Introduction 1

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Notes

Introduction 1. Chris Hedges, American Fascists: The Christian Right and the War on America (New York: Free Press, 2006), 36, 194– 95. 2. Ibid., 10– 11, 19, 41, 113, 195. 3. James Luther Adams, “What Kind of Religion Has a Place in Higher Education?” Journal of the Bible and Religion 13 (Nov. 1945): 184; John Coleman Bennett, “Implications of the New Conception of ‘Separa- tion,’” Christianity and Crisis 8 (July 5, 1948): 89– 90. On the NCC slogan, see Michele Rosenthal, American Protestants and TV in the 1950s: Responses to a New Medium (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 39. 4. David Hollinger, “After Cloven Tongues of Fire: Ecumenical Protes- tants and the Modern American Encounter with Diversity,” Journal of American History 198 (June 2011): 21– 48; D. G. Hart, “Mainstream Protestantism, ‘Conservative’ Religion, and Civil Society,” in Religion Returns to the Public Square: Faith and Policy in America, eds. Hugh Heclo and Wilfred M. McClay (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 203; E. Stanley Jones, A Song of Ascents: A Spiritual Auto- biography (Nashville: Abingdon, 1968), 152. Jones in 1968 was recalling his similar wording from his World War II book Is the Kingdom of God Realism? (Nashville: Abingdon- Cokesbury, 1940), 263. 5. Participatory democracy has been defined in the abstract as “a system of government where rank-and- file citizens rule themselves.” In con- trast to representative, majoritarian, and pluralist (i.e., interest group) forms of democracy, participatory democracy is often considered practical and desirable only on small social scales such as the neighborhood. In that light, it has more in common with contemporary communitarianism than with Western liberalism, which focuses more on individual than group freedom from political and economic controls. See Ken- neth Janda, Jeffrey M. Berry, Jerry Goldman, Challenge of Democracy: American Government in a Global World, 10th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth, 2009), Chapter 2. The label “participatory democracy” itself was popu- larized by the student New Left during the 1960s and referred to efforts to empower minorities, the poor, and other marginalized groups. How- ever, as explored in Chapter 1, historians have located participatory democratic concepts in the Progressive era. This work identifies other moments and formulations of participatory democracy between 1920 and 1960. 190 Notes

6. I am indebted to one of Palgrave Macmillan’s anonymous reviewers for the word “countertotalitarianism.” 7. John Coleman Bennett, “The Christian Response to Social Revolution,” Ecumenical Review 9 (Oct. 1956): 1– 15. 8. For two classic introductions to the Old Left, see Alan M. Wald, The New York Intellectuals: The Rise and Decline of the Anti-Stalinist Left from the 1920s to the 1980s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); and Richard H. Pells, Radical Visions and American Dreams: Culture and Social Thought in the Depression Years (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1973). 9. See Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973), 230. Geertz defines cultural ideologies as “maps of problematic social reality and matrices for the creation of collective conscience.” Geertz would suggest that cultural ideologies are essential tools by which all persons and groups make sense of reality. Yet he also sees times of crisis or substantial sociostructural change as especially generative of new, competing cultural ideologies—which betrays their fundamentally conservative nature. Geertz’s notion has largely been superseded in present-day intellectual and cultural history by attention to “discourse,” defined as “a linguistic unity or group of statements which constitutes and delimits a specific area of concern, governed by its own rules of formation with its own modes of distinguishing truth from falsity.” See Anna Green and Kathleen Troup, The Houses of History (New York: New York University Press, 1999), 300. To be sure, cultural ideologies can easily take on the disciplinary functions of discourses. The primary difference between the two concepts is that people make cultural ideologies, while discourses make people. 10. See Elesha Coffman, “The Measure of a Magazine: Assessing the Influ- ence of the Christian Century,” Religion and American Culture (forthcoming). This article is based on Coffman’s dissertation, “Constituting the Protestant Mainline: The Christian Century, 1908–1947” (PhD diss., Duke University, 2008). 11. Martin E. Marty, Righteous Empire: The Protestant Experience in Amer- ica (New York: Dial, 1970). I use the term mainline to refer to the 33 denominations that composed the FCC membership after 1908. See William R. Hutchison, “Protestantism as Establishment,” in Between the Times: The Travail of the Protestant Establishment in America, 1900– 1960, ed. William R. Hutchison (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 3–18. For surveys of liberal Protestantism, see especially Gary J. Dorrien, The Making of American Liberal Theology: Imagining Pro- gressive Religion, 1805–1900 (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox, 2001); and William R. Hutchison, The Modernist Impulse in American Protestantism (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1992). 12. A relevant list of studies on Progressivism and the social gospel will be found throughout the notes section of Chapter 1. Notes for Introduction 191

13. Hutchison, Modernist Impulse, 288–312; Joseph C. Hough Jr., “The Loss of Optimism as a Problem for Liberal Christian Faith,” in Liberal Protestantism: Realities and Possibilities, eds. Robert S. Michaelsen and Wade Clark Roof (New York: Pilgrim, 1986), 145– 66. For other studies linking American Christian Realism to European Neoorthodoxy, see Sydney A. Ahlstrom, “Continental Influence on American Christian Thought since World War I,” Church History 27 (Sept. 1958): 256–72; and Gary J. Dorrien, The Word as True Myth: Interpreting Modern Theol- ogy (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox, 1997), 71–72. Early studies of Christian Realism did not restrict the term so narrowly to Niebuhr. One of the first and most influential to do so was Donald B. Meyer, The Protestant Search for Political Realism, 1919– 1941 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960). 14. See Heather A. Warren’s Theologians of a New World Order: Reinhold Niebuhr and the Christian Realists, 1920–1948 (New York: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1997). See also Eric Patterson, ed., The Christian Realists: Reassessing the Contributions of Niebuhr and His Contemporaries (Lan- ham, Md.: University Press of America, 2003), an attempt by current professing Realists to recover other members from their formative years. For one early attempt to define Realism broadly in an American context, see George Hammar, Christian Realism in Contemporary American The- ology: A Study of Reinhold Niebuhr, W. M. Horton, and H. P. Van Dusen (Uppsala, Sweden: Appelbergs Boktryckeriaktiebolag, 1940). 15. See discussions of the term in Walter Marshall Horton, Realistic Theology (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1934). 16. Hollinger, “After Cloven Tongues of Fire,” 45. 17. David R. Bains, “The Liturgical Impulse in Mid- Twentieth- Century Mainline American Protestantism” (PhD diss., Harvard University, Study of Religion, 1999). 18. Roland Robertson, “Glocalization: Time-Space and Homogeneity- Heterogeneity,” in Global Modernities, eds. Mike Featherstone, Scott Lasch, and Roland Robertson (London: Sage, 1995), 25–44. See, on Ellul’s phrase, Randal Marlin, Propaganda and the Ethics of Persuasion (New York: Broadview, 2002), 34. 19. See John Patrick Diggins, Why Niebuhr Now? (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2011). 20. See Norman F. Cantor, Inventing the Middle Ages: The Lives, Works, and Ideas of the Great Medievalists of the Twentieth Century (Ann Arbor: Uni- versity of Michigan, 1991). 21. The “Christian totalitarianism” reference is quoted from Keith Clements, Faith on the Frontier: A Life of J. H. Oldham (Geneva: WCC, 1999), 368. On the Christendom Group, see Philip M. Coupland, “‘National Renewal’ and Anglican Peace Aims, 1939–1945” (unpublished address, University of Winchester, April 18, 2011 [paper in author’s possession]). Coupland’s address is part of a larger forthcoming book chapter. On the 192 Notes

“Christendom narrative,” see Philip M. Coupland, Britannia, Europa, and Christendom: British Christians and European Integration (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006). 22. “The General Meetings,” in The First Assembly of the World Council of Churches: The Official Report, ed. W. A. Visser ’t Hooft (London, SCM, 1949), 37; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, “A Fifty-Year Conspectus,” Report to Board of Trustees, Oct. 25, 1960, 7, in Presidential Papers, The Burke Library Archives at Union Theological Seminary in the City of New York (hereafter PP), Box 18. 23. Ronald D. Rotunda, “The ‘Liberal’ Label: Roosevelt’s Capture of a Sym- bol,” Public Policy 17 (1968): 377– 408; Gary Gerstle, “The Protean Character of American Liberalism,” American Historical Review (1994), reprinted in The Progressive Era in the USA, 1980– 1921, ed. Kristofer Allerfeldt (Hampshire, England: Ashgate, 2007), 109–39; Louis Hartz, The Liberal Tradition in America (New York: Harvest, 1991), 285. 24. Leo P. Ribuffo, “Why Is There So Much Conservativism in the US and Why Do So Few Historians Know Anything about It?” American Histori- cal Review 99 (1994): 439– 41; Clinton Rossiter, Conservativism in Amer- ica: The Thankless Persuasion, 2nd ed. (New York: Vintage, 1962), 24, 33, 40– 42, 47– 52, 82, 133– 35, 221– 23, 231– 33, 254; Kevin Mattson, Reb- els All! A Short History of the Conservative Mind in Postwar America (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers, 2008), 1–21. For historians’ rediscovery of conservativism since Ribuffo’s essay, see Darren Dochuk, “Revival on the Right: Making Sense of the Conservative Moment in Post–World War II American History,” History Compass 4 (2006): 975– 99. The name “new conservativism” was coined by Peter Viereck in 1940. It was utilized during the 1950s to describe a broad, contradictory array of thought. See especially George H. Nash, The Conservative Movement in America Since 1945 (New York: Basic Books, 1976). 25. Adlai Stevenson, quoted in Peter Viereck, Conservativism Revisited, 2nd ed. (New York: Free Press, 1962), 155. I learned about Niebuhr’s desire for a conservative political party from a longtime friend and successor of his, who shall remain anonymous, during conversations on July 9–10, 2007 (notes in the possession of this author). On initially positive Cold War liberal responses to the new conservativism, see Jennifer Burns, “Liberalism and the Conservative Imagination,” in Liberalism for a New Century, eds. Neil Jumonville and Kevin Mattson (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), 58– 72. 26. See Reinhold Niebuhr, “Making Radicalism Effective,” World Tomorrow 16 (Dec. 1933): 682– 84, and its popularization in Horton, Realistic Theol- ogy, ix. On the Christendom Group’s assessment of Labour ideology, see Maurice Benington Reckitt and J. V. Longmead Reckitt Casserly, Voca- tion in England (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1941), 17–19. Unlike Stevenson, Reckitt was not lauding the Labour Party’s conservativism, which he called “confused and blundering.” Notes for Chapter 1 193

27. See Gary Dorrien, Imperial Designs: Neoconservativism and the New Pax Americana (New York: Routledge, 2004), 101–11; and John Ehrman, The Rise of Neoconservativism: Intellectuals and Foreign Affairs, 1945–1994 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995), 184– 85, who likewise speaks to a “neoconservative dependence on Niebuhr.” Of course, that is very different from the claim that Niebuhr was a neoconservative. For more recent observations on misuses of Niebuhr, see Paul Elie, “A Man for All Reasons,” Atlantic Monthly 300 (Nov. 2007): 82– 92. 28. Jerome L. Himmelstein, To the Right: The Transformation of American Conservativism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990). Him- melstein himself draws his categories from Nash.

Chapter 1 1. Lewis Mumford, The Culture of Cities (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1938), v, 9, 195, 222, 226– 34, 246– 47, 253– 55. 2. Ibid.; Lewis Mumford, The Condition of Man (New York: Harcourt, Brace) 382, 390. 3. For excellent overviews of Progressivism and the social gospel, see Daniel T. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cam- bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998); Michael McGerr, A Fierce Discontent: The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in Amer- ica (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003); and Eldon J. Eisenach, The Lost Promise of Progressivism (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1999). 4. Walter Rauschenbusch, Christianity and the Social Crisis (New York: Macmillan Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1907), 249; William James, quoted in George Cotkin, William James: Public Philosopher (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 174–75. See Jean B. Quandt, From the Small Town to the Great Community: The Social Thought of Pro- gressive Intellectuals (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1970), 137–57. 5. Reinhold Niebuhr, “Mechanical Men in a Mechanical Age,” World Tomorrow 13 (Dec. 1930): 495; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Yale-Eden (1914),” reprinted in Young Reinhold Niebuhr: His Early Writings, 1911– 1931, ed. William G. Chrystal (New York: Pilgrim, 1977), 53–58. The “infe- riority” observation was made privately by John Coleman Bennett. See John Coleman Bennett, to June Bingham, Aug. 30, 1960, in Reinhold Niebuhr Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress (hereafter RNP), Box 26. In relaying the biography of the Niebuhr family, I rely heavily upon Richard Wightman Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr: A Biography (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996). 6. Francis Pickens Miller, Man from the Valley: Memoirs of a Twentieth- Century Virginian (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 194 Notes

1971), 4, 243; Francis Pickens Miller, “Private Journal, 1914–1915,” entry for September 15, 1914, in the Francis Pickens Miller Papers, Small Special Collections, Alderman Library, the University of Virginia (hereafter FPMP), B124; Francis Pickens Miller, “The Democratic Party in the South,” Christianity and Crisis 21 (May 1, 1961): 63–67. Miller was serving as YMCA secretary for preparatory schools during his diary years. The “organization executive” depiction is from Helen Hill Miller, to Frank Aydelotte, Nov. 26, 1945, in FPMP, B24. 7. Alexander Leitch, “Henry Pitney Van Dusen,” in A Princeton Com- panion (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1978), 486–87; E. Clinton Gardner, “John Coleman Bennett,” in American National Biography, vol. 2, ed. John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 589–90; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, The Plain Man Seeks for God (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1933), 65. 8. Walter Marshall Horton, “Rough Sketch of a Half-Formed Mind,” in Contemporary American Theology: Theological Autobiographies, vol. 1, ed. Vergilius Ferm (New York: Round Table, 1932), 161–65; Walter Marshall Horton, “The Heart of the City,” English 22 weekly essay, Oct. 29, 1914, 1–4, in Walter Marshall Horton Papers, Oberlin College Archives (hereafter WMHP), Box 1; Walter Marshall Horton, Theism and the Modern Mood (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1930), 7. 9. Walter Lippmann, Drift and Mastery: An Attempt to Diagnose the Cur- rent Unrest (New York: Mitchell Kennerly, 1914). A number of historians see Progressivism as a prelude to 1960s “participatory democracy.” See especially Robert B. Westbrook, John Dewey and American Democracy (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991); Kevin Mattson, Creating a Democratic Republic: The Struggle for Urban Participatory Democracy during the Progressive Era (University Park, Pa.: Penn State University Press, 1997); and Laura M. Westhoff, A Fatal Drifting Apart: Demo- cratic Social Knowledge and Chicago Reform (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2007). See also Jonah Goldberg, Liberal Fascism (New York: Doubleday, 2007), for current conservative perspectives on Pro- gressivism. Goldberg draws upon James Weinstein, Gabriel Kolko, and other New Left historians who pioneered the counterintuitive notion that Progressivism further insulated political, economic, and military elite from democratic accountability. See especially, on this point, James Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State, 1900–1918 (Boston: Beacon, 1968). 10. Robert Crunden, Ministers of Reform: The Progressive Achievement in American Civilization, 1889–1920 (New York: Basic Books, 1982), ix. See Louise M. Knight, Jane Addams: Spirit in Action (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 160, for the “enlightened conservativism” remark from the Chicago Tribune. The “human conservation” theme comes from Kathleen D. McCarthy, Noblesse Oblige: Charity and Cultural Philanthropy in Chicago, 1849–1929 (Chicago: University of Chicago Notes for Chapter 1 195

Press, 1982), 126. See also Gary Gerstle, American Crucible: Race and Nation in the Twentieth Century (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001), 70– 71, on Roosevelt’s conservativism. Many studies of Progressivism explore its ties to older republican ideology. See Jonathan M. Hansen, The Lost Promise of Patriotism: Debating American Iden- tity, 1880– 1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), especially Chapter 3; and John Patrick Diggins, “Republicanism and Progressiv- ism,” American Quarterly 37 (Fall 1985): 572–98. Diggins suggests that Progressives’ pragmatism undercuts republican virtues. 11. Harry Emerson Fosdick, The Living of These Days: An Autobiography, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), 66. See James T. Klop- penberg, Uncertain Victory: Social Democracy and Progressivism in Euro- pean and American Thought, 1870–1920 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). 12. “Reverent agnosticism” comes from Fosdick, As I See Religion (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1932), 55. See also Francis McConnell, Per- sonal Christianity (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1914), 130, for his reference to “Christian agnosticism.” Realists would employ variations of these phrases throughout their careers. 13. Horace Bushnell, Barbarism the First Danger (New York: American Home Missionary Society, 1847), 12, 21, 32; Horace Bushnell, Chris- tian Nurture (Cleveland, Ohio: Pilgrim, 1861), 9–10; Horace Bush- nell, “Christian Comprehensiveness,” New Englander 6 (Jan. 1848): 88, 90. On postmillennialism’s persistence, see James H. Moorehead, World without End: Mainstream American Protestant Visions of the Last Things, 1880– 1925 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999). 14. Charles Sanders Peirce, “The Fixation of Belief (1877)” in Chance, Love, and Logic, ed. Morris R. Cohen (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998), 16, 20–22; Peirce, “How to Make Our Ideas Clear” (1878), in Cohen, Chance, Love, and Logic, 36, 56– 58; Henry James, A Small Boy and Others (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913), 232–35; William James, “The Chicago School,” Psychological Bulletin 1 (Jan. 15, 1904): 1– 5; William James, Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking (Mineola, N.Y.: Dover, 1995), 16. 15. H. Richard Niebuhr, The Kingdom of God in America (Hanover, N.H.: Wesleyan University Press, 1988), 183– 84. 16. George Walter Fiske, The Changing Family: Social and Religious Aspects of the Modern Family (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1928), 36–37. See Donald K. Gorrell, The Age of Social Responsibility: The Social Gos- pel in the Progressive Era, 1900–1920 (Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press, 1988). For other excellent introductions to the movement, see Susan Curtis, A Consuming Faith: The Social Gospel and Modern Ameri- can Culture (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2001), 72–88; and Paul T. Phillips, A Kingdom on Earth: Anglo-American Social Christian- ity, 1880–1940 (University Park, Pa.: Penn State University Press, 1996). 196 Notes

17. Jane Addams, Democracy and Social Ethics (New York: Macmillan, 1907), 79; Rauschenbusch, Christianity and the Social Crisis, 123– 33; John Dewey, “Intelligence and Morals,” in The Influence of Darwin on Philosophy (New York: Page Smith, 1951), 58–60; Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Attitude of the Church towards Present Moral Evils,” in Chrystal, Young Reinhold Niebuhr, 44. See Curtis, A Consuming Faith, 72–88. On the “postcapitalist vision,” see Howard Brick, Transcending Capital- ism: Visions of a New Society in Modern American Thought (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2006). 18. Niebuhr, “Attitude of the Church,” 43; Rauschenbusch, Christianity and the Social Crisis, 249, 352– 57; Walter Rauschenbusch, A Theology for the Social Gospel (New York: Macmillan, 1917), 148. 19. Josiah Royce, California (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1886), 500; Josiah Royce, The Philosophy of Loyalty (New York: Macmillan, 1908), 95, 245–48; Josiah Royce, The Problem of Christianity, vol. 1 (New York: Archon, 1967), 172; Randolph Bourne, “Trans-National America (1916),” in The Radical Will: Selected Writings, 1911–1918 (New York: Urizen, 1977), 264. See Frank M. Oppenheim, Reverence for the Rela- tions of Life: Re-imagining Pragmatism via Josiah Royce’s Interactions with Peirce, James, and Dewey (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2005). 20. Patricia Hill, The World Their Household: The American Woman’s For- eign Mission Movement and Cultural Transformation, 1870–1920 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1985), 191; Frederick Lynch, The Challenge: The Church and the New World Order (New York: Fleming H. Revel, 1916), 14, 72–73, 120–22, 219. See Markku Ruotsila, The Ori- gins of Christian Anti- Internationalism: Conservative Evangelicals and the League of Nations (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2008), on liberal and mainline responses to the league. 21. Miller, Man from the Valley, 20, 28– 36; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, “Fac- ulty Information Sheet,” n.d., in PP, B18; Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr, 41– 61; Horton, “Rough Sketch,” 169– 78; Horton, “The Values of Groups and Group Activities,” third thesis, English 22, Dec. 19, 1914, 24, 28, in WMHP, B10; Horton, test essay, Religious Education 11, n.d., in WMHP, B10. 22. Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Twilight of Liberalism,” New Republic (June 14, 1919): 218. While Progressive-era reform is typically called “liberal” today, the word itself was hardly ever invoked in America before the 1930s. See Ronald D. Rotunda, “The ‘Liberal’ Label,” 377– 408. 23. Reinhold Niebuhr, “Christianity and Contemporary Politics,” Christian Century 41 (Apr. 17, 1924): 499; Herbert Hoover, American Individu- alism (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Page, 1922), 7–10; John Dewey, Individualism Old and New (New York: Minton, Balch, 1930), 22. See Guy Alchon, The Invisible Hand of Planning: Capitalism, Social Science, Notes for Chapter 1 197

and the State in the 1920s (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1985), on techno- corporatism. 24. Sherwood Eddy, Eighty Adventurous Years: An Autobiography (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1955), 119, 128–51; Miller, Man from the Valley, 52. See also Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr, 68, 72– 78. 25. Reinhold Niebuhr, “A Religion Worth Fighting For,” Survey 58 (Aug. 1, 1927): 444; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Christian Faith in the Modern World,” in Ventures in Belief: Christian Convictions for a Day of Uncertainty, ed. Henry Pitney Van Dusen (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1930), 7; Francis Pickens Miller (unspecified address, Eagle’s Mere, Pa., June 15, circa 1929–1933), in FPMP, B2; Francis Pickens Miller, “Americanism and Christianity” (address to the National Assembly of Student Secretar- ies, WSCF, Estes Park, Colo., July 1929), 10, 16, in FPMP, B9; Miller, Man from the Valley, 6, 50. See also, on the intertwining of antiurban and anti- industrial sentiments, Niebuhr’s 1926 sermon “Tyrant Servants,” in Chrystal, Young Reinhold Niebuhr, 165– 73. 26. On the “Young Americans,” see Casey Nelson Blake, Beloved Commu- nity: The Cultural Criticism of Randolph Bourne, Van Wyck Brooks, Waldo Frank, and Lewis Mumford (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990). See Paul Murphy, “The Southern Agrarians, Radical Con- servativism, and the Cultural Crisis of the 1920s” (unpublished paper, US Intellectual History Conference, Grand Valley State University, October 2008). 27. H. Richard Niebuhr, “Back to Benedict?” Christian Century 42 (July 22, 1925): 860–61; Reinhold Niebuhr, quoted in Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr, 66. 28. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1922), 31, 273; Walter Lippman, The Phantom Public (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1925); Dewey, Individualism Old and New, 35, 52– 53, 83–86; John Dewey, The Public and Its Problems (Denver, Colo.: Alan Swallow, 1954), 116, 213, 215– 17. 29. Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr, 104– 7; Independent Committee of Protestants, General Letter, Oct. 24, 1928, in John Coleman Bennett Papers, The Burke Library Archives at Union Theological Seminary in the City of New York (hereafter JCBP); “A Protestant Plea,” n.d., in JCBP; Rein- hold Niebuhr, “The Confession of a Tired Radical,” Christian Century 45 (Aug. 30, 1928): 1046. 30. Niebuhr, “Tyrant Servants”; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Awkward Imperial- ists,” Atlantic Monthly 145 (May 1930): 670– 75; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Perils of American Power,” Atlantic Monthly 149 (Jan. 1932): 90– 96. 31. John Coleman Bennett, “Introduction about Union Theological Semi- nary in the 1920s and 1930s” (unspecified address, circa 1960), in JCBP. The Bennett collection cited throughout this book was destroyed in a flood in 2003. The current Bennett Papers held at the Burke Library Archives were assembled from new material after that time. Reinhold Niebuhr, “After Capitalism— What?” World Tomorrow 16 (Mar. 1, 1933): 198 Notes

203. See also Anwar Masih Barkat, “The Fellowship of Socialist Chris- tians and Its Antecedents” (PhD diss., Duke University, 1965). 32. Reinhold Niebuhr, Does Civilization Need Religion? A Study in the Reli- gious Resources and Limitations of Religion in Modern Life (New York: Macmillan, 1927), 129; Reinhold Niebuhr, Moral Man in Immoral Soci- ety: A Study in Ethics and Politics (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1960), xi–xii, 1, 259; Reinhold Niebuhr, to Henry Pitney Van Dusen, Feb. 27, 1932, in RNP, B52. 33. Niebuhr, Moral Man, 179; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Why I Leave the FOR,” Christian Century 51 (Jan. 3, 1934): 255. See Kip Kosek, Acts of Con- science: Christian Nonviolence and Modern American Democracy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009). 34. Niebuhr, Moral Man, 35, 90– 91, 106– 7, 199, 212, 240– 56. On “countervailing power,” see Kevin Mattson, When America Was Great: The Fighting Faith of Liberalism in Postwar America (New York: Routledge, 2004). 35. H. Richard Niebuhr, “The Irreligion of Communist and Capitalist,” Christian Century 47 (Oct. 29, 1930): 1,306– 7. 36. On the Council on Foreign Relations, see Robert D. Schulzinger, The Wise Men of Foreign Affairs: The History of the Council on Foreign Rela- tions (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984). 37. Francis Pickens Miller and Helen Hill Miller, The Giant of the Western World: America and Europe in a North-Atlantic Civilization (New York: William Morrow, 1930), 9–10, 15, 70– 71, 98– 99, 106– 7, 230– 31. See Emiliano Alessandri, “American Intellectuals and the Idea of an ‘Atlantic Community,’” (PhD diss., Cambridge University, March 2010), especially the chapter on “Christian Atlanticism.” 38. Miller and Miller, Giant of the Western World, 84, 106–7, 220–22, 231, 261– 64, 270– 75; Francis Pickens Miller, “The Situation” (unspecified address, circa 1929–1933), in FPMP; Francis Pickens Miller, “Common Ground Differences” (unspecified address, circa 1929–1933), in FPMP, B2; Miller, Man from the Valley, 54– 55. 39. Francis Pickens Miller, to H. L. Henriod, Nov. 2, 1921, in FPMP; Fran- cis Pickens Miller, to John Mott, Jan. 14, 1922, in FPMP, B2. 40. Miller, “Americanism and Christianity,” 6, 9, 13, 20, 31. 41. Miller, “Americanism and Christianity,” 23; Francis Pickens Miller, “Faith and Form,” unspecified address, Nov. 22, 1932, in FPMP, B10; Francis Pickens Miller, “Impressions of Far East,” unspecified address, n.d. (circa 1929–1933), in FPMP, B2. Miller’s immediate reactions to the Russian Revolution and railroad strike were recorded in his 1919 Diary, 4 (Sept. 25 entry) and 15 (Dec. 4 entry) in FPMP, B126. 42. Miller, Man from the Valley, 64. 43. Francis Pickens Miller, to H. Richard Niebuhr, June 21, 1932; Francis Pickens Miller, to Reinhold Niebuhr, Jan. 27, 1933, in World Student Christian Federation Papers, Film Ms. 313, Special Collections, Yale Divinity School Library (hereafter WSCF), B8. Notes for Chapter 2 199

44. “The Royal Speech of Francis Miller,” reprinted in Eltheto (Netherlands student Christian movement periodical), Dec. 1929, 2, in FPMP, B2.

Chapter 2 1. Reinhold Niebuhr, Leaves from the Notebook of a Tamed Cynic (New York: Meridian, 1957), 50, 76, 157, 167– 68, 193, 212. 2. Ibid., 29– 30, 38– 39, 90, 155– 56, 162– 63, 170– 72, 209– 10. 3. Ibid., 81– 82. 4. Walter Marshall Horton, “One of Religion’s Great Divides,” Woman’s Press 30 (June 1936): 264– 65, 301– 2. 5. Charles A. Ellwood, Christianity and Social Science: A Challenge to the Church (New York: Macmillan, 1923), 1. 6. William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience (New York: Penguin Putnam, 1983), 378; D. C. Macintosh, “Toward a New Untraditional Orthodoxy,” in Contemporary American Theology: Theological Autobi- ographies, ed. Vergulius Ferm (New York: Round Table, 1932), 277– 302; D. C. Macintosh, “The Reaction Against Metaphysics in Theology” (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 1911), 53–56, 82, in Douglas Clyde Macintosh Papers, Special Collections, Yale Divinity School Library (hereafter DCMP). On Macintosh’s life and thought, see S. Mark Heim, “True Relations: D. C. Macintosh and the Evangelical Roots of Liberal Theology” (PhD diss., Joint Graduate Program of Boston College and Andover Newton Theological School, 1982). 7. D. C. Macintosh, “What is the Christian Religion?” Harvard Theological Review 7 (Jan. 1914): 30–31; D. C. Macintosh, to G. B. Foster, May 7, 1912, in DCMP, B1, F2. 8. D. C. Macintosh, The Reasonableness of Christianity (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1925), 47– 48, 165, 280– 81. 9. Julius Seele Bixler, “Modern American Prophets, VI: Macintosh of Yale— Theological Empiricist,” Congregationalist, Oct. 6, 1927, 428– 29; Ernst Troeltsch, The Absoluteness of Christianity and the History of Religions, 3rd ed. (London: SCM, 1971), 106. 10. Henry Pitney Van Dusen, In Quest of Life’s Meaning: Hints toward a Christian Philosophy of Life for Students (New York: Association Press, 1926), 25; William Adams Brown, to Bennett, Jan. 7, 1943, and Eugene Lyman, to Bennett, Dec. 6, 1930, both in JCBP; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to Eugene Lyman, Mar. 29, 1933, in Henry Pitney Van Dusen Papers, The Burke Library Archives at Union Theological Seminary in the City of New York (hereafter HPVDP), Boo (the Van Dusen papers are currently organized by letters, hence Box pp, Box oo, etc.) Borden Parker Bowne, Personalism (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1908), 104, 259; Horton, Theism and the Modern Mood, 90, 95; Walter Marshall Horton, “Authority without Infallibility,” in Religious Realism, ed. 200 Notes

D. C. Macintosh (New York: Macmillan, 1931), 277–304; Shailer Mathews, The Faith of Modernism (New York: AMS, 1969), 36, 179. 11. Van Dusen, In Quest of Life’s Meaning, 14, 100, 121. 12. Francis Pickens Miller, to Daniel J. Fleming, Jan. 10, 1930, in WSCF, B11. 13. Markku Ruotsila, “Conservative American Protestantism in the League of Nations Controversy,” Church History 72 (Sept. 2003): 593–616; Mark Edwards, “Rethinking the Failure of Fundamentalist Political Antievolutionism after 1925,” Fides et Historia 32 (Summer–Fall 2000): 89– 106; Hermann N. Morse, Toward a Christian America (New York: Council of Women for Home Missions and Missionary Education Move- ment, 1935), 190. 14. See Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr, 14, 47–48, 71–72, on Chautauqua and the Sunday- Niebuhr connection. 15. Niebuhr, Does Civilization Need Religion?, 2; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Can Christianity Survive?” Atlantic Monthly 135 (Jan. 1925): 88. 16. Harold Begbie, More Twice-Born Men (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1923), 117–26; Annual Report of the General Secretary of the Phila- delphian Society to the Board of Directors, Sept. 1, 1925, 4–5, 9, in Student Christian Association Records, Mudd Library, Princeton Uni- versity (hereafter SCAR), B3, F9; “Personal Work,” Time, Oct. 18, 1926, 26; Memoirs of Testimony, Part III, Nov. 27, 1926, in SCAR, B11, F5; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to Sam Shoemaker, Nov. 4, 1926, quoted in Daniel Edward Sack, “Disastrous Disturbances: Buchmanism and Student Religious Life at Princeton” (PhD diss., Princeton Univer- sity, 1995), 220–21; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to H. Alexander Smith, Mar. 7, 1928, in H. Alexander Smith Papers, Mudd Library, Princeton University (hereafter HASP), B118, F7. See also Daniel Edward Sack, Moral Re-Armament: The Reinventions of an American Religious Tradi- tion (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009). 17. Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to W. W. Wylie, Apr. 20, 1931, in HPVDP, Bff; Dewey, Individualism Old and New, 14; Clinton Wunder, “Crowds of Souls” for the Church and the Kingdom (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1926), 20. On the relationship between business and religion during the 1920s, see Rolf Lunden, Business and Religion in the American 1920s (New York: Greenwood, 1988); and Douglas Carl Abrams, Selling the Old- Time Religion: American Fundamentalists and Mass Culture, 1920– 1940 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2001). 18. T. J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transfor- mation of American Culture, 1880–1920 (New York: Pantheon, 1981), 141– 215; David Hein, Noble Powell and the Episcopal Establishment in the Twentieth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001), 40; Robert Bruce Mullin, Episcopal Vision/American Reality: High Church Theology and Social Thought in Evangelical America (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1986); Robert W. Prichard, The Nature of Salvation: Theological Consensus in the Episcopal Church, 1801–1873 Notes for Chapter 2 201

(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Phoebe B. Stanton, The Gothic Revival and American Church Architecture: An Episode in Taste, 1840– 1856 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1968); Rich- ard Rabinowitz, The Spiritual Self in Everyday Life: The Transformation of Personal Religious Experience in Nineteenth-Century New England (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1989), 178–88, 382; Lyman Abbott, Impressions of a Careless Traveler (New York: Outlook, 1909), 57. On the “liturgical impulse,” see David R. Bains’s “The Liturgical Impulse in Mid-Twentieth- Century Mainline American Protestantism,” which offers the first comprehensive account of the subject. 19. Adrian Hastings, A History of English Christianity, 1920–1985 (London: William Collins Sons, 1995), 60–91, 172–85, 195–201; Geoffrey Row- ell, The Vision Glorious: Themes and Personalities of the Catholic Revival in Anglicanism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 228–47; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Christianity and Contemporary Politics,” 500. 20. Paul Tillich, The Religious Situation, trans. H. Richard Niebuhr (New York: Living Age, 1960), 212– 13; “Ritualism Becomes Popular,” Chris- tian Century 45 (June 14, 1928): 765; Robert A. Ashworth, “Protestant High Churchmanship,” Church Union Quarterly 18 (1929): 207– 11; Harry Emerson Fosdick, Adventurous Religion (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1926), 13– 14, 247, 273; Helana Huntington Smith, “Respect- able Heretic: A Portrait of Dr. Fosdick,” Outlook and Independent 153 (Oct. 9, 1929): 238; Walter Russell Bowie, On Being Alive (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1931), 3– 37, 44. 21. Lewis Mumford, The Culture of Cities, 35; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Is Prot- estantism Self-Deceived?” Christian Century 41 (Dec. 25, 1924): 1,662; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Beauty as a Substitute for Righteousness,” Christian Century 44 (Sept. 29, 1927): 1,133. 22. Rudolph Otto, The Idea of the Holy, 2nd ed., trans. John W. Harvey (London: Oxford University Press, 1950), 21–22, 30, 59, 65. On Barth and Neoorthodoxy, see Gary Dorrien, The Barthian Revolt in Modern Theology: Theology without Weapons (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox, 2000). 23. Albert C. Knudson, “German Fundamentalism,” Christian Century 45 (June 14, 1928): 765; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Barth—Apostle of the Abso- lute,” Christian Century 45 (Dec. 13, 1928): 1,523– 24. 24. H. Richard Niebuhr, “Can German and American Christians Under- stand Each Other?” Christian Century 47 (July 23, 1930): 914–16; Paul Tillich, The Interpretation of History (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1936), 235; Tillich, Religious Situation, 105. See Eugene McCar- raher’s amazing biography of Tillich in Christian Critics: Religion and the Impasse in Modern American Social Thought (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2000). 25. H. Richard Niebuhr, The Social Sources of Denominationalism (New York: Living Age, 1957), 184– 87. 202 Notes

26. Ibid. 27. Joseph Wood Krutch, The Modern Temper: A Study and a Confession (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1929), 18–19; Walter Lippmann, A Preface to Morals (New York: Time- Life Books, 1964), 12, 19, 29– 33, 308– 9. 28. John R. Mott, to Jessie R. Wilson, Dec. 9, 1929, in Student Volun- teer Movement Papers, Special Collections, Yale Divinity School Library (hereafter SVMP), B364, F4308. 29. Harrison Sacket Elliot, The Process of Group Thinking (New York: Asso- ciation, 1938), 36, 154. 30. UTS, “Notice (concerning upcoming meeting of the Oldham Group),” n.d., in DCMP, B1, F4; John R. Mott, to Jessie R. Wilson, Nov. 15, 1930, in SVMP, B364, F4308; “Informal Conference of Younger Theo- logical Professors and Others,” Jan. 24–26, 1930, in SVMP, B373, F4435; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, “Proposed Conference—Retreats of Younger Christian Thinkers,” general letter, circa Jan. 1933, in HPVDP, Bf. Heather Warren was the first to note the existence and significance of the Theological Discussion Group. See Warren, Theologians of a New World Order. 31. John A. Mackay, to Jessie R. Wilson, Feb. 19, 1934, in SVMP, B363, F4289; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to John Coleman Bennett, Aug. 20, 1933, in JCBP. See Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to Walter Marshall Hor- ton, Aug. 10, 1933, in JCBP, who wrote, “I should be prepared to elimi- nate anyone (Niebuhr, for example) whom any person in the group felt would not be congenial.” The timing of the letter around the debate over Moral Man suggests that Reinhold was the “Niebuhr” considered for exclusion. 32. Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to “Members of the Younger Chris- tian Thinker’s Group,” Nov. 18, 1933, in Theological Discussion Group Papers, Special Collections, Yale Divinity School Library (hereafter TDGP), B5, F48; John Coleman Bennett, “After Liberalism— What?” Christian Century 50 (Nov. 8, 1933): 1,403– 6; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to “Members of the Younger Christian Thinkers Group,” Jan. 12, 1934, in TDGP, B5, F48. 33. Walter Marshall Horton, to John Coleman Bennett, Nov. 11, 1933, in JCBP; Horton, Realistic Theology, ix– x, 8, 10– 16, 38. 34. Horton, Realistic Theology, ix– x; Francis Pickens Miller, to W. A. Visser ’t Hooft, Apr. 18, 1933, in FPMP, B3. On Miller’s YDS lectures, see the relevant folders in FPMP, B126. 35. Henry Pitney Van Dusen, Methodism’s World Mission: The Report of an Non- Methodist (New York: Board of Missions and Church Extension, 1940), 18; Mott, to Wilson, Dec. 9, 1929; W. A. Visser ’t Hooft, Memoirs (London: SCM, 1973), 39–40; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, “The Meaning of Oxford,” World Christianity (Second Quarter, 1937): 93– 94. 36. Visser ’t Hooft, Memoirs, 38– 40, 42n9; Francis Pickens Miller, “The Christian Community and the Nation- State,” June 3, 1933 (for Visser Notes for Chapter 3 203

’t Hooft), in WSCF, B6. Most of the letter was eventually published in Miller’s essay, “The New Religion of Nationalism,” in The Christian Mes- sage for the World Today, ed. E. Stanley Jones (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1934), 52– 73.

Chapter 3 1. Samuel McCrea Cavert, “The Younger Theologians,” Religion in Life 5 (Fall 1936): 520– 31. 2. Francis Pickens Miller, “Our Hearts Are Restless until They Find Rest in Thee” (address, Chataigneraie Conference, 1933), in FPMP, B2. 3. Reinhold Niebuhr, “Catastrophe or Social Control?” Harper’s 165 (June 1932): 115. 4. George Hammar, to Walter Marshall Horton, Mar. 4, 1941, in WMHP, B4. 5. Walter Marshall Horton, “The New Orthodoxy,” American Scholar 7 (Jan. 1938): 3– 11. 6. Charles Clayton Morrison, The Social Gospel and the Christian Cultus (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1933), 6, 33, 58–61, 64– 68, 117, 135, 211– 12, 252. 7. John Dewey, Experience and Nature (New York: Dover, 1950), 407; John Dewey, Art as Experience (New York: Capricorn, 1958), 19, 38, 46, 55, 138. 8. Dewey, Art as Experience, 5– 8, 326. 9. William Clayton Bower, Religion and the Good Life (New York: Abing- don, 1933), 44, 202; Harold A. Bosley, The Quest for Religious Cer- tainty (Chicago: Willett, Clark, 1939), 118– 59; Wade Crawford Barclay, The Church and a Christian Society (New York: Abingdon, 1939), 130; Harry Emerson Fosdick, “Yes, But Religion is an Art!” Harpers 162 (Jan. 1931): 131– 32, 140. 10. Van Dusen, The Plain Man Seeks for God, 140, 156–61; Walter Mar- shall Horton, Realistic Theology, 111, 170; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, “My Personal Religious Experience,” Bethel Chapel talk, 1926–27, in HPVDP, Bjjj. 11. Robert L. Calhoun, God and the Common Life (Hamden, Conn: Shoe String Press, 1954), 74, 94–95, 242, 249. 12. Newman Smyth, Passing Protestantism and the Coming Catholicism (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1908); Paul Tillich, “The End of the Protestant Era,” Student World 30 (1937): 57; Walter Marshall Hor- ton, Contemporary English Theology: An American Interpretation (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1936), xviii. For an overview, see “Evan- gelical Catholicity,” in The Encyclopedia of Christianity, vol. 1, ed. Erwin Fahlbusch (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999), 213–14. 13. Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to Walter Marshall Horton, Nov. 1, 1936, in HPVDP, Bff; Horton, Contemporary English Theology, viii, xviii, 3, 166, 172– 75; Walter Marshall Horton, Contemporary Continental Theology: 204 Notes

An Interpretation for Anglo- Saxons (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1938), x. 14. Van Dusen, Plain Man Seeks for God, 169; Tillich, “End of the Protestant Era,” 55; Douglas Van Steere, “Evangelism and Christian Fellowship” (paper presented before the Theological Discussion Group, Feb. 1938), 2– 4, in TDGP, B3, F36. 15. Henry Pitney Van Dusen, “The Liberal Movement in Theology,” in The Church Through Half a Century: Essays in Honor of William Adams Brown, ed. Samuel McCrea Cavert and Henry Pitney Van Dusen (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1936), 87; Samuel McCrea Cavert, “The Resources of the Churches for Economic Change” (paper presented before the Theological Discussion Group, Oct. 1934), 8, in TDGP, B1, F8. 16. Horton, Realistic Theology, 124– 28, 142– 51; Walter Marshall Horton, “What is Protestantism?” Christian Century 57 (Dec. 11, 1940): 1,550– 51. See also Daniel A. McGregor, “What is Essential and Distinctive in the Christian Gospel for Today?” (paper presented before the Theologi- cal Discussion Group, Feb. 1934), in TDGP, B2, F22. 17. Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to Samuel McCrea Cavert and W. A. Visser ’t Hooft, Dec. 27, 1946, in World Council of Churches, General Cor- respondence, RG 113, Special Collections, Yale Divinity School Library (hereafter WCCGC), microfiche (N)o. 1,396; W. Norman Pittinger, to Walter Marshall Horton, Dec. 4, 1931, in WMHP, B4; Horton, Contem- porary Continental Theology, ix–x, 84, 228; Smyth, Passing Protestant- ism, 13– 14. 18. H. Richard Niebuhr, “The Question of the Church,” and “Toward the Independence of the Church,” in The Church against the World, eds. H. Richard Niebuhr, Wilhelm Pauck, and Francis Pickens Miller (Chi- cago: Willett, Clark, 1935), 1, 4, 123–24, 141–45, 154–55; Wilhelm Pauck, “The Crisis of Religion,” in Niebuhr, Pauck, and Miller, Church against the World, 69. 19. John Dewey, “American Ideals (I): The Theory of Liberalism versus the Fact of Regimentation,” Common Sense 3 (Dec. 1934): 10– 11; Walter Marshall Horton, “A Democratic Way Out,” New Democracy 4 (May 15, 1935): 95–97; David Ekbladh, The Great American Mission: Moderniza- tion and the Construction of an American World Order (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2010). See also Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings, 409– 84, on these points. 20. Franklin D. Roosevelt, quoted in Clinton Rossiter, Conservativism in America, 93; Peter Viereck, “But— I’m a Conservative!” Atlantic Monthly 165 (Apr. 1940): 537–43; Viereck, Conservativism Revisited, 127. See Rotunda, “The ‘Liberal’ Label,” 377–408, on the competition for the word “liberal” between Hoover and Roosevelt. 21. Eugene Robbins McVicker, “Social Christianity: A Study of Four Types of Reactions to New Deal Issues” (PhD diss., George Washington Notes for Chapter 3 205

University, 1979). On “deradicalization,” see Howard Brick, Daniel Bell and the Decline of Intellectual Radicalism: Social Theory and Politi- cal Reconciliation in the 1940s (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986). 22. Christopher Dawson, Beyond Politics (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1939), 3; Christopher Dawson, Religion and the Modern State (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1935), 102, 106; Walter Marshall Horton, “Conflict between Christianity and the Modern State,” Religious Digest 4 (Apr. 1937): 65– 68. 23. Francis Pickens Miller, “American Protestantism and the Christian Faith,” in Niebuhr, Pauck, and Miller, Church against the World, 118; Francis Pickens Miller and Helen Hill Miller, The Blessings of Liberty (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1936), 17, 45, 55, 75– 78, 92. 24. Miller and Miller, Blessings of Liberty, 17, 45, 55, 75–78, 92; Francis Pickens Miller, to Charles H. Corbett, Mar. 3, 1927, in WSCF, B17, S156; Francis Pickens Miller, “Democracy: A Way of Life,” Free Ameri- can 1 (Nov. 1937): 13; NPC conference report, Richmond, Mass., July 3– Aug. 1, 1936, in FPMP, B24. Miller’s thoughts about the town meeting tradition are from his 1919 diary, 23 (March 10 entry), in FPMP, B125. On the NPC, see the collection at the Manuscript Division of the Library of Congress. 25. Francis Pickens Miller, to W. A. Visser ’t Hooft, May 5, 1933, in WSCF, B8, S280; Miller, “The New Religion of Nationalism,” 52–73. 26. John Coleman Bennett, Christianity— and Our World (New York: Asso- ciation, 1937), vii– viii, 14– 15, 63– 64. 27. H. Richard Niebuhr, “Reflections of the Christian Theory of History,” in Theology, History, and Culture: Major Unpublished Writings, ed. Wil- liam Stacey Johnson (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1996), 87– 90, 225n4. 28. Horton, Realistic Theology, ix; Reinhold Niebuhr, Reflections on the End of an Era (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1934), ix, 141–42, 188– 89; Niebuhr, “Making Radicalism Effective,” 682–84; Miles Horton, to Reinhold Niebuhr, Mar. 24, 1931, Miles Horton, to Reinhold Niebuhr, Mar. 24, 1954, and Reinhold Niebuhr, to Commissioner of Internal Revenue, May 6, 1957, all in RNP, B7, Fm; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Medi- tations from Mississippi,” Christian Century 54 (Feb. 10, 1937): 184. 29. Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr; Reinhold Niebuhr, Beyond Tragedy: Essays on the Christian Interpretation of History (London: Nisbet, 1947), 3– 24, 116– 18; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Marx, Barth, and Israel’s Prophets,” Christian Century 52 (Jan. 30, 1935): 138–40; Reinhold Niebuhr, An Interpreta- tion of Christian Ethics (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1935), 12, 26, 29, 65–99; Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Truth in Myths,” in The Nature of Religious Experience: Essays in Honor of Douglas Clyde Macintosh, eds. J. S. Bixler et al. (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1937), 118–19, 135. 206 Notes

30. Horton, “New Orthodoxy,” 11; D. C. Macintosh, “Is Theology Reduc- ible to Mythology?” Review of Religion 4 (1940): 152 Niebuhr, Reflec- tions on the End of an Era, 181. See also Mark S. Heim, “Prodigal Sons: D. C. Macintosh and the Brothers Niebuhr,” Journal of Religion 65 (1985): 337. 31. Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Christian Church in a Secular Age,” Student World 30 (Fall 1937): 291–305; John Dewey, quoted in Sidney Hook, Out of Step: An Unquiet Life in the Twentieth Century (New York: Harper and Row, 1987), 66; John Coleman Bennett, Social Salvation (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1935), 8– 16. 32. Niebuhr, Does Civilization Need Religion?, 163–64; Niebuhr, Interpre- tation of Christian Ethics, 59, 103– 35, 141, 144–52. 33. H. Richard Niebuhr, The Meaning of Revelation (New York: Mac- millan, 1960), x; H. Richard Niebuhr, “The Kingdom of God and Eschatology in the Social Gospel and in Barthianism,” in John- son, Theology, History, and Culture, 120– 22; H. Richard Niebuhr, “Theology in a Time of Disillusionment,” in Johnson, Theology, His- tory, and Culture, 114; H. Richard Niebuhr, “The Attack upon the Social Gospel,” Religion in Life 5 (Spring 1936): 176–81. On Niebuhr’s repeated references to “patterns,” see H. Richard Niebuhr, The Kingdom of God in America, 2, 14, 164. 34. H. Richard Niebuhr, to Reinhold Niebuhr, Jan. 2, 1934, in RNP, B9. 35. Niebuhr, Kingdom of God in America, xxiii–xxvi, xxv–xxvi, 9–15, 66, 75– 87, 101– 3, 193, 198. 36. Robert L. Calhoun, to Henry Pitney Van Dusen, July 28, 1935, in HPVDP, Bq. 37. Horton, “New Orthodoxy,” 4; H. Richard Niebuhr, The Responsible Self: An Essay in Christian Moral Philosophy (New York: Harper and Row, 1963), 108. I do not equate the terms “postmodern” and “poststruc- tural” but rather view the latter term as a central part of the time period designated by the former term. By “poststructuralist,” I mean rejection of permanent, fixed, and knowable structures in the world. See Green and Troup, The Houses of History, 297– 99. On aestheticism as a central component of poststructuralism, see Michel Foucault, “On the Geneal- ogy of Ethics: An Overview of Work in Progress (1982),” in The Fou- cault Reader, ed. Paul Rabinow (New York: Pantheon, 1984), 350. As Foucault responded to an interviewer, “What strikes me is the fact that in our society, art has become something which is related only to objects and not to individuals, or to life . . . But couldn’t everyone’s life become a work of art? Why should the lamp or the house be an art object, but not our life?” See also Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990), 142–50. Butler’s aestheticism emerges in her politics of “parody.” On Richard Rorty’s privileging of aesthetic strategy, which he roots in Dewey’s work, see especially Richard Rorty, “Pragmatism as Romantic Polytheism,” in The Notes for Chapter 4 207

Revival of Pragmatism: New Essays on Social Thought, Law, and Culture, ed. Morris Dickstein (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1998), 21– 36. 38. John Clarence Petrie, to Walter Marshall Horton, Jan. 28, 1943, in WMHP, B4.

Chapter 4 1. Henry Pitney Van Dusen, For the Healing of the Nations: Impressions of Christianity around the World (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1940), xviii, 124–25, 137, 159–67, 171, 180–81; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, quoted in John S. Nurser, For All Peoples and Nations: The Ecu- menical Church and Human Rights (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2005), 147. 2. Niebuhr, Does Civilization Need Religion?, 186– 89. 3. Eddy, Eighty Adventurous Years, 37–38. On the establishment of Chris- tian colleges in China, see Jessie Gregory Lutz, China and the Christian Colleges, 1850–1950 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1971). On American missionary history and debates, see William R. Hutchison, Errand to the World: American Protestant Thought and Foreign Missions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). 4. Richard Hughes Seager, The World’s Parliament of Religions: The East/ West Encounter, Chicago, 1893 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995); John W. Chadwick, “Universal Religion,” New World 3 (Sept. 1894): 401– 18; Kenneth Cracknell, Justice, Courtesy, and Love: Theolo- gians and Missionaries Encounter World Religions, 1846–1914 (London: Epworth, 1995), 181–260; Lamin Sanneh, Encountering the West: Chris- tianity and the Global Cultural Process, the African Dimension (Maryk- noll, N.Y.: Orbis, 1993), 73–116; Daniel J. Fleming, Whither Bound in Missions (New York: Association, 1925). No comprehensive history of the “new missions” exists. See, however, Lian Xi, The Conversion of Mis- sionaries: Liberalism in American Protestant Missions in China, 1907– 1932 (University Park, Pa.: Penn State University Press, 1997). 5. Jones, A Song of Ascents, 27– 29, 63, 73, 82– 83, 86– 108, 110, 147, 236– 47; E. Stanley Jones, Christ at the Round Table (New York: Abingdon, 1928), 7– 18, 49, 68– 69, 83– 89, 128– 29. The “most famous missionary” comment is from “Religion: End of a Mission,” Time, Apr. 14, 1941, 10. 6. Van Dusen, In Quest of Life’s Meaning, 137; Niebuhr, An Interpreta- tion of Christian Ethics, 180; Van Dusen, Methodism’s World Mission: The Report of a Non- Methodist, 18. 7. Walter Marshall Horton, “Reports to President,” 1931–1932, 2–4, and 1937–1938, 2– 6, both in WMHP, B5; Walter Marshall Horton, “Impressions of India,” Alumni Magazine 29 (Nov. 1932): 38–39; Wal- ter Marshall Horton, “Impressions of Japan,” Alumni Magazine 30 (Jan. 208 Notes

1933): 107–9; Walter Marshall Horton, “The Universal in Religion” (chapel address, Oberlin College, Oct. 2, 1934), in WMHP, B2. 8. John A. Mackay, That Other America (New York: Friendship, 1935), 1, 10– 11, 43– 50, 64– 65, 102– 16, 186– 89. 9. Miller, Man from the Valley, 49, 75– 76. 10. Francis Pickens Miller, to Henry Pitney Van Dusen, June 5, 1928, in SVMP, B373, F4435; Francis Pickens Miller, to Will Alexander, Aug. 9, 1927, in WSCF, B16; Francis Pickens Miller, to F. J. Liebenberg, July 21, 1931, in WSCF, B16. See FPMP, B2, for folders on the Bantu-European conference and “the affair.” On Yergan and the CAA, see Penny M. Von Eschen, Race against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937– 1957 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997). 11. Francis Pickens Miller, to Gordon Chalmers, July 21, 1927, in WSCF, B16; Francis Pickens Miller, to Members of the General Committee, circa Oct. 1933, in WSCF, B6. See also Miller, Man from the Valley, 72– 75; and Visser ’t Hooft, Memoirs (London: SCM, 1973), 51–55, for their accounts of the Asia trip. 12. Jones, Christ of the India Road, 50, 70–89. On “fulfillment” theory see especially Eric J. Sharpe, Not to Destroy But to Fulfill: The Contribution of J. N. Farquhar to Protestant Missionary Thought in India before 1914 (Uppsala, Sweden: Swedish Institute of Missionary Research, 1965). 13. William Ernest Hocking, Living Religions and a World Faith (New York: Macmillan, 1940), 21, 64, 248, 262. See Hutchison, Errand to the World, 158– 75, on the Re- Thinking Missions controversy. 14. John Coleman Bennett, “An Approach to Christian Faith in God,” Woman’s Press 38 (July– Aug. 1944): 317; John Coleman Bennett, “I Believe,” Intercollegian 57 (Nov. 1939): 54; H. Richard Niebuhr, “Religious Realism and the Twentieth Century,” in Religious Realism, ed. D. C. Macintosh (New York: Macmillan, 1931), 427. 15. E. Stanley Jones, Christ and Communism (London: Hodder and Stough- ton, 1935), 305. 16. H. P. Cruse, to Francis Pickens Miller, Jan. 25, 1932, in WSCF, B8. See also Visser ’t Hooft, Memoirs, 39– 40, in which Visser ’t Hooft recalls Oldham’s suggestion to form an interreligious front against the “evils of secularism.” On the NCCJ, see Kevin M. Schultz, Tri- Faith America: How Catholics and Jews Held Postwar America to Its Protestant Promise (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 30–31. 17. J. H. Oldham, ed., The Churches Survey Their Task: The Report of the Conference at Oxford, July 1937, on Church, Community, and State (Lon- don: George Allen and Unwin, 1937), 10, 68– 69. 18. Oldham, Churches Survey Their Task, 34– 35, 98– 99; William Adams Brown, Church and State in Contemporary America (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1936), 46–49. The Brown study, begun in 1930, had included Cavert and veteran social Christians. The manuscript had been Notes for Chapter 4 209

reviewed favorably by Bennett, Niebuhr, Tillich, and Van Dusen before publication. On “medievalism,” see Cantor, Inventing the Middle Ages, who nevertheless downplays Dawson’s popularity. Many contemporaries considered Dawson the most influential British intellectual of the 1930s. See Bradley J. Birzer, Sanctifying the World: The Augustinian Life and Mind of Christopher Dawson (Front Royal, Va.: Christendom Press, 2007); and Adam Schwartz, The Third Spring: G. K. Chesterton, Gra- ham Greene, Christopher Dawson, and David Jones (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2005), 202–81, who also notes Niebuhr’s critical appreciation of Dawson (259, 267). 19. John T. McNeill, Unitive Protestantism: A Study in Our Religious Resources (New York: Abingdon, 1931); John A. Mackay, “The Restora- tion of Theology,” Religion in Life 6 (Spring 1937): 164. 20. On “middle axioms,” see Paul Bock, In Search of a Responsible World Society: The Social Teachings of the World Council of Churches (Philadel- phia: Westminster, 1974), 38, 50, 55– 56, 70, 105, 111. 21. “Bringing Oxford to America,” Federal Council Bulletin 20 (Nov. 1937): 9; “Forward from Oxford and Edinburgh,” Federal Council Bulletin 21 (Feb. 1938): 6– 7; Oldham, Churches Survey Their Task, 50. 22. Visser ’t Hooft, Memoirs, 40, 79; Samuel McCrea Cavert, “Typescript,” New York City, July 29, 1965, 2, in John Foster Dulles Oral History Project, Mudd Library, Princeton University (hereafter JFD-OHP);. The phrase “responsible men,” as well as “responsible friends” and “responsible politicians,” surfaced frequently in ecumenical correspondence. 23. W. Roland, to Kenneth Scott Latourette, May 22, 1936, in SVMP, B362, F4282; Francis Pickens Miller, “The Church as World Community” (paper presented before the Theological Discussion Group, Nov. 1936), 3, in TDGP, B2, F24; Kenneth Scott Latourette, Missions Tomorrow (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1936). See Walter Marshall Horton, Can Christianity Save Civilization? (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1940), 247, for his claim about Miller. 24. Oldham, Churches Survey Their Task, 221. See Clements, Faith on the Frontier, 314. 25. “The Church and Its World Mission,” conference sponsored by the Cleveland Church Federation, Old Stone Church, Mar. 21–22, 1939, in WMHP, B6. 26. Walter Marshall Horton, “Significance of Madras,” Intercollegian 56 (Mar. 1939): 113; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, “Madras and Christian Thought,” Christendom 4 (Spring 1939): 205–17; Horton, Contempo- rary Continental Theology, 232– 33. On the nationalization of China’s Christian colleges during the 1930s, see Lutz, China and the Christian Colleges, 319– 21, 490– 529. 27. Horton, Can Christianity Save Civilization, x, 3, 19, 100–1, 103– 5; Walter Marshall Horton, “Religion and the Cultural Crisis,” Student World 37 (1944): 107– 9, 115. 210 Notes

28. Horton, Can Christianity Save Civilization, 107, 115–16, 195–96, 204n29. 29. Ibid., 123– 31, 137– 39, 145– 51, 189, 237– 48. 30. Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to Hugh Martin, British Ministry of Infor- mation, London, August 8, 1940, in Hamilton Fish Armstrong Papers, Public Policy Papers, Mudd Library, Princeton University (hereafter HFAP), B63; W. A. Visser ’t Hooft, to Henry Pitney Van Dusen, June 1, 1940, in WCCGC, fiche (n)umber 1394; “The American Churches and the International Situation,” Press Release, Jan. 22, 1940, in John Foster Dulles Papers, Public Policy Papers, Mudd Library, Princeton University (hereafter JFDP), B19; “The Churches and the International Situation,” FCC Study Guide, n.d., in World Council of Churches, World War II Era Records, Fiche Ms. 117, YDS-17, Special Collections, Yale Divinity School Library (hereafter WCCR), (n)umber 1. See Lincoln Chadwin, The Hawks of World War II (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971); and Philip M. Coupland, Britannia, Europa, and Christen- dom: British Christians and European Integration (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 48– 49. 31. John Foster Dulles, to Henry Pitney Van Dusen, Mar. 18, 1940, and John Foster Dulles, to Henry Sloane Coffin, May 20, 1940, both in JFDP, B19; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to John Foster Dulles, Mar. 16, 1939, in JFDP, B18; John Foster Dulles, to John T. McNeill, Oct. 1, 1941, and John Foster Dulles, to Bradford S. Abernethy, Oct. 21, 1941, both in JFDP, B20. Christian Century articles for and against intervention, including those by Morrison, Van Dusen, Bennett, and Barth, among others, can be found in Joseph Loconte, ed., The End of Illusions: Reli- gious Leaders Confront Hitler’s Gathering Storm (Lanham, Md.: Row- man and Littlefield, 2004). See also Justus D. Doenecke, Storm on the Horizon: The Challenge to American Intervention, 1939–1941 (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000); and Gerald L. Sittser, A Cautious Patriotism: The American Churches and the Second World War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), especially 26– 76. 32. Reinhold Niebuhr, “To Prevent the Triumph of an Intolerable Tyr- anny,” Christian Century 57 (Dec. 18, 1940): 1,580; Reinhold Niebuhr, Christianity and Power Politics (New York: Charles Scrib- ner’s Sons, 1940), x, 46; Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Christian Faith and the World’s Crisis,” Christianity and Crisis 1 (Feb. 10, 1941): 4– 6; Reinhold Niebuhr, “American Power and World Responsibil- ity,” Christianity and Crisis 3 (Apr. 5, 1943): 2– 4; Lewis Mum- ford, “The Aftermath of Utopianism,” Christianity and Crisis 1 (Mar. 24, 1941): 2– 4. 33. Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to Hugh Martin, Aug. 8, 1940; Jonathan Daniels, to Francis Pickens Miller, June 6, 1940, in HFAP, B44; Percy W. Bidwell, to Allen Dulles, May 8, 1940, in Council on Foreign Rela- tions Papers, Public Policy Papers, Mudd Library, Princeton University Notes for Chapter 4 211

(hereafter CFRP), B593, F4; Francis Pickens Miller, “Some Regional Views on Our Foreign Policy,” 1940, in CFRP, B594, F11; Francis Pick- ens Miller, to Archibald MacLeish, Aug. 29, 1940, in HFAP, B44. The CFR papers at Princeton contain a great deal of information on Miller’s committees, including the names and occupations of every member. See, for instance, Francis Pickens Miller, “The Atlantic Area,” Foreign Affairs 19 (July 1941): 3–4, for his continued support for a “common society around the shores of the North Atlantic” that he believed God was forming. On Van Dusen, see Dean K. Thompson, “World War II, Interven- tionism, and Henry Pitney Van Dusen,” Journal of Presbyterian History 55 (Fall 1977): 327– 45. 34. Van Dusen, “Transcript,” 9, Princeton, May 27, 1965, in JFD-OHP; Report, Century Club meeting, New York, July 11, 1940, in HFAP, B44; “History of Fight For Freedom,” n.d., in Fight For Freedom, Inc., Papers, Public Policy Papers, Mudd Library, Princeton University (hereafter FFFP), B15, F1. 35. Miller, Man from the Valley, 93– 104; “History of Fight For Free- dom”; Henry Luce, to Francis Pickens Miller, July 29, 1940, in HFAP, B44; Henry L. Stimson, to Henry Sloane Coffin, July 16, 1940, in FFFP, B6, F13; Gerard S. Nollen, to Francis Pickens Miller, Aug. 9, 1940, in HFAP, B44; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to Francis Pickens Miller, Aug. 14, 1940, in FFFP, B19, F5; Francis Pickens Miller, to Clifton M. Utley, Oct. 9, 1940, in FFFP, B26, F9; Lewis Mumford, “Challenge to World Democracy,” radio address, Hour for Union Now, Oct. 31, 1940, in FFFP, B15, F7. See also, on the Club, Schulzinger, The Wise Men of Foreign Affairs, 70–71. 36. Francis Pickens Miller et al., to Herbert Agar, Aug. 13, 1941, in FFFP, B26, F2; “Outline of Dinner Meeting,” Century Club, Jan. 9, 1941, in FFFP, B51, F1; Herbert Agar, “Report on Executive Committee Meet- ing,” July, 22, 1941, 5, in FFFP, B51, F1; Francis Pickens Miller, to Peter Cusick, Feb. 26, 1941, in FFFP, B15, F1; Ulrich Bell, to all department heads, June 12, 1941, in FFFP, B51, F3; Henry Hobson, to Francis Pick- ens Miller, July 28, 1941, B15, F1; “Complete List of FFF Chapters,” Sept. 11, 1941, in FFFP, B50, F15. 37. Francis Pickens Miller, address to the Daughters of the American Revolu- tion, Montpelier, Va., Sept. 17, 1940, in HFAP, B44. 38. Horton, Can Christianity Save Civilization, 200– 207. 39. Jones, Christ and Communism, 302– 5; Frank T. Wilson, to Francis Pick- ens Miller, Jan. 7, 1933, in WSCF, B8; Raymond P. Currier, to Reinhold Niebuhr, Jan. 16, 1934, in SVMP, B366, F4338; Cavert, “Transcript,” 4; “Suggestions for the Discussion Groups,” North American Ecumeni- cal Conference, Toronto, June 3–5, 1941, 24, in The World Council of Churches- in-Formation Papers, Special Collections, Yale Divinity School Library (hereafter WCCP), B47, F319. Currier was asking Niebuhr for permission to include a chapter from Moral Man in an edited volume 212 Notes

entitled The Christian Internationale (alongside essays from Mackay, Kagawa, Hocking, and Albert Schweitzer). 40. Leslie Newbigin, Unfinished Agenda: An Autobiography (Geneva: WCC, 1985), 41.

Chapter 5 1. Samuel McCrea Cavert, to W. A. Visser ’t Hooft, Dec. 26, 1946, in WCCGC, n258; Jones, Is the Kingdom of God Realism?, 263; John Cole- man Bennett, Christian Realism (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1941), 140; Van Dusen, For the Healing of the Nations, xvii, 149– 50. See Jones, A Song of Ascents, 151– 55, the section of Jones’s biography in which he coins the phrase “God’s Totalitarianism” and recaps his World War II writing. 2. Wilhelm Pauck, “Redeeming Culture through Crisis,” in Religion and the Present Crisis, ed. John Knox (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1942), 143– 62. 3. H. Richard Niebuhr, to Reinhold Niebuhr, n.d., in RNP, B58; Pacific Coast Theological Discussion Group, List of Members, in TDGP, B5, F49; Chicago Ecumenical Discussion Group, “Memoranda: The Ethical Reality and Function of the Church,” Nov. 1942, in TDGP, B5, F50; H. Richard Niebuhr, to John Coleman Bennett, Nov. 13, 1938, in JCBP, BII, F3; John Mackay, to Henry Pitney Van Dusen, July 26, 1935; Doug- las Van Steere, to Henry Pitney Van Dusen, circa July 1939; John Cole- man Bennett, to Henry Pitney Van Dusen, July 24, 1939, all in HPVDP, Boo; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to Theological Discussion Group, Oct. 9, 1936, in TDGP, B5, F48; Randolph Crump Miller, “Introduction,” in The Church and Organized Movements, ed. Randolph Crump Miller (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1946), xvi; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to Theological Discussion Group, Nov. 9, 1942, in TDGP, B5, F48. 4. John Coleman Bennett, “The Outlook for Theology,” Journal of Reli- gion 21 (Apr. 1941): 341– 53; H. Richard Niebuhr, “Towards a New Other- Worldliness,” Theology Today 1 (1944): 78–87; John A. Mackay, “Our Aims,” Theology Today 1 (Apr. 1944): 3–11; John A. Mackay, “The Times Call for Theology,” Theology Today 2 (1945): 3– 10; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, God in Education: A Tract for the Times (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1951), 82; Helmut Kuhn, “The Classical Christian Tra- dition and the Emerging World,” Theology Today 2 (Jan. 1946): 450–51. 5. Charles Clayton Morrison, What Is Christianity? (Chicago: Willett, Clark, 1940), 66– 68, 198– 234, 253– 54, 255– 60, 278– 81, 294; Wal- ter Marshall Horton, Our Christian Faith (Boston: Pilgrim, 1945), 36– 37. For a favorable review of Morrison’s book, see Bennett, “Outlook for Theology,” 352. 6. Jacques Maritain, True Humanism, trans. M. R. Adamson (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1970), vii, 64, 168n1, 156– 201. Notes for Chapter 5 213

7. T. S. Eliot, The Idea of a Christian Society (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1940), 7, 10–11, 22, 25, 29–44, 46, 60; T. S. Eliot, “The Church’s Mes- sage to the World,” Christian Century 54 (Apr. 7, 1937): 450– 52. 8. Eliot, “Church’s Message,” 450; The Spiritual Issues of the War no.151 (Sept. 24, 1942), in WCCR, n4-5; J. H. Oldham, The Resurrection of Christendom (London: Sheldon, 1940), 15, 52– 54; John Baillie, What Is Christian Civilization? (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1945), 14– 15, 36–40; Walter Marshall Horton, “Review of What Is Christian Civilization,” by John Baillie, Theology Today 3 (Oct. 1946): 410–11; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to John Coleman Bennett, July 30, 1945, in JCBP; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Review of True Humanism,” by Jacques Maritain, Radical Religion 4 (Spring 1939): 45; John Baillie, “Paper on Maritain’s True Humanism,” unpublished review, n.d., in FPMP, B17. See also Nurser, For All Peoples and Nations, 11– 27, who writes that Anglican leaders had been discussing the prospects for saving “Christen- dom” since the 1920s. 9. D. S. Cairns, “The Rescue of Christendom,” Christianity and Crisis 1 (June 2, 1941): 5–6. On the Christian News- Letter, see Clements, Faith on the Frontier, 393. 10. Coupland, Britannia, Europa, and Christendom, 6–11, 181; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, “Inaugural Address,” Union Theological Seminary, Nov. 15, 1945, in PP, B49. The capitalization of “ONE” is Van Dusen’s. 11. Van Dusen, For the Healing of the Nations, 147; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, Reality and Religion (New York: Association, 1940), 62– 63. 12. “The Ethical Function of the Church,” Study Department Question- naire, n.d., in WCCP, B1, F1; W. A. Visser ’t Hooft, “The Ethical Reality and Function of the Church,” May 1940, in WCCP, B1, F1; Emil Brun- ner, “The Ethical Reality and Function of the Church,” n.d., in WCCP, B1, F2. 13. John Coleman Bennett, to “Collaborators,” May 1, 1941, in WCCP, B1, F1; George F. Thomas, “Corpus Christi and Corpus Christianum,” reprinted from Christendom (Winter 1942), in WCCP, B1, F2; Alan Richardson, “Collaborator’s Comments on the Archbishop’s Christian News- Letter Supplement and Brunner’s Memoranda,” n.d., in WCCP, B1, F3; “Report of the Study Conference,” Toronto, June 2–3, 1941, in WCCP, B1, F1. 14. See Lears, No Place of Grace, 141– 215, on these points. 15. John Coleman Bennett, “Results of an Ecumenical Study,” Christendom 9 (Spring 1944): 142– 52. 16. Mumford, The Condition of Man, 132, 382– 90. 17. Reinhold Niebuhr, The Nature and Destiny of Man: A Christian Inter- pretation, 2 vols. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1949), vol. 1, 3, 5; vol. 2, 2, 211; Niebuhr, Beyond Tragedy, 297. 18. Niebuhr, Nature and Destiny, vol. 1, 3, 5, 300; vol. 2, 2, 159, 204– 12. 214 Notes

19. Niebuhr, Nature and Destiny, vol. 1, 43, 170, 177, 183–84, 219, 250– 51, 296; vol. 2, 84–89, 124, 128–29, 205, 244–86, 307–8n10; John Baillie, to Reinhold Niebuhr, Mar. 10, 1946, in RNP, B46; Baillie, What Is Christian Civilization, 56– 59. 20. Niebuhr, Nature and Destiny, vol. 2, 209– 10, 213. 21. “Conference on Science, Philosophy, and Religion in Their Relation to the Democratic Way of Life,” unpublished report, in TDGP, B5, F51; E. Jerome Johanson, “Education for Global Brotherhood” (address, Fourth Conference on Science, Philosophy, and Religion, 1943), in TDGP, B2, F17; John Coleman Bennett, “The Christian Basis for Enduring Peace” (address, Fourth Conference on Science, Philosophy, and Religion, 1943), 1, 4, 20, in TDGP, B1, F4; Sidney Hook, Reason, Social Myths, and Democracy (New York: Humanities, 1950), 28–29, 78– 79. On the history and problems of the conference, see James Gil- bert, Redeeming Culture: American Religion in an Age of Science (Chi- cago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 63–93. 22. “The National Christian Mission: Its Purpose,” Federal Council Bulletin 23 (Jan. 1940): 7–8; “The Recovery of Evangelism,” Federal Council Bulletin 19 (Sept. 1936): 3–4; “Summarizing the National Preaching Mission,” Federal Council Bulletin 20 (Jan. 1937): 9– 10; “Evangelism— The Primary Task,” Federal Council Bulletin 29 (Dec. 1946): 8–9; Hor- ton, Can Christianity Save Civilization, 214. 23. Reinhold Niebuhr, “Anglo-Saxon Destiny and Responsibility,” Christi- anity and Crisis 3 (Oct. 4, 1943): 2–4; Francis Pickens Miller, “The Christian Church in the Latter Half of the Twentieth Century,” Christi- anity and Crisis 2 (Dec. 14, 1942): 4. 24. Samuel McCrea Cavert, Church Cooperation and Unity in America (New York: Association, 1970), 175; Walter Marshall Horton, “The Rediscovery of America,” Current Religious Thought 3 (1943): 10–14; Edward W. White, to Harlem FFF, Aug. 11, 1941, in FFFP, B55, F7; Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Evacuation of Japanese Citizens,” Christian- ity and Crisis 2 (May 18, 1942): 2– 5; John Coleman Bennett, “Deal- ing with Japanese Evacuees,” Christianity and Crisis 2 (Nov. 2, 1942): 6. On the redirection of New Deal liberal concern toward racial and gender issues over structural economic reforms, see Alan Brinkley, The End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995). 25. John Coleman Bennett, “Socialist without Being Totalitarian,” Social Action 12 (Oct. 14, 1946): 3. 26. Reinhold Niebuhr, “Dr. William Temple and His Britain,” Nation 159 (Nov. 11, 1944): 584–86; William Temple, Christianity and the Social Order (Baltimore: Penguin, 1942), 24–25, 100; Hugh Vernon White, “Statement of Social Ideals” (study paper, WCC Committee of Thirty- Five, to the General Council, Nov. 9, 1942), in WMHP, B5; John Coleman Bennett, “The Choice before Our Nation,” Christianity and Notes for Chapter 5 215

Crisis 3 (Apr. 5, 1943): 1–2. On Temple’s influence on Britain’s welfare state, see Matthew Grimley, Citizenship, Community, and the Church of England: Liberal Anglican Theories of the State between the Wars (Oxford: Clarendon, 2004). 27. John Coleman Bennett, “A Changed Liberal—But Still a Liberal,” Chris- tian Century 56 (Feb. 8, 1939): 181. 28. John Coleman Bennett, “The Church and ‘Free Enterprise’,” Advance 133 (May 1941): 212; “A Message from the National Study Conference on the Churches and the International Situation” (conference report, Philadelphia, Feb. 27–29, 1940), in WCCR, n2; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Is the Bombing Really Necessary?” Christianity and Crisis 4 (Apr. 3, 1944): 1– 2. 29. Henry Sloane Coffin, Religion Yesterday and Today (Nashville, Tenn.: Cokesbury, 1940), 145–46; Henry A. Wallace, “Practical Religion in the World of Tomorrow,” in Christian Bases of the World Order, ed. Ralph E. Diffendorfer (New York: Abingdon- Cokesbury, 1943), 18. 30. Bennett, Christian Realism, 1, 65; John Coleman Bennett, “The Spiri- tual Basis of Democracy,” Advance 135 (May 1, 1943): 194– 95; John Coleman Bennett, “Christianity and Democracy,” Christendom 5 (Spring 1940): 162– 71. 31. Reinhold Niebuhr, The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness: A Vindication of Democracy and Critique of Its Traditional Defense (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1944), xiii, 10, 32, 71, 78. 32. “The Study Conference on the Bases of Peace,” Federal Council Bulletin 25 (Apr. 1942): 9–10; John Foster Dulles, “The American People Need Now to Be Imbued with a Righteous Faith,” in A Righteous Faith for a Just and Durable Peace (New York: FCC, 1942), 5. See “Transcript,” John Coleman Bennett, interview, May 13, 1965, 11, and “Transcript,” Henry Pitney Van Dusen, interview, May 27, 1965, 38, both in JFD-OHP, on Dulles’s leadership of the Commission. For a detailed history of Just and Durable Peace, see Warren, Theologians of a New World Order, 94– 115. 33. “U.S. Leaders Uphold Cause of U.N.” signed statement, n.d., in WCCR, n1; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, “Issues of the Peace,” Christendom 7 (Winter 1942): 2–12; Samuel McCrea Cavert, “American vs. European Thinking about the Post-War World,” Christianity and Crisis 3 (July 26, 1943): 7–9; John Coleman Bennett, “An Ecumenical Consensus,” Christianity and Crisis 3 (July 26, 1943): 4. 34. Reinhold Niebuhr, “The United Nations and World Organization,” Chris- tianity and Crisis 2 (Jan. 25, 1943): 2; Edward L. Parsons, “Reflections on the San Francisco Conference,” Christianity and Crisis 5 (Apr. 30, 1945): 1–2; Walter Marshall Horton, “Natural Law and International Order,” Christendom 9 (Winter 1944): 2, 4– 11, 19– 20. 35. Daniel J. Fleming, Bringing Our World Together: A Study in World Com- munity (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1945), vii–viii, 42, 45, 69– 70, 89– 90. 216 Notes

36. H. Richard Niebuhr, quoted in William Stacy Johnson, “Introduction,” in Johnson, Theology, History, and Culture, xviii; Niebuhr, The Meaning of Revelation, vii– x, 3, 17–18, 40; H. Richard Niebuhr, “The Church Defines Itself in the World,” in Johnson, Theology, History and Culture, 73. 37. See Clements, Faith on the Frontier, 368.

Chapter 6 1. Reinhold Niebuhr, to John Coleman Bennett, 1950, in RNP, B42; George Kennan, “Review of Current Trends in U.S. Foreign Policy,” in Foreign Relations of the United States 1948, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1948), 509– 29. On World War II and the Cold War as a struggle between “open” and “closed” societies, see Ian Clark, Globalization and Fragmentation: International Relations in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 122– 47. See Takemae Eiji, Inside GHQ: The Allied Occupation of Japan and Its Legacy, trans. Robert Ricketts and Sebastian Swann (New York: Continuum, 2002), on “reverse course” in the context of Japanese reconstruction. 2. Horton, “What is Protestantism?” 1,550; H. Richard Niebuhr, “The Gift of the Catholic Vision,” Theology Today 4 (1948): 517. See Dianne Kirby, “The Cold War, the Hegemony of the United States and the Golden Age of Christian Democracy,” in The Cambridge History of Christianity: Vol. 9, World Christianities, c. 1914– 2000, ed. Hugh McLeod (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 290. 3. On American Catholicism at this time, see Jay P. Dolan, The American Catholic Experience: A History from Colonial Times to the Present (Gar- den City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1985); Patrick Allitt, Catholic Intellectuals and Conservative Politics in America, 1950–1985 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1993); and Philip Gleason, Contending with Moder- nity: Catholic Higher Education in the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995). On Roosevelt’s and Truman’s outreach to the Vatican, see Michael H. Carter, “Diplomacy’s Detractors: Ameri- can Protestant Reaction to FDR’s ‘Personal Representative’ to the Vati- can,” in FDR, the Vatican, and the Roman Catholic Church in America, 1933– 1945, eds. David B. Woolen and Richard G. Kurial (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 179–208; and Dianne Kirby, “Harry S. Tru- man’s Religious Legacy: The Holy Alliance, Containment and the Cold War,” in Religion and the Cold War, ed. Dianne Kirby (New York: Pal- grave Macmillan, 2003), 77– 102. 4. George La Piana, “A Totalitarian Church in a Democratic State: The American Experiment” (lecture, School of Religion, Butler University, Feb. 9– 10, 1949). 57, 142; Paul Blanshard, American Freedom and Catholic Power (Boston: Beacon, 1949), 6, 15, 242, 266, 270, 279, 284; Notes for Chapter 6 217

Henry Sloan Coffin, “American Freedom and Catholic Power,” Christi- anity and Crisis 9 (May 2, 1949): 49– 51. 5. On this controversy, see especially Dianne Kirby, “Harry S. Truman’s International Religious Anti-Communist Front,” 35–70 (the Archbishop quotation is from page 47). Kirby draws in part on Visser ’t Hooft, Mem- oirs, 176, 206–10. See also William Inboden, Religion and American Foreign Policy, 1945–1960: The Soul of Containment (New York: Cam- bridge University Press, 2008), 105–56, who adds some interesting details to Kirby’s pioneering account. 6. Kenneth Scott Latourette, The Emergence of a World Christian Community (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1949), 33–36; Edmund Davison Soper, The Philosophy of the Christian World Mission (New York: Abingdon- Cokesbury, 1943), 301; “Protestants and Other Americans United for Separation of Church and State: A Manifesto (adopted Nov. 20, 1947),” POAU Pamphlet, 1962, in Christian Century Foundation Archives, South- ern Illinois University (hereafter CCFA), B2, F1; Charles Clayton Morrison, Can Protestantism Win America? (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1948), 64– 65, 75– 76, 197. 7. “Is the Cold War a Holy War?” Christian Century 67 (Jan. 11, 1950): 39– 41; James Luther Adams, “Review: Christianity and Democracy, by Jacques Maritain,” Journal of Religion 25 (July 1945): 217–18; Rein- hold Niebuhr, “Our Relations to Catholicism,” Christianity and Crisis 7 (Feb. 17, 1947): 5–7; John Coleman Bennett, “The Protestant-Catholic Issue,” Christianity and Crisis 6 (May 27, 1946): 1– 2; John Coleman Bennett, “Roman Catholics and Communism,” Christianity and Cri- sis 9 (Mar. 7, 1949): 17–18; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, “An American Embassy at the Vatican— What is at Stake?” Christianity and Crisis 11 (Jan. 21, 1952): 187–90; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to John Coleman Bennett, Nov. 17, 1951, in JCBP. See, on the Clark controversy, F. Wil- liam O’Brien, “General Clark’s Nomination as Ambassador to the Vati- can: American Reaction,” Catholic Historical Review 44 (Jan. 1959): 421– 39. 8. Blanshard, American Freedom and Catholic Power, 3, 266, 297, 303; Samuel McCrea Cavert, “Relations between Roman Catholics and Prot- estants in America” (paper presented before the Theological Discussion Group, 1948), 11, in TDGP, B1, F8. 9. Will Herberg, Protestant—Catholic— Jew (New York: Anchor, 1960), 6, 34, 41, 57; John Coleman Bennett, “A Protestant Looks at Ameri- can Catholicism,” in Witness to a Generation: Significant Writings from Christianity and Crisis, ed. Wayne H. Cowan (Indianapolis, Ind.: Bobbs- Merrill, 1966), 49–58. See also Schultz, Tri- Faith America. 10. Paul Tillich, “Beyond Religious Socialism,” Christian Century 66 (June 15, 1949): 732– 33; Paul Tillich, “Beyond the Usual Alternatives,” Christian Century 75 (May 7, 1958): 554; Paul Tillich, The Shaking of the Foundations (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1948), 11. On 218 Notes

the aims of the Council for a Democratic Germany, see “A Positive Pro- gram for Germany after Hitler,” n.d., in Paul Tillich Archives: Works: An Inventory, Andover-Harvard Theological Library, Harvard Divinity School (hereafter PTP), B404, F4. 11. Tillich, Shaking of the Foundations, 5; Henry Sloan Coffin, God Confronts Man in History (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1947), 136; Reinhold Niebuhr, Discerning the Signs of the Times (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1946), 66–71; Kenneth Scott Latourette, The Prospect for Christian- ity (London: Religious Book Club, 1950), 187. 12. James E. Cronin, The World the Cold War Made: Order, Chaos, and the Return of History (New York: Routledge, 1996), 61. On the notion of an “empire of modernity,” see Franck Ninkovich, The United States and Imperialism (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2001), 245– 52. 13. Arnold Toynbee, quoted in Dianne Kirby, “The Churches and Christian- ity in Cold War Europe,” in A Companion to Europe since 1945, ed. Klaus Larres (West Sussex, U.K.: Wiley- Blackwell, 2009), 189; John Foster Dulles, “World Brotherhood Through the State” (address, Convention Hall, Philadelphia, Sept. 8, 1946), reprinted in The Spiritual Legacy of John Foster Dulles, ed. Henry Pitney Van Dusen (Philadelphia: West- minster, 1960), 112–13; Jonathan P. Herzog, The Spiritual-Industrial Complex: America’s Religious Battle Against Communism in the Early Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011). Andrew J. Rotter, “Christians, Muslims, and Hindus: Religion and U.S.-South Asian Rela- tions, 1947– 1954,” Diplomatic History 24 (Fall 2000): 597–98, 606– 7, discusses the religious upbringing of Acheson and others, along with its impact on formative Cold War policies. 14. Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Fight for Germany,” Life, Oct. 21, 1946, 65– 66, 72; Reinhold Niebuhr, Christian Realism and Political Problems (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1953), 34; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Ten Fateful Years,” Christianity and Crisis 11 (Feb. 5, 1951): 2. 15. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Vital Center: The Politics of Freedom (Bos- ton: Houghton Mifflin, 1949), ix, 40, 152; “General Purposes,” ADA organizing conference, Mar. 29– 30, 1947, in RNP, B1; Joseph L. Rauh Jr., to RN, Apr. 5, 1957, in RNP, B1. See K. A. Cuardileone, Manhood and American Political Culture in the Cold War (New York: Routledge, 2005), 1– 36, on the gendered aspects of vital center political culture. 16. Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr, 235– 36; John Coleman Bennett, “The Russian- Communist Drive for Power,” Christianity and Crisis 6 (Nov. 25, 1946): 1– 2; Francis Pickens Miller, “America’s New Foreign Policy,” Christian- ity and Crisis 7 (Apr. 28, 1947): 3. 17. J. H. Oldham, quoted in Clements, Faith on the Frontier, 431; Samuel McCrea Cavert, to W. A. Visser ’t Hooft, Feb. 28, 1940, in WCCGC, n253– 54. 18. W. A. Visser ’t Hooft, quoted in Kirby, “Harry S. Truman’s International Religious Anti-Communist Front,” 55, 64; W. A. Visser ’t Hooft, to Notes for Chapter 6 219

Samuel McCrea Cavert, May 15, 1948, in WCCGC, n261. On tensions with the Russian Orthodox Church, see Edward Duff, The Social Thought of the World Council of Churches (New York: Association, 1956), 39–44. In his 1948 letter to Cavert, Visser ’t Hooft expressed concern that cooperation with Taylor could be used against them by both the Soviets and fundamentalists. In fact, fundamentalist leaders would use Hromadka’s leadership in the WCC as evidence that the ecumenical movement was a tool of communist subversion well into the 1950s. In addition to Kirby’s above- mentioned essay, see also Inboden, Religion and American For- eign Policy, 105–56, on these developments. The Dulles and Hromadka essays can be found in Man’s Disorder and God’s Design: The Amsterdam Assembly Series, ed. Henry Pitney Van Dusen, vol. 4 (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1948). 19. Lori Lynn Bogle, The Pentagon’s Battle for the American Mind: The Early Cold War (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2004); Arch- bishop of Canterbury, quoted in Dianne Kirby, “Christian Co-operation and the Ecumenical Ideal in the 1930s and 1940s,” European Review of History 8, no. 1 ( Jan. 2001): 58; Walter Lippmann, The Cold War: A Study in U.S. Foreign Policy (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1947), 44– 45; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Streaks of Dawn in the Night,” Christianity and Crisis 9 (Dec. 12, 1949): 162–64; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Our Position in Asia,” The New York Times, Dec. 23, 1950, 14; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Editorial Notes,” Christianity and Crisis 10 (Dec. 25, 1950): 170; John Coleman Bennett, “Typescript,” New York City, May, 13, 1965, 7, in JFD- OHP; Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Problem of Asiatic Communism,” Christianity and Crisis 10 (Aug. 7, 1950): 109–12; Reinhold Niebuhr, “American Policy from Asia,” British Weekly 129 (Apr. 5, 1951): 1–2. Martin Halliwell, The Constant Dialogue: Reinhold Niebuhr and Ameri- can Intellectual Culture (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005), 189–90, discusses Kennan’s shifting opinion of Niebuhr. On the rise of an anticommunist Wilsonianism out of step with Kennan and foreign policy realism, see Frank Ninkovich, Modernity and Power: A History of the Dom- ino Theory in the Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 133– 51. See also Mark G. Toulouse, The Transformation of John Foster Dulles: From Prophet of Realism to Priest of Nationalism (Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press, 1986). 20. Reinhold Niebuhr, “Positive Defense,” Christianity and Crisis 6 (Apr. 29, 1946): 1–2; “A Positive Program for Peace,” Christianity and Cri- sis 8 (May 10, 1948): 58–61; John Coleman Bennett, “Our Mistaken Approach to Communism,” Christianity and Crisis 8 (May 10, 1948): 57– 58; John Coleman Bennett, Christianity and Communism (New York: Association, 1948), 46, 99–127. On ecumenical contributions to the UN’s human rights agenda, see Nurser, For All Peoples and Nations. 21. Ekbladh, Great American Mission. See Alfred O. Hero Jr., American Religious Groups View Foreign Policy: Trends in Rank- and- File Opinion, 220 Notes

1937– 1969 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1973), on mainline perspectives regarding geopolitical issues. 22. Reinhold Niebuhr, The Irony of American History (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1952), 10. On the formation of the national security state and military-industrial complex, and their general social effects, see Gregory Hooks, Forging the Military-Industrial Complex: World War II’s Battle of the Potomac (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991); and Ann Markusen et al., The Rise of the Gunbelt: The Military Remapping of Industrial America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991). 23. John Coleman Bennett, “The Church as Prophetic Critic,” in The Chris- tian Century Reader, ed. Harold E. Fey and Margaret Frakes (New York: Association, 1960), 47–53; John Mackay, “The Perils of Victory,” Chris- tianity and Crisis 5 (1945): 1– 2; John Mackay, “The New Idolatry,” Theology Today 10 (1953): 382–83; John Mackay, “Christian Faith and the International Situation,” Theology Today 12 (1955): 1– 4. 24. Hugh T. Kerr, “John Mackay: An Appreciation,” in The Ecumenical Era in Church and Society: A Symposium in Honor of John A. Mackay, ed. Edward J. Jursi (New York: Macmillan, 1959), 15–16; Schlesinger, Vital Center, 101–2; John A. Mackay, “Comments on Communist-Front Organizations” (unpublished record, May 1954), in WCCGC, n924; G. Bromley Oxnam, I Protest: My Experience with the House Commit- tee on Un- American Activities (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954); Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr, 241–42, 255. On the Asian defections from the WCC, see Bock, In Search of a Responsible World Society, 41–43, 131–32, 136– 39. 25. Edward A. Kolodzieg, “The Cold War as Cooperation,” in The Cold War as Cooperation, ed. Roger E. Kanet and Edward A. Kolodzieg (Balti- more: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 24. On the global spread of Christianity during the twentieth century, see Phillip Jenkins, The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity (New York: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 2002). 26. H. Richard Niebuhr, “The Seminary in an Ecumenical Age,” Theology Today 17 (1960): 308–9; Kenneth Scott Latourette, Challenge and Con- formity (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1955), 120. 27. Adams, “What Kind of Religion Has a Place in Higher Education?” Jour- nal of the Bible and Religion, 184; “The Program of Christianity and Crisis,” Christianity and Crisis 8 (Feb. 16, 1948): 12– 13; John Coleman Bennett, “Implications of the New Conception of ‘Separation,’” Chris- tianity and Crisis 8 (July 5, 1948): 89–90; “Statement on Church and State,” Christianity and Crisis 8 (July 5, 1948): 90; Reinhold Niebuhr, “A Dissenting Opinion,” New Leader 45 (July 9, 1962): 3–4. Signers of the 1948 statement included, among others, Bennett, Calhoun, Horton, Miller, both Niebuhrs, and Van Dusen. On the Court’s ruling as a victory for secularists, see David Sikkink, “From Christian Civilization to Individual Liberties: Framing Religion in the Legal Field, 1880–1949,” Notes for Chapter 7 221

in The Secular Revolution: Power, Interests, and Conflict in the Seculariza- tion of American Public Life, ed. Christian Smith (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 310–54. On the link between interfaith conflict and secularization, see Schultz, Tri- Faith America. 28. Reinhold Niebuhr, “Christian Faith and Social Action,” in Christian Faith and Social Action, ed. John A. Hutchison (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1953), 226. 29. Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Religious Level of the World’s Crisis,” Christi- anity and Crisis 5 (Jan. 21, 1946): 4– 7. 30. Maritain, True Humanism, 250.

Chapter 7 1. George Florovsky, “The Church: Her Nature and Task,” in Van Dusen, Man’s Disorder and God’s Design, vol. 1, 55; John A. F. Gregg, “One Holy, Catholic, Apostolic Church,” in Van Dusen, Man’s Disorder and God’s Design, vol. 1, 59, 65–66; “The Gospel at Work in the World,” in Van Dusen, Man’s Disorder and God’s Design, vol. 2, 157–61; Walter Marshall Horton, “The Gospel in Its Relevance to the Present Time,” in Van Dusen, Man’s Disorder and God’s Design, vol. 2, 89– 91, 93– 95. 2. Paul Tillich, “The Disintegration of Society in Christian Countries,” in Van Dusen, Man’s Disorder and God’s Design, vol. 2, 61; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, “General Introduction,” in Van Dusen, Man’s Disorder and God’s Design, xv- xvi. 3. H. Richard Niebuhr, “The Disorder of Man in the Church of God,” in Van Dusen, Man’s Disorder and God’s Design, vol. 1, 78– 88. 4. Visser ’t Hooft, Memoirs, 205. 5. Daniel Bell, The End of Ideology: On the Exhaustion of Political Ideas in the Fifties (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1960), 21– 22, 36. 6. For a classic critical analysis of Cold War liberalism in the “tired radical” vein, see Mary Sperling McAuliffe, Crisis on the Left: Cold War Politics and American Liberals, 1947– 1954 (Amherst: University of Massachu- setts Press, 1978). For detractors of post–World War II Christian Real- ism, who present it (with varying degrees of nuance) as the religious wing of Cold War liberalism, see Gary J. Dorrien, Soul in Society: The Making and Renewal of Social Christianity (Minneapolis, Minn.: For- tress, 1995); Mark Hulsether, Building a Protestant Left: Christianity and Crisis Magazine, 1941–1993 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1999); and McCarraher, Christian Critics. 7. J. H. Oldham, “A Responsible Society,” in Van Dusen, Man’s Disorder and God’s Design, vol. 3, 122, 136; Reinhold Niebuhr, “God’s Design and the Present Disorder of Civilisation,” in Van Dusen, Man’s Disorder and God’s Design, vol. 3, 13–28; J. H. Oldham, “Technics and Civilisa- tion,” in Van Dusen, Man’s Disorder and God’s Design, vol. 3, 29– 49. Ellul’s work was originally published in French in 1948. 222 Notes

8. Reinhold Niebuhr, “Imperialism and Irresponsibility,” Christianity and Crisis 1 (Feb. 24, 1941), 6; Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation: My Years in the State Department (New York: W. W. Norton, 1969), 247. 9. G. Bromley Oxnam, “Political and Economic Power Must Accept a Responsibility Coextensive with that Power,” in, Dulles, Righteous Faith, 71; John A. Mackay, “The Churches Do Not, However, Have a Primary Responsibility to Devise the Details of World Order but They Must Pro- claim the Enduring Moral Principles by which Human Plans are Con- stantly to be Tested,” in, Dulles, Righteous Faith, 43. 10. Oldham, The Resurrection of Christendom, 29; “The Churches and the International Crisis,” Report of the WCC-in- Formation Conference, Geneva, 1939, reprinted in Nurser, For All Peoples and Nations, 183–85. 11. J. H. Oldham, to W. A. Visser ’t Hooft, Feb. 19, 1947, in WCCGC, n1072; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to W. A. Visser ’t Hooft, Mar. 24, 1947, in WCCGC, n1397; John Coleman Bennett, “The Responsible Society,” Congregational Quarterly 27 (Oct. 1949): 326; J. H. Oldham, to Henry Pitney Van Dusen, May 26, 1948, in WCCGC, n1072. On the IMC debate, see Bock, In Search of a Responsible World Society, 66– 67. 12. See, for instance, Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr: A Biography, 247. 13. “Report of Section III: The Church and the Disorder of Society,” in Van Dusen, Man’s Disorder and God’s Design, vol. 3, 190– 93; Oldham, “Responsible Society,” 128– 29. 14. “Christian Action Statement of Purpose,” Christianity and Crisis 11 (Oct. 1, 1951): 126– 27; Bennett, “Responsible Society,” 327. 15. David Roberts, The Totalitarian Experiment in Twentieth- Century Europe: Understanding the Poverty of Great Politics (New York: Rout- ledge, 2006), 427– 28, 475– 86; Oldham, “Responsible Society,” 126. 16. Andrew Ross, “Defenders of the Faith and the New Class,” in Intel- lectuals: Aesthetics, Politics, Academics, ed. Bruce Robbins (Minneapo- lis, Minn.: University of Minneapolis Press, 1990), 108–18; Bennett, “Responsible Society,” 327; Marquis W. Childs and Douglass Cater, Ethics in a Business Society (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954), 17; John Maurice Clark, “Aims of Economic Life as Seen by Economists,” in Goals of Economic Life, ed. A. Dudley Ward (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1953), 50; “The General Meetings,” in The First Assembly of the World Council of Churches: The Official Report, ed. W. A. Visser ’t Hooft (London: SCM, 1949), 37. 17. “Report of Section Three,” 192; “Discussion Questions: Political Impli- cations of a Responsible Society,” Jan. 13, 1951, in WCCP, B33, F226; “The Meaning of the Responsible Society for Political Life in America,” report of an American group, n.d., in WCCP, B33, F228; “The Respon- sible Society,” Study Department, WCCP, Geneva, n.d., 5–7, in HASP, B280, F9; Francis Pickens Miller, “The Responsible Society: Political Aspects,” Christianity and Crisis 13 (Dec. 14, 1953): 165– 68. Notes for Chapter 7 223

18. Robert S. Bilheimer, to H. Alexander Smith, June 5, 1951, and H. Alex- ander Smith, to Henry Pitney Van Dusen, Apr. 16, 1951, both in HASP, B280, F9. 19. Chandran Devanesan, “Post-Amsterdam Thought from a Younger Churchman,” Ecumenical Review 1 (Winter 1949): 146; Emil Brunner, “And Now?” in Van Dusen, Man’s Disorder and God’s Design, vol. 3, 177; Jacques Ellul, “The Situation in Europe,” in Van Dusen, Man’s Disorder and God’s Design, vol. 3, 58– 59. See Daniel Bell, The Liberal State on Trial: The Cold War and American Politics in the Truman Years (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004). For criticisms of WCC social thought at Amsterdam and after, see Duff, The Social Thought, 14, 185– 86. 20. John Coleman Bennett, “Christian Ethics in Economic Life,” in Chris- tian Values and the Economic Life, ed. John Coleman Bennett (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954), 213; Bennett, “Responsible Soci- ety,” 324; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Plutocracy and World Responsibilities,” Christianity and Society 14 (Fall 1949): 7–8; Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Anomaly of European Socialism,” Yale Review 42 (Dec. 1952): 166– 67. 21. Oldham, “Responsible Society,” 146; Bennett, “Responsible Society,” 324– 25; Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Victory of British Labor,” Christianity and Society 10 (Fall 1945): 7–9; Reinhold Niebuhr, “American Liberals and British Labor,” Nation 162 (June 8, 1946): 682–84; John Coleman Bennett, “Christianity as a Basis for Democracy,” University Observer (Spring– Summer 1947), in PP, B14; John Coleman Bennett, to Charles T. White, circa 1948, in PP, B22; “The World Social Revolution,” in The Christian Hope and the Task of the Church, eds. Henry Pitney Van Dusen and Nils Ehrenstrom (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954), vol. 3, 7– 8; John Coleman Bennett, Christian Ethics and Social Policy (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1946), 76–88. See Duff, Social Thought, 192– 93, for Bennett’s press statement on England. See also Jane Lewis and Rebecca Surender, eds., Welfare State Change: Towards a Third Way? (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004). 22. Liston Pope, quoted in Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr, 248; Robert Morrison MacIver, “Government and the Goals of Economic Activity,” in Ward, Goals of Economic Life, 201; Bennett, “Christian Ethics in Economic Life,” 246–53; John Coleman Bennett, “A Theological Conception of Goals for Economic Life,” in Ward, Goals of Economic Life, 424. See Mattson, When America Was Great, 140–72, on the differences between “quantitative” and “qualitative” liberals. Mattson reserves the latter category for Niebuhr and Schlesinger, among others. 23. Childs and Cater, Ethics in a Business Society, 110–11, 179; Edward Hei- mann, “Comparative Economic Systems,” in Ward, Goals of Economic Life, 118–47; Kenneth E. Boulding, The Organizational Revolution: A Study in the Ethics of Economic Organization (New York: Harper and 224 Notes

Brothers, 1953), 60, 81–82; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Coercion, Self-Interest, and Love,” in Boulding, Organizational Revolution, 228– 44. 24. Duff, Social Thought, 221– 22; Howard R. Bowen, Social Responsibilities of the Businessman (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1953), 44–68, 69; G. Bromley Oxnam, “The Christian Challenge,” in Bennett, Christian Values in the Economic Life, 3; Paul Tillich, “The Idea of a Theology of Business” ( addresses, Harvard Business School, Nov. 13, 1956, Feb. 16, 1959, in PTP, B544, F23; Paul Tillich, “Religion and Higher Educa- tion” (Danforth Lectures, Ball State Teachers’ College, Feb. 2, 1959), 9– 10, in PTP, B403, F8; Boulding, Organizational Revolution, 218. 25. J. H. Oldham, Work in Modern Society (London: SCM, 1950), 12; Bowen, Social Responsibilities, 41, 140, 164–83, 204–6; Childs and Cater, Ethics in a Business Society, 163–66; F. Ernest Johnson, “Com- mentary on the Ethical Implications of the Study,” in Bowen, Social Responsibilities, 257– 58. 26. Oldham, Work in Modern Society, 7, 38; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, “The Problem of Work and Vocation in the Modern World” (paper presented before the Theological Discussion Group, Mar. 1952, 11–13), in TDGP, B4, F42. 27. Oldham, “Responsible Society,” 128– 33; Alexander Miller, “Towards a Contemporary Doctrine of Vocation,” in Hutchison, Christian Faith and Social Action, 135– 36; “Biblical and Theological Considerations,” in Van Dusen and Ehrenstrom, Christian Hope, vol. 6, 4– 16, 26– 27. 28. Reinhold Niebuhr, to Paul Brinkman, June 24, 1955, in RNP, B2, Fm; Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Christian Life and an Economy of Abundance,” Union Seminary Quarterly Review 11 (Jan. 1956), 27–28, 30; Elizabeth E. Hoyt, American Income and Its Use (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954), 37; James Luther Adams, “The Place of Discipline in Christian Ethics” (paper presented before the Theological Discussion Group, Mar. 8– 10, 1952), 9, in FPMP, B17. For a brief introduction to the Frankfurt School, see Tom Bottomore, The Frankfurt School and Its Critics (New York: Routledge, 2002). The Lasch-Realist relationship will be considered in Chapter 9. 29. Walter Marshall Horton, “Theological Criteria Bearing on Private Devo- tional Life” (paper presented before the Theological Discussion Group, 1957), 2–3, in TDGP, B1, F13; Douglas Van Steere, “Protestant Piety Today” (paper presented before the Theological Discussion Group, 1949), 12, 16, in TDGP, B3, F36; Douglas Van Steere, On Beginning from Within (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1943), 5, 66, 69–70, 135; Georgia Harkness, Prayer and the Common Life (New York: Abingdon- Cokesbury, 1948), 25– 96, 203– 16; Hoyt, American Income, 44– 64. 30. Francis Pickens Miller, “The Specific Task of the Christian Layman in Society” (address to the WCC at Evanston, Ind., Aug. 21, 1954), 11, in FPMP, B27. Notes for Chapter 7 225

31. Walter Marshall Horton, “The New Reformation,” Current Religious Thought 7 (Jan. 1947): 1–6; Walter Marshall Horton, Centers of New Life in European Christendom (New York: World Council of Churches, circa 1948), 4, 23; Paul A. Hutchinson, “Editorial: The Iona Idea” (Sept. 11, 1946), in Fey and Frakes The Christian Century Reader, 43– 44; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Editorial Correspondence,” Christianity and Crisis 7 (Apr. 28, 1947): 6. Besides Horton’s study, see the EI pamphlet, Pro- fessional Life as Christian Vocation: A Report on Laymen’s Institutes and Groups, 1947– 1948 (Geneva: Oikumene, 1948), for a good overview of lay institute history in Western Europe. 32. Paul Tillich, “The Problem of Theological Method,” Journal of Religion 27 (Jan. 1947): 19; Horton, “New Reformation,” 5–6; Walter Marshall Horton, Annual Reports to President, Graduate School of Theology, 1944– 1945, 7, in WMHP, B5; John A. Hutchison, “Two Decades of Social Christianity,” in Hutchison, Christian Faith and Social Action, 5; Van Dusen, “Problem of Work and Vocation,” 2; “What Does All this Mean for the Church as an Organized Body?” in Van Dusen and Ehren- strom, Christian Hope, vol. 6, 39– 48; Kenneth Scott Latourette, The Prospect for Christianity (London: Religious Book Club, 1950), 30. See Etan Diamond, Souls of the City: Religion and the Search for Community in Postwar America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003). 33. Robert L. Calhoun, God and a Day’s Work: Christian Vocation in an Unchristian World (New York: Association, 1957), 14, 57. 34. W. A. Visser ’t Hooft, quoted in Ernest W. Lefever, Amsterdam to Nai- robi: The World Council of Churches and the Third World (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Ethics and Public Policy Center, 1979), 15; Susanne Hoeber Rudolph, “Introduction: Religion, States, and Trans- national Civil Society,” in Transnational Religion and Fading States, ed. Susanne Hoeber Rudolph and James Piscatori (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1997), 9– 12. 35. “Christians in the Struggle for World Community,” in Van Dusen and Ehrenstron, Christian Hope, vol. 4, 9–10, 15–16, 21–24, 46; Kenneth G. Grubb, “Chairman’s Introduction,” in Van Dusen, Man’s Disorder and God’s Design, vol. 4, 13–18; Roswell P. Barnes and Kenneth G. Grubb, “The Churches’ Approach to International Affairs,” in Van Dusen, Man’s Disorder and God’s Design, vol. 4, 19– 46; O. Frederick Nolde, “Freedom of Religion and Related Human Rights,” in Van Dusen, Man’s Disorder and God’s Design, vol. 4, 143– 89. See the Report of the Central Com- mittee, WCC, The First Six Years, 1948– 1954 (Geneva: WCC, 1954), 72– 78, on refugee work. 36. John Coleman Bennett, to Henry Pitney Van Dusen, Jan. 10, 1948, in JFDP, B39; John Foster Dulles, to James F. Byrnes, Mar. 13, 1946, in JFDP, B29; Samuel McCrea Cavert, “Transcript,” New York City, July 29, 1965, 30– 31, in JFD- OHP; Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Case for 226 Notes

Co- Existence,” New Leader 37 (Oct. 4, 1954): 5– 6; Duff, Social Thought, 263. 37. John Coleman Bennett, “Transcript,” New York City, May 13, 1965, in JFD- OHP; Childs and Cater, Ethics in a Business Society, 128; O. Fred- erick Nolde, “Transcript,” New York City, June 2, 1965, 31–32, 37, in JFD-OHP. For the WCC’s commitment to halting nuclear prolifera- tion, see Darril Hudson, The World Council of Churches in International Affairs (Leighton: Faith Press, 1977), 219– 60. 38. John Foster Dulles, to Harry Truman, Mar. 14, 1949, in JFDP, B43; “Christian Principles for a Program of Technical Assistance,” FCC Exec- utive Committee Order, n.d., in WCCR, n6; Hudson, World Council of Churches, 168; William Adams Brown Jr., “Some International Implica- tions of Christian Economic Ethics,” in Bennett, Christian Values and the Economic Life, 97– 98, 116, 159–60, 165– 78. 39. Visser ’t Hooft, quoted in Hudson, World Council of Churches, 282; Newbigin, Unfinished Agenda, 117, 126; Bennett, “Theological Con- ception of Goals for Economic Life,” 409; Duff, Social Thought, 50–58; Douglas Horton, “Looking Back at Lucknow,” Christianity and Crisis 13 (Mar. 30, 1953): 35– 37; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to Presbyterian Mission, Jan. 9, 1953, in PP, B18; M. M. Thomas, “The Situation in Asia— II,” in Van Dusen, Man’s Disorder and God’s Design, 78; John Coleman Bennett, “The Church Between East and West,” in Hutchison, Christian Faith and Social Action, 75– 90. 40. “Christians in the Struggle for World Community,” 31; Bock, In Search of a Responsible World Society; “Minutes and Reports of the Eight Meet- ing of the Central Committee,” WCCR Report, Davos, Switzerland, Aug. 2–8, 1955, in WCCR, B50. The most complete source on ecumenical involvement in development remains Hudson, World Council of Churches, 145– 218. See also, though, David P. Gaines, The World Coun- cil of Churches (Peterborough, N.H.: Richard R. Smith, 1966), 734–52. 41. On New Delhi, see Gaines, World Council of Churches, 1,009– 94. 42. “The Church Amid Racial and Ethnic Tensions,” in Van Dusen and Ehrenstrom, Christian Hope, vol. 5, 1– 54; Hulsether, Building a Protes- tant Left, xvi–ii, 42, 49–59; Bock, In Search of a Responsible World Soci- ety, 44– 45; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, “A First Glimpse at South Africa,” Christianity and Crisis 13 (Feb. 16, 1953): 12. 43. Hudson, World Council of Churches, 71– 72, 75; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, “Travel Letter IV,” Jan. 26, 1962, in PP, B18; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to UTS Board of Directors, Apr. 4, 1966, in PP, B49. On Nkrumah’s address, see Roswell P. Barnes, “Factors in World Strategy for U.S. Churches” (address, US Conference of the World Council of Churches, Buck Hill Falls, Pa., circa 1959), 4, in FPMP, B20. For an unsympathetic account of the WCC’s support for African guerillas, see Lefever, Amsterdam to Nairobi, 31– 40. Notes for Chapter 8 227

44. The NAM was officially formed in 1961; it has over one hundred members today. See, for basic information, Guy Arnold, Historical Diction- ary of the Non- Aligned Movement and the Third World (Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow, 2006). On the pan-African anticolonial roots of NAM, see Von Eschen, Race against Empire, especially 167– 84. 45. H. Richard Niebuhr, “The Responsibility of the Church for Society,” in Latourette, The Gospel, the Church, and the World, 129–32; Niebuhr, “The Gift of the Catholic Vision,” 521; H. Richard Niebuhr “The Hid- den Church and the Churches of Sight,” Religion in Life 15 (1945): 109; Stephen W. Martin, Faith Negotiating Loyalties: Exploring South African Christianity through a Reading of the Theology of H. Richard Niebuhr (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2006). 46. Adlai Stevenson, “The Survival of Free Society,” in Cowan, Witness to a Generation, 261; Francis Pickens Miller, to Adlai Stevenson, July 23, 1953, in Adlai Stevenson Papers, Public Policy Papers, Mudd Library, Princeton University (hereafter ASP), B57, F6; Reinhold Niebuhr, to Adlai Stevenson, Dec. 18, 1946, and Reinhold Niebuhr, to Adlai Ste- venson, Mar. 24, 1952, and Reinhold Niebuhr, to Adlai Stevenson, Oct. 31, 1956, and Reinhold Niebuhr, to Adlai Stevenson, Nov. 9, 1956, and Adlai Stevenson, to Reinhold Niebuhr, Jan. 10, 1957, all in ASP, B60, F9; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, to Adlai Stevenson, Dec. 7, 1940, and Henry Pitney Van Dusen to Adlai Stevenson, Dec. 6, 1963, both in ASP, B84, F6. See John M. Murphy, “Civic Republicanism in the Modern Age: Adlai Stevenson in the 1952 Presidential Campaign,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 80 (1994): 313– 28. 47. Adlai Stevenson, quoted in Viereck, Conservativism Revisited, 155. 48. “Report of Section Three,” 193.

Chapter 8 1. The new conservativism was first identified in America around the time of World War II. It was quickly supplanted by the “New Right” name during the 1960s and, more problematically, by “neoconservativism” during the 1970s and after. There is important historiographical value in separating the “new conservativism” from the “New Right,” especially as the latter has become exclusively identified with Ronald Reagan’s populist- libertarianism Republicanism. 2. I am most concerned here with ongoing tensions between libertarians, traditionalists, and anticommunists, particularly as they help contextual- ize Christian Realism. On the new conservativism, see especially Nash, The Conservative Intellectual Movement; Himmelstein, To the Right, who employs Nash’s traditionalist-libertarian- anticommunist framework; and Mattson, Rebels All!. See also Darren Dochuk’s insightful review essay, “Revival on the Right: Making Sense of the Conservative Moment 228 Notes

in Post-World War II American History,” History Compass 4 (2006): 975– 99. 3. Russell Kirk, “A Dispassionate Assessment of Libertarians (1993),” in Freedom and Virtue: The Conservative/Libertarian Debate, 2nd ed., ed. George W. Carey (Wilmington, Del.: ISI, 2004), 172– 86. The Carey volume is an excellent resource for exploring the ongoing tensions between traditionalist and libertarian conservatives. On Ropke’s thought and influence on conservatives, including Kirk, see Ralph Ancil, “The Third Way: Wilhelm Ropke’s Vision of Social Order,” The Intercollegiate Review (The Orientation Issue, 2008): 32– 43. 4. Kirk, “Dispassionate Assessment,” 183,186.For a critical look at neoliberalism, see David Harvey, A Brief History of Neoliberalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007). 5. Kirk, “Dispassionate Assessment,” 175, 186. 6. Viereck, “But— I’m a Conservative!,” 537–43; Viereck, Conservativ- ism Revisited, 21, 32, 34, 42, 97. The 1962 edition of Viereck’s book included his critique of postwar conservativism, entitled “Book II: The New Conservativism—What Went Wrong?” On Viereck’s life, see Tom Reiss, “The First Conservative: How Peter Viereck Inspired— and Lost—a Movement,” The New Yorker, Oct. 24, 2005, accessed Oct. 10, 2008, http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2005/10/24/ 051024fa_fact1?printable=true. 7. Viereck, Conservativism Revisited, 47; Rossiter, Conservativism in Amer- ica, 254; Will Herberg, “Government by Rabble- Rousing,” New Leader 37 (Jan. 18, 1954): 15– 16; Will Herberg, “Reinhold Niebuhr: Burkean Conservative,” National Review 11 (Dec. 2, 1961): 379, 394. 8. John Coleman Bennett, “Reinhold Niebuhr’s Social Ethics,” in Rein- hold Niebuhr: His Religious, Social and Political Thought, 2nd ed., ed. Charles W. Kegley (New York: Pilgrim, 1984), 129–30; Eduard Hei- mann, “Niebuhr’s Pragmatic Conservativism,” Union Seminary Quar- terly Review 11 (May 1956): 7– 11; Niebuhr, The Irony of American History, 89. The most sustained attempt to link Niebuhr and Burke has been undertaken by Vigen Guroian. See his articles, “The Possibilities and Limits of Politics: A Comparative Study of the Thought of Rein- hold Niebuhr and Edmund Burke,” Union Seminary Quarterly Review 36 (Summer 1981): 189–203; and Vigen Guroian, “The Conservativism of Reinhold Niebuhr: The Burkean Connection,” Modern Age 29 (Sum- mer 1985): 224–32. For criticism of Guroian’s efforts by an apologist for the “liberal” Niebuhr, see Ronald H. Stone, Professor Reinhold Niebuhr: A Mentor to the Twentieth Century (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox, 1992), 166– 69. 9. Reinhold Niebuhr, The Structure of Nations and Empires (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1959), 93;Reinhold Niebuhr, “Liberalism and Conservativism,” Christianity and Society 20 (Winter 1954– 55): 3–4; Niebuhr, Christian Realism and Political Problems, 67, 72. Niebuhr’s Notes for Chapter 8 229

lament for an American conservative party is from anonymous, conversa- tion with author, July 9, 2007 (notes in author’s possession). 10. Niebuhr, Christian Realism and Political Problems, 55; Viereck, Con- servativism Revisited, 124, 139; M. Morton Auerbach, “Do-It- Yourself Conservativism?” in Carey Freedom and Virtue, 3– 5. 11. Burns, “Liberalism and the Conservative Imagination,” 58– 72. 12. Francis Pickens Miller, “Be Not Conformed” (unspecified address, circa 1950s), in FPMP, B12; Russell Kirk, The Conservative Mind: From Burke to Eliot, 6th ed. (South Bend, Ind.: Gateway, 1978), 4, 10, 197, 390– 92. 13. Richard M. Weaver, Ideas Have Consequences (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), vi, 30–32, 35, 85, 91, 113–28. Niebuhr’s endorsement of Ideas, as well as Tillich’s, first appeared on the 1959 University of Chicago edition dusk jacket. 14. Kirk, Conservative Mind, 420–27; Paul Tillich, The Courage to Be (New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, 1952), 92–112; Weaver, Ideas Have Consequences, 1; Robert Nisbet, The Quest for Community: A Study in the Ethics of Order and Freedom (San Francisco: ICS, 1990), xxxiii, 21, 42– 43, 85–88, 90, 169, 177, 187; Reinhold Niebuhr, to Robert Nisbet, Jan. 11, 1954, in Robert Nisbet Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, B2. Nisbet evidently turned the letter over to his publisher, as Niebuhr’s endorsement was reproduced on the dust jacket in later editions. On Nisbet’s influence on Evanston, see Duff, Social Thought, 126– 27. 15. Weaver, Ideas, v, 3, 129– 30; L. Brent Bozell, “Freedom or Virtue? (1962),” reprinted in Carey, Freedom and Virtue, 31; Walter Lippmann, Essays in the Public Philosophy (Boston: Little, Brown, 1955), 96, 123– 24; Kirk, Conservative Mind, 7–8, 26–29; Leo Strauss, Natural Right and History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953), 86, 303. On Bozell and Catholic contributions to postwar conservativism, see Allitt, Catholic Intellectuals and Conservative Politics in America, 1950– 1985. On Kirk’s shift to natural law, see Paul Edward Gottfried, Conservativism in America: Making Sense of the American Right (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 3, 15–16. For Niebuhr’s commen- dation of Lippmann’s notion of a “public philosophy,” yet dislike of Lippmann’s book, see Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Democratic Elite and American Foreign Policy,” in Walter Lippmann and His Times, ed. Marquis Childs and James Reston (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1959), 170– 71. 16. Viereck, Conservativism Revisited, 34–35; Leo Strauss, “What Is Lib- eral Education?” in An Introduction to Political Philosophy: Ten Essays by Leo Strauss, ed. Hilail Gildin (Detroit, Mich.: Wayne State Univer- sity Press, 1989), 314–15; Van Dusen, God in Education, 17, 46, 60, 82, 89–95; H. Richard Niebuhr, “Theology—Not Queen But Servant,” Journal of Religion 35 (1955): 4– 5; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Orientation of the Social Sciences to Citizenship” (address, Maxwell Graduate School 230 Notes

of Citizenship and Public Affairs, Syracuse University, May 11, 1947) in RNP, B56. 17. Weaver, Ideas s, 41, 49; Kirk, Conservative Mind, 83–85; Niebuhr, “Lib- eralism and Conservativism,” 3; Niebuhr, “Democratic Elite and Ameri- can Foreign Policy,” 173. 18. Weaver, Ideas, 134, 146; Viereck, Conservativism Revisited, 39; Kirk, Conservative Mind, 401, 412– 13, 426– 27; Nisbet, Quest for Commu- nity, xxii, xxvii, 73– 77, 244– 46. Nisbet’s endorsement of “competition among authorities” appeared in his 1970 preface. 19. Regina Scott Wieman, The Modern Family and the Church (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1937), 312–13; Walter Muelder, “The Christian Message on the Cooperation of Men and Women in Church and Soci- ety” (lecture, Lake Forest, Ill., Aug. 11–14, 1954), 26, in FPMP, B21; “The Christian Approach to Women’s Questions,” WCC report, Geneva, 1958, in FPMP, B21; Visser ’t Hooft, First Assembly, 71; “Compendium of Statements,” report on “Responsible Parenthood and the Population Problem,” Geneva/New York, 1960, in FPMP, B20. 20. Tillich, “The Disintegration of Society in Christian Countries,”, vol. 2, 57; Viereck, Conservativism Revisited, 33; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Kin- sey and the Moral Problems of Man’s Sexual Life,” in An Analysis of the Kinsey Reports on Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and Female (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1954), original manuscript in RNP, B16; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Sex and Religion in the Kinsey Report,” Christi- anity and Crisis 13 (Nov. 2, 1953): 138– 41; Reinhold Niebuhr, The Self and the Dramas of History (London: Faber and Faber, 1956), 1, 163; Weaver, Ideas, 176. 21. “Report of Section Three,” 192. 22. William F. Buckley Jr., God and Man at Yale (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1951), 45– 46, 79; William F. Buckley Jr., Up From Liberalism (New York: McDowell Obolenskys, 1959), 123–24, 141, 149. See Nash, Conservative Intellectual Movement in America, 3–35, on libertarian conservativism. 23. Paul Hutchinson, The New Leviathan (Chicago: Willett, Clark, 1946); John Coleman Bennett, “Whither Demos?” Christianity and Crisis 12 (Jan. 5, 1953): 177–78; Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Republican Victory,” Christianity and Crisis 12 (Nov. 24, 1952): 153– 54; Niebuhr, The Irony of American History, 93; John Coleman Bennett, Christians and the State (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1958), 75– 95. Many of Ben- nett’s sources on the need to limit state power were European democratic socialists. 24. Weaver, Ideas 132– 34; Kirk, Conservative Mind, 412– 13, 426; Nisbet, xxxi, 207, 213– 15, 242–43, 264n7. 25. Viereck, “But— I’m a Conservative!”; Viereck, Conservativism Revisited, 37– 42, 126–27, 132–34, 135–38, 140–44 (the Stevenson quotation Notes for Chapter 8 231

can be found on page 155); Reckitt and Casserly, Vocation in England, 17– 19. 26. James Burnham, The Struggle for the World (New York: John Day, 1947), 182– 84; William F. Buckley Jr., “The Party and the Deep Blue Sea,” Commonweal 55 (Jan. 25, 1952): 392– 93; Robert Nisbet, “Uneasy Cousins,” in Carey, Freedom and Virtue, 52. On Burnham and early new conservative foreign policy, see Nash, Conservative Intellectual Move- ment, 88– 97. 27. John Coleman Bennett, “Mr. Dulles’s Proposals,” Christianity and Cri- sis 12 (June 9, 1952): 73–74; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Frustrations of Ameri- can Power,” New Leader 37 (Nov. 29, 1954): 8. 28. Michael Kazin, The Populist Persuasion: An American History, 2nd ed. (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998); Mattson, Rebels All!, 7– 8, 31– 48; Buckley, Up From Liberalism, 100, 149; William F. Buckley Jr. and L. Brent Bozell, McCarthy and His Enemies (Chicago: Henry Reg- nery, 1954), 308; Viereck, Conservativism Revisited, 17, 139; Russell Kirk, A Program for Conservatives (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1954), 8. For Viereck’s comments on McCarthy, see Reiss, “First Conservative.” Mattson stresses similarities between the young right and left during and after the 1960s (62– 96). In doing so, he draws heavily upon John A. Andrew III, The Other Side of the Sixties: Young Americans for Freedom and the Rise of Conservative Politics (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers Uni- versity Press, 1997). 29. John Coleman Bennett, “The Goldwater Nomination,” Christianity and Crisis 24 (Aug. 3, 1964): 157– 58; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Triumph of Primitivism,” New Leader 47 (Aug. 17, 1964): 5– 6; Buckley, God and Man at Yale, 107. 30. Richard Hofstadter, “The Pseudo-Conservative Revolt—1955,” in The Radical Right, 2nd ed., ed. Daniel Bell (Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries, 1971), 78– 79. On Bell’s book and the Hofstadter quotation, see Kazin, Populist Persuasion, 190– 93. 31. Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Supreme Court on Segregation in the Schools,” Christianity and Crisis 14 (June 14, 1954): 75– 77. On the views of new conservatives toward civil rights, see Mattson, Rebels All!, 48–56; and Nash, Conservative Intellectual Movement, 200, 202–3, 215– 16, 242– 43, 277– 82. 32. Francis Pickens Miller, “The Campaigner’s Dilemma” (address, Institute for Religious and Social Studies, New York City, Jan. 24, 1956), in FPMP, B10; Francis Pickens Miller, “Massive Resistance in Virginia,” Christian- ity and Crisis 17 (Dec. 9, 1957): 163–64; Francis Pickens Miller, “Race Relations are Human Relations,” World Call (Nov. 20, 1959), in FPMP, B10. Francis Pickens Miller, “Christian Faith and Human Relations” (address, Scarritt College, Nashville, Apr. 24, 1957), in FPMP, B16. 33. Francis Pickens Miller (address, 10th Annual Convention of the National Civil Liberties Clearing House, Washington DC, Mar. 7, 1958); Francis 232 Notes

Pickens Miller, review of The Racial Problem in Christian Perspective, by Kyle Haselden, in FPMP, B5. Details on the SRC and Miller’s involvement can be found in the FPMP, B104. See also, on these years and events, Miller, Man from the Valley, 166– 209, 224–31. 34. Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Negro Dilemma,” New Leader 43 (Apr. 11, 1960): 13– 14; Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Civil Rights Bill,” New Leader 40 (Sept. 16, 1957): 9–10. On the backlash against civil rights, see especially Kevin Kruse, White Flight: Atlanta and the Making of Mod- ern Conservativism (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2007); Matthew D. Lassiter, The Silent Majority: Suburban Politics in the Sunbelt South (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2007); and Dochuk, “Revival on the Right.” 35. Reinhold Niebuhr, “The King’s Chapel and the King’s Court,” Chris- tianity and Crisis 29 (Aug. 4, 1969): 211–13; John Coleman Bennett, “Ecumenical Theology: Comments on Professor Pauck’s Paper,” Jour- nal of Religion 25 (Oct. 1945): 274– 75. See Joel A. Carpenter, Revive Us Again: The Reawakening of American Fundamentalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997); and Jon R. Stone, On the Boundaries of American Evangelicalism: The Postwar Evangelical Coalition (New York: St. Martin’s, 1997). 36. Harold John Ockenga, “Can Fundamentalism Win America?” Christian Life and Times (June 1947): 13– 15; Carl F. H. Henry, “The Vigor of the New Evangelicalism (pt. 1),” Christian Life and Times (Jan. 1948): 31– 33, 36– 38, 85; F. H. Henry, “The Vigor of the New Evangelicalism (pt. 3),” Christian Life and Times (Apr. 1948): 32– 35, 65– 69. The “super- church” charge surfaced again and again in new evangelical literature discussing mainline ecumenists. See also Carpenter, Revive Us Again, 141– 60, on the formation of the NAE. He stresses new evangelicals’ desire for respectability (see 240– 42). 37. Gordon H. Clark, “Foreword,” in Carl F. H. Henry, Remaking the Mod- ern Mind (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1946), 13; Rudolph Nelson, The Making and Unmaking of an Evangelical Mind: The Case of Edward Carnell (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 24–27, 52– 58; Edward John Carnell, quoted in Carl F. H. Henry, Confessions of a Theologian: An Autobiography (Waco, Tex.: Word, 1986), 137. 38. James DeForest Murch, Cooperation without Compromise: A His- tory of the National Association of Evangelicals (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1956), 213; Henry, Confessions, 107, 111, 120, 122. On Fuller and this group of young Christian scholars, see George Mars- den, Reforming Fundamentalism: Fuller Seminary and the New Evan- gelicalism (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1987). 39. Henry, Remaking, 34, 36, 40, 47–48, 55, 58, 64, 69, 72, 163, 200, 206; Henry, Confessions, 66, 91– 92, 120– 22, 132– 38, 179, 211–43; Edward John Carnell, to Reinhold Niebuhr, Jan. 18, 1951, and Edward John Carnell, to Reinhold Niebuhr, Nov. 11, 1955, both in RNP, B3, Notes for Chapter 8 233

F(m); Edward John Carnell, The Theology of Reinhold Niebuhr (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1950), preface. On Graham’s claim concerning Niebuhr, see Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 100. See also Gary J. Dorrien, The Remaking of Evangelical Theology (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox, 1998), who sees Carnell and others as marking the beginning of a “generous orthodoxy” among theological conservatives that has much in common with present-day theological liberalism. 40. John Coleman Bennett, “Church Unity and the Small Community,” Commonwealth Review 22 (May 1940): 32–37; Harvey McArthur, “Lib- eral Concessions to Fundamentalism,” Religion in Life 14 (Fall 1945): 535, 544; Walter Marshall Horton, Toward a Reborn Church: A Review and Forecast of the Ecumenical Movement (New York: Harper and Broth- ers, 1949), 29– 31, 89; Charles Clayton Morrison, The Unfinished Ref- ormation (New York: Harper and Row, 1953), xiii. See Edward John Carnell, “Niebuhr’s Criteria of Verification,” in Charles W. Kegley, ed., Reinhold Niebuhr: His Religious, Social and Political Thought, 2nd ed. (New York: Pilgrim, 1984). 41. Torrey Johnson and Robert Cook, Reaching Youth for Christ (Chicago: Moody Press, 1944), 17, 22–23, 33, 44–49. On Youth for Christ, see Carpenter, Revive Us Again, 161– 76. 42. Carl F. H. Henry, The Uneasy Conscience of Modern Fundamentalism (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1947), 25; Billy Graham, “What Ten Years Have Taught Me,” Christian Century 77 (Feb. 17, 1960): 187; John Ray Evers, “Youth for Christ Meets Pittsburg,” Chris- tian Century 63 (Oct. 10, 1945): 1,171–72. See also Thomas C. Berg, “‘Proclaiming Together’? Convergence and Divergence in Mainline and Evangelical Evangelism, 1945–1967,” Religion and American Culture 5 (1995): 49– 76; and Mark Silk, Spiritual Politics: Religion and America since World War II (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988). 43. “Evangelism— The Primary Task,” Federal Council Bulletin 29 (Dec. 1946): 8– 9; “Announcing the National Christian Mission,” Federal Council Bulletin 23 (Jan. 1940): 6; “Visitation Evangelism,” Federal Council Bulletin 26 (Feb. 1943): 10; “Preparing for Lay Evangelism,” Federal Council Bulletin 28 (Nov. 1945): 6; Dawson C. Bryan, A Work- able Plan of Evangelism (New York: Abingdon- Cokesbury Press, 1945), 16, 24–41, 59, 127–28, 141, 148–49; John Coleman Bennett, to Nor- man Vincent Peale, Jan. 5, 1962, in JCBP. 44. John A. Mackay, quoted in Berg, “‘Proclaiming Together,’” 54; Henry Pitney Van Dusen, “After Amsterdam” (address, Duke University, June 11, 1948), in HPVDP, Biii; Reinhold Niebuhr, “Literalism, Individual- ism, and Billy Graham,” Christian Century 73 (May 23, 1956): 640– 42; John Coleman Bennett, to D. Robinson, June 27, 1955, in JCBP, BII, F3; Sherwood Eddy, “Let Us Pray for Billy Graham and Norman Vincent Peale,” circular letter, n.d., in RNP, B5; John A. Mackay, to 234 Notes

Reinhold Niebuhr, Sept. 14, 1956, in RNP, B8, F(m); Henry Pitney Van Dusen, “Billy Graham,” Christianity and Crisis 16 (Apr. 2, 1956): 40. 45. Reinhold Niebuhr, “Proposal to Billy Graham,” Christian Century 73 (Aug. 8, 1956): 921–22; John Pollock, Billy Graham, Evangelist to the World (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1979), 157; Martin Luther King Jr., “Pilgrimage to Nonviolence,” Christian Century 77 (Apr. 13, 1960): 439– 41. King also lists Tillich, upon whom he wrote his thesis while at Boston, as a significant influence. On the intersection of Niebuhr, Graham, and King, see David L. Chappell, A Stone of Hope: Religion and the Death of Jim Crow (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004). See James F. Findlay Jr., Church People in the Struggle: The National Council of Churches and the Black Freedom Movement, 1950– 1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 36–37, on the general influence of Niebuhr’s ideas on the number of white activists from UTS and elsewhere who involved themselves in civil rights agita- tion. See also, on all these issues, Steven P. Miller, Billy Graham and the Rise of the Republican South (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009). 46. Norman Vincent Peale, to John Coleman Bennett, Jan. 9, 1962, in JCBP. See Andrew Finstuen, Original Sin and Everyday Protestants: The Theology of Reinhold Niebuhr, Billy Graham, and Paul Tillich in an Age of Anxiety (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009); and Jason W. Stevens, God-Fearing and Free: A Spiritual History of America’s Cold War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2010). 47. Harold John Ockenga, “Introduction,” in Henry, Uneasy Conscience, 13; Murch, Cooperation without Compromise, 140– 66; Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Impact of Protestantism Today,” Atlantic Monthly 181 (Feb. 1948): 59; Gordon H. Clark, A Christian View of Men and Things (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1951), 133; Harold John Ockenga, “The Unvoiced Multitudes (1942),” reprinted in A New Evangelical Coalition: Early Documents of the National Association of Evangelicals, ed. Joel A. Carpenter (New York: Garland, 1988), 19, 29; Harold John Ockenga, “What is Liberalism?” quoted in Murch, Cooperation without Compromise, 22; Henry, Remaking, 297; Henry, Uneasy Conscience, 72, 84–85; John Coleman Bennett, “Focus for Christian Action,” Christianity and Society 8 (Apr. 1953): 18; Fran- cis Pickens Miller, “American Corruptions of the Meaning of Being a Christian” (paper presented before the Theological Discussion Group, March 1954), 7–8, in FPMP, B17. See Darren Dochuk, From Bible Belt to Sun Belt: Plain-Folk Religion, Grassroots Politics, and the Rise of Evangelical Conservativism (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), on evangelical populism. 48. Angela M. Lahr, Millennial Dreams and Apocalyptic Nightmares: The Cold War Origins of Political Evangelicalism (New York: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 2007), 12, 54– 55, 113; Harold John Ockenga, “Christ Notes for Chapter 8 235

for America” (presidential address, NAE, May 4), 1943, reprinted in Carpenter, New Evangelical Coalition, 10; Billy Graham, quoted in Martin E. Marty, Modern American Religion, Volume 3: Under God, Indivisible (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 330. Matthew Avery Sutton, Aimee Semple McPherson and the Resurrection of Chris- tian America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007), locates Pentecostals’ assimilation into the political mainstream during World War II. On postwar evangelical missionaries, see Richard V. Pierard, “Pax Americana and the Evangelical Missionary Advance,” in Earthen Vessels: American Evangelicals and Foreign Missions, 1880–1980 , eds. Joel A. Carpenter and Wilbert R. Shenk (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1990), 155–79. See also Dochuk, From Bible Belt to Sun Belt; Lisa McGirr, Suburban Warriors: The Origins of the New Ameri- can Right (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001); See Seth Dowland, Family Values: Gender, Authority, and the Rise of the Christian Right (Forthcoming, University of Pennsylvania Press), on the central- ity of evangelical/fundamentalist involvement in the formation of the New Right. 49. John Coleman Bennett, “Billy Graham at Union,” Union Seminary Quarterly Review 9 (May 1954): 9– 14. 50. See Barry Hankins, Francis Schaeffer and the Shaping of Evangelical America (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2008); and Mark Edwards, “How Should We Then Think?: A Study of Francis Schaeffer’s Lordship Principle,” Westminster Theological Journal 67 (Winter 1998): 198– 228. 51. Roger L. Shinn, “The Christian Gospel and History,” in Hutchison, Christian Faith and Social Action, 33; Bennett, “A Theological Con- ception of Goals for Economic Life,” 401. On the Schaeffers’ ties to Liberty, see Susan Friend Harding, The Book of Jerry Falwell: Fundamen- talist Language and Politics (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000), 130– 44. 52. Van Dusen, “A Fifty-Year Conspectus,” in PP, B18; Arnold W. Hearn, “Fundamentalist Renascence,” Christian Century 75 (Apr. 30, 1958): 528–30; Paul Hutchinson, “American Protestantism at the Mid-Century Mark,” Religion in Life 20 (Spring 1951): 192–95; John R. Scotford, “Where Rome is Right,” Christian Century 68 (July 4, 1951): 794. See Findlay, Church People in the Struggle, 11, on the Eisenhower ceremony. I first learned of the Scotford article through David R. Bains, “Where Rome is Right: Shaping a Protestant Catholicism through Worship,” unpublished paper, American Catholic Historical Association Annual Meeting, Chicago, Jan. 7, 2011 (paper in author’s possession). On the triumph of liturgical sensibilities among the evangelical mainline during the 1950s, see James F. White, “Protestant Public Worship in America: 1935–1995,” in Christian Worship in North America: A Retrospective, 1955– 1995 (Col- legeville, Minn.: Liturgical, 1997), 115– 33; John R. K. Fenwick and 236 Notes

Bryan D. Spinks, Worship in Transition: The Liturgical Movement in the Twentieth Century (New York: Continuum, 1995); and Bains, “The Litur- gical Impulse in Mid-Twentieth- Century American Mainline Protestant- ism.” See also Reinhold Niebuhr, “The Weakness of Common Worship in American Protestantism,” Christianity and Crisis 11 (May 28, 1951): 68–70; and the response of one Unitarian pastor, Von Ogden Vogt, “Cor- respondence,” Christianity and Crisis 11 (Oct. 1, 1951): 127–28, who supplies numerous examples of new liturgical forms and architecture adopted by American Methodists, Disciples of Christ, Congregationalists, and Unitarians. 53. Niebuhr, “Impact of Protestantism Today,” 62; Reinhold Niebuhr, “A Problem of Evangelical Christianity,” Christianity and Crisis 6 (May 13, 1946): 6; Malcolm Boyd, “The Crisis of the Mass Media,” Christian- ity and Crisis 15 (Nov. 15, 1955): 68; “Yawn and Flip the TV Knob,” Christian Century 75 (Oct. 22, 1958): 1198; Carl McIntire, Twentieth Century Reformation (Collingswood, N.J.: Christian Beacon, 1944), 5. On the contrasting attitudes toward television by mainline and evangelical Protestants, see Rosenthal, American Protestants and TV. 54. See James Miller, “Democracy is in the Streets”: From Port Huron to the Siege of Chicago (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987), 93–95.

Chapter 9 1. Bennett, “The Christian Response to Social Revolution,” 1– 15. 2. “Tract for the Times (March 1956),” in Seeds of Liberation, ed. Paul Goodman (New York: George Braziller, 1964), 7; John Coleman Ben- nett, “The Great Controversy in the Churches” (sermon, Riverside Church, New York, Apr. 12, 1970), in PP, B14; Francis Pickens Miller, “The Spirit of Non-Conformity” (address, Washington and Jefferson College, Washington, Pa.), June 4, 1959, and Francis Pickens Miller (commencement address, Davis and Elkins College, West Virginia, June 1, 1964), both in FPMP, B107; John Coleman Bennett, The Radical Imperative: From Theology to Social Ethics (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1975), 94– 98. See Andrew, The Other Side of the Sixties, on the YAF. 3. “A New Reformation,” Christian Century 66 (Oct. 26, 1949): 1,257; Alan Brinkley, “Therapeutic Radicalism of the New Left (1987),” reprinted in Liberalism and Its Discontents (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), 222–36. On the intellectual origins of the New Left, see Miller, “Democracy is in the Streets” and Mattson, Intellectuals in Action. 4. Tom Hayden, quoted in Miller, “Democracy is in the Streets,” 48. See Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women’s Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and New Left (New York: Vintage, 1979), 24–49, 58, on the religious backgrounds of white Southern female college activists. On Tillich and Christian existentialist influence on American campuses, Notes for Chapter 9 237

see Doug Rossinow, The Politics of Authenticity: Liberalism, Christianity, and the New Left in America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998). On the importance of personalism to the 1960s, see James J. Farrell, The Spirit of the Sixties: The Making of Postwar Radicalism (New York: Routledge, 1997). 5. Tom Hayden, quoted in Evans, Personal Politics, 104. See Miller, “Democracy is in the Streets,” 122, on Niebuhr’s student’s involvement in the Port Huron Statement. 6. Arnold S. Kaufman, The Radical Liberal (New York: Simon and Schus- ter, 1970), 56, 61; Paul Goodman, People or Personnel: Decentralization and the Mixed System (New York: Random House, 1963), 4; Paul Good- man, New Reformation: Notes of a Neolithic Conservative (New York: Vintage, 1969), 202, 206; Paul Goodman, Growing Up Absurd (New York: Vintage, 1960), xiii–xiv, 232. For new conservative reactions to the New Left, see Mattson, Rebels All!, 57–59, 61, 64–65, 74–76. On ERAP’s slogan, see Evans, Personal Politics, 126– 55. 7. Robert McAfee Brown, The Spirit of Protestantism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1961), 197; Thomas J. J. Altizer and William Hamil- ton, Radical Theology and the Death of God (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1966), 6, 117–18; John B. Cobb Jr., “From Crisis Theology to the Post- Modern World,” in The Meaning of the Death of God: Protestant, Jewish, and Catholic Scholars Explore Atheistic Theology, ed. Bernard Murchland (New York: Random House, 1967), 139. By “Post- Modern,” Cobb mainly meant a new awareness of intellectual and moral relativism. On the “new breed,” see Dorrien, Soul in Society; Robert S. Ellwood, The Sixties’ Spiritual Awakening: American Religion Moving from Modern to Postmodern (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1994); and McCarraher, Christian Critics, 147–81. I am especially indebted to Hulsether, Building a Protestant Left, for his understanding of new breed theology in the context of Christianity and Crisis. 8. James Cone, Black Theology and Black Power (New York: Seabury, 1969), 150– 51; Marge Piercy, quoted in Evans, Personal Politics, 191. 9. “Christian Obedience in Africa Today” (statement, Department of the Laity conference, Geneva, Mar. 30– Apr. 4, 1959), 33– 35, in FPMP, B22; Archie LeMone, “Report on a Symposium: When Traditional The- ology Meets Black and Liberation Theology,” Christianity and Crisis 33 (Sept. 17, 1973): 177–78; Bennett, Radical Imperative, 7– 8, 75–77, 118– 19. 10. Patrick Granfield, “An Interview with Reinhold Niebuhr,” Commonweal 85 (Dec. 16, 1966): 320; Rubem A. Alves, “Christian Realism: Ideol- ogy of the Establishment,” Christianity and Crisis 33 (Sept. 17, 1973): 173– 76; William Hamilton, “Radicalism and the Death of God,” Chris- tianity and Crisis 25 (Dec. 13, 1965): 272– 73. 11. “Christian Realism: Retrospect and Prospect,” Christianity and Crisis 28 (Aug. 5, 1968): 179. 238 Notes

12. See Hulsether, Building a Protestant Left, xxxiii, 267–69, on the “bridge” notion. 13. John Coleman Bennett, “The Church and Power Conflicts,” Christian- ity and Crisis 25 (Mar. 22, 1965): 47–51; Bennett, Radical Imperative, 9– 10, 18– 20, 138. 14. John Coleman Bennett, Foreign Policy in Christian Perspective (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1966), 78; John Coleman Bennett, “Moral Effects of War on the Life of Our Country” (address, Senate Foreign Relations Committee, May 7, 1970), in PP, B14; John Coleman Bennett, “It is Difficult to Be an American,” Christianity and Crisis 26 (June 25, 1966): 166. On the Bennetts’ and UTS’s involvement in Viet- nam protests and Black Power, see Hulsether, Building a Protestant Left; and Juergensmeyer, Conversations with John Bennett, 85– 108. 15. UTS faculty, Resolution, passed by Board of Directors, May 15, 1969, in JCBP, F1.6b. 16. John Coleman Bennett, “Capitalism and Ethics” (address, Fiftieth Anni- versary World Convocation of the National Industrial Conference Board, New York, Sept. 19– 21, 1966), 10, 12, in PP, B14; Hulsether, Building a Protestant Left, xxxviii. The ADA, NCC, and Christianity and Crisis all endorsed Nixon’s FAP, which would have provided, as an alternative to Medicaid and Food Stamps, a “guaranteed income” (i.e., direct cash pay- ments) to single-parent families and working poor in exchange for man- datory employment and job training. See Bennett, Radical Imperative, 152– 53; Milton Friedman, “The Case for the Negative Income Tax,” National Review 19 (Mar. 7, 1967): 239– 41; and Brian Steensland, “The Hydra and the Swords: Social Welfare and Mainline Advocacy, 1964– 2000,” in The Quiet Hand of God: Faith-Based Activism and the Public Role of Mainline Protestantism, ed. Robert Wuthnow and John H. Evans (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 217–18. 17. Michael Harrington, Fragments of a Century (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1973), 152– 55; Michael Harrington, Toward a Democratic Left: A Rad- ical Program for a New Majority (New York: Macmillan, 1968), 110, 275– 79. Mattson, Intellectuals in Action, 266–71, faults the New Left for failing to develop working relationships with government authorities. 18. Todd Gitlin, “The Dynamics of the New Left,” Motive 31 (Nov. 1970): 66; Michael Novak, “Needing Niebuhr Again,” Commentary 54 (Sept. 1972): 52– 62. See Miller, “Democracy is in the Streets,” 122, 325, on Hayden’s concession to Niebuhr. 19. Goodman, New Reformation, xi, 51, 155– 59, 207, 192, 196. 20. Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State; Gabriel Kolko, The Triumph of Conservativism: A Reinterpretation of American His- tory, 1900–1916 (London: Free Press, 1963); Christopher Lasch, The New Radicalism in America, 1889– 1963: The Intellectual as Social Type (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1965), 256, 299–307. See Goldberg, Liberal Fascism, who co-opted Weinstein and Kolko for his argument Notes for Chapter 9 239

that liberals and not conservatives are the true creators of the corporate commonwealth. 21. Eric Miller, Hope in a Scattering Time: A Life of Christopher Lasch (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2010); Lasch, New Radicalism, xiv- xv, 69, 324. 22. I am indebted to Miller, Hope in a Scattering Time, who stresses Lasch’s combination of social conservativism and participatory democracy, or “populism” (123), at length. For Lasch’s influence by Ellul, see 176. See 165 for Lasch as a “Tory radical.” 23. Jean Baudrillard, The Mirror of Production, trans. Mark Poster (New York: Telos, 1975), 20. Baudrillard’s seminal treatment on the “simulacra” notion is Simulacra and Simulation (1981, first published in Eng- lish in 1994). 24. Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1991); Paul Tillich, “Symbols, Myths and Mass Communication” (unspecified public address, n.d.), in PTP, B409, F25; W. Richard Comstock, “Theology after the Death of God,” in Murchland, Meaning of the Death of God, 259. 25. Philip Rieff, The Triumph of the Therapeutic: Uses of Faith after Freud (New York: Harper and Row, 1966), 8– 27, 54, 261. 26. Christopher Lasch, The Minimal Self: Psychic Survival in Troubled Times (New York: W. W. Norton, 1984), 256–58. On Lasch’s newfound positive assessment of Niebuhr, see Miller, Hope in a Scattering Time, 271– 93. On contemporary communitarian thought and its relationship to Niebuhr, see Dorrien, Soul in Society, 336–76. On Kennan, see Ekbladh, Great Ameri- can Mission, 242. 27. John Coleman Bennett, quoted in Hulsether, Building a Protestant Left, 67. 28. Hayden, quoted in Miller, “Democracy is in the Streets,” 22; Edward L. Parsons, to John Coleman Bennett, May 5, 1955, in JCBP; John Cole- man Bennett, “Whither the National Council?” Christianity and Crisis 11(Jan. 7, 1952): 1–2; W. A. Visser ’t Hooft, Has the Ecumenical Move- ment a Future? (Atlanta, Ga.: John Knox, 1974). 29. Francis Pickens Miller, “The Church against the World, 1935–1965” (paper presented before the Theological Discussion Group, Nov. 7, 1965), in FPMP, B16. 30. John Coleman Bennett, “Realism and Hope after Niebuhr,” Worldview 15 (May 1972): 4–14. See Henry Pitney Van Dusen, “Caribbean Holi- day,” Christian Century 77 (Aug. 17, 1955): 946– 48, for his observations on South American Pentecostals. 31. Visser ’t Hooft, Memoirs, ix; Walter Marshall Horton, “The Nature of the Unity that We Found,” Graduate School of Theology Bulletin (Dec. 1957), 3, in WMHP, B6. 240 Notes

Epilogue 1. “Good- by to Gothic,” Christian Century 86 (Jan. 1, 1969): 4. 2. Stanley Hauerwas, After Christendom? (Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon, 1991), 14, 18, 35. 3. McCarraher, Christian Critics, 186. 4. See Hutchinson, Between the Times. 5. See Phillip E. Hammond, The Protestant Presence in Twentieth Cen- tury America: Religion and Political Culture (Albany, N.Y.: State Uni- versity of New York Press, 1992). For assessments of liberal/mainline Protestantism today, see Michaelson and Roof, Liberal Protestantism; D. Newell Williams, ed., A Case Study of Mainline Protestantism: The Dis- ciples’ Relation to American Culture, 1880–1989 (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1991); Milton J. Coalter, John M. Mulder, and Louis B. Weeks, eds., The Pluralistic Vision: Presbyterians and Mainline Protes- tant Education and Leadership (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox, 1992); and Dean R. Hodge, Benton Johnson, and Donald A. Luidens, Vanishing Boundaries: The Religion of Mainline Protestant Baby Boomers (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox, 1994). 6. Bethany Moreton, To Serve God and Wal- Mart: The Making of Christian Free Enterprise (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2009); John A. Shields, The Democratic Virtues of the Religious Right (Princ- eton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2009). 7. Donald E. Miller, The Case for Liberal Christianity (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1981), 11; James K. Wellman Jr., Evangelical vs. Lib- eral: The Clash of Christian Cultures in the Pacific Northwest (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 65, 83– 86. 8. The statistics and claims reported here are from Mark J. Rozell and Gleaves Whitney, eds., Religion and the Bush Presidency (New York: Pal- grave Macmillan, 2007). On the notion of “quiet influence,” and the plea to abandon it, see Robert Wuthnow, “Beyond Quiet Influence: Pos- sibilities for the Protestant Mainline,” in Wuthnow and Evans, The Quiet Hand of God, 381– 404. 9. Hollinger, “After Cloven Tongues of Fire,” 47; Peter J. Thuesen, “The Logic of Mainline Churchliness: Historical Background since the Ref- ormation,” in Wuthnow and Evans, Quiet Hand of God, 49– 50. See Christian Smith and Patricia Snell, Souls in Transition: The Religious and Spiritual Lives of Emerging Adults (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), especially page 288. For an introduction to the New Monasti- cism, see Jonathan Wilson-Hartgrove, New Monasticism: What It Has to Say to Today’s Church (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Brazos, 2008). 10. Richard Rorty, Achieving Our Country: Leftist Thought in Twentieth- Century America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998), 9, 32– 34, 43, 51, 76, 104. 11. Rorty, Achieving Our Country, 24, 30. For numerous historical criticisms of Rorty— including several from Lasch students and sympathizers—see Notes for Epilogue 241

John Pettegrew, ed., A Pragmatist’s Progress? Richard Rorty and Ameri- can Intellectual History (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2000). 12. Rorty, Achieving Our Country, 15; Gary Gutting, Pragmatic Liberalism and the Critique of Modernity (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 60–63, 66, 170–72. See also his earlier work, Gary Gutting, Reli- gious Belief and Religious Skepticism (Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1982). 13. Rudolph and Piscatori, Transnational Religion. See John D. Carlson and Eric C. Owens, eds., The Sacred and the Sovereign: Religion and International Politics (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2003); and Scott M. Thomas, The Global Resurgence of Religion and the Transformation of International Relations: The Struggle for the Soul of the Twenty- First Century (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), for more attention to Protestant groups including the WCC. 14. Doris Buss and Didi Herman, Globalizing Family Values: The Chris- tian Right in International Politics (Minneapolis, Minn.: University of Minnesota Press, 2003); David Held, Democracy and the Global Order: From the Modern State to Cosmopolitan Governance (Palo Alto, Ca.: Stanford University Press, 1995), xi, 15, 22– 23, 33– 34, 137–39, 153, 190– 218, 233, 239–66; Ian Clark, International Legitimacy and World Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007). Held believes Christianity an opponent of democracy because it dilutes the importance of political commitment (37–38). See, for his more recent statements on cosmopolitan governance, David Held, Models of Democracy, 3rd ed. (Palo Alto, Ca.: Stanford University Press, 2006); and Anthony McGrew and David Held, eds., Globalization Theory: Approaches and Controversies (Cambridge, Mass.: Polity, 2007). 15. Held, Democracy and the Global Order, 137–38; “Transcript,” John Mackay, interview, Jan. 9, 1965, 30, in JFD-OHP. 16. Frauke Kraas, Megacities: Our Global Urban Future (Philadelphia: Springer, 2011). Selected Bibliography

Primary Sources Archives Andover- Harvard Theological Library, Harvard Divinity School Paul Tillich Archives: Works: An Inventory (PTP)

The Burke Library Archives at Union Theological Seminary in the City of New York Henry Pitney Van Dusen Papers (HPVDP) (Note: This collection has not been processed and boxes are organized alphabetically.) John Coleman Bennett Papers (JCBP) (Note: This collection was destroyed in a flood in 2003.) The Presidential Papers (PP)

Manuscript Division, Library of Congress Reinhold Niebuhr Papers (RNP) National Policy Committee Papers (NPC)

Mudd Library, Princeton University Adlai Stevenson Papers (ASP) Council on Foreign Relations Papers, Public Policy Papers (CFRP) Fight For Freedom, Inc., Papers, Public Policy Papers (FFFP) H. Alexander Smith Papers (HASP) Hamilton Fish Armstrong Papers (HFSP) John Foster Dulles Oral History Project (JFD-OHP) John Foster Dulles Papers, Public Policy Papers (JFDP) Student Christian Association Records (SCAR)

Oberlin College Archives Walter Marshall Horton Papers (WMHP)

Special Collections, Alderman Library, University of Virginia Francis Pickens Miller Papers (FPMP)

Special Collections, Yale Divinity School Library Douglas Clyde Macintosh Papers (DCMP) Student Volunteer Movement Papers (SVMP) 244 Selected Bibliography

Theological Discussion Group Papers (TDGP) World Council of Churches-in- Formation Papers (WCCP) World Council of Churches, General Correspondence, RG 113 (WCCGC) World Council of Churches, World War II Era Records, Fiche Ms. 117, YDS-17 (WCCR) World’s Student Christian Federation Papers, Film Ms. 313 (WSCF)

Southern Illinois University Christian Century Foundation Archives (CCFA)

Articles and Book Chapters Adams, James Luther. “What Kind of Religion Has a Place in Higher Educa- tion?” Journal of the Bible and Religion 13 (Nov. 1945): 184– 92. Alves, Rubem A. “Christian Realism: Ideology of the Establishment.” Chris- tianity and Crisis 33 (Sept. 17, 1973): 173– 76. “Announcing the National Christian Mission.” Federal Council Bulletin 23 (Jan. 1940): 6. Ashworth, Robert A. “Protestant High Churchmanship.” Church Union Quarterly 18 (1929): 207– 11. Bennett, John Coleman. “After Liberalism—What?” Christian Century 50 (Nov. 8, 1933): 1,403– 6. ———. “America and Russia.” Christianity and Crisis 5 (Dec. 10, 1945): 1– 2. ———. “America’s Other Face.” Christianity and Crisis 9 (May 16, 1949): 57– 58. ———. “American Policy from Asia.” British Weekly 129 (Apr. 5, 1951): 1– 2. ———. “An Approach to Christian Faith in God.” Woman’s Press 38 (July– Aug. 1944): 317. ———. “The Archbishop of Canterbury.” Seminar Quarterly 12 (Oct. 1941): 16– 20. ———. “Beyond the ‘Cold War’?” Christianity and Crisis 17 (June 24, 1957): 81– 82. ———. “Billy Graham at Union.” Union Seminary Quarterly Review 9 (May 1954): 9– 14. ———. “A Changed Liberal— But Still a Liberal.” Christian Century 56 (Feb. 8, 1939): 179– 81. ———. “The Choice before Our Nation.” Christianity and Crisis 3 (Apr. 5, 1943): 1– 2. ———. “The Christian Response to Social Revolution.” Ecumenical Review 9 (Oct. 1956): 1– 15. ———. “Christianity and Democracy.” Christendom 5 (Spring 1940): 162– 71. ———. “Christians and Communism in Asia.” International Review of Mis- sions 40 (July 1951): 296– 304. Selected Bibliography 245

———. “The Church and ‘Free Enterprise.’” Advance 133 (May 1941): 212. ———. “The Church and Power Conflicts.” Christianity and Crisis 25 (Mar. 22, 1965): 47– 51. ———. “The Church as Prophetic Critic.” In The Christian Century Reader, edited by Harold E. Fey and Margaret Frakes, 47–53. New York: Associa- tion, 1960. ———. “Church Unity and the Small Community.” Commonwealth Review 22 (May 1940): 32– 37. ———. “Dealing with Japanese Evacuees.” Christianity and Crisis 2 (Nov. 2, 1942): 6. ———. “An Ecumenical Consensus.” Christianity and Crisis 3 (July 26, 1943): 4– 6. ———. “Ecumenical Theology: Comments on Professor Pauck’s Paper.” Journal of Religion 25 (Oct. 1945): 274– 75. ———. “Evangelism.” Christianity and Crisis 7 (Feb. 3, 1947): 1– 2. ———. “Focus for Christian Action.” Christianity and Society 8 (Apr. 1953): 18. ———. “The Goldwater Nomination.” Christianity and Crisis 24 (Aug. 3, 1964): 157– 58. ———. “I Believe.” Intercollegian 57 (Nov. 1939): 54. ———. “Implications of the New Conception of ‘Separation.’” Christianity and Crisis 8 (July 5, 1948): 89– 90. ———. “It is Difficult to be an American.” Christianity and Crisis 26 (June 25, 1966): 166. ———. “Mr. Dulles’s Proposals.” Christianity and Crisis 12 (June 9, 1952): 73– 74. ———. “Our Mistaken Approach to Communism.” Christianity and Crisis 8 (May 10, 1948): 57– 58. ———. “The Outlook for Theology.” Journal of Religion 21 (Apr. 1941): 341– 53. ———. “The Problem of Asiatic Communism.” Christianity and Crisis 10 (Aug. 7, 1950): 109– 12. ———. “The Protestant-Catholic Issue.” Christianity and Crisis 6 (May 27, 1946): 1– 2. ———. “A Protestant Looks at American Catholicism.” In Witness to a Gen- eration: Significant Writings from Christianity and Crisis, edited by Wayne H. Cowan, 49– 58. Indianapolis, Ind.: Bobbs- Merrill, 1966. ———. “The Responsible Society.” Congregational Quarterly 27 (Oct. 1949): ———. “Realism and Hope after Niebuhr.” Worldview 15 (May 1972): 4– 14. ———. “Results of an Ecumenical Study.” Christendom 9 (Spring 1944): 142– 52. ———. “Roman Catholics and Communism.” Christianity and Crisis 9 (Mar. 7, 1949): 17– 18. ———. “The Russian-Communist Drive for Power.” Christianity and Crisis 6 (Nov. 25, 1946): 1– 2. 246 Selected Bibliography

———. “Socialist without Being Totalitarian.” Social Action 12 (Oct. 14, 1946): 3. ———. “The Spiritual Basis of Democracy.” Advance 135 (May 1943): 194– 95. ———. “Whither Demos?” Christianity and Crisis 12 (Jan. 5, 1953): 177– 78. ———. “Whither the National Council?” Christianity and Crisis 11 (Jan. 7, 1952): 1– 2. ———. “William Temple.” Anglican Theological Review 25 (July 1943): 257– 71. ———. “William Temple.” Christianity and Crisis 2 (June 2, 1942): 1– 2. Boyd, Malcolm. “The Crisis of the Mass Media.” Christianity and Crisis 15 (Nov. 15, 1955): 68. “Bringing Oxford to America.” Federal Council Bulletin 20 (Nov. 1937): 9. Buckley, William F., Jr., “The Party and the Deep Blue Sea.” Commonweal 55 (Jan. 25, 1952): 392– 93. Bushnell, Horace. “Christian Comprehensiveness.” New Englander 6 (Jan. 1848): 81– 111. Cairns, D. S. “The Rescue of Christendom.” Christianity and Crisis 1 (June 2, 1941): 5– 6. Cavert, Samuel McCrea. “American vs. European Thinking about the Post- War World.” Christianity and Crisis 3 (July 26, 1943): 7– 9. ———. “The Younger Theologians.” Religion in Life 5 (Fall 1936): 520– 31. Chadwick, John A. “Universal Religion.” New World 3 (Sept. 1894): 401– 18. “Christian Action Statement of Purpose.” Christianity and Crisis 11 (Oct. 1, 1951): 126– 27. “A Christian Message on World Order.” Christianity and Crisis 3 (July 26, 1943): 13– 15. “Christian Realism: Retrospect and Prospect.” Christianity and Crisis 28 (Aug. 5, 1968): 178– 82. Coffin, Henry Sloan. “American Freedom and Catholic Power.” Christianity and Crisis 9 (May 2, 1949): 49– 51. Dewey, John. “American Ideals (I): The Theory of Liberalism versus the Fact of Regimentation.” Common Sense 3 (Dec. 1934): 10– 11. Eliot, T. S. “The Church’s Message to the World.” Christian Century 54 (Apr. 7, 1937): 450– 52. “Evangelism—The Primary Task.” Federal Council Bulletin 29 (Dec. 1946): 8– 9. Evers, John Ray. “Youth for Christ Meets Pittsburg.” Christian Century 63 (Oct. 10, 1945): 1,171– 72. “Forward from Oxford and Edinburgh.” Federal Council Bulletin 21 (Feb. 1938): 6– 7. Fosdick, Harry Emerson. “What is Christianity?” Harper’s Monthly 58 (Apr. 1929): 551– 61. ———. “What is Religion?” Harper’s Monthly 58 (Mar. 1929): 424– 34. ———. “Yes, But Religion is an Art!” Harper’s 162 (Jan. 1931): 129– 40. Selected Bibliography 247

“Good-bye to Gothic.” Christian Century 86 (Jan. 1, 1969): 4. Graham, Billy. “What Ten Years Have Taught Me.” Christian Century 77 (Feb. 17, 1960): 186– 89. Granfield, Patrick. “An Interview with Reinhold Niebuhr.” Commonweal 85 (Dec. 16, 1966): 315– 21. Hamilton, William. “Radicalism and the Death of God.” Christianity and Crisis 25 (Dec. 13, 1965): 272– 73. Hearn, Arnold W. “Fundamentalist Renascence.” Christian Century 75 (Apr. 30, 1958): 528– 30. Heimann, Eduard. “Niebuhr’s Pragmatic Conservativism.” Union Seminary Quarterly Review 11 (May 1956): 7– 11. Henry, Carl F. H. “The Vigor of the New Evangelicalism (pt. 1).” Christian Life and Times (Jan. 1948): 31– 33, 36–38, 85. ———. “The Vigor of the New Evangelicalism (pt. 3).” Christian Life and Times (Apr. 1948): 32– 35, 65– 69. Herberg, Will. “Government by Rabble Rousing.” New Leader 37 (Jan. 18, 1954): 15– 16. ———. “Reinhold Niebuhr: Burkean Conservative.” National Review 11 (Dec. 2, 1961): 379, 394. Horton, Douglas. “Looking Back at Lucknow.” Christianity and Crisis 13 (Mar. 30, 1953): 35– 37. Horton, Walter Marshall. “Between Liberalism and the New Orthodoxy.” Christian Century 56 (May 17, 1939): 637– 40. ———. “Conflict between Christianity and the Modern State.” Religious Digest 4 (Apr. 1937): 65– 68. ———. “A Democratic Way Out.” New Democracy 4 (May 15, 1935): 95– 97. ———. “Impressions of India.” Alumni Magazine 29 (Nov. 1932): 38– 39. ———. “Impressions of Japan.” Alumni Magazine 30 (Jan. 1933): 107– 9. ———. “Natural Law and International Order.” Christendom 9 (Winter 1944): 2– 21. ———. “The New Orthodoxy.” American Scholar 7 (Jan. 7, 1938): 3– 11. ———. “The New Reformation.” Current Religious Thought 7 (Jan. 1947): 1–6. ———. “One of Religion’s Great Divides.” Woman’s Press 30 (1936): 264– 65, 301– 2. ———. “The Rediscovery of America.” Current Religious Thought 3 (1943): 10– 14. ———. “Religion and the Cultural Crisis.” Student World 37 (1944): 107– 15. ———. “Significance of Madras.” Intercollegian 56 (1939): 113– 16. ———. “War Can Be Overcome.” Christian Century 67 (Apr. 12, 1950): 459– 61. ———. “What is Protestantism?” Christian Century 57 (Dec. 11, 1940): 1,550– 51. Hutchinson, Paul. “American Protestantism at Mid-Century Mark.” Religion in Life 20 (Spring 1951): 190– 202. “Is the Cold War a Holy War?” Christian Century 67 (Jan. 11, 1950): 39–41. 248 Selected Bibliography

James, William. “The Chicago School.” Psychological Bulletin 1 (Jan. 15, 1904): 1– 5. King, Martin Luther, Jr. “Pilgrimage to Nonviolence.” Christian Century 77 (Apr. 13, 1960): 439– 41. Knudson, Albert C. “German Fundamentalism.” Christian Century 45 (June 14, 1928): 765. Kuhn, Helmut. “The Classical Christian Tradition and the Emerging World.” Theology Today 2 (Jan. 1946): 443– 58. LeMone, Archie. “Report on a Symposium: When Traditional Theology Meets Black and Liberation Theology.” Christianity and Crisis 33 (Sept. 17, 1973): 177– 78. Macintosh, D. C. “Is Theology Reducible to Mythology?” Review of Religion 4 (1940): 152. ———. “The New Christianity and World Conversion.” American Journal of Theology 18 (July, Oct. 1914): 337– 54; 553– 70. ———. “What is the Christian Religion?” Harvard Theological Review 7 (Jan. 1914): 16– 46. Mackay, John A. “Christian Faith and the International Situation.” Theology Today 12 (1955): 1– 4. ———. “The New Idolatry.” Theology Today 10 (1953): 382– 83. ———. “Our Aims.” Theology Today 1 (Apr. 1944): 3– 11. ———. “The Perils of Victory.” Christianity and Crisis 5 (1945): 1– 2. ———. “The Times Call for Theology.” Theology Today 2 (1945): 3– 10. ———. “The Restoration of Theology.” Religion in Life 6 (Spring 1937): 163– 79. McArthur, Harvey. “Liberal Concessions to Fundamentalism.” Religion in Life 14 (Fall 1945): 535– 44. Miller, Francis Pickens. “America’s New Foreign Policy.” Christianity and Crisis 7 (Apr. 28, 1947): 3. ———. “The Atlantic Area.” Foreign Affairs 19 (July 1941): 3– 4. ———. “The Christian Church in the Latter Half of the Twentieth Century.” Christianity and Crisis 2 (Dec. 14, 1942): 2– 4. ———. “Democracy: A Way of Life.” Free American 1 (Nov. 1937): 13. ———. “The Democratic Party in the South.” Christianity and Crisis 21 (May 1, 1961): 63– 67. ———. “Massive Resistance in Virginia.” Christianity and Crisis 17 (Dec. 9, 1957): 163– 64. ———. “The Responsible Society: Political Aspects.” Christianity and Crisis 13 (Dec. 14, 1953): 165– 68. Mumford, Lewis. “The Aftermath of Utopianism.” Christianity and Crisis 1 (Mar. 24, 1941): 2– 4. “The National Christian Mission: Its Purpose.” Federal Council Bulletin 23 (Jan. 1940): 7– 8. “A New Reformation.” Christian Century 66 (Oct. 26, 1949): 1,257. Selected Bibliography 249

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Acheson, Dean, 112, 126 and Christian Realism, 7– 9, 49, Adams, James Luther, 1–2, 91, 64, 89 110, 134 on democracy, 101– 2 “adaptive traditionalism,” 8, 57– 61, and the ecumenical movement, 9, 80– 82, 118, 165, 183–85. See 79, 94– 95, 115, 129, 135, also Christian Realism 138– 39, 152 Addams, Jane, 15, 21– 22, 24, and Edmund Burke, 146, 168, 26– 27, 31, 44, 63, 65, 91, 125, 173– 74 129, 153, 179, 186 on the new evangelicalism, aestheticism, 8, 57–59, 68–69, 158– 66 177, 186 1960s radicalism of, 167– 80 American Freedom and Catholic on the Responsible Society, Power (Blanshard), 109– 11 127– 29, 131– 32, 167 Americans for Democratic Action socialism of, 14, 32, 62, 101, (ADA), 13, 113, 125 115, 167– 68, 173– 74 Anglicanism, 3, 8–9, 38, 43–45, Black Power, 157, 171– 74 59–61, 66, 69, 90, 93 Blake, Eugene Carson, 172 Anglo- Catholicism, 9, 38, 43– 45, Blanshard, Paul, 109– 11 48, 49, 59– 61, 66, 90, 99 Boulding, Kenneth, 132 anti- Catholicism, 108–11 Bourne, Randolph, 23, 176 anticommunism, 13, 111– 17, 143, 145 Bowen, Howard R., 132, 133 antimodernism, 22, 95 Bowie, Walter Russell, 44 Bowling Alone (Putnam), 178 Baillie, John, 93, 97 Bozell, L. Brent, 149 Barth, Karl, 6, 45– 46, 65– 66, 67, Bringing Our World Together 159, 171 (Fleming), 104 Baudrillard, Jean, 177 Brown, Robert McAfee, 171 Bell, Daniel, 124– 25, 156 Brown, William Adams, 40– 41 “Beloved Community,” 6, 28, 158 Brown v. Board of Education (1954), Bennett, Anne, 173– 74 156– 57 Bennett, John Coleman, 7, 22, 26, Brunner, Emil, 45, 94, 130 66, 77, 98, 100, 110– 11, 113, Bryan, William Jennings, 42 116, 155– 56 Buchman, Frank, 43 276 Index

Buckley, William F., Jr., 15, 147– 58, Christian Democracy parties, 109 163 Christian Economics, 163 Burke, Edmund, 13, 146– 58, Christian Institute for the Study of 167– 68, 173– 75 Religion and Society, 139 Burnham, James, 100, 152, 154–55, Christianity and Communism 176 (Bennett), 115 Bush, George W., 184 Christianity and Crisis, 1, 7, 14, Bushnell, Horace, 25– 26 84– 85, 99, 104, 109, 112, 113, “business churches,” 43 117, 125, 126, 128, 139, 141, Butler, Judith, 68, 177 152, 153, 170– 75, 180 Christianity Today, 159, 164 Calhoun, Robert Lowry, 7, 48, Christian News- Letter, 93 58– 59, 68, 98, 103, 133 Christian Realism Can Christianity Save Civilization? as adaptive traditionalism, 8, (Horton), 82– 83, 148 57– 61, 73, 80– 82, 118, 165, Carnell, Edward John, 159– 60 183– 85 Catholic Base Communities (CBC), and anti- Catholicism, 55, 108– 11 173 and anticommunism, 108– 15 Catholicism. See Roman Catholicism and the “central party,” 7, 59 Catholic Protestantism, 10, 55, 77. as Christian agnosticism, 8, 25, See also Evangelical Catholicism 40– 41, 45, 56, 57– 61, 65, Catholic Workers, 31, 178 68– 69, 185, 186 Cavert, Samuel McCrea, 7, 49, 55, and communitarianism, 23– 24, 60, 89, 98, 99, 111, 114 31, 178– 79 Century Club, 85–87 and conservative socialism, China, 73– 74, 82, 104, 114, 138, 15– 16, 152– 56, 168, 185 139, 155 conservativism of, 15– 16, 41, Christendom, 11, 28, 36, 63– 64, 77– 78, 125, 142, 144– 56, 72, 93– 95, 107, 108, 127, 164– 65 182. See also new Christendom; definition of, 6–9, 14, 49, 172–73 God’s Totalitarianism and democratic Progressivism, 6, Christendom Group, 10–11, 14, 95, 15– 16, 19– 21, 24, 61– 62, 99, 154 123– 42, 153– 54 Christian Action, 128, 135 as Evangelical Catholicism, 45, Christian agnosticism, 8, 25, 40, 45, 55– 61, 68– 69, 80, 87, 56, 57– 61, 65– 69, 96, 185, 186 89– 90, 98– 99, 122, 134– 35 Christian America argument, 1– 2, and liberal evangelicalism, 5– 9, 42, 98– 99, 158, 163 23– 26, 178 The Christian Century, 5, 29, 84, and the liturgical revolution, 8, 159, 161, 169, 181 37– 39, 43– 47, 57– 61, 91, “Christian civilization,” 1, 10, 95, 165 90, 94– 95, 112, 118, 126. and mass society criticism, 15– 16, See also Christendom; new 20– 24, 29, 79– 80, 123– 29, Christendom 145, 148– 52 Index 277

medievalism of, 10, 72, 79– 80, “Church Universal,” 3, 9, 38, 51, 90– 95, 96– 98, 127, 129, 56, 63–64 136, 157– 58, 181, 187–88 civil rights movements, 100, 139, naming of, 7, 49– 50, 93 156– 58, 161– 62 Neoorthodoxy and, 6–7, 38, coexistence, 137, 155 57, 60 Coffin, Henry Sloan, 84, 85, 101 and the new conservativism, 13– Cold War, 11, 108– 19, 123– 25, 16, 143– 56 130, 158, 163 and the New Left, 15– 16, Cold War liberalism, 12– 14, 108, 167– 78 113, 125, 127– 28, 131, 132, as the old Protestant left, 4, 16, 152, 173 19– 21, 32– 36 Commission of the Churches on participatory democracy and, 6, International Affairs (CCIA), 20, 23– 24, 25, 48, 61–64, 137– 38 90, 95, 99, 101– 3, 118, Commission on Interracial 124– 36, 150– 54, 169– 71, Cooperation (CIC), 76 184, 185, 187– 88 communitarianism, 20, 23– 24, 31, as part of the ecumenical 178– 79 movement, 9– 11, 50–51, Cone, James, 171, 174 81– 82, 89– 95, 123– 42, 152 Conference on Science, Philosophy, pragmatism and, 25– 26, 39– 41, and Religion in Their Relation 95, 147, 172, 173 to the Democratic Way of Life, and religious realism, 38, 39– 41, 97– 98 46, 75 conservative evangelicalism and sin, 7, 32– 33, 66, 79, 157– Christian Realists and, 8, 158– 66 58, 175 and fundamentalism, 42– 43, the social gospel and, 20, 26– 29, 158 132, 179, 188 liberal evangelical critique of, 25, as a theological community, 4–5, 37– 38, 95, 158– 66 14, 47– 51, 64, 135, 152, modernism of, 38, 43, 165– 66, 178– 80 17, 183– 84 as the Theological Discussion and new evangelicalism, 13, 15, Group, 6– 7, 38– 39, 47– 51, 158– 66, 182 55, 64, 68– 69, 90–91, 178– the religious right and, 1– 2, 48, 80, 186, 188 163– 64, 182– 84, 187 and “third way” politics, 11, 16, The Conservative Mind (Kirk), 12, 130, 144 15, 148, 150 transnational nature of, 8– 9, 14, conservative socialism, 4, 12– 16, 71– 87, 93– 95, 182 105, 146, 152– 56, 185 Christian Realism (Bennett), 89, conservativism 101– 2 and Christian Realism, 12– 16, The Church Against the World 41, 144– 56 (Niebuhr, Miller, and Pauck), classical (traditionalist), 7– 8, 61, 63, 179– 80 15– 16, 30– 31, 62, 143– 58 278 Index conservativism (continued) Democratic Progressivism, 2– 4, 11, Democratic party and, 13– 14, 25, 94, 123– 42, 168, 185–87 61– 62, 142, 154 as conservative socialism, 15– 16, democratic Progressivism as, 15, 24, 152– 56, 23– 24, 62 continued by Christian Realism, modern (libertarian), 3, 130, 2– 4, 20– 21, 124– 29 143– 58, 162– 63, 174 as democratic socialism, 20, 22– modern (strong- state) liberalism 23, 100, 115, 125, 129, 131 and, 13, 23– 24, 38, 62, and the New Deal, 61– 64, 146, 153– 54 153– 54 and neoconservativism, 14–15, as participatory democracy, 2– 3, 140, 155, 174– 75 15– 16, 20, 23– 24, 61– 64, and new conservatives, 13–16, 89, 124– 36, 145, 150– 54, 62, 143– 56 169– 71, 187– 88 and new evangelicals, 13, 15, relation to the Progressive 158– 66, 182– 84 movement, 2, 23– 24, 108, the New Left and, 16 124– 25, 129 and populism, 15, 155– 58 the social gospel and, 20, 24, 186 as rebellion, 13, 155– 58 and strong- state liberalism, 3, 12, and socialism, 4, 12– 16, 105, 20, 61, 62, 99, 100 142, 152– 56, 168 deradicalization, 62, 100– 101, See also liberalism; socialism 130– 32, 154 Conservativism Revisited (Viereck), development (economic), 138– 42 146 Dewey, John, 4, 15, 21– 23, 26, 31, Corpus Christianum. See “Christian 39, 43, 45, 57– 59, 66, 68–69, civilization” 98, 125, 129, 153, 170, 176, Council on African Affairs (CAA), 76 179, 186 Council on Foreign Relations “Double V” campaign, 100 (CFR), 34, 51, 81, 84– 87 Dulles, John Foster, 81, 84, 103, countertotalitarianism, 3, 9– 11, 41, 108, 112– 13, 114–15, 137– 38, 51, 56, 78– 82, 89–95, 108– 15. 165 See also God’s Totalitarianism; World Council of Churches East Harlem Protestant Parish, 135, “countervailing power,” 7, 33, 178 131– 32 Ecumenical Discussion Group, 1, The Courage to Be (Tillich), 149, 169 91, 94– 95 Cox, Harvey, 171 Ecumenical Institute (EI), 135– 36, The Culture of Narcissism (Lasch), 138, 178 178 ecumenism. See Evangelical Dawson, Christopher, 48, 62– 63, 79 Catholicism; God’s Death of God theology, 171– 72 Totalitarianism Delta Farm cooperatives, 65 Eddy, Sherwood, 65, 75, 84, 178 Democratic Party, 13– 14, 128, 141, Eisenhower, Dwight, 137, 139, 154, 184 141, 150, 157, 163, 165 Index 279

Eliot, T. S., 4, 10, 22, 48, 79, 80, Frankfurt School, 133, 177 92– 93, 143 Friedman, Milton, 174 Elliot, Harrison Sacket, 48 Fuller, Daniel, 159 Ellul, Jacques, 8, 126, 130, 176 Fuller Seminary, 159 Episcopalians, 9, 10, 38, 43– 45, Fundamentalism. See conservative 48, 61. See also Anglicans; evangelicalism Anglo- Catholics Ethics and Economic Life studies, Gandhi, Mahatma, 71– 72, 75 131– 36 Germany, 30, 33, 62, 84, 149 Evangelical Catholicism, 10– 11, The Giant of the Western World 62, 80, 87, 89– 90, 98–99, (Millers), 34– 35 118, 129, 134– 35, 165, 171, Global South. See Two- Thirds 183– 85 World and Anglican Church, 3, 9– 10, glocalization, 8, 20 45, 59– 61 God and the Common Life Christian agnosticism and, 44– 45, (Calhoun), 58– 59, 133 57– 61, 68– 69 God and Man at Yale (Buckley), 152 definition of, 10, 57– 61, 68–69 God’s Totalitarianism and liberal evangelicalism, 10, 45 changed by the Cold War, 11, and Roman Catholicism, 3, 9– 10, 108– 19, 123 45, 59– 61, 93, 108– 11, 165, Christian Realism and, 9– 11, 183– 85 89– 105 See also Christian Realism; God’s as countertotalitarianism, 2– 4, Totalitarianism 9– 11, 51, 78– 82, 129, 188 Everson v. Board of Education and Evangelical Catholicism, 10, (1947), 117– 18 45, 61, 64, 69, 72, 80, 87, 89, 98– 99 Faith and Order Movement, 50–51 and the new Christendom, 10, 90, Falwell, Jerry, 164 92– 95, 105, 108, 112, 118 Family Assistance Plan, 174 in response to nationalism, 50– Federal Council of Churches (FCC), 51, 63– 64, 89, 99 1, 80, 82, 98– 99, 101, 103–4, in response to secularism, 50–51, 112, 113– 17, 151, 158, 161 61– 65, 90– 95 Fellowship of Reconciliation and the Responsible Society, 11, (FOR), 33 123– 29 Fellowship of Socialist Christians transnational nature of, 10, 78– (FSC), 32, 128, 147 82, 89– 95, 113– 17 feminist theology, 171 Goldwater, Barry, 155– 58, 163 Fight for Freedom (FFF), 86– 87, 100 Goodman, Paul, 168– 69, 170, 175 Fleming, Daniel J., 74, 104 Graham, Billy, 3, 15, 145, 158– 66, Ford, Gerald, R., 164 177 Fosdick, Harry Emerson, 24– 25, Gutting, Gary, 185– 87 44, 47, 58 Foucault, Michel, 68, 177 Habits of the Heart (Bellah), 178 280 Index

Hamilton, William, 172 identity politics, 157, 185 Harkness, Georgia, 48, 91, 134 Industrial Councils, 132 Harrington, Michael, 175 International Missionary Council Hartz, Louis, 12, 144 (IMC), 50– 51, 71– 72, 75, 82, Harvard Divinity School (HDS), 2, 138– 40 159 Hauerwas, Stanley, 181– 82 James, William, 21, 26, 39, 40, 173, Hayden, Tom, 166, 169– 75 176 Hayek, Friedrich, 100, 152, 163 Jameson, Fredric, 177 Held, David, 187– 88 John XXIII (Pope), 180 Henry, Carl F. H., 158– 64 Jones, E. Stanley, 2, 9– 10, 71–72, Herberg, Will, 111, 146– 47 74– 75, 77, 78, 89 “high church.” See liturgical “Just and Durable Peace” revolution movement, 103– 4 “higher form of collectivism,” 10, 51. See also God’s Kagawa, Toyohiko, 75 Totalitarianism Kaufman, Arnold, 170 Highlander Folk School, 65, 178 Kellogg- Briand Pact, 76 Hocking, William Ernest, 77 Kemp, Jack, 164 Hofstadter, Richard, 156 Kennan, George, 107, 112, 114– 15, Hook, Sidney, 32, 98, 153 178 Hoover, Herbert, 12, 29, 32 Kierkegaard, Soren, 64 Horton, Walter Marshall, 7, 26, 28– King, Martin Luther, Jr., 161–62, 29, 66, 82, 98, 123, 159– 60, 169 180 The Kingdom of God in America and adaptive traditionalism, (Niebuhr), 67– 68 59– 61 Christian Realism of, 6– 8, 48– 49, Kirk, Russell, 3, 12– 13, 15, 143– 56 152 Kolko, Gabriel, 175– 76 on ecumenical communities, Koo, T. Z., 76 135– 36 Koop, C. Everett, 164 and Evangelical Catholicism, 45, Kraemer, Hendrick, 82 56, 57, 59– 61, 62– 63, 87, 108 Labour Party (British), 14, 30 mass society criticism of, 23, 148 Lasch, Christopher, 4, 133, 168, medievalism of, 82– 83, 92 175– 76, 178, 185–86 and the new missions, 75 Latourette, Kenneth Scott, 81, 110, and religious realism, 39–41 112, 117 Hromadka, Joseph, 114 liberal evangelicalism Christian Realism and, 5– 9, 49 The Idea of a Christian Society definition of, 5– 6, 24– 26 (Eliot), 10, 92– 93 and ecumenism, 9, 14, 71– 87, Ideas Have Consequences (Weaver), 166 148 and the social gospel, 6, 21 Index 281 liberalism Maritain, Jacques, 92, 93, 98, 115, classical (libertarian), 12– 13, 130, 119 143– 56, 174 Martin, Hugh, 84 Cold War, 12, 14, 108, 113, 125, Marxism, 5, 13, 49– 50, 133, 177 127– 28, 131, 132, 152 “Massive Resistance,” 156– 58 and democratic Progressivism, 3, mass society criticism, 1, 15– 16, 12, 23– 24, 29, 61– 62 20– 24, 29, 79– 80, 123– 29, modern (strong- state), 3, 12, 61, 148– 52, 176 62, 99, 100, 153– 54 McCarthyism, 116, 146, 155 and neoliberalism, 144 McGregor, Daniel A., 49, 60– 61 and new conservatives, 13, 15– McIntire, Carl, 165 16, 143– 58 McNeill, John T., 80 New Deal, 15, 61– 64, 99, 146, The Meaning of Revelation 153– 54 (Niebuhr), 104– 5 the New Right and, 147, 155– 58, medievalism, 10– 11, 15, 44–45, 163 79– 80, 92– 95, 96– 98, 112, radical, 167– 75 127, 129, 136– 37, 157– 58, and socialism, 23– 24, 100, 129 181, 187– 88 See also conservativism; socialism Megalopolis, 19– 20, 180 The Liberal Tradition in America Meyer, Frank, 147– 48, 154– 55 (Hartz), 144 Middle Ages. See medievalism Life and Work movement, 50– 51, middle axioms, 80 72– 73, 78– 82, 94– 95 military- industrial complex, 19, 101, Lippmann, Walter, 23, 31, 47, 114– 115– 17, 145, 150 15, 149 Miller, Francis Pickens, 7, 14, 48, liturgical revolution, 8, 9– 10, 68, 134, 135 37– 38, 43– 47, 57– 61, 91, on Americanization, 34– 35, 86, 95, 165, 183– 85. See also 98– 99 Christian Realism; Evangelical anti- imperialism of, 76– 77, 85 Catholicism on Catholicism, 35– 36, 55– 56, Luce, Henry, 85, 99, 126 179– 80 Lyman, Eugene, 40–41 Christian Realism of, 21, 35–36, 48 and civil rights, 156– 58 Macintosh, D. C., 39– 41, 48, 49, as a fundamentalist, 42 56, 75 influence on ecumenical politics, Mackay, John A., 75– 76, 80, 81, 9, 50– 51, 72, 81, 128 91– 92, 95, 98, 110, 116, 126, as mass society critic, 22, 30, 148, 159 179– 80 Mainline Protestantism. See liberal on participatory democracy, 34, evangelicalism 63– 64, 129– 30, 163 The Making of Europe (Dawson), 79 political career of, 32, 85–87, The Managerial Revolution 113, 116, 128, 141, 156– 57 (Burnham), 100, 176 student Christian leadership of, Mandela, Nelson, 141 29, 34– 36, 50, 76– 77 282 Index

Miller, Francis Pickens (continued) Neoorthodoxy, 6– 7, 9, 45– 47, 57, as World War II interventionist, 60, 158, 171 84– 87 Neo- Thomism, 96–98 Miller, Helen Hill, 22, 33– 34, 63 The New American Right (Bell), 156 Mills, C. Wright, 170 new Christendom, 10, 90, 92–95, Ministry of Information (MOI), 84, 112, 118, 127. See also God’s 103– 4, 112 Totalitarianism; “Christian “mixed economy,” 131– 32 civilization” modernization theory, 13, 71– 72, new conservativism, 3, 13– 16, 115 30– 31, 62, 143– 58. See also The Moot, 93 conservativism Moral Man and Immoral Society New Deal, 61– 64, 100, 101, 113, (Niebuhr), 32– 33, 36, 48, 73, 115, 146, 184 157, 173 new evangelicalism, 3, 13, 15, Morrison, Charles Clayton, 57– 58, 158– 66, 182 84, 92, 110, 160 The New Humanists, 47– 48 Mott, John R., 28, 34, 38, 47– 48, New Left, 13, 15– 16, 23, 149, 166, 73, 74, 78, 84 167– 78 Mugabe, Robert, 140 new missions, 71– 73, 73– 78 Mumford, Lewis, 19– 20, 25, New Monasticism, 31, 185 30– 31, 44– 45, 85, 96, 125, The New Radicalism in America 126, 148 (Lasch), 176 New Right, 14, 147, 155– 58, 163, National Association of Evangelicals 168, 183 (NAE), 158– 63 “New York Intellectuals,” 4, 57 National Conference of Christians Niebuhr, H. Richard, 2, 7, 26, 31, and Jews (NCCJ), 78, 83 117, 179 National Council of Churches on Catholicism, 46– 47, 67, 108 (NCC), 2, 138, 151, 158, 161, as Christian agnostic, 65, 67– 68, 163, 165, 169, 174, 179, 184 105 Nationalism. See God’s Christian existentialism of, 40, Totalitarianism 64– 65, 69, 77 National Policy Committee (NPC), as critic of ecumenism, 68, 104– 5 63, 103 and Neoorthodoxy, 46, 64– 65, National Preaching Mission, 98 140– 41 National Resources Planning Board public theology of, 61, 64– 65, (NRPB), 61, 100 67– 68, 140– 41 National Review, 15, 147– 48, 152, Niebuhr, Reinhold, 2, 6, 30, 102, 153, 155– 56 107– 8, 117– 19, 125– 29, The Nature and Destiny of Man 133– 34, 141 (Niebuhr), 96– 98 and Catholicism, 37– 38, 66, 67, Nehru, Jawaharlal, 76, 138– 39 110, 118 Neoconservativism, 3, 14– 15, 140, Christian existentialism of, 40, 155, 174– 75 64– 66, 96 Index 283

and Christianity and Crisis, 84– 85, Organization of Protestants and 100, 125, 128 Other Americans United for and Christian Realism, 6, 8– 9, Separation of Church and State 152 (POAU), 110 as Cold War liberal, 13, 108, Orthodox churches, 8, 114, 139, 164 113– 17 Otto, Rudolph, 45– 46 as democratic Progressive, 27, 29 Oxford Movement, 43–44 deradicalization of, 62, 100– 101, Oxnam, G. Bromley, 116, 126, 132 130– 32, 157, 173 on Edmund Burke, 13, 146– 47, Pacific Coast Theological Group, 91 157 Parsons, Edward L., 49 medievalism of, 96– 98, 158 participatory democracy, 2– 3, 6, 15– on natural law, 66, 96 16, 23– 24, 25, 48, 61– 64, 90, as a neoconservative, 3, 14–15, 95, 124– 36, 150–56, 169– 71, 175, 178 184, 187– 88 and new conservatives, 13, 30, Paton, Alan, 139 145– 58 Pauck, Wilhelm, 49, 61, 90– 91 on the new evangelicalism, Peale, Norman Vincent, 160– 62 158– 66 Peirce, Charles Sanders, 26 and original sin, 33, 65– 66, 79, Pentecostals, 163, 180 157– 58, 175 personalism, 6, 26– 27, 30, 40–41, political realism of, 21, 29, 31–33, 151– 52, 169, 176 84– 85, 98– 99, 103–4, Pittinger, W. Norman, 61 131– 32, 155 Pius XII (Pope), 103, 109– 10, 118 Nisbet, Robert, 15, 149– 53, 155, Point Four programs, 138 166, 170, 173 populism, 15, 155– 58, 162– 63, Nixon, Richard, 158, 174, 180 168, 169, 182, 185. See also Nkrumah, Kwame, 140 conservativism Nolde, O. Frederick, 138 post- Christian, 90, 123 Non- Aligned Movement (NAM), postfundamentalism. See new 11, 76, 125, 140 evangelicalism Novak, Michael, 175 postliberal theology, 181– 82 postmodernism, 8, 68– 69, 171, Ockenga, Harold John, 159–63 176– 78, 179 Oldham, J. H., 48, 50, 74, 78– 82, poststructuralism, 68– 69, 176– 78, 93, 105, 114, 124, 125– 29, 182, 186 131, 132– 36, 152, 179 pragmatism, 25– 26, 38, 39– 41, 45, Old Left, 4, 62, 169, 186– 87 56, 147, 172, 173, 176 old Protestant left, 2–4, 5, 13, Pragmatism (James), 26 16, 26, 45, 51, 61, 64, 82, A Preface to Morals (Lippmann), 47 125, 153, 166, 185. See also premillennialism. See conservative Christian Realism evangelicalism “order of conservation,” 12, 129, Princeton Theological Seminary 169 (PTS), 80, 159 284 Index

The Problem of Christianity (Royce), Roman Catholicism, 3, 8– 10, 27, 28 38, 43– 45, 55, 59–61, 69, Protestant—Catholic— Jew 89– 95, 103, 108– 11, 116, 132, (Herberg), 111 139, 149, 153, 165, 180, 187. The Public Philosophy (Lippmann), See also Evangelical Catholicism 149 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 12, 61– 62, 86, 101, 154 The Quest for Community (Nisbet), Roosevelt, Theodore, 24 149 Ropke, William, 143 Rorty, Richard, 68, 185– 87 radical liberals. See New Left; Rossiter, Clinton, 12– 13, 15, 146 liberalism Royce, Josiah, 21– 22, 28– 29, 45, Rauschenbusch, Walter, 6, 21, 61, 63, 169 26–28, 35, 45, 179, 185 Rural Electrification Administration Reagan, Ronald, 14, 157, 163– 64 (REA), 61, 130 Realistic Theology (Horton), 49 Russia. See Soviet Union religious realism, 38, 39– 42, 46, 75. See also Christian Realism Schaeffer, Francis, 163– 64 religious right. See conservative Schaeffer, Franky, 163– 65 evangelicalism Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr., 13, 113, 156 republicanism, philosophy of, 6, 24 scientific theology. See religious Republican Party, 100, 137, 154, realism; Christian realism 180, 184 secularism, 8, 47, 50, 61, 123, 187 Rerum Novarum, 27 secularization theory, 3, 82– 83, responsibility, 11, 123– 42, 150 171. See also secularism in the Cold War, 124, 126– 27 The Self and the Dramas of History and democratic Progressivism, (Niebuhr), 151– 52 11, 27, 125, 129– 30, 145 “separation of church and state,” as ecumenical ideal, 11, 80, 1– 2, 117– 19 125–29, 168 Smyth, Newman, 59, 61 See also Responsible Society; social gospel, 2, 6, 10, 20, 23– 24, Responsible World Society 26– 29, 45, 132, 186. See also Responsible Society, 11– 12, 14– 16, personalism; Christian Realism 123– 42, 145, 149, 150, 170 The Social Gospel and the Christian Responsible World Society, 11, Cultus (Morrison), 57 136– 41, 144 Socialism. See liberalism; Rethinking Missions (Hocking), 77 conservativism Reuther, Rosemary, 171 Socialist Party, 31– 32, 62 Richardson, Alan, 94 The Social Sources of Rieff, Phillip, 177– 78 Denominationalism (Niebuhr), Riverside Church (New York), 44– 45, 42, 46– 47 165 South Africa, 76, 139– 42 The Road to Serfdom (Hayek), 100, Southern Agrarians, 30– 31, 57, 79, 130 148, 153 Index 285

Soviet Union, 30, 33, 35, 62, 69, Toynbee, Arnold, 90, 112 100, 104, 108– 13, 137–38, transnational civil society, 136– 37, 144, 149 140, 187 Stevenson, Adlai, 13– 14, 141– 42, Troeltsch, Ernst, 40, 64, 67 150, 54 The True and Only Heaven (Lasch), Strauss, Leo, 149 185 strong- state liberalism. See liberalism Truman, Harry S., 108, 110–11, The Struggle for the World 112– 13, 118, 156 (Burnham), 147 Two- Thirds World, 3, 11, 71– 87, Student Christian Movement 115– 16, 127, 168, 171– 74 (SCM), 44 Students for a Democratic Society Union for Democratic Action (SDS), 166, 168– 71 (UDA), 100 Student Volunteer Movement Union Theological Seminary (UTS), (SVM), 28, 50, 75 23, 31, 37, 40, 71, 74, 93, Sunday, Billy, 42, 161 135, 160, 174 United Nations (UN), 103– 4, 115, Tawney, R. H., 79, 80 137, 155 Taylor, Myron, 109–10, 114 Universal Declaration on Human Temple, William, 30, 59– 61, 95, Rights, 115 100, 103 Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), Van Dusen, Henry Pitney, 7, 12, 61– 62, 115, 130, 153 29, 180 Theological Discussion Group, 6– 7, as Christian agnostic, 26, 41, 47– 51, 55, 61, 64, 68–69, 58– 59, 68 90– 91, 98, 103, 135, 152, as ecumenical leader, 9, 56, 71– 167– 68, 178– 80. See also 72, 79, 89, 94– 95, 103, 112, Christian Realism; World 123– 24, 129– 30, 139– 42 Council of Churches as Evangelical Catholic, 43, Theology Today, 90– 91 59– 61, 108, 110 “third way” politics, 4, 16, 130, and fundamentalism, 43 144 mass society criticism of, 22– 23, Thomas, M. M., 127, 138– 39 78– 79, 123 Thomas, Norman, 31– 32 medievalism of, 72, 93– 94, 150 Tillich, Paul, 2, 46, 49, 59, 64–69, and the new evangelicalism, 161, 79, 111– 12, 123, 132, 148, 164– 65 151, 159, 162, 169, 171, 177, politics of, 32, 71– 72, 81, 115 180 and the Theological Discussion tired radicalism, 13– 14, 125, 127, Group, 6– 7, 48– 49 172 as UTS President, 91, 93– 94, 174 totalitarianism, 9, 35– 36, 45, as World War II interventionist, 51, 83, 130, 143, 155. See 83– 87 also God’s Totalitarianism; Van Steere, Douglas, 49, 60, 134, countertotalitarianism 177 286 Index

Vatican II, 111, 180 and liberation theology, 140, Viereck, Peter, 15, 62, 146– 56, 173 168, 171– 73 Vietnam War, 173–74 and the Non- Aligned Movement, Visser ’t Hooft, Wilhelm A., 50– 51, 11, 140 76– 77, 94, 114, 124, 136–37, planning for, 50– 51, 78– 82, 138, 180 108– 11, 119 The Vital Center (Schlesinger), 13, and the Responsible Society, 113 11– 12, 123– 42, 144 vocation, 58– 59, 132–36, 163– 65 second general assembly of (Evanston), 129, 137, Wallace, Henry A., 63, 101, 113 139– 40, 149, 151 Ward, Harry, 31 tensions with the Two- Thirds Weaver, Richard, 15, 30– 31, World, 71– 87, 115–16, 130 148– 56 third general assembly of (New Weinstein, James, 175– 76 Delhi), 139 West, Cornell, 173 World’s Parliament of Religions, 74 What is Christianity? (Morrison), World’s Student Christian 92 Federation (WSCF), 28– 29, Wheaton College, 159 34– 36, 50, 63, 76–77, 78 Why Conservative Churches are World War I, 28– 29, 32, 39, 42, Growing (Kelley), 183 46, 78 Wilson, Woodrow, 28– 29, 35, 51, World War II, 45, 82– 87, 89– 105, 63, 76, 84 115, 126, 182 Women’s Liberation movements, 169, 171– 74 Yale Divinity School (YDS), 22, 40, World Christian Community, 10, 42, 91 73, 78– 82, 83, 86–87, 90, Yergan, Max, 76 108. See also World Council of “The Young Americans,” 4, 30, 79 Churches Young Americans for Freedom World Council of Churches (WCC), (YAF), 168– 69 28, 71, 84, 99, 103– 4, 118, “Younger Churches,” 71– 87, 127, 161, 178– 80, 182, 187 139– 41 countertotalitarianism of, 10– 11, “Younger Thinkers.” See 89– 95, 112– 17 Theological Discussion Group and economic development, Young Men’s Christian Association 138– 42 (YMCA), 28, 30, 43, 74 family values in, 151– 52 Youth for Christ (YFC), 160– 61 first general assembly of (Amsterdam), 111, 108– 11, Zimbabwe African National Union 123– 29, 131, 138, 142, 151 (ZANU), 140