OBSERVATIONS FROM AZERBAIJAN By Cameron S. Brown*
This article examines several major political and cultural issues with which the citizens of Azerbaijan are currently grappling. It considers the role of the Nogorno-Karabakh conflict and its aftermath, irredentist claims made by some on Azerbaijani portions of Iran, the place of women in society, and the role of oil. Present in all these topics, however, is the common theme of how Turkish, Russian, Shi'a Muslim, and Western influences--as well as Azerbaijanis own history--are presently shaping the formation of the country's identity.
Azerbaijan is an intriguing country, and language, closely related to the with 90 percent of its 8 million inhabitants of modern-day Turkey. inhabitants possessing a Turkic, Within their Soviet republic was the Russified, secular, Shi’a Muslim identity; autonomous Nogorno-Karabakh Oblast an identity shaped by their own history (or simply Karabakh). This province, and by a long sojourn in the Soviet which had long possessed an Armenian Union. Although Azerbaijan has long ethnic majority (in 1920, Christian prospered from its oil wealth, the country Armenians were estimated to constitute has suffered numerous setbacks over the 94 percent of the population), was first past decade due to its long and desperate attached to the Baku province by Russia war in Nogorno-Karabakh. in 1846, though it eventually gained On a recent visit, all these aspects autonomy within Azerbaijan in 1923.(1) were clearly visible and continuing to When the USSR divided the Caucasus shape Azerbaijan. What is less obvious— region into separate republics in 1936, and yet very important in the Middle East Karabakh remained part of Azerbaijan.(2) context—is how Azerbaijan’s situation is In 1987, a few years before the affecting its neighbors and near- breakup of the Soviet Union, the neighbors. neighboring Armenian republic tried to bring Karabakh under its control, a move THE PRIMACY OF THE that sparked off over two years of KARABAKH ISSUE massive demonstrations and strikes Inevitably, the foremost political issue across Azerbaijan and Armenia.(3) The on the minds of most Azerbaijanis is the tension burst open several times as future of the Armenian-occupied clashes broke out in several locations, Nogorno-Karabakh area and how so followed by mutual mass emigrations of much of the country seems ready to go to Azerbaijanis and Armenians, most war in order to reconquer these lost lands notably on February 27-9, 1988 and should political negotiations fail. Left January 13-4, 1990.(4) over from the end of the Soviet era, the In an attempt to end the controversy, problem is pivotal in shaping the national Moscow decided in January 1989 to take consciousness and policies of Azerbaijan direct control over the disputed region. today. As the Soviet Union disintegrated in Azerbaijanis (or Azeris) are a Shi’a 1990-1991, the conflict turned into an all- Muslim group of Turkish ethnic origin out war, with Armenian forces (both from
66 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 4 (December 2002) Observations from Azerbaijan Karabakh and the Armenian Republic) in the U.S. Congress, and Israel’s own taking Karabakh and a large portion of problems vis-à-vis Iranian-Russian surrounding Azerbaijani land. As a result, collaboration. Still, while Azerbaijan has by the time the last ceasefire was signed welcomed Israeli assistance on several in 1994, 20 percent of Azerbaijan was fronts and allowed for an Israeli embassy occupied by Armenia and an estimated to open in Baku, Azerbaijan has refrained 750,000 Azeris had become refugees, in from opening a counterpart in Israel, addition to the thousands of Armenian despite Foreign Minister Vilayat refugees.(5) Guliyev’s pledge to do so by 2002. Part of the Armenians’ success came Generally, those who strongly believe in from the better training and equipment a pan-Turkic or pro-Western strategic that they received from their many years alignment see strengthening relations of service in the Soviet army, an with Israel as an imperative, while the institution where relatively few government worries about the Arab Azerbaijanis made their careers. No less reaction. As one newspaper columnist in critical, however, was the $1 billion of Baku wrote, “Everybody knows well that military aid given to Armenia by Russia Israel is… one of the few countries, with during the war, and at a few critical which Azerbaijan has only positive moments, the support of the 366th experiences…. It is high time for regiment of the former Red Army.(6) Azerbaijan to dare have its own path.”(7) Azerbaijan continues to be gripped by Azerbaijan must take into account a this issue of regaining Karabakh. The balance of forces that does not promise high costs and domestic political effect of easy victory in any future war over so many refugees keeps the problem alive Karabakh. At the same time, with little as well. All foreign policy issues are promise that the issue will be resolved assessed in light of their effect on the through negotiations in the near future, Karabakh question. Alliances are the will to go to war and justification for measured in this context, too. The general sacrifices on behalf of this issue is very strategic outlook in Azerbaijan is that much present in Azerbaijani political life. Armenia is its main adversary, with both Russia and Iran supporting that country. IRREDENTISM ACROSS THE Only Turkey is seen as clearly backing ARAZ RIVER Azerbaijan, though the United States is Another foreign policy issue which generally seen as supportive of its has long resounded in Azerbaijan, though territorial claims. for the time being has been left largely to But while the U.S. administration of the arena of rhetorical declarations, is the President Bill Clinton was fairly question of the large Azerbaijani minority sympathetic, for the first few years of the in northwestern Iran, where an estimated conflict the U.S. Congress was decisively 75 percent of all Azeris live. The political pro-Armenian. As the war raged on, potential of this issue can be seen by the Congress even went so far as to impose fact that many Azerbaijanis refer to this sanctions on Azerbaijan in Section 907 of area as “Southern Azerbaijan.” The fact the Freedom Support Act (1992), which that this minority group also comprises, banned direct aid to the Azeri according to wildly varying estimates, government and restricted American 20-40 percent of all Iranians makes this a governmental assistance to Azerbaijan. potentially destabilizing issue for that Israel is another potential strategic ally country as well.(8) contemplated by Azerbaijan, especially Drawing on their experience with the attractive to the leadership due to Israel’s dissolution of the Soviet Union, a number military, technological, and economic of scholars and laymen alike believe that prowess, its pro-Western outlook and Iran’s considerable ethnic heterogeneity close relations with Turkey, its influence make that state destined for
Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 4 (December 2002) 67 Cameron S. Brown disintegration. With Iran’s Azeri- without distinction--as if they were both inhabited provinces border the part of the same Azerbaijan.(13) Azerbaijani Republic, should that Iran Starting in the period immediately break apart, the two areas could then preceding Azerbaijani independence in easily merge into a “united Azerbaijan.” the 1990s and lasting until today, In particular, the former president of Azerbaijanis have taken an increased Azerbaijan and long-time pro-Turk interest in their southern brethren. There nationalist, Abulfaz Elchibey, was a have been numerous articles published in strident proponent of this idea until his the last decade comparing the habits of death in 2000.(9) the two Azerbaijans, as well as The origin of this issue actually begins differences in language.(14) Many of the with the Treaties of Gulustan (1813) and same nationalist political parties that Turkmanchay (1828) signed after were especially active on the Karabakh Russian victories against Iran. As a result issue even went so far as to call in 1989 of these treaties, the northern section of for the “restoration of ethnic unity of Azerbaijan became part of the Russian Azerbaijanis living on both sides of the empire, and the southern section of border.”(15) Azerbaijan (divided physically by the Unfortunately for the Azeris, this Araz River) remained with Iran. claim has two major problems. Firstly, by While families and friends remained suggesting that Iran’s borders are not in contact, and despite expressions of sacred, Azerbaijan delegitimizes its own Azeri solidarity with their co-ethnics on claim to Karabakh. This is because the the Iranian side of the border, the issue of Azeri claim to Karabakh is not that the political unification was largely off the area in question had an Azeri ethnic table as most Azerbaijanis deemed it to majority (indeed, in that region they were be outside the realm of possibility. This is a one-third minority), but rather that not to suggest that the desire for Armenia’s Karabakh irredentism unification was absent during this period. infringes on Azerbaijan’s territorial On the contrary, Azerbaijani leaders like integrity, a territory whose sanctity is Nasib bay Ussubekov, one of the recognized by virtually all international prominent activists of the Musavat party bodies and especially the UN. that led Azerbaijan to its short-lived Since state borders are sacred, independence in 1918, even expressed Azerbaijan claims, Karabakh cannot reservations about declaring a state in the become independent nor can it be Russian-held Azerbaijan without annexed to Armenia. Thus, when certain incorporating the Iranian portion as Azerbaijanis claim that ethnic well.(10) demographics in Iran should determine Numerous writers throughout the borders, they are demonstrating that their twentieth century, most notably among claim on Karabakh is not based on a them the head of the Soviet Azerbaijan’s deep-rooted acceptance of the notion of Writers’ Union, Mirza Ibrahimov, set international legitimacy and the many of their works in Iranian inviolability of a country’s borders. Azerbaijan and referred constantly to the Rather, it demonstrates that Azerbaijani Araz River (which physically separates nationalists will utilize whatever rationale the two Azerbaijans).(11) In 1980, for is useful in order to justify their attempts example, Kamran Mehdi wrote in a to create the largest Azeri homeland poem: “True, the Araz divides a nation / possible. But the earth underneath is one!”(12) In To his credit, the current Azerbaijani fact, during the time of the Soviet Union, president, the ever-pragmatic Heydar many Azerbaijani museums and maps Aliyev, seems to grasp how much would mention the names of Azerbaijani Azerbaijani claims to part of Iran can cities in the Soviet Union and Iran undermine Azerbaijan’s claims vis-à-vis
68 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 4 (December 2002) Observations from Azerbaijan the Karabakh issue. As such, Aliyev has NO TO ISLAMIST RADICALISM fully embraced the concept of sanctity of Azerbaijan is a very secular Muslim territorial integrity as the basis for his country. Far fewer women were in foreign policy in general. As he said in an Islamic dress in Azerbaijan, for example, address to the UN: then in nominally secularist Istanbul. Some of this attitude has come from [Armenian attempts to change below. There is a famous story in borders through the use of Azerbaijan of the schoolgirl who refused violence] is concealed by [an] to wear a headscarf in the 1920s and was arbitrary interpretation of the right killed by her family in the name of family of people for self-determination honor. At her funeral, dozens of young as the right of any ethnic girls threw off their headscarves and community to proclaim by declared that they would follow her themselves the independence and example. to adjoin another state. Such an In general, the level of observance is interpretation of the right for self- significantly lower than in most other determination enters into sharp Muslim countries. In the Russian style, contradiction with the principles drinking alcohol in large quantities is of sovereignty and territorial very popular, elements of Islamic dress integrity of states. Any attempts are notably absent for both genders, and to make this right absolute [will] the muzzein’s call to prayer is never generate severe conflicts, as we heard. Few pray and fewer make the witnessed both in our region and pilgrimage to Mecca. At the same time, in other parts of our planet.(16) though, it appeared that many Azerbaijanis were aware of Muslim The second problem for Azerbaijani dietary laws--even if they themselves did ethnic nationalists is that it is not at all not generally observe them. clear that their Azeri brethren in There are two external factors, of northwestern Iran are interested in such course, shaping Azerbaijani attitudes. an idea. While not happy about their First, almost 160 years of Russian rule-- inability to learn Azeri in Iranian schools, and especially the nearly half of that publish newspapers in Azeri, and the lack period spent under Communist Soviet of other minority group rights, by and rule--struck hard at the power base of the large the Azeri minority does very well in Islamic establishment. Ideas such as the Iran.(17) value of secular education and equality In private conversation, Azeri students for women (among others) have from northwestern Iran scoffed at the significantly altered the country’s social idea of being part of the local Azerbaijani fabric. Second, such an Islamic revival independence movement. In contrast, might smack of something Iranian, a they cited the leading role many Azeris country for which Azerbaijanis have no play in the Iranian economy and politics. admiration, due mainly to the situation of The most important figure in Iran, the the Azeris there and Iran’s pro-Armenian Supreme Leader ‘Ali Khamene’i, is policy. Azeri, as are several government ministers. Historically, a prominent Azeri EASTERN EUROPE MEETS THE role in Iranian leadership has been a MIDDLE EAST constant; the most important period being Almost everywhere one looks in the Safavid Dynasty (1501-1722), which Azerbaijan, there are billboards and signs had its capital in Tabriz and in essence on city walls with various sayings from was run by Iranians of Turkish the country’s president, such that one origin.(18) feels Aliyev’s presence throughout the country. It is clear that the ruling elite is
Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 4 (December 2002) 69 Cameron S. Brown the product of the Soviet system, as civilization both because of its clearly emphasized by the cult of developmental status and as a shield personality created by the president. against Moscow and Tehran. Aliyev himself was a veteran member of While on the surface, Azerbaijanis the Soviet KGB whose career in that appear extraordinarily secular and liberal, organization started when he was posted the deeper one begins to scratch, the as an agent to Turkey in the early 1940s, clearer it seems that such a conclusion and he eventually rose to become a high- might be a bit hasty. One of the best ranking Soviet official. Clearly since examples of this complexity is to look at taking power in Baku in 1993, he has the role of women in Azerbaijan. applied the lessons he learned during On the one hand, women are given those years. equal status on a large range of issues: Nevertheless, the Soviet Union itself they gained the right to vote in 1918--two is now dead and buried. There is a strong years earlier than in the United States and sense of Azerbaijani nationalism—shown before many European countries. It was by the attitudes toward the Karabakh and also the first Muslim country to make Iranian Azeri issues—which is such a reform. Clothing and educational completely established. Azerbaijan is so restrictions do not exist, as women are coherent a nation-state that it is hard to found on every level of the educational believe such a country did not exist a system, including doctoral. dozen years ago. Yet there is a strong element of At the same time, though, Azerbaijan traditional family structure. Even is very much subject to the influences of educated and career women are globalization and they have not adopted frequently kept at home after dark by any coherent campaign or explicit their families while their male ideology that calls for resisting them. counterparts are allowed to go out and Having escaped the Soviet prison house entertain themselves as they wish. In of nations, Azerbaijanis are eager to provincial cities, women are often not embrace the world in general and the allowed to drive. Remarkably, even in West in particular. private conversation, young Iranian Azeri For Azeris, Islam may be more of a students (who were studying in cultural than a theological artifact. Islam Azerbaijan) did not complain about the is respected but not seen as binding. A Iranian regime’s harsh social restrictions, fitting symbol for this cultural mix was but rather criticized the Persians in Iran, found in a mini-bus. One common poster who let their daughters go to parties at displayed above the dashboard is a big, night, dye their hair, and wear western colorful picture of Ali, founder of Shi’a dress. Islam, in a red robe standing by a lion in The underlying point is that one a desert setting. The Ali poster is often should not confuse religious observance set off by a pop music poster, with with social conservatism, as one can Brittany Spears, the American singer, easily have the former without the latter; being the popular choice at present. The and as Azerbaijan can demonstrate, the country’s television and radio stations reverse can be true as well. echo this fascination with Western Maybe the only way to really culture. summarize Azerbaijan is that it is what Implicitly, the fact that the external happens when Eastern Europe meets the threat to Azerbaijani nationalism and Middle East. On the one hand, bargaining identity have come from Russia and Iran for hand-made carpets is straight out of a makes Western culture and ideas seem Middle Eastern bazaar; on the other, their not only non-threatening but absolutely fashion and style is highly reminiscent of liberating and protective. Like Turkey, Russia and Eastern Europe. While the too, Azerbaijanis want to join Western skyline is dotted with the occasional
70 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 4 (December 2002) Observations from Azerbaijan minaret and the countries’ ruins are with “pure” Turkish words--and even almost all covered with Arabic, Persian, create new words if there did not exist or Arabic-lettered Turkish inscriptions, suitable equivalents. the make of most cars and the style of The two languages are far more most modern architecture come right out different than many people think. For of the Communist bloc. Although instance, whereas Turks might say education and literacy (especially for “tesekkur ederim” [thank you] or women) is on par with most of Eastern “Allahaismalardik” [figuratively, “see Europe, the social status of women can, you later”], Azeris seemed to use “sagol” on occasion, compete with that of Saudi [(to your) health] for every possible Arabia. While religion has a relatively interaction, including not just “thank minor place for most Azeris, as it does you” or “goodbye,” but also “cheers” and throughout the former USSR, it is Islam “bon appetite” and just about anything and not Orthodox Christianity that is else you can imagine. Sometimes Turkish largely disregarded. and Azerbaijani even use different Arabic-based phrases to express the same Russian language vs. Azerbaijani vs. idea, such as “merhaba” in Turkish or Turkish “selam alequm” in Azerbaijani--both Part of the phenomenon of “Eastern basically meaning hello. Sometimes Europe meets the Middle East” is Azeris were still using an Arabic based reflected in the country’s competing phrase while Turks have adopted a vernacular cultures. As with many ‘Turkish’ one; such as “gun aydin” for countries that achieve independence from “good morning” in Turkish versus “sabah colonial powers, Azerbaijan is currently elxer” in Azerbaijani. in the midst of a linguistic battle between Additionally, there are even the native Azerbaijani and the colonial significant differences in pronunciation; Russian. One fascinating issue is that the such as “yok” becoming the gutteral two genders relate to this issue quite “yokh.” Even more fascinating, while differently. While men tend to look at the both languages have moved from Arabic issue of which language to use through script to a Latin based one (Azerbaijan nationalistic eyes, preferring their native actually began the process before Azerbaijani over the colonial Russian, Turkey)(19) --they have differences in many women see Russian as a symbol for their Latin-based alphabets. For instance, the social equality the USSR instilled in in Azerbaijance, there are “X”, “Q”, and Azeri society. As a result, many women “ ”--all of which are not used in Turkish. today prefer to speak in Russian--both among themselves and to men. It was THE IMPORTANCE OF OIL especially telling when at a cocktail Recently the government of party, as one young man addressed the Azerbaijan decided to redesign their 1000 daughter of a major Azeri nationalist Manat bill, the basic unit of Azerbaijani intellectual in Azerbaijani, she turned and currency (worth about 20 American asked him in Russian, “Shto?” [what?] cents). While it would be typical to see A second linguistic note concerns the the picture of one of Azerbaijan’s leaders difference between Turkce [Turkish] and (past or present) or maybe one of its Azerbayjance [Azerbaijani]. While the historic sites, the picture on the new two languages are very closely related-- currency is actually that of an oil rig and and at one point were likely the same dozens of oil pumps. language--centuries of cultural separation Oil has played a major role in the local have led to considerable divergence. This economy since the late 19th century, as is especially true given Ataturk’s massive the area quickly became the world leader program to expel Arabic words from the in oil exports (by 1891, Baku was Turkish vocabulary, and exchange them supplying half of the world’s oil).(20)
Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 4 (December 2002) 71 Cameron S. Brown
The oil boom of the early years had a major impact on the development of *Cameron S. Brown is the assistant Baku, bringing in vast wealth and director of the Global Research in creating several notable wealthy families. International Affairs (GLORIA) Center, Even today, oil is the country’s leading part of the Interdisciplinary Center, and export(21) and the vast majority of an assistant editor of MERIA Journal. Westerners in the country work in the oil industry, mostly for British Petroleum NOTES (BP). 1. Dilip Hiro, "The Emergence of Multi- In Baku, the stench of oil fills the air Party Politics in the Southern Caucasus: of the city, and eventually, everything Azerbaijan," Perspectives on Central one owns reeks of oil. With such an Asia, Vol. 2, No. 11 (February 1998). overwhelming presence in this city, it
72 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 4 (December 2002) Observations from Azerbaijan 5. CIA World Factbook 12. From a poem quoted by Dr. Alireza
Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 4 (December 2002) 73 Cameron S. Brown
envisions a federalist Iran in a form that respects the rights of its ethnic minorities. In terms of the future of Iran's border with Republic of Azerbaijan, its aspiration is for an arrangement "like that of EU countries." Dr. Mahmoudali Chehregani, "Azerbaijani Turks of Iran: Will They Lead a Revolution Again?" CSIS Caucasus Project Meeting Notes from August 8, 2002
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