 307–309, 329, 667 East Africa and, 624–625 qanat, 667 expulsion of Jews, 401–404 Qarakhanid Empire, 230, 258, 543–544, Southeast Asia and, 566–569 647–648 post-Abbasid Middle Eastern state system, Qarakhitay, 233 225–263 Qaramanli, Ahmad, 407 concept of state, 262–263 Qarluq peoples, 230 Fatimid Egypt, 238–243 Qarmatian movement, 111 iqta system and Middle Eastern feudalism, qasaba, 667 250–254 qasida (panegyric), 132, 254, 256, 257, 386, Iraq and Iran, 227–230 388, 396, 667.Seealsopoetry Mamluk Empire, 247–249 Qasr Shirin treaty, 434 military slavery, 249–250 qawm (lineages), 575–576, 667.Seealso Mongols, 233–236 lineages royal courts and regional cultures, 254–262 Qayrawan, 206, 379–380 Saljuq Empire, 230–233 qibla, 328–329, 667 Sufism in, 304–306 qital, 53

Index 751

qiyas (reasoning), 162 Malaya, 361 Qizilbash, 492, 494 Minangkabau, 578–580 under Shah Abbas, 496 Southeast Asia, 361 quarters, 271–273 Sumatra, 361 quda´, 487 West Africa, 360 Qum, 72 Registan of Samarqand, 550 Quran, 29, 155 religion. See also specific religions by name cadenza, 45 empires and, 217–220 defined, 667 Middle Eastern societies before Islam, interpreting, 159, 169–170 12–19 Muhammad and, 41–43 Muslim identity and, 114–116 preservation of following Muhammad’s religious administration of Ottoman death, 141 Empire, 438–441 status of women and, 184 religious movements, 288–292 Sunni Islam, 154–167 religious communities, 273–284 translations of, 398 schools of law, 274–280 Quraysh, 37 Shiis, 273–274 opposition to Muhammad, 41 Sufis, 280–284 power struggle with Caliph Umar, religious diversity 81 Baghdad, 93 qurb (nearness), 170 Sasanian Empire, 16 qurra (Quran reciters), religious mood, Shiism, 180 qutb doctrine, 321, 667 religious movements, 326–329, 585.Seealso Qutb Shah dynasty, 513 specific movements by name resistance and rebellion Rabbis, 13 Abbasid Empire, 102–104 Rabia, 170 Christians and Christianity resistance to Radhanites, 204 Arabization, in Spain, 385 radical-skeptical approach to early Islamic elite’s resistance to mass conversions under history, 27–28 Arab-Muslim Empire, 75 Raffles, Thomas Stamford, 573 Sufi-led resistance against state domination raís (head of teaching), 164, 553, 667 in Anatolia, 461–462 Raís al-Yahud, office of, 208–209 riba (loans), 159 Ramadan, 328–329, 667 ribats (forts), 267, 280, 290, 370, 668 Rashid al-Din, 259 rida (love), 170, 307–329 Rashidun (Rightly-Guided Caliphs), 55–56, 58, Rightly Guided Caliphs, 55–56, 58, 80–83, 126, 80–83, 126, 217, 668 217, 668 rationalist position, Muslim theology, 153 Risala, 163 Raymond, Francis, 398 Roman Empire, 490–506.SeealsoByzantine reason Empire (Late Roman) Asharism view of, 153 Christianity, 17–18 reasoned opinion versus traditionalism, compared to Ottoman and Mughal Sunni Islam, 162–164 Empires, 538–542 socio-political changes in early Muslim concubinage, 21 societies and, 154 dissolution of, 504–506 reaya, 460 divorce, 20 rebellion and resistance.Seealsoresistance marriage, 20 and rebellion Middle Eastern societies before Islam, Jelali rebellions, 469–470 10–11 Muslims in China, 559 religion and, 217 reconquista, Spain, 389–390 role of men, 19 reformism veiling, 23 India, 360 women and property, 22

752 Index

royal courts, 254–262, 438, 444–446, 463.See Anatolia under, 427–428 also court (royal) protocol dynasties, 233 royal women, 265–266 effect on relation between religious rubai (quatrain), 257 communities and state, 289 Rudaki (poet), 256 iqta (land tax allotment), 250–251 ruh, 309, 668 khanaqas, 290 Rumi, 258 late eleventh century, 232 Russia post-Abbasid Middle Eastern state system, advances during Ottoman rules, 468–469 Sunni schools and, 289–290 Afghanistan and, 508–509 sama, 160, 668 conquests, 546–550 Samanids, 99, 228 expansion into Inner Asia, 548, 555 defined, 225 Rustam, Abd al-Rahman b., 370 literature, 256 rustaq, 99, 668 Samarqand, 237, 258 Samarra´, 106–107 Saadya Gaon, 210, 397 Samori Ture (1879–1898), 615–617 Sabah b. Jabr, 489 Sanhaja, 370.SeealsoBerbers sabr (patience), 170, 307–329, 668 Sanhedrin, 207 sada´ (sayyids), 487 sanjak beyliks, 443 sadaqa, 668 santris, 572, 668 Sadian state, Morocco, 414–417 al-Sanusi, Muhammad b. Ali, 407 Sadozai, Ahmed Shah, 508 Sanusiya order, 407 sadr, 495 saqaliba, 383 Sadr al-Din, 492 Sargon of Akkad, 8 Safavid Empire sarkin, 668 architecture, 539 sarkis, 596 art, 540 Sasanian Empire, 10 compared to Mughal and Ottoman Arabia and, 36 Empires, 538–540, 542 Arab-Islamic conquests and, 60 dissolution of, 504–505 divorce, 20 imposition of ithna ashari (“twelver”), influence in North Arabia, 31 Shiism, 495 marriage, 20 Iran, state and religion under late, 501–504 Middle Eastern societies before Islam, Iran under, early, 493–496 11–12 Iran under, seventeenth century, 503 religion and, 13, 18, 217 literature, 539–540 religious authority, 127–128 origins of Safavids, 490–506 religious diversity, 16 Persian court dress, 505 religious policies, 18–19 Shiism, 506 women and inheritance, 22 state and religion in, 501–504 women and property, 22 Saffarids, 109 Zoroastrianism, 15–16 Safi al-Din (Shaykh), 492 sati, 527 Saghanughu, Muhammad al-Mustafa, 603–604 Saudi Arabia, 488 Sahara Desert, 647–649 sawafi, 668 Sahih of Bukhari, 161 Sawdah bint Zamáh (wife of the Prophet), 184 saints, veneration of, 321–324 sayyid, 668 sajjada nishin, 364–368, 668 Sayyid Muhammad, 519 Saladin, 246, 249, 290 Sayyid Said b. Sultan (1804–1856), 625 salah, 328–329, 668 Sayyidna al-Husayn mausoleum, 242 Salaymeh, Lena, 19–23, 154–167, 181–183, saz shairi (itinerant minstrel poets), 461–462 264–271, 441–442, 462–467 sbarif, 668 Salih b. Tarif, 374 scholars.Seealsoelites; ulama´ (scholars) Salihiyya Sufi order, 628 attitude to worldly actualities, 337 Saljuq Empire, 263, 334, 339 faqis, 621

Index 753

in India under Mughal Empire, 530 theory of Risala, 163 Inner Asia, 353–354 treatment of non-Muslims, 196 Iran, 353–354 Shafii school of law, 165 Mataram, Java, 572 origins of, 275 North Africa, 379–381 transformation to religious movement, relationships of different Islamic states to, 279–280 366–367 shahada (testimonial), 77, 328–329, 668 scholar-bureaucrats, Persian, 494 Shah-en-shah, 668 scholars-cum-Sufis, 358 shahid, 668 School of Athens, 136 Shahrukh (r. 1405–1447), 237 School of Baghdad, 326–329 Shahs, declining power of, 502–504.Seealso School of Edessa, 136 specific shahs by name School of Khurasan, 326–329 Shailendra dynasty, Java, 562 School of Nasibin, 136 Shajar ad-Durr, 265 schools of law, 274–280, 286, 336, 344.See shakiriyya (military units), 73, 106 also Hanafi school of law; Hanbali shamanists, 230 school of law; Maliki school of law; Shaqiq al-Balkhi, 170 Shafii school of law Sharia, 303–329, 461, 668 Sunni Islam, 164–167, 326–329 sharifs, 356–357 transformation to religious movements, shashiya, 411 279–280 Shattari order, Sufi, 517 women and family, 269–271 Shaybanid Empire (1500–1598), 551–552, 648 science, Islamic era, 139 shaykh (bedouin clan chief), 34, 358–368, 668 scripturalism, Sufism, 325 shaykh al-Islam, 364–368, 441, 668 scripturalism, Sunni Islam shaykh al-shuyukh, 364–368 Hadith, 159–161 shaytaniyya, 309 law, 156–158 Sher Shah (1540–1545), 512 Quran, 154–167 Sherley, Anthony, 498–499 reasoned opinion versus traditionalism, Sherley, Robert, 498–499 162–164 Shiism (Shia; ShiiIslam),82, 145, 174–180, schools of law (Madhahib), 164–167 215–216, 273–274, 326–329.Seealso seclusion Ismaili Shiism; ithna ashari Middle Eastern societies before Islam, (“twelver”), Shiism 22–23 Caliphate, attitude toward, 88, 128 for women, during lifetime of the Prophet, Caliphate and, 218 185 conversion of Iran to, 500–501 sectarianism defined, 668 Jews, 204 Imami branch of, 174–176, 177 Muslim, 326–329 influence in India, 533 secularization, 650, 656 Ismaili Shiism, 179–180 sedentarization, 36, 72 partitions of, 328–329 Selim I (Sultan), 435 resistance and rebellion under Abbasid Selim III (Sultan), 475 rule, 103–104, 109 Senegambia, 604–606 Safavid-period, 506 jihads, 608–613 veneration of the Prophet, 321–322 late nineteenth century jihads, 615 Yemen, 487 slavery and, 585 Zaydis branch of, 174 separation of church and state, 637–643 Shikuh, Dara, 526–527 sexual morality, Middle Eastern societies shirk, 668 before Islam, 20–21 Shrine-Sufism, 356 Shabbatai Zvi, 455 shukr (gratitude), 170, 307–329 al-Shadhili, 409–410 shura, 668 Shadhili order, Sufi, 283 shurafa´, 358–368 al-Shafii, 165 shurta (governor’s police), 272

754 Index

Shuubiya controversy, 135, 216 Srivijaya dynasty, 562 Sibawayhi, 137, 146 trade, 568–569 Sidiya al-Kabir (Shaykh), 600–601 type of Islamic society, 642–643 Sijilmassa, 374 soyurghal, 495 Sijistan, Iran, 109 Spain, 382–405.SeealsoNorth Africa silsila (chain of transmission), 282, 295, 356, breakdown of convivencia, 400–401 358–368, 668 expulsion of Jews from Spain and Portugal, al-Simnani, 283 401–404 Sinan, Koja, 446 expulsion of Muslims, 404–405 al-Singkeli, Abd al-Raúf, 575 fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, 391 sipahi (Ottoman cavalry), 468, 668 Hispano-Arabic society, 384–388, 393–395 Sira, 27, 39, 668 Jews in Spain, 395–398 Sirhindi, Shaykh Ahmad (1564–1624), 534 in late eleventh century and Almoravid Sitt al-Mulk, 265, 269 conquests, 376 slametan village ritual, 573 Muslims under Christian rule, 390–393 slavery in ninth century, 371 Africa, 585–586 reconquista, 389–390 military slavery, 247, 249–250 translations into Latin and Castilian, women and, 185 398–399 women and family in Ottoman era Spanish Caliphate, 384 (1400–1800), 249–250 Spanish Inquisition, 402–403, 404 social (sociopolitical movements), Spain, 387 Srivijaya dynasty, Southeast Asia, 562 social activity, women, 268 state. See also specific empires and countries by social change name development (transformation) of Islam formation of, Muhammad and, 363 and, 213 Islam-North African variations and, 421–424 in Egypt under Arab-Muslim Empire, 70–71 Java, 569–573 in Iran under Arab-Muslim Empire, 71–72 Muslim community connection to in Iraq under Arab-Muslim Empire, 66–68 formation of, 635–636 in Syria and Mesopotamia under religion and, Iran under late Safavids, Arab-Muslim Empire, 68–70 501–504 upper-class versus lower-class women, separation of church and, 637–643 188–189 Sub-Saharan Africa Sokoto Caliphate, 610–613 conversion to Islam in, 350–353 Somalia, 351–352, 625–628 eleventh to fourteenth centuries, 589 Songhay, 592–595 sixteenth to eighteenth centuries, 594 soul Sudan, 588–590, 619–622 al-Ghazali’s view of, 309 Kanem and Bornu, 595 Ibn Sina’s view of, 316–317 Kingdoms of Western and Central, 588–591 in Sufism, 307–329 sufigare, 493 South Africa, 630 Sufism (Sufis), 167–173, 280–284, 326–329.See Southeast Asia, 561–580. See also specific also mysticism; philosophy; specific countries by name orders or brotherhoods by name arrival of Islam, 562–566 asceticism, 380 conversion to Islam in, 350–353 attitude to worldly actualities, 337 Java, 573–580 Bektashis, 461 Muslim states to 1800, 563 Darqawa Sufi Brotherhood, 418 Portuguese, Dutch, and British empires defined, 668 (1500–1914), 567 emergence of, 354–358 Portuguese, Dutch, and Muslim States, maraboutism, 380–381 566–569 Morocco, 415–416 pre-Islamic, 561–562 Nasiriyya Sufi Brotherhood, 418 reformism, 361 North Africa, 379–381

Index 755

Sufism (Sufis) (cont.) schools of law, 326–329 orders, 281 scripturalism, 154–158, 159–161, 162–167 in post-Abbasid era, 304–306 shift to written literature, 145 post-Caliphal Hispano-Arabic civilization, veneration of the Prophet, 147–149, 322 388 view of Caliph authority, 128 relationships of different Islamic states to, Sunpadh, 103 367 sura, 669 scripturalism, 325 Surakarta, 570 scripture and theology, 302–304 Swahili Islam, 623–625 social organization of, 358–368 Swahili language, 624 Spanish form of, 380 symbolism, Sufi language, 171 spiritual goal, 148 syncretistic religious movements, 194 suppression of by Shah Abbas, 501 Syria terminology, 307–329 Abbasid empire and post-imperial era, veneration of saints, 321–324 110 in West Africa, 601 under Abbasid rule, 98 women’s role, 267 Crusader states in the twelfth century, 245 Sufyanid dynasty, 83–85 crusades and, 243–247 Suhrawardi, Shihab al-Din, 318–319 economic and social change under Suhrawardi Sufi order, 282–283, 517, 519–520 Arab-Muslim Empire, 68–70 Suleyman I (Sultan 1520–1566), 438, 439, 444 establishment of system of state control, Sultan Ahmed (Blue) Mosque, Istanbul, 447, 249 448 Hellenism, 17 Sultanate (sultans) quarters, 271 Baybars (1260–1277), 249, 291 Sufi orders, 283 defined, 668 Syriac (Jacobite; Miaphysite) church, 198 Delhi, 509–510, 513–521 Syrian Orthodox church, 198 division of power with Caliphs, 263 Husayn (r. 1469–1506), 260 Tabaristan, 99, 102 Malaya, 577 Tabriz, 260–261 separation of church and state, 638 tafsir, 669 weakening position in Ottoman Empire, tafsir (exegesis), 155 473 Tahir (820–822), 102, 105–106 Sumatra Tahirid family (820–873), 99 reformism, 361 Tahmasp (Shah), 494, 498 slavery and, 586 tahrirs (cadastral surveys), 443 Sumerians Taj Mahal, 527 kingship and empires, 8–10 tajalliyat (theophanies), 319–320 pre-Islamic, 8 tajdid, 669.Seealsoreformism Sunjata, 592 talakawata, 669 sunna, 669 taljia, 108, 669 Sunni Ali, 592–593 Tanzimat, 669 Sunni Islam (Sunnis), 82, 146–173, 215, 487 taqlid, 303, 329, 669 asceticism and mysticism (Sufism), 167–173 Tariq, 382 attitude to worldly actualities, 336–337 tariqa, 282, 283–284, 357, 461, 669.Seealso attitude toward Caliphate, 88 Sufism (Sufis) Caliphate and, 218 tasbib (designated lands), 227 defined, 669 tasdiq (truth), 314–315, 669 early theology, 149–154 tassuj district, 99 hierarchy of jurists, 166–167 Tatars, 549 inheritance laws, 188 tawakkul (trust in God), 170, 307–311, 329, Mamluk period, 248–249 669 political theory, 293–295 tawba, 307–329, 669

756 Index

tawhid, 307–329, 669 under Ottoman Empire, 446–450, 470–472 tawil, 669 silk, under Shah Abbas, 498 taxation, 63–65 Southeast Asia, 568–569 Egypt, 70–71 Zanzibar, 625 iqta (land tax allotment), 108, 250–254, traditionalism 663 Muslim theology, 153 jizya (tribute; poll tax), 51, 67, 195, 197, versus reasoned opinion, Sunni Islam, 664 162–164 kharaj (land tax), 67, 665 Transoxania, 99 local government under Abbasid rule, conversions, 76–77 99–101 hukama, 169 Mamluk Egypt, 248 influence of Qarakhanids in recreation of zabt system, India, 524 Islamic culture in Turkish, 258 tax-farming, 108, 473–474 language, 79 taziya, 669 from Mongol conquests to nineteenth tekke, 358–368, 449, 669.Seealsokhanaqa century, 550–555 (residences; retreats) Samanid victory of 900, 109 temple-cities, Sumerian, 8 Sufi orders, 283 Theodore bar Koni, 199 treaties Theodore of Abu Qurra, 78, 200 French-Ottoman treaty of 1604, 458 Theodosian Code, 204 Karlowitz, treaty of, 476 Theological schools, 326–329 Kuchuk Kaynarca treaty, 468–469 theology Qasr Shirin, treaty of, 434 scriptural Islam and, 313–315 tribes.Seealsoclans and kingdoms; Sufism, 302–304 pastoralism theosophy, 315–319 Bakr tribe, 59 Tigris River, 66–67 Pashtun tribes, Afghanistan, 508 Tijaniya Sufi order, 413 Tripolitania, 407–408 timar system, 429, 437, 443, 469, 473, 669 truth, concept of, 179 timarliks, 443 Tu Wen-hsiu, 559 Timbuktu, 592, 593, 597–599 tuanku, 576 Timur (Tamerlane), 236–237 Tughluq dynasty Timurid dynasty conquest of India, 512 emirs, 236 Sufis under, 520–521 post-Abbasid Middle Eastern state system, Tughril Beg, 231, 263 236–238 Tulunid dynasty, 109 role in advancement of Persian-Islamic Egypt, 109 literature and arts, 259–261 rule over Egypt, 238 Tippu Tip, 629 Tunis, 370–374 al-Tirmidhi, 172–173, 323 Tunisia, 370–374, 408–412.SeealsoNorth Toledo, as translation center, 398–399 Africa Topkapi Saray, 437–438 Alawi dynasty to French protectorate, torodbe (Africa, leadership group), 608 417–420 trade pastoralism, 375 Arabia, 33, 37 states and Islam, 421–422 Bornu, 595 Turkestan central Africa, 628–629 Eastern, 555–560 East African coastal towns, 623–624 from Mongol conquests to nineteenth Europe, 651–654 century, 550–555 forest and coastal regions of West Africa, Turkey, 427–467.SeealsoOttoman empire 601–602 Muslim communities, 460–462 Funj kingdom, 621–622 rise of Ottomans (c. 1280–1453), 429–431 Mali, 592 Turkish-Islamic states in Anatolia Mediterranean, 645 (1071–1243), 427–429

Index 757

Turks, conversion of, 230.SeealsoOttoman Uthman don Fodio (1754–1817), 360, 610–613 empire uymaqs, 490–491, 493–494 al-Tustari, Sahl, 172 defined, 669 tuyul (estates), Mongols, 234–236 dissolution of Safavid Empire and, 504–505 Twelver Shiism (Twelvers). See ithna ashari under Shah Abbas, 496 (“twelver”), Shiism Uzbeks tyeddo, 669 domination of Transoxania, 551 origin of, 545 Ubadiah mosque, 577 Ubaydallah, 374–375 Valencia ulama´ (scholars), 353–354 breakdown of convivencia, 400–401 Arabian peninsula, 487 Jews, 401, 402 defined, 669 Mudejars, 392–393 Java, 569–573 vassals, European feudal system, 252 Morocco, 420 veiling, Middle Eastern societies before Islam, under Ottoman Empire, 440–441 22–23 Saudi Arabia, 488 veneration of the Prophet, Sunni Islam, Timbuktu, 597–599 147–149 uleebalang, 669 village societies, 363 Ulugh-beg, 237, 260 village-scale estates, 67 Umar (Caliph 634–644), 55, 58, 63–64, 81 visual arts, 258 Umar II (Caliph 717–720), 126 Abbasids embracement of principles of, wahdat al-shuhud, 669 93–95 wahdat al-wujud doctrine, 319, 518, 540–541, convert issue, 88 669 Muslim equality, 77, 87, 93 Wahhabi movement, 149, 360, 488 Umayyad Caliphs, 84 wahyu, 570–571 Umayyad dynasty (661–750), 55–56 wali, 358–368, 670 adopting practices of ancient empires, Waliallah (Shah), 534–535 123–124 al-Walid (705–715), 86–87, 121–122 architecture, 118–122 al-Walid, Khalid b., 59 Caliphate, 83–86 al-Walid II, 123 imperialism, 117 wandering dervishes (Malamatiyya), 461 Umayyad Mosque of Damascus, 120–121 waqf (trusts), 188 ummah (community), 141, 669 waqf (trusts), 291–292 Uncreated Quran theological position, 162 waqf (trusts), 358–368, 670 Uniate churches, 459–460 al-Waqidi, 39 United East India Company (VOC), Dutch, 568 warfare, 53 universality of gods concept, 12–13 watan, 670 upper-class women, 188–189 Wattasids, 415 Urban Islam, 57 wazir (chief minister) urbanization, 181–192, 331 Abbasid government, 97 quarters and markets, 271–273 defined, 670 Syria and Mesopotamia, 68–69 under reign of al-Mutawakkil (Caliph, urban communities, 190–192 847–861), 107–108 women and family, 181–190 West Africa, 588–606, 607–618. See also specific Urdu language, 518 countries by name urs, 358–368 diffusion of Islam (Islamization), 351, ‘ushr, 669 582–583 Ushrusana, 99, 102 Hausaland, 596–597 usul al-fiqh (legal methodology), 163, jihad and conversion, 617–618 303–325, 329 jihad of al-Hajj Umar, 614–615 usuli (rationalists) school, 178, 502–504 late nineteenth century jihads, 615–617 Uthman (Caliph r. 644–654), 55, 58, 81, 126 Mali, 591–592

758 Index

West Africa (cont.) yasa (supreme law), Mongols, 234, 670 merchants, 597–599, 601–604 Yazid (680–683), 85 missionaries, 601–604 Yazid II (Caliph 721–724), 195 reformism, 360 Yemen, 34–35, 487 religious lineages, 597–599 economy, 33 scholars, 353 Himyarite kingdom, 36 Senegambia, 604–606 yeshivot (Rabbinic academies), 205, 207–209 Senegambian Jihads, 608–613 Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), 557 slavery and, 585 Songhay, 592–595 zabt system, India, 524 trade, settlements, and the diffusion of zahir (external, literal truth) Islam (1500–1900), 598 deﬁned, 670 zawayan, Kunta clan, 599–601 Ismaili Shiis, 179 Western Steppes, Inner Asia, 544–550 Zahir al-Umar, 485 wilayat, 670 Zahiri school of law, 165 wird, 670 zajal poetry, 388 Wittfogal, Karl, 425 zakah (charity tax), 159, 328–329, 670 Wolof system, Quran school, 605 zamindars, Mughal Empire, 523–524, 670 women and family, 181–183, 264–271 zanadiqa, 127 in Caliphal era, 185–187 Zanata.SeealsoBerbers conservative Muslims view of role in zandaqa, 670 Western societies, 181 Zanj revolts, 68 in lifetime of the Prophet, 183–185 Zanzibar, 489, 623 Middle Eastern societies before Islam, economy, 625 19–23 slavery and, 586 in Ottoman era (1400–1800), 462–467 zawaya, 356–357, 358–368 property and inheritance, 187–190 deﬁned, 670 royal women, 265–266 Kunta clan, 599–601 schools of law, 269–271 zawiya, 358–368, 407, 410, 670 Westerners view of role in Muslim society, Zaydis branch, Shiism, 174, 326–329 181 Zenata Berbers, 370.SeealsoBerbers women of urban notable families, 266–267 Zengi, 244 working women, 267–269, 463–464 Zirid Empire, 374–375 working women, 267–269, 463–464 ziyara, 358–368, 670 world history, Islam in, 24 Zoroastrianism, 206 worldly life, differing views of, 336–338 general discussion, 15–16 wudu´, 328–329 similarities to Christianity and Judaism, 13 Yahya ibn Adi, 200 zuar, 287 Yao peoples, 629 zuhd, 307–329 Yaqub Beg, 559–560 Zutt rebellions, 68