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DRIVING THE SUSTAINABLE FUTURE? Media Representations of Environmental Sustainability in Motorsport: The Case of Formula E Timothy Robeers DRIVING THE SUSTAINABLE FUTURE? Timothy Robeers Supervisor Prof. Dr. Hilde Van den Bulck – Drexel University (USA) Doctoral committee Prof. Dr. Philippe Meers – Antwerp University (BEL) Prof. Raymond Boyle – The University of Glasgow (UK) Doctoral jury Prof. Dr. Pieter Maeseele – Antwerp University (BEL) Prof. Dr. Richard Haynes – The University of Stirling (UK) Copyright © 2019 Timothy Robeers. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, without written permission from the author. ISBN: 9789463880121 Publisher prefix: 978946388012 Wettelijk depotnummer: D/2019/Timothy Robeers, uitgever Cover design and layout: Timothy Robeers Printed by Universitas Digital Printing, Antwerp Contact information: [email protected] Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor in Social Sciences at the University of Antwerp to be defended by Timothy ROBEERS DRIVING THE SUSTAINABLE FUTURE? Media Representations of Environmental Sustainability in Motorsport: The Case of Formula E UNIVERSITEIT ANTWERPEN FACULTEIT SOCIALE WETENSCHAPPEN DEPARTEMENT COMMUNICATIEWETENSCHAPPEN VAKGROEP: MEDIA, BELEID EN CULTUUR Supervisor: Professor Dr. Hilde Van den Bulck Antwerp, 2019 A WORD OF THANKS First of all, I would like to express my utmost and sincerest gratitude to my Ph.D. supervisor, Prof. Dr. Hilde Van den Bulck for her profound guidance and support during all the years of writing my Ph.D., as well as for her unrelenting belief in my abilities and passion for communication and motorsport. Without a doubt she has taught me to be the academic that I am today, for which I am very grateful. It really has been a privilege to have been able to study under such a kind, helpful and, simply put, such cool human being. Thank you so very much, Hilde! Beyond this, I would like to thank the members of my doctoral committee. I would like to thank Prof. Dr. Philippe Meers as chairman of the doctoral committee for his wise comments and guidelines throughout the course of the Ph.D. They have benefitted me a lot. I would also like to thank Prof. Dr. Raymond Boyle for providing me with the opportunity to study at Glasgow University. It is much appreciated. In addition to this, I would also like to thank doctoral jury member Prof. Dr. Pieter Maeseele for his guidance regarding environmental sustainability and communication during the earlier stages of my study. Second, I want to express my thanks to doctoral jury member Prof. Dr. Richard Haynes for his introducing me into the realm of broadcasting history on (motor)sport, cooperating on a subsequent article and his welcoming character. I have greatly enjoyed our meetings at Stirling University. Further, I would like to thank my colleagues at Antwerp University for always contributing to a feel-good office environment that no doubt benefitted my work when I was there. I also very much appreciate the words of wisdom by Dr. Koen Panis in helping me prepare for my teaching assignments abroad and the kindness of Dr. Daniëlle Raeijmaekers in answering my many administrative questions in the lead-up to defending this Ph.D. Finally, I want to express my profound gratitude to my friends and family for their support. To my friends: In particular to my best friend Dr. Koen Van Hooste who got me interested in doing a Ph.D. in the first place, to Rebecca Van Herck, Sarah Levrie, and my life-long friend Jeroen Reypens, thanks for always being there when it mattered. It really means the world to me. To Michael Dickson, thanks for getting me from behind my desk with all the bar talks about motorsport and for those Formula 1 Spa Francorchamps weekend outings. And to my endurance rally navigator and good friend Guy-Matthieu Soki, thank you for being my soundboard during our adventures in the Sahara and for supporting me to combine motorsport and academia. To my family: Mum and Dad. I could not have done this without your tremendous and unrelenting support, motivation and interest in me, both before and during the Ph.D. To my girlfriend Lindsay whom I met only just before I committed to this Ph.D. and who has, thus far, always been dating both me and my Ph.D. I feel very grateful for having such an amazing and supportive person stand by my side. To my grandfather Herman and my grandmother Yvette, who sadly is no longer with us to witness this moment, and to whom I wish to dedicate this Ph.D., thank you for your sincerest interest in me and my passions. Antwerp, 2019 DEDICATED TO OMA, YVETTE PHILOMENA CALLENS TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 1 References 8 CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 11 Conceptualizing Motorsport 11 Towards A Definition 11 General Historical Overview 12 Pioneering ‘Sustainable' Motorsport: The FIA Formula E Championship 18 Motorsport and The Environment 20 Conceptualizing Environmental Sustainability 22 Definition 22 From Concern to Engagement 23 Corporate Social Responsibility, Commodification and Greenwashing 24 Celebrity Activism and Endorsement 26 The Media and Motorsport 28 Conceptualizing Representation 28 From Identity and Image … 32 … To Environmental Issues/ Sustainability 33 Representation and The (Motor) Sports-Media Complex 34 Representations of Motorsport 36 Representing Environmental Sustainability in Motorsport 37 Summarizing the Research Questions 38 References 39 CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK 52 Methodological Setup 52 A Mixture of Methods 52 Methodologies For the Study of Representation 53 From Theory to Practice: Framing Analysis 53 Complementary Approaches: From a Political Economy To an Archival Approach 60 Contribution of the Ph.D. 63 References 66 CHAPTER 3: ‘THE WEBSITE AS A DIGITAL STOREFRONT: AN ANALYSIS OF (COMMODIFICATION IN) FORMULA E’S SELF-ORGANISATIONAL REPRESENTATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY’ 71 Preface 71 Abstract 72 Formula E Motorsport Meets Environmental Sustainability 72 Environmental Sustainability and Corporate Social Responsibility 74 A More Critical View on Environmental Sustainability Marketing Strategies 76 Factors of Commodification in Motorsport 77 Glamour 77 Celebrities 78 Gamification 78 Advertising 79 (Self-)Representation 79 Research Set-up 80 Quantitative Content Analysis 81 The Qualitative Connection: Thematic Analysis 83 Findings 83 Webpage Layout 83 Environmental Sustainability: Goals, Concerns and Objectives 84 From ES, Other Initiatives, the Future and Technical Developments to Gamification 86 Celebrities and Glamour 88 Promotion through Sport: Advertisements, Partners and Sponsors 89 Discussion and Conclusion 92 References 95 CHAPTER 4: ‘ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY AND THE FRAMING OF FORMULA E MOTOR RACING IN UK AND FLEMISH NEWSPAPERS’ 100 Preface 100 Abstract 101 Introduction 102 Where Environmental Sustainability and Motorsport Meet 103 The Role of the Media 105 Setting the Agenda on Formula E 105 Framing Formula E 106 Methodology 107 Constructing the Sample 107 The Coding Process: From a Quantitative Analysis … 108 … To A Qualitative Method: Framing Analysis 109 Formula E and ES In The UK and Flemish Press 109 Quantitative Analysis: The Prominence of Formula E in the UK and Flemish Press 110 Qualitative Analysis: ES in Formula E Coverage in UK and Flemish Press 113 Framing ES In Formula E 114 Discussion And Conclusion 118 References 120 CHAPTER 5: ‘WE GO GREEN IN BEIJNG’: SITUATING LIVE TELEVISION, URBAN MOTORSPORT AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY BY MEANS OF A FRAMING ANALYSIS OF TV BROADCASTS OF FORMULA E’ 129 Preface 129 Abstract 130 Introduction 130 Literature Review 132 Public Consciousness of ES in the UK 132 ES Media Coverage in the UK 133 The (Motor) Sports-Media Complex 134 Environmental Sustainability in the (Motor) Sports-Media Complex 135 Theoretical Framework: Sports Media Framing 136 Methodology 137 Formatting The Race Broadcasts 139 Findings and Discussion 140 The Way Forward 147 Conclusion 148 References 149 CHAPTER 6: ‘HYPOCRITICAL INVESTOR’ OR HOLLYWOOD ‘DO-GOODER’? A FRAMING ANALYSIS OF MEDIA AND AUDIENCES NEGOTIATING LEONARDO DICAPRIO’S ‘GREEN’ PERSONA THROUGH HIS INVOLVEMENT IN FORMULA E’ 155 Preface 155 Abstract 156 Celebrity Activism: Green is the New Black 157 Celebrity Activism, Environmental Sustainability and Formula E 159 Celebrity Activism and the Celebrity Construct 159 Anatomy of a Celebrity Activist: Leonardo DiCaprio’s Green Persona 161 Leonardo DiCaprio, the Environment and Motorsport 162 Analysing DiCaprio and Formula E: 164 A Framing Approach 164 Steps in the Analysis 165 Sampling 165 Coding the Sample 165 Framing Leonardo DiCaprio’s Formula E Involvement 166 Motorsport Related Frames 167 Celebrity Related Frames 169 Do Different Media and Audiences Produce Different Frames? 173 Audience reaction Moderators: Personal Experiences, Peers and Parasocial Relationships 174 Discussion and Conclusion 177 References 180 CHAPTER 7: ‘THE NEED FOR SPEED? A HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF THE BBC’S POST-WAR BROADCASTING OF MOTORSPORT’ 188 Preface 188 Abstract 189 Introduction 189 From WWII Onwards: The Emergence of Motorsport in Britain 193 Representing (Motor) Sport through Television 195 Framework and Methodology 199 Results and Discussion 202 First Contact? The BBC’s Adoption of Hill Climbs and Scrambling for Television 204 Overcoming Obstacles: From Hill Climbs to Rallycross 209 Conclusion: The Post-War Years and Beyond 210 FINAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 212 Addressing the Research Question(s) 212 Conceptualizing