Superpower Relations and the Cold War, 1941-1991

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SUPERPOWER RELATIONS AND THE COLD WAR, 1941-1991

CONTENTS

Quizzes & Completed Flowchart exam qu. quizzes

1: The origins of the Cold War, 1941-58

1.1a The Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam conferences 4 21 65

1.1b The creation of the Soviet sphere of influence 5 24 67

1.2a The Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan 6 26 68

1.2b The Berlin Crisis, 1948-49 7 29 70

1.3a The development of the nuclear arms race 8 32 72

1.3b Peaceful coexistence in the 1950s 9 34 73

1.3c The Hungarian Uprising, 1956 10 36 74

2: Cold War crises, 1958-70

2.1 The Berlin Crisis, 1958-63 11 39 76

2.2a The Bay of Pigs invasion, 1961 13 42 78

2.2b The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962 14 45 80

2.3 The Prague Spring, 1968 15 48 82

3: The end of the Cold War, 1970-91

3.1 Détente 16 51 84

3.2a The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan 17 54 86

3.2b Ronald Reagan and the ‘second’ Cold War 18 57 88

3.3a Gorbachev’s ‘New Thinking’ 19 59 89

3.3b The end of Soviet control over Eastern Europe 20 62 91

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DECISIONS MADE 1.1a: THE GRAND THE CONFERENCES 1. The USA and Britain agreed to open a ‘second front’ by launching an ALLIANCE, 1941- The Tehran Conference attack against Nazi Germany in Western Europe. This forced the

45 (November 1943) Germans to move troops from Eastern Europe, which helped the USSR.

The Grand Alliance met in Tehran to plan a strategy 2. Stalin agreed to help the USA fight Japan by supplying Soviet soldiers, to win the Second World War and defeat Nazi but only once Nazi Germany was defeated and the war in Europe over. Germany and its allies. Stalin was concerned that CAUSES Britain and America were delaying opening a 3. Agreed their aim was to ensure that Nazi Germany was defeated, and ‘second front’ against Nazi Germany in Western the country should remain weak after the war. The Second World Europe. He was currently suffering heavy losses War (1939-41) fighting the Nazis in Eastern Europe and wanted to 4. Agreed that an international organisation should be set up to use relieve the pressure on his army (4 million German negotiations and discussions to settle disputes, instead of war. The war broke out in soldiers had invaded the USSR in June 1941). September 1939. In 1941, 5. Agreed Poland would receive land from Germany after the war, and America and the USSR the USSR could keep land it had seized from Poland. entered the war on the side of Britain. They The Yalta Conference 1. Germany’s division into four zones of occupation after the war, each run formed the Grand (February 1945) by either the USA, USSR, Britain or France, was discussed Alliance against Nazi The ‘Big Three’ held a second conference in Yalta. Germany and its allies 2. Germany would pay reparations totalling £20 billion – half of this would By this time, it was clear that Germany was losing the (e.g. Japan). Franklin D. go to the USSR. The Nazi Party would be abolished. Roosevelt (USA), Winston war. The aim of the meeting was to decide how Churchill (GB) and Josef Europe would be governed after the war. While 3. Stalin agreed that the future governments of countries in Eastern Stalin (USSR) came to be many agreements were made, some Europe would be decided in free, democratic elections. known as the “Big disagreements arose: Three”. A series of • Poland: Stalin expected elections to a pro-communist 4. The borders of Poland would be returned to their 1921 position in 1921, Polish government, but Churchill supported the non- conferences took place giving the Soviet Union more territory. communist London Poles politicians (exiled in London between the allies. from 1939). • UN: Not all 16 Soviet republics could join the UN, only 5. The United Nations would be set up as a peace-making organisation. The PotsdamRussia, Belarus Conference and Ukraine. (July-August 1945) 6. Stalin would support the US against Japan 3 months after Germany’s defeat.

The situation had changed dramatically by the time the Potsdam Conference was held: Agreement (Germany): Germany and Berlin were divided into four • Roosevelt died in April 1945 and was replaced by President Harry S. Truman. zones of occupation (even though Berlin was in the Soviet zone). The • Churchill had lost the general election in 1945 and was replaced by Prime Minister Clement Attlee. economy was run as a whole. • Germany had completely surrendered in May 1945. • The USA had developed, and tested, an atomic bomb. Disagreement (Poland): Truman did not agree with the changes to • Soviet soldiers were occupying large areas of Eastern Europe, which they had freed Poland’sDisagreement border (Reparations) and giving the: Truman USSR didmore not territory want to (agreed weaken at Germany, Yalta). from Nazi rule. whereas Stalin wanted to place heavy reparations on the country. It

While agreements were made, further disagreements arose between the Grand Alliance, was agreed that each occupier would take reparations from its own increasing tensions between them. Truman was suspicious of Stalin’s aims for Eastern zone. As the USSR was in charge of the poorest zone, they could take a Europe, and he thought the atom bomb could be used as leverage. quarter of the industrial equipment from the other zones.

1.1b: THE SOVIET ‘SPHERE OFEVENTS INFLUENCE’ (1945-48) CONSEQUENCES

The Novikov Telegram

(September 1946) CAUSES THE CREATION OF THE Nikolai Novikov was a Soviet SOVIET ‘SPHERE OF politician working in Washington. America as a nuclear In September 1946, he sent a power (1945) INFLUENCE’ Kennan’s ‘long telegram’ telegram to Stalin saying that: (1945-48) (February 1946) • The USA wanted to use their On 6th and 9th August 1945, the military power to control the USA exploded atom bombs over Stalin’s main aim after the Second World War George Kennan was America’s world. the Japanese cities of Hiroshima was to ensure the USSR was secure ambassador in Moscow. As Stalin • Americans no longer wanted and Nagasaki, which killed (protected). He was determined to create a was setting up communist to cooperate with the Soviet 120,000 Japanese civilians. “buffer zone” of communist countries governments in Eastern Europe, Union. America was the only country between Germany and the Soviet Union. As Kennan sent a telegram to with nuclear weapons and they a result, the Eastern European counties freed President Truman in February had shown how powerful these from the Nazis by the Soviets were turned into 1946 giving his views about Soviet Increased tensions were. This made Stalin feel satellite states which had communist actions. He reported that: threatened and more governments and were controlled by Stalin • Stalin wanted to destroy Stalin and Truman became more determined to ensure the security and the USSR. The methods used to do so capitalism. suspicious of one another. It was (protection) of the USSR. were undemocratic. By 1948 all countries in • The Soviet Union would back clear that both the USA and the Eastern Europe, except Greece, were down if America put up strong USSR had different aims for communist and in the Soviet ‘sphere of resistance. Europe after the war. Neither side influence’. trusted what the other was aiming to do. The impact of the Second • Czechoslovakia: In February 1948, non- Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ World War communists were removed from power speech and a communist government was set up The Truman Doctrine • The USSR suffered severe losses (March 1946) that was loyal to the USSR. Other political during the Second World War (March 1947) parties were banned. Churchill visited the USA and (27 million deaths). The war was Truman eventually committed • Poland: After rigged elections in 1947, non- gave a speech in Fulton, Missouri. the second time Russia had the US to ‘containment’ – communist politicians were forced to flee He was no longer prime minister, been invaded by Germany in preventing the spread of Poland or face imprisonment. Poland too but was still a respected the early-20th century. communism (see next page). became a communist country. politician. In response to the • In 1944 and 1945, the Soviet • Bulgaria: Communists won the 1945 expansion of communism in The USSR was more Red Army freed many countries elections. They then executed leaders of Eastern Europe, he accused determined in Eastern Europe from the the other parties, turning Bulgaria into a Stalin of threatening world peace Nazis, as it advanced towards The Soviet Union became even completely communist state. and freedom and causing Germany. Stalin was therefore more determined to establish a Europe to be divided. in a position to keep control of ‘sphere of influence’, following the increased tensions with the these countries after the war. West. Stalin felt even more that he needed security from the West.

CAUSES 1.2a: THE TRUMAN DOCTRINE AND MARSHALL PLAN CONSEQUENCES

The Soviet takeover of Stalin’s reaction to the Eastern Europe Why did President Truman begin a policy of containment in 1947? Marshall Plan By 1947, the USSR had • Truman was suspicious of Stain’s aims. Countries in Eastern Europe had already fallen Stalin believed the Truman created a sphere of to communism, and Truman feared that Stalin would continue to spread Doctrine and Marshall Plan communism beyond Eastern Europe. This would threaten the interests of the West, influence in Eastern Europe showed how the USA was by setting up communist who believed in democracy and capitalism. Therefore, he took a stand against the trying to gain influence in governments in many USSR, and committed America to containment (preventing the spread of communism). Eastern European countries. Europe and divide Europe in • Truman came under pressure from politicians in the West (e.g. Kennan) to take a This included Poland, two. The Plan meant that strong stand against the USSR. Western European countries Hungary and Bulgaria. • The USA was the only country in the West that was in a position to give aid and depended on the USA for aid support to countries (e.g. Greece) to prevent communism from spreading. and so they had to support Kennan’s Long America. Stalin called this Telegram (Feb 1946) THE TRUMAN DOCTRINE THE MARSHALL PLAN ‘dollar imperialism’.

This said to Truman that the (12th March 1947) (1948-52) USSR intended to spread Truman made a speech in which he said that: America provided economic aid to The creation of Cominform communism throughout • Communism should not be allowed to spread help war-torn countries in Europe in (September 1947) Europe, but would back further – the USA would give military and order to stop communism from This was a political organisation down if they faced strong economic aid to countries at risk of turning taking over. Between 1948 and 1952, created by Stalin. Its members resistance. communist. the USA gave $12.7 billion of aid to were the communist • The US would send money and soldiers to countries in Europe. governments of Eastern Europe. Greece. This gave Stalin a way of The Greek Civil War • Choosing democracy over communism was Only countries in Western Europe controlling these governments The British had been giving like choosing good over evil. This was received this money because Stalin (e.g. he encouraged them not to money and military support Truman’s first public attack on the way of life banned communist countries from contact non-communist to the Greek government to of the USSR. accepting it. countries). help them fight against This began a new policy that The creation of Comecon communists. However, by became known as containment (preventing the spread of (January 1949) 1947 Britain said it could no This was an economic longer afford to do this. communism). Why did the USA believe the Marshall Plan would stop the spread of organisation made up of communist countries of Eastern communism? The state of the Europe. It aimed to support the European economy Lots of counties in Europe were damaged by the war. The USA believed that economic growth of these As a result of World Wqr Two, communism was more likely to spread in countries where people were countries (e.g. by arranging and many European countries experiencing poverty and hardship. They believed that communist ideas (e.g. encouraging trade with each were in ruins with homes, more equality) would be more appealing than capitalist ideas in these other). For instance, Bulgaria’s circumstances. Therefore, the USA wanted to help develop the economies of trade with other Comecon factories, roads and railways destroyed. Britain was almost damaged countries in Europe in order to stop people from turning towards members increased from 10% in bankrupt. communism. the 1930s to over 90% by 1951.

CONSEQUENCES CAUSES 1.2b: THE BERLIN CRISIS (1948-49) Damage to Stalin’s reputation

No agreement was made The Berlin Airlift showed how the West was not going to give up West Berlin. Stalin was forced to over the future of Germany th EVENTS remove the blockade on 9 May 1949 – his plan After the war, the West and the had failed. Stalin was seen as an aggressive

USSR disagreed over the future of leader who had threatened the lives of millions of Germany. Stalin wanted to weaken West Berliners. Germany, protect the USSR, and THE BERLIN take as much as they could from its Permanent division of Germany (1949) zone to help the USSR recover from AIRLIFT the war. In contrast, the West (24th June 1948 - 9th The events of the Berlin blockade showed the wanted to rebuild Germany’s May 1949) West how they were not going to come to an economy. This increased tensions THE BERLIN agreement with the USSR over Germany and between the West and USSR. Talks The West responded to the Berlin. Therefore, they set up the Federal Republic broke down in December 1947. BLOCKADE Berlin blockade by of Germany (West Germany) just 3 days after the (24th June 1948 - 9th introducing the Berlin Airlift. blockade. In response, the USSR created the May 1949) They flew supplies into West German Democratic Republic (East German) in The merging of the Western Berlin. They did this September 1949. As a result, Germany was th zones of Germany On 24 June 1948, Stalin because: permanently divided. blockaded all transport, • Truman wanted to show

Because talks had broken down, communication links and that he was committee the USA and Britain decided to join The creation of NATO (April 1949) supply lines into West to containment. their zones in Germany in January Berlin. This stopped the • They believed Stalin The Berlin blockade helped to persuade the West 1947. This created ‘Bizonia’. In West from accessing the would not shoot down that a military alliance was needed to protect March 1948, the French zone also city and giving essential the planes and provoke the West against the Soviet Union. In April 1949, joined ‘Bizonia’, which made supplies to the 2 million war. they formed the North Atlantic Treaty ‘Trizonia’. They began to re- West Berliners. • They needed to protect Organisation (NATO). All members of NATO develop the German economy, the West Berliners. agreed to protect one another if threatened by and introduced a new currency In January 1949, 170,000 the Soviet Union. called theStalin’s Deutschemark. concerns tonnes of supplies were flown into West Berlin. Stalin did not want Germany to be Planes landed every 3 to 4 divided or economically strong. He The creation of the Warsaw Pact (1955) minutes. worried that: In 1955, West Germany joined NATO. Stalin felt • People in the Soviet zone would particularly vulnerable, as West Germany was try to move west if it became now armed and powerful. Therefore, Stalin richer. This would make formed an equivalent military alliance of communism look bad. communist countries, called the Warsaw Pact, • A strong Germany could which was directly controlled by the USSR. threaten the security of the Members included Poland, Czechoslovakia and

USSR. Hungary.

CAUSES 1.3a: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONSEQUENCES NUCLEAR ARMS RACE (1945-57) America’s development of Nuclear destruction the atom bomb (1945) Both the USA and the USSR had the nuclear • In July 1945, the USA power capable of destroying the world a number successfully tested the atomic EVENTS of times over. bomb. • On 6th and 9th August 1945, the USA exploded atom Mutually assured destruction (M.A.D.) bombs over the Japanese THE NUCLEAR ARMS RACE Nuclear weapons became deterrents, rather cities of Hiroshima and (1949-1958) than weapons used in wars. It was believed that Nagasaki, which killed 120,000 The USA’s development of the atomic bomb having nuclear weapons would stop a rival from Japanese civilians. America made Stalin feel threatened. He was going to war, as it would risk the outbreak of a was the only country with determined to match the USA’s nuclear power, nuclear war and complete annihilation. Nuclear nuclear weapons and they and exceed it. After 1945, Soviet scientists weapons therefore discouraged the US and USSR had shown how powerful worked to develop their own atom bomb, from declaring war on each another. these were. which they successfully tested on 22nd August 1949. This led to the rise of the nuclear arms race – the competition between the USA and the Cost of the arms race

USSR to have the most powerful nuclear The USA and the USSR were spending huge weapons and technology. amounts of money on the nuclear arms race. Timeline of the nuclear arms race: Because of this, they began to see the benefits of Increased tensions after • 1952: The USA tested the hydrogen bomb – improving relations with each other, so they 1945 1000x more powerful than the atom bomb. could free up money to invest in their own • 1953: The USSR also tested the hydrogen economies. The different aims of the USA and bomb. the USSR (e.g. Stalin’s want to • 1957: The USA developed Intercontinental create a ‘sphere of influence’) ballistic missiles (ICBMs), which could hit a led to increased suspicion and target more than 4500km away. A few Meetings between the USA and the USSR tensions between the two months later, the USSR also began testing countries. The Berlin Blockade ICBMs. In 1953, President Eisenhower and Nikita had also shown Stalin’s willingness Khrushchev became leaders of the USA and the to take aggressive action. This USSR. They both recognised the dangers posed made both countries want to by nuclear weapons, and the significant cost of protect themselves and therefore the arms race. Both leaders therefore made be superior in the nuclear arms efforts to improve relations and reduce tensions: race. • 1955: An agreement was made over Austria. • 1955: A meeting took place in Geneva for the first time in 10 years (although no agreements were made).

CAUSES 1.3b: THE ERA OF ‘PEACEFUL COEXISTENCE’ IN THE 1950s

The cost of the nuclear arms race EVENTS CONSEQUENCES

• Both the USA and the USSR were Improved relations between the spending huge amounts of money ‘PEACEFUL COEXISTENCE’ on the nuclear arms race. USA and the USSR (1953-1956) • Both sides knew that reducing their For the first time since the start of the Cold spending on the military would be The rise of Eisenhower: In 1953, President Eisenhower became leader of War, both the USA and the USSR took good for their economy. the USA. He was strongly anti-communist and was also determined to significant steps to improve relations • Eastern European countries in prevent the spread of communism. However, he recognised the threat between the two countries. Both showed particular were experiencing posed by nuclear weapons and the importance of reducing tensions their willingness to negotiate with each shortages, and the USSR wanted to between the two countries. other in order to reduce the likelihood of free up money to improve the living The rise of Khrushchev: In 1953, Josef Stalin died and Nikita Khrushchev a nuclear war. standards of people living in soon rose as the new leader of the USSR. Khrushchev strongly criticised communist countries. Stalin’s policies and introduced a new policy of “de-Stalinisation” (removing Stalin’s legacy). He believed that East-West relations needed Continuing tensions between the to improve and introduced a policy of ‘peaceful coexistence’ – USA and the USSR The prospect of nuclear war allowing both East and West to exist peacefully. Despite taking steps to improve their The arms race had escalated from Therefore, both leaders were committed to improving relations relations, a number of events took place 1949. Both the USA and the USSR between their two countries. This resulted in a number of agreements in the 1950s that showed that tensions still recognised the dangers posed by made in 1955: existed between the USA and the USSR: nuclear weapons, and the • 1955: An agreement to unite Austria and make it an independent The creation of the Warsaw Pact (1955): destruction that a nuclear war would • country. Like Germany, Austria had been divided into four zones In May 1955, the Federal Republic of cause. They therefore believed that after the Second World War. Germany (West Germany) joined steps needed to be taken to improve NATO. This made the USSR feel US-Soviet relations, in order to reduce • The Geneva Summit (July 1955): For the first time in 10 years, the threatened, as it meant that West the possibility of a nuclear war leaders of the USA and the USSR met in Geneva to discuss key issues. Germany was now armed and breaking out. Although, no agreements were made. The Korean War (1950-53) powerful. In response, the USSR created Warsaw Pact, which was a In 1950, communist North Korea military alliance made up of invaded South Korea (who was allied communist countries in Eastern Europe. to the USA). Both the USA and the This meant that the USSR had huge USSR supported their allies in the war, amounts of influence over the armies but did not fight each other directly. of countries in Eastern Europe. The war finally ended in 1953. Both the • The Hungarian Uprising (1956): The USA USA and USSR recognised how easy it condemned the Soviet response to the was for them both to become Hungarian Uprising in 1956. involved in a conflict, and wanted to prevent this from happening again.

CAUSES 1.3c: THE HUNGARIAN UPRISING (1956) CONSEQUENCES

Protest in Hungary Why could Khrushchev not allow Hungary to leave the Warsaw Pact? Khrushchev strengthened

The people of Hungary The USSR wanted a buffer zone of pro-communist countries around it to The Hungarian Uprising made began to protest about: Khrushchev’s position in the provide security / protection. If Hungry broke away from the Warsaw • Lack of political freedom Pact, other eastern European countries might do the same. That would Soviet Union and in the • Fuel shortages reduce the buffer zone and therefore the USSR’s security. Warsaw Pact stronger. Other • Poor harvests member countries knew they

In October 1956, there were EVENTS must do as they were told. If riots in the capital, Budapest, they rebelled, they knew they which led to clashes with the THE HUNGARIAN The Soviet Union re-established would face a Soviet invasion, police. control and could not expect military UPRISING support from the USA. The invading Soviet army acted with great (November 1956) Khrushchev also became New prime minister brutality and killed an estimated 20,000 On 1 November 1956, Nagy announced Hungarians as they re-established control. A more confident in dealing with Soviet troops restored order, that Hungary would leave the Warsaw new pro-communist government was set up the USA because he knew and Khrushchev put in place Pact. Khrushchev could not allow this to under Janos Kadar. they were unlikely to risk taking a new prime minister, Imre happen, so ordered a Soviet invasion of military action. Nagy and his supporters sought safety. They Nagy. Hungary were promised a safe journey out of the Nagy believed that even in a On 4 November 1956, 1,000 Soviet tanks country, but when they came out of hiding The West appeared weak communist country, people rolled into Budapest. they were kidnapped by Soviet agents and should have some personal Nagy was executed. The USA and its allies had Nagy’s supporters put up a fight in what freedoms. Khrushchev encouraged communist hoped that making Nagy has become known as the Hungarian countries to stand up to the USSR. prime minister would end the Uprising. They begged the West for E.g. Radio Free Europe was a US- protests. support, but no support came. funded radio station that broadcast messages to the Nagy’s reforms people of Eastern Europe

Some NATO countries took in encouraging them to rise up. Nagy included members of Khrushchev described Nagy’s Hungarian refugees, but no military However, in Hungary, they had non-communist parties in the death as a ‘lesson to the leaders Hungarian government, support was given to Nagy. Why do not backed up their words with of all Socialist [communist] militaryIncreasing support. tension between ending the one-party state. you think this was the case? He also released many countries’. Why was this? the USA and the USSR The USA had a policy of containment. political prisoners and He was warning eastern European Even though the USA did not take They would use military action to persuaded Khrushchev to countries to do as they were told military action to support Nagy prevent the USSR from spreading withdraw Soviet troops. by Moscow, and remain part of against the USSR, America had Khrushchev was prepared to communism, but would not interfere in the Warsaw Pact. If not, they strongly opposed the Soviet accept these reforms if they an existing communist country. A invasion of Hungary. This would be treated in the same way ended the protests in military attack on a Soviet satellite increased tension between the as Nagy. Hungary. state could trigger a nuclear war. two superpowers.

CAUSES 2.1: THE BERLIN CRISIS (1958-63) CONSEQUENCES

Economic differences THE BERLIN WALL (1961) EVENTS OF THE BERLIN CRISIS, 1958-63 West Germany received Increasing tensions at the talks Marshall Aid and so became Summit meetings of 1959-61 meant that more East Germans a prosperousTHE BERLIN country during ULTIMATUM decided to cross to the West, just the 1950s, (November with a high 1958) 1. Geneva (May 1959): No agreement in case Khrushchev decided to standard of living. was reached about how Berlin close the border. On one day alone, 40,000 East Germans East Germany received less should be governed. Khrushchev decided the answer crossed to the West. aid fromwas the for USSR the and whole the of Berlin to 2. Camp David (September 1959): government’sbecome part economic of the surrounding Eisenhower and Khrushchev met On the night of 12 August 1961, policiesterritory were of unsuccessful. East Germany. This would face-to-face. There was no East German soldiers built a As a make result, it Eastharder Germans the East Germans to agreement, but the USSR did agree barbed wire fence around Berlin sufferedget from into a West low standardGermany. to withdraw the Ultimatum. The and between East and West of living and shortages of meeting began to establish better Berlin. basic goods. relations. Khrushchev therefore issued an By Reaction the end of from the the summer, West this ultimatum to try to force the West to 3. Paris (May 1960): Before the had been turned into a 165km The West criticised the building of leave Berlin. Khrushchev meeting, the USSR announced that concrete wall, dividing East Berlin the wall, but there was no direct Politicaldemanded differences that: they had shot down an American U- from West Berlin and preventing action to stop its construction. The Communist• Berlin should regime be in demilitarised 2 spy plane. Eisenhower refused to refugees from crossing from East However, the wall showed that East Migrationand Germany Western troops was withdrawn apologise, saying spying missions Berlin to West Berlin. Khrushchev had been forced to unpopular• Berlin as should there become were a free city were unavoidable. Khrushchev Many East Germans chose to accept western control in West many restrictions on what walked out of the meeting. leave The home West and had move six months to to make Berlin. This increased Kennedy’s ordinary people could say 4. Vienna (June 1961): Khrushchev took West Germany,the changes as they or Khrushchevknew would reputation, and he was praised and do. They were also a tougher stance, as America had a the qualityhand over of lifecontrol in West of all routes into for standing firm and allowing constantly monitored by the new, inexperienced president (John GermanyBerlin was to much East Germany.higher. This would West Berlin to remain a symbol of secret police. F. Kennedy). The USSR renewed the By 1958,force the 3 Western million powers East to talk to freedom and defiance against Ultimatum, but Kennedy refused to Germansthe (over East a sixth German of the government, communism. This was celebrated give in as he did not want to seem population)recognising had crossed it as an to independent when thousands of West Berliners weak. The meeting again ended the West.country. Many of them were turned out to see Kennedy give with no final decision. skilled workers, needed in his famous speech, saying ‘Ich

East Germany to help rebuild bin ein Berliner’ (‘I am a citizen of the economy. Berlin’).

CAUSES 2.2a: THE BAY OF PIGS INVASION (1961) CONSEQUENCES

Cuban Revolution American humiliation In January 1959, Fidel Castro Background: US-Cuba relations before 1959 It became obvious that America overthrew Batista and took America had significant influence over Cuba before 1959. had been involved in the Bay of control of Cuba. Castro was • Cuba was ruled by Fulgencio Batista, who was supported by the USA. Pugs invasion, so it became a a nationalist who did not • American businesses had invested lots of money in Cuba, and owned much of the land. • Cuba’s oil, electricity and phone networks and railways were controlled by Americans. humiliating failure for the USA. want his country’s economy • America bought lots of Cuba’s main export, sugar. to be under American America also appeared control. hypocritical. They had accused EVENTS: THE ‘BAY OF PIGS’ INVASION the USSR of trying to spread their influence in Eastern Europe. Now it Nationalisation (April 1961) looked like the Americans were acting in exactly the same way: In May 1959, the Cuban When Kennedy became president, he wanted to take action to prevent the supporting armed uprisings in order government took over all the USSR having a Communist ally so close to the USA. He approved a CIA plan to to restore their influence in an land in Cuba owned by train Cuban exiles to launch an invasion and overthrow Castro. independent country. foreign nationals. The US On 17 April 1961, 1,400 Cuban exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba. The government refused to attempted coup was a complete failure: recognise the scheme, but i. The Cuban exiles had little military experience. Castro took the land ii. The US could not use American soldiers or air attacks to support the anyway. Communism looked better attack, as they wanted the invasion to look like a Cuban effort. iii. Castro’s government found out about the invasion plans. There were The Soviet Union was quick to point 20,000 Cuban soldiers waiting to fight the exiles when they landed. out that the people of Cuba were Communism happy under the leadership of the iv. The USA wrongly thought most Cuban would support the invasion. But Castro began appointing many Cubans were happy with Castro. pro-communist Castro, and they communists to his had shown little support for the government. In February Why did the USA take action against Why did the CIA use Cuban exiles, Cuban exiles’ attempt to restore 1960, he made an Castro’s reforms? rather than US soldiers, in the American influence. Khrushchev agreement with the USSR: invasion? said this clearly showed that The USA was very concerned about a pro- Khrushchev agreed to buy Soviet regime being established so close to Sending Cuban exiles made the attack communism was popular. Cuban sugar and provide America (Cuba was just 145km from the look like Cuban people rising up against economic aid. There was American mainland) and in America’s Castro. This made Castro, and therefore Stronger relations between also a secret clause saying sphere of influence. Communism spreading communism, look unpopular. so close to America weakened their global Cuba and the USSR Cuba would receive arms Using Cuban exiles meant that the USA image. Castro declared himself a from the USSR. could claim not to have been involved. American response The USA took action in an attempt to America didn’t want other countries to communist and asked Khrushchev pressure Cuba into ending their relationship know that they were trying to control to help him defend Cuba against In October 1960, Eisenhower with the USSR and accept American and influence the way an independent any future attack from the USA. banned all trade with Cuba. influence again. country was ruled. In January 1961, the USA In September 1961, Khrushchev broke off diplomatic relations publicly announced that he would with Cuba. provide arms to Cuba.

CONSEQUENCES CAUSES 2.2b: THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS Bay of Pigs (1961) (1962) Reduced tension

Why was it so important for the USSR to keep Cuba communist? America had shown that they wanted to Four steps were taken to prevent overthrow Castro. Khrushchev didn’t If the Americans overthrew Castro and gained influence once again in Cuba, future misunderstandings leading to it would be another defeat for communism. This would undermine the USSR’s want to let this happen, as it would be war: global reputation and image, making them appear weaker. i. In June 1963, a direct another defeat for communism. Khrushchev was particularly keen to avoid this after an apparent defeat for communications line was set up Therefore, the USSR put missiles on Cuba communism in Berlin: he had needed to build the Berlin wall in 1961 to prevent migration from East to West. He had accepted western influence in West between Washington and to protect Cuba from another American Berlin. Moscow. attack and keep it communist. ii. In August 1963, a Test Ban Treaty was signed. The US, USSR and GB agreed to ban the testing of Berlin nuclear weapons in outer space, EVENTS: THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS the atmosphere, or underwater. The building of the Berlin Wall in 1961 was (16-28 October 1962) seen by many as a failure for iii. In 1967, the Outer Space Treaty Khrushchev, as he had had to accept 16 October: Kennedy called together an Executive Committee was signed. The USA and USSR that West Germany would keep control (ExComm) to discuss how the USA should react. They met every day agreed not to use space for of West Berlin. Therefore, Khrushchev for thirteen days. military purposes. wanted to gain a victory in Cuba to 22 October: Kennedy decided not to launch an attack. Instead, he iv. In 1968, the Nuclear Non- improve his reputation. set up a naval blockade around Cuba. No ships could pass through Proliferation Treaty was signed to without US permission. Many expected the Soviet ships to ignore the stop the spread of nuclear Missiles in Turkey blockade – the USA would sink the ships, leading to war. Kennedy weapons. Countries agreed not prepared 54 bombers each with four nuclear warheads in case. to share their nuclear technology NATO had placed missiles in Turkey, a with other countries. short distance from the USSR. Therefore, 24 October: the Soviet ships reached the blockade, and turned around. Khrushchev placed missiles in Cuba so America felt as threatened as the USSR 26 October: Khrushchev sent Kennedy a telegram offering to remove Kennedy strengthened felt. Khrushchev also possibly hoped to the missiles if America didn’t invade. Kennedy had shown himself to be a use Missiles the missiles discovered as a bargaining in Cuba tool to 27 October: Khrushchev sent a second telegram saying he would strong leader, standing up to pressure America into removing missiles remove the missiles only if US missiles in Turkey were also removed. On 14 October 1962, an American U-2 Why couldn't Kennedy allow the Soviet Khrushchev and getting the missile from Turkey. Kennedy ignored the second telegram and agreed to the terms in the spy-plane took pictures of what seemed Union to place nuclear missiles on Cuba? sites removed from Cuba. His first telegram. Khrushchev accepted Kennedy’s reply on 28 October. popularityKhrushchev increased, weakened helped by the to be launch pads for medium-range Cuba was only 93 miles from America. ballistic missiles, which could carry Therefore, nuclear missiles on Cuba meant that Khrushchevfact the removal claimed of he missiles had from won nuclear warheads capable of doing most major US cities were within range. This theTurkey crisis, had asnot he been had made guaranteed public. huge damage to American cities. threatened the USA. Having missiles on Cuba Cuba’s security and kept it would also strengthen the Soviet Union’s communist. However, the Soviet President Kennedy was informed that position in the nuclear arms race. Kennedy military felt they had been forced Soviet ships ware sailing to Cuba, needed to avoid this at all costs in order to into a humiliating withdrawal. presumably carrying the missiles. make sure America remained superior. Khrushchev was dismissed in 1964.

CAUSES 2.3: THE PRAGUE SPRING (1968) CONSEQUENCES The Brezhnev Doctrine Lack of political freedom EVENTS OF THE Brezhnev set out a new doctrine In effect, Czechoslovakia was THE SOVIET INVASION which emphasised that members of ruled by the Soviet Union, PRAGUE SPRING (August 1968) the Warsaw Pact were under the which used the secret police to (from April 1968) After the reforms, Brezhnev close control of the Soviet Union. He maintain control. There was no remained in contact with said that: freedom of speech and radio, In January 1968, Alexander Dubcek was Dubcek, warning him not to newspapers and television elected as leader of the Czech • All communist countries would endanger communism by going were censored. government. The Soviets trusted him to be stopped from introducing too far. However, when Dubeck make the government more popular, reforms to make their country invited the leader of Romania to whilst staying loyal to the USSR. more liberal (free) or to gain Prague for talks, Brezhnev independence from Moscow. Economic problems Dubeck was a committed communist, decided to take action.

• This was because the actions of but believed it should not make The Czech economy was run On 20th August 1968, 500,000 one communist country people’s lives miserable. He therefore for the benefit of the Soviet Warsaw Pact troops, from East affected all communist introduced a series of reforms from April Union, so there were few Germany, Hungary and the USSR, countries, so any action that was 1968, known as the ‘Prague Spring’. consumer goods for the Czech invaded Czechoslovakia and a threat would have to be people. This meant that living These reforms included: ended the Prague Spring. stopped by all the Warsaw Pact standards were very low. • Reducing censorship and allowing countries (not just the USSR). Brezhnev ordered the Czech criticism of government action. army not to fight back, so there This was welcomed by many • Greater trade with the West. was little opposition to the communist governments, such as Stalin’s purges • Making it easier for Czechs to travel invasion. East Germany and Poland, as it abroad. Between 1949 and 1954, Stalin made them feel more sure that • Discussing the possibility of Dubeck was arrested and sent to forced the Czech government they would not be challenged by to carry out purges in democratic elections. Moscow. In 1969, Dubcek was reformers in their own countries. replaced by Gustav Husak as Czechoslovakia. The victims These reforms were very popular with included politicians leader of Czechoslovakia, who USA’s reputation weakened the Czech people, but the Soviet Union Why was Brezhnev so worried (democratic and communist), was very loyal to Moscow. The USA was outraged by the was concerned, even though Dubcek military leaders, Catholics, Jews about the Prague Spring? invasion of Czechoslovakia and reassured Brezhnev that and people with connections Czechoslovakia would remain in the Firstly, Brezhnev was concerned that protested strongly to the USSR. They to the West. Warsaw Pact. other Warsaw Pact countries would even tried to get the United Nations The rise of protests want similar reforms to those to formally criticise the invasion, but introduced by Dubeck in the USSR was able to veto (block) Protests against the low Czechoslovakia. Secondly, at the this. However, the USA did not take standard of living and lack of same time, Romania was refusing to direct action to oppose the freedom in Czechoslovakia attend Warsaw Pact meetings. invasion. Therefore, other countries grew. In 1966, student Brezhnev was worried Dubcek saw that whilst the USA was keen to demonstrations showed just would be influenced by Romania criticise the USSR, they were not how unpopular the communist and would also consider leaving the prepared to take action against government was. Warsaw Pact. them in Europe.

CAUSES 3.1: THE DÉTENTE OF THE 1970S Arms Race CONSEQUENCES Both the USA and the USSR had During the 1970s, both the USA and the USSR enough nuclear weapons to made a genuine attempt to have a more co- Reduction in tension (SALT 1) completely destroy their enemy. operative and stable relationship. This relaxation • It showed that both the USA and the USSR wanted to Moreover, the Cuban Missile Crisis of tension was known as détente. This was shown reach agreement and wanted to demonstrate had shown that they could easily by various agreements and treaties, including: lose control of events and end up publicly their better relations. on the edge of nuclear war. SALT 1: Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty 1 • After SALT 1, Nixon visited Brezhnev in Moscow, and the next year Brezhnev went to Washington. Therefore, by the 1970s both sides (May 1972) wanted to take steps to avoid a Continuing tension (SALT 1) nuclear war. • Anti-Ballistic Missiles were only allowed at two sites • Both countries still owned more than enough nuclear • Restrictions on the number of ICBMs and SLBMs each weapon to destroy each other. Vietnam War country could have: • If nuclear war looked likely, it was unlikely that a piece o USA: 1,054 ICBMs of paper would prevent it. America was fighting communists o USSR: 1,618 ICBMs • It did not cover the developments in nuclear in Vietnam. This was very o 740 SLBMs each technology. expensive and lead to the deaths • They agreed to make every effort to avoid nuclear of many American soldiers. There war. were protests against the war in Helsinki Accords America, with many people Reduction in tension (Helsinki) wanting America to play a less (August 1975) • It was the first time that the border between East and West Germany was formally accepted. active role in international events. 33 nations from NATO and the Warsaw Pact reached • There was a joint USA-Soviet space mission in 1975, an agreement in three areas: which showed how much relations had improved. Social problems 1. European borders could not be changed by force. 2. Western and Soviet-controlled countries would Continuing tension (Helsinki) Many Americans wanted the cooperate in trade and on a joint space mission • Some American politicians were unhappy about government to spend money on 3. Respect for human rights and individual freedoms in recognising European borders. solving problems in America, such all countries. • The Soviets were concerned that organisations would as inequality between rich and SALT 2: Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty 2 be setup to monitor human rights in communist poor and white and black countries. Americans. A policy of détente (June 1979) would allow the government to spend less on weapons and more The USA and the USSR signed an agreement that Reduction in tension (SALT 2) on solving these problems. restricted missile launchers and strategic bombers, and Weak Soviet economy banned the testing of new types of ICBMs. • SALT 2 showed that the two superpowers were willing

The USSR was facing economic to negotiate on critical issues. problems and so wanted to Continuing tension (SALT 2) • SALT 2 was never formally approved (ratified) by the reduce spending on weapons, so it could put more resources into America, so it never became official US policy. This improving living standards. was because of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.

CONSEQUENCES OF INVASION 3.2: SOVIET INVASION OF THE CARTER DOCTRINE The Iranian Revolution (January 1980) (April 1979) AFGHANISTAN (1979) The USA saw the invasion as the USSR’s

The Iranian Revolution led to attempt to try to spread communism. the Shah (King or Emperor) President Jimmy Carter announced his being overthrown from power “Doctrine” and stated that the USA would use and replaced by an Islamic force, if necessary, to ensure that American interests were not threatened in the Middle fundamentalist government. EVENTS OF THE SOVIET Iran was next to the USSR, so East. Carter placed economic sanctions on Brezhnev was concerned that INVASION OF the USSR and the USA began to send Islamic fundamentalism could weapons and money to the mujahideen to spread into the USSR and AFGHANISTAN overthrow Babrak Kamal. influence their Muslim (24th December 1979) population. He believed this THE END OF DÉTENTE • On 24th December 1979, Soviet forces could weaken the strength of The invasion ended the period of Détente. invaded Afghanistan. They claimed they communism. Due to Carter ended SALT 2 negotiations. Tensions Afghanistan’s location, the had been invited by Amin to help fight the between the USA and USSR increased again. USSR wanted to use it as a extremist groups who were challenging his

“buffer zone” to stop this from rule. happening. • Three days later, Amin was assassinated. This THE ELECTION OF RONALD Collapse of the pro- was almost certainly by the Soviets. REAGAN Soviet government in • Babrak Kamal was appointed the new leader of Afghanistan. He was a supporter of (January 1981) Afghanistan (Sep. 1979) the USSR. Ronald Reagan was strongly anti-communist. The pro-Soviet government in • Soviet forces remained in Afghanistan for In his presidential campaign he criticised Afghanistan was overthrown. almost ten years. They helped to fight the Carter for responding in a weak way to the Hafizullah Amin became the opponents of Babrak Kamal in order to Soviet invasion. Unlike Carter, Reagan said he new leader. At first, the USSR ensure that a pro-Soviet government was committed to standing up to supported him. However, he remained in power. communism. Reagan won a huge victory in grew more and more the election. He became president in unpopular and extremist January 1981.OLYMPIC BOYCOTTS Muslim groups (such as the (Moscow 1980; Los Angeles 1984) mujahideen) began to try to In protest against the invasion, the USA led a overthrow him. This put the boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympic games. USSR’s “buffer zone” between If US athletes travelled to Moscow, they would itself and Iran at risk. Brezhnev have their passports taken away. Over 60 also began to hear rumours countries supported them. Four years later in that Amin was in talks with the 1984, the USSR led a boycott of the games in USA about getting American America. 15 communist countries joined support. them.

CAUSES 3.2b: THE ‘SECOND’ COLD WAR CONSEQUENCES

The Soviet invasion of INCREASED SPENDING ON Afghanistan ARMS THE ELECTION OF On 24th December 1979, Reagan increased America’s Soviet forces invaded RONALD REAGAN spending on weapons. In 1982, 13% Afghanistan to support the (January 1981) more money was spent, some of new leader, Babrak Kamal, which went into developing Trident against his opponents. Soviet Ronal Reagan was the USA’s nuclear submarines. forces remained in most anti-communist president,

Afghanistan for 10 years to and said during the election ensure that a pro-Soviet that, unlike Carter, he was STRATEGIC DEFENCE government remained in committed to standing up to INITIATIVE (SDI) – THE ‘STAR power. communism. He won a huge WARS’ PROGRAMME victory in the election. Reagan introduced a new policy REAGAN’S POLICY OF Carter’s response to the called SDI. The policy said that Soviet invasion of ROLLBACK America would place satellites into Reagan wanted to stand up to orbit that had lasers that could shoot Afghanistan down Soviet missiles and prevent communism, which he Carter stated that the USA described as an “evil empire”. them from hitting the USA. This went would use force to ensure that He wanted to roll back directly against the Outer Space American interests were not communism in Asia, Africa and Treaty, which had been signed in South America, rather than just 1967 to limit the nuclear arms race. threatened in the Middle East. contain communism. Carter placed economic sanctions on the USSR and the USA began to send weapons He said that the USA would THE END OF DÉTENTE and money to the mujahideen support anti-communist groups Reagan’s strongly anti-communist to overthrow Babrak Kamal. in defeating communism stance helped to bring an end to around the world, including in détente. Tensions between the USA However, Ronald Reagan Grenada (a Caribbean island). and USSR increased again, partly as criticised Carter for a result of his challenge to responding weakly to the Gorbachev to ‘tear down this [Berlin] Soviet invasion. Wall’.

CONSEQUENCES 3.3a: GORBACHEV’S CAUSES IMPROVED RELATIONS BETWEEN THE USA AND USSR ‘NEW THINKING’ (1985-1989) Spending on the arms race Gorbachev was determined to work with the USA to allow him to focus on reforms in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. Reagan responded positively to this, seeing The USSR had been a real opportunity to end the Cold War. As a result, there were a number of spending huge amounts of EVENTS OF meetings and agreements between both countries in the years 1985 to 1989. These money on developing included: GORBACHEV’S ‘NEW arms. However, they still Washington Summit (1987): Led to the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Force (INF) could not keep up with THINKING’ treaty. They agreed to abolish land-based missiles with a range of 500-5500km. new American technology (from 1985) (such as the Strategic Visit to the United Nations in America (December 1988): In his speech, Gorbachev Defence Initiative). Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of announced the reduction of Warsaw Pact troops and that Soviet forces would the USSR in 1985. He introduced series leave Afghanistan. of policies that aimed to strengthen communist governments in Eastern Weak Soviet Europe by making them more END OF SOVIET CONTROL OVER EASTERN EUROPE Communist countries in Eastern Europe began to introduce changes that would economy popular. These included:

improve the standard of living and increase freedom. This was because they knew By 1985, the Soviet • Perestroika (‘reconstruction’): the USSR would no longer try to stop them. There were also successful protests economy was incredibly Reforming the Soviet economy against communist rule, which the USSR did not stop. For example: weak, industry was not and introducing some practices • Hungary: Free elections were held in October 1989. growing and living that made capitalism successful. • East Germany: The government announced that the border crossing to West standards were very low. • Glasnost (‘openness’): Gorbachev Berlin would be opened. The Berlin Wall (a symbol of the division of East and West believed people should not fear since 1961) was pulled down in November 1989. expressing their opinions and so • Czechoslovakia: The communist government was overthrown in Nov. 1989. Unrest in Eastern allowed opposition to the Europe government. • Ending of the Brezhnev Doctrine: EUROPE WAS NO LONGER DIVIDED Low living standards and This meant the Soviet Union would Since 1955, Europe had been divided into two armed camps – NATO and the the lack of human rights no longer get involved in the affairs Warsaw Pact. As communist governments across Eastern Europe began to meant some people of other communist countries. collapse, it became impossible for the Warsaw Pact to survive, which formally turned against • The Soviet Union would reduce ended in 1991. This allowed many Eastern European countries to govern communism in the satellite spending on arms and defence. themselves for the first time in decades, and they all eventually abandoned states of Eastern Europe communism. (e.g. Poland). Uprisings THE COLLAPSE OF THE USSR were only stopped through Gorbachev was blamed for losing control over Eastern Europe, and threatening the use of secret police Soviet security. His position became weaker when parts of the Soviet Union forces, such as the Stasi in declared themselves independent (e.g. the Baltic states). Although Gorbachev East Germany. survived an attempt to overthrow him, he eventually had to resign on 25th

December 1991. This immediately led to the breakup of the Soviet Union.

CONSEQUENCES CAUSES 3.3b: END OF SOVIET CONTROL Unrest in Eastern OVER EASTERN EUROPE (1989-91) IMPROVED RELATIONS BETWEEN THE USA AND Europe USSR Low living standards and the lack of human rights THE END OF SOVIET CONTROL Following the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe and the meant some people end of Soviet control over the satellite states, Gorbachev met turned against OVER EASTERN EUROPE with the President George Bush at the Malta Summit (1989). Both communism in the satellite (1989-91) leaders committed to long-lasting peace, marking the end of states of Eastern Europe the Cold War. (e.g. Poland). Some The end of the Brezhnev Doctrine meant that Soviet dissidents were satellite countries were free to choose how they would be governed. Communist governments in EUROPE WAS NO LONGER DIVIDED encouraged by Reagan’s Since 1955, Europe had been divided into two armed camps – stronger stance against Eastern Europe began to introduce changes that would improve the standard of living and increase NATO and the Warsaw Pact. As communist governments across communism and the Eastern Europe began to collapse, it became impossible for the increased support the USA freedom. This was because they knew the USSR would no longer try to stop them. There were also Warsaw Pact to survive, and it formally ended in 1991. This sent to the mujahideen allowed many Eastern European countries to govern themselves against the USSR in successful protests against communist rule, which the USSR did not stop. For example: for the first time in decades, and they all eventually abandoned Afghanistan. communism. • Hungary: Free elections were held in October 1989. • Czechoslovakia: The communist government was Gorbachev’s ‘New overthrown in Nov. 1989. THE COLLAPSE OF THE USSR Thinking’ Gorbachev was blamed for losing control over Eastern Europe, and threatening Soviet security. His position became weaker Gorbachev recognised THE FALL OF THE BERLIN WALL when parts of the Soviet Union declared themselves that the USSR had a weak By early 1989, the tide of anti-communist feeling in independent (e.g. the Baltic states). Although Gorbachev economy and could not Eastern Europe had reached East Germany. survived an attempt to overthrow him, he eventually had to keep up with the USA’s Following rigged elections in May 1989, there were resign on 25th December 1991. This immediately led to the arms spending. He growing protests demanding an end to the Berlin breakup of the Soviet Union. therefore introduced a Wall and the ability to move out of East Berlin and SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FALL OF THE BERLIN series of policies in an East Germany. WALL attempt to make There were emotional scenes as people realised that the communist governments in The government agreed to allow this to happen, but restrictions that had prevented them from crossing the border Eastern Europe more on 9th November 1989, days before this came into into West Berlin were gone. Many took hammers and chipped popular. These included: effect people on both sides started attacking and away at the wall to break off their own souvenir piece to take • Perestroika destroying the Berlin Wall and thousands of East home. Western leaders across the world described it as a victory • Glasnost Germans streamed across the border. for freedom. • Ending of the Brezhnev Doctrine The Berlin Wall had been a symbol of the division of Europe and • Reduced spending on Soviet control. Its destruction, and the fact that the USSR showed arms no intention to stop it, became a symbol of the end of Soviet control and an end to the Cold War. It also allowed the reunification of Germany.

KEY TOPIC 1: The origins of the Cold War, 1941-58

TOPIC 1.1a: The Grand Alliance and the Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam conferences

The Grand Alliance and the outcomes of the Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam conferences Question Homework Revision Which three countries were in the Grand Alliance against Nazi Germany during WWII? Who were the three leaders in the Grand Alliance, known as the ‘Big Three’? When was the Tehran

Conference?

What was the aim of the Tehran

Conference? What was Stalin concerned about before the Tehran Conference? Why was the Soviet Army

suffering heavy losses? What did USA and Britain agree to do in Western Europe during the Tehran Conference? What did Stalin agree to do once Nazi Germany was

defeated at the Tehran Conference? What was agreed about Germany after the war at the Tehran Conference? What was agreed would be set up after the war at the Tehran Conference? What agreement was made about and in Eastern Europe at the Tehran Conference? When was the Yalta

Conference?

What was the aim of the Yalta

Conference? What was agreed about Germany at the Yalta Conference? What did Stalin accept about the governments of countries in

Eastern Europe at the Yalta Conference? 24

What was agreed about the war in Japan at the Yalta Conference? How did the ‘Big Three’ disagree about Poland at the Yalta Conference? What disagreement arose about the UN at the Yalta Conference? When was the Potsdam

Conference?

Who were the three leaders at the Potsdam Conference?

What was the situation in Europe by the Potsdam Conference? What had the USA developed by the time of the Potsdam Conference? Why was Truman suspicious of

Stalin? What was agreed about Germany and Berlin at the Potsdam Conference? How did the ‘Big Three’ disagree about Poland at the Potsdam Conference? Why did the ‘Big Three’ disagree about reparations at the Potsdam Conference? What was agreed about reparations at the Potsdam Conference?

Explain the importance of the Potsdam Conference (1945) for the development of the Cold War. (8) ______

TOPIC 1.1b: The creation of the Soviet sphere of influence

The Soviet sphere of influence and developments in US-Soviet relations Question Homework Revision Where did the USA drop atom bombs in August 1945? How many Japanese civilians were killed by the American atom bombs? How did America’s use of the atom bomb affect Stalin’s attitude? Why did the USSR fear

Germany? What had the Soviet Army done in Eastern Europe as it defeated Nazi Germany? What did Stalin want to

create after WWII?

How did Stalin a buffer zone

to protect the USSR? What had Stalin achieved

by 1948? How was a communist government established in Czechoslovakia? How was a communist government established in Poland? How was a communist government established in Bulgaria? Who sent a telegram to

Truman in February 1946

What did Kennan’s

telegram say to Truman? What did Churchill accuse Stalin of in his ‘iron curtain’ speech of March 1946? Who sent a telegram to

Stalin in September 1946?

What did Novikov’s

telegram say to Stalin? How did the creation of a Soviet sphere of influence change America’s policy? What impact did the events of 1946 have on US-Soviet relations? 27

Write a narrative account analysing the key events of the Soviet expansion in Eastern Europe in the years 1945-48. (8) ______

TOPIC 1.2a: The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan

The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan Question Homework Revision What broke out in Greece

after the Second World War? Who helped the Greek government fight against communist forces? What did the British announce

in early-1947?

When did Truman make a speech announcing the Truman Doctrine?

What did the Truman Doctrine

state?

Why did Truman introduce the Truman Doctrine in March 1947?

Why was the Truman Doctrine

significant?

How did Stalin react to the

Truman Doctrine?

What was Cominform?

What was the economic situation in Europe after the war? Why did the USA believe that giving countries economic

aid would prevent communism from spreading? What economic programme did America introduce in 1948

in order to contain communism? What was the aim of the

Marshall Plan?

How much aid was giving to Western European countries from 1948 to 1952? Why did communist countries in Eastern Europe not receive this aid? How did Stalin react to the introduction of the Marshall Plan? 29

What organisation did Stalin set up after the Marshall Plan to aid communist countries?

What was Comecon?

How did Comecon influence trade amongst communist countries?

Explain two consequences of the Marshall Plan. (8) ______

TOPIC 1.2b: The Berlin Crisis (1948-49)

The Berlin Crisis (1948-49): The Berlin blockade and airlift Question Homework Revision How did the West and Stalin’s aims

for Germany differ after the war?

Why did Stalin want to weaken

Germany after the war? What did Britain, America and France do with their zones in Germany? Therefore, what happened to discussions between the West and

the USSR over the future of Germany? What did the West decide to

introduce to ‘Trizonia’, and why? How did Stalin feel about the creation of ‘Trizonia’ and introduction of the new currency? Why did Stalin take the decision to blockade West Berlin? (Three reasons) Why was Stalin able to blockade

West Berlin?

When did Stalin introduce the Berlin

blockade?

What happened to West Berlin as a

result of the blockade?

How many West Berliners’ lives

were put at risk after the blockade?

How did the West respond to the

blockade? How many tonnes of supplies were flown into West Berlin in January 1949? How frequently did planes land in

West Berlin during the airlift? Why did the West believe the Berlin Airlift was the best response to the blockade? (Three reasons) When did Stalin lift the blockade of

West Berlin? What impact did the Berlin blockade have on Stalin’s reputation? Why was the Berlin blockade a

failure for Stalin?

What did the West decide to do three days after the blockade?

How did the USSR respond to the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany? When was the German

Democratic Republic created? As a result of the blockade, what did the West believe was necessary? What military alliance did the West form in April 1949?

What did all NATO members agree to do? What later encouraged the USSR to create a military alliance of communist countries? What military alliance did communist countries form in May

1955, which was directly controlled by the USSR? Name three countries that joined the Warsaw Pact.

Explain two consequences of the Berlin Crisis of 1948-49. (8) ______

TOPIC 1.3a: The nuclear arms race (1949-58)

The significance of the nuclear arms race (1949-58) Question Homework Revision What was the nuclear arms

race?

When did the USA successfully

test their atomic bomb?

When did the USA first use

their atomic bomb?

Where did the USA drop

atomic bombs? How many Japanese civilians were killed by the USA’s atomic bombs? Why did both the USA and the USSR want to protect

themselves (by being ahead in the nuclear arms race? When did the USSR successfully test their atomic bomb? When did the USA develop and test the hydrogen bomb? When did the USSR develop and test the hydrogen bomb? What did the USA and the

USSR develop in 1957?

Why were ICBMs developed?

Why were nuclear weapons not used by the USA and the USSR?

What was M.A.D?

Explain the importance of the arms race for the development of the Cold War. (8) ______

TOPIC 1.3b: The era of ‘peaceful coexistence in the 1950s

The era of ‘peaceful coexistence’ in the 1950s Question Homework Revision Why did people in the USA and the USSR begin to resent the arms race? Why did both the USA and the USSR want to reduce spending on the arms race? What economic problems was the USSR experiencing in the early- 1950s? Why did the USA and USSR believe it was necessary to improve their relations in the 1950s? What did the Korean War (1950-53)

show both the USA and the USSR? Who became leader of the USA in

1953? What was Eisenhower’s attitude towards the USSR and communism? When did Josef Stalin die, and who

replaced him as leader by 1956? What policy did Khrushchev

introduce in the USSR? What was Khrushchev’s attitude towards the USSR and communism? What agreement was made between the USA and the USSR in 1955? What took place in July 1955? Why was the Geneva Summit

significant? What was the outcome of the

Geneva Summit?

Why was the period of ‘peaceful

coexistence’ significant? What evidence is there that tension remained between the two superpowers in the mid-1950s? Why was Stalin so concerned that Federal Republic of Germany had been allowed to join NATO?

What was the Warsaw Pact?

Write a narrative account analysing the key events in the Cold War in the years 1949 to 1956. (8) ______

TOPIC 1.3c: The Hungarian Uprising, 1956

The Hungarian Uprising, 1956 Question Homework Revision What were people in Hungary

protesting about? When did riots in Budapest cause

clashes with the police? Who helped to restore order after

the first protest in Budapest? Who did Khrushchev put in place as the new prime minister of Hungary? What did Nagy believe people should have even in a communist country? Why did Khrushchev make Nagy

prime minister?

What reforms (changes) did Nagy

introduce?

What did Nagy announce on 1

November 1956? Why could Khrushchev not allow Hungary to leave the Warsaw Pact? How did Khrushchev respond to Nagy’s announcement that

Hungary would leave the Warsaw Pact? What happened on 4 November

1956?

How did Nagy’s supporters

respond to the Soviet invasion?

How many Hungarians were killed

by the invading Soviet army? Who did the USSR put in place as leader of Hungary after defeating Nagy and his supporters?

What happened to Nagy?

How did the West respond to the

Soviet invasion of Hungary? Why did NATO not provide military support to Nagy and his supporters? Why did the West appear weak

following the Hungarian Uprising?

How had the USA encouraged uprisings in communist countries?

What impact did the Hungarian

Uprising have on Khrushchev? Why was Khrushchev strengthened by the Hungarian Uprising? Why was Khrushchev more confident in dealing with the USA? What impact did the Hungarian Uprising have on tension between the USA and the USSR? Why did tension increase after the

Hungarian Uprising?

Explain two consequences of the Hungarian crisis of 1956. (8) ______

KEY TOPIC 2: Cold War crises, 1958-70

TOPIC 2.1: The Berlin Crisis, 1958-63

The Berlin Crisis, 1958-63 Question Homework Revision Why did West Germany become prosperous during the 1950s? Why was the economy in East

Germany weak?

Where in Germany was the

standard of living higher?

What made the standard of

living lower in East Germany?

Why was the communist regime

unpopular in East Germany?

Why did many East Germans

move to West Germany? By 1958, how many East Germans had crossed to the West? Why did the migration of people from East to West Germany

weaken the East German economy? How did Khrushchev want to make it harder for East Germans to get into West Germany? When did Khrushchev deliver his

Berlin ultimatum? What did Khrushchev’s Berlin ultimatum demand to happen within 6 months? What did Khrushchev say would happen if the demands weren’t met? Why did the West not want East Germany to control routes into Berlin? When and where were the four summit meetings held about Berlin? What was the outcome of the

Geneva summit?

Why was the Camp David

summit significant?

Why were there tensions during

the Paris summit? 42

Why did Khrushchev renew the Berlin ultimatum at the Vienna summit? What was the outcome of the

Vienna summit? What happened to the number of East Germans crossing to the West during the talks? What did East German soldiers do on 12 August 1961?

What had been built by the end of the summer, 1961?

How did the West respond to the building of the Berlin Wall?

Why was Kennedy’s reputation strengthened by the Berlin Wall? What point did Kennedy celebrate in his ‘Ich bin ein

Berliner’ speech (‘I am a citizen of Berlin)? Why did the building of the Berlin Wall weaken Khrushchev’s reputation? What positive impacts did the

Berlin Wall have on the USSR? Why did the building of the Berlin Wall increase tension between the USA and USSR? How did the building of the Berlin Wall reduce tension between the USA and USSR?

Explain two consequences of the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961. (8) ______

TOPIC 2.2a: The Bay of Pigs Invasion, 1961

The Bay of Pigs Invasion, 1961 Question Homework Revision In what ways did the USA have influence of Cuba before 1959? What significant event took place in Cuba in January 1959? Why was America concerned with events that took place in Cuba? What was Castro’s attitude towards American influence in Cuba? How did Castro try to remove American

economic influence in Cuba? What happened to Cuban-Soviet relations under Castro? Who did Castro begin to appoint to his government? How did the USA respond to the strengthening of Cuban-Soviet relations? Who became president of

the USA in 1961? What did Kennedy want to

achieve in Cuba? With Kennedy’s backing, what did the CIA begin to do? What was the name given to invasion launched by the Cuban exiles in 1961? When did the Bay of Pigs

invasion take place? How many Cuban exiles attempted to invade

Cuba and overthrow Castro? Why did the Bay of Pigs

invasion fail? How was America affected by the Bay of Pigs invasion? How was the USSR affected

by the Bay of Pigs invasion?

What impact did the Bay of Pigs invasion on Cuban- Soviet relations? What did Khrushchev publicly announce he was going to do in September 1961?

Explain the importance of the Bay of Pigs incident for relations between the USA and the Soviet Union. (8) ______

______

TOPIC 2.2b: The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962

The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962 Question Homework Revision What did Khrushchev decide to put nuclear missiles on Cuba in early-1962? Why did Khrushchev believe

that Cuba needed protecting? Why did Khrushchev believe it was so important for Castro to remain in power? What did Khrushchev believe placing missiles on Cuba would encourage the USA to do? When did the USA discover Khrushchev’s intention to place missiles on Cuba? How did the USA discover Khrushchev’s intention to place missiles on Cuba? Why couldn’t Kennedy allow the USSR to have nuclear missiles on Cuba? What did Kennedy organise on

16th October 1962? How did Kennedy decide to act

on 22nd October 1962? What action did Kennedy take that showed he believed

nuclear war was imminent (about to happen)? What did the Soviet ships do that reached the blockade on 24th October 1962?

What did Khrushchev send to

Kennedy on 26th October 1962?

What did Khrushchev send to

Kennedy on 27th October 1962?

How did Kennedy respond to

Khrushchev’s two telegrams?

How long did the Cuban Missile

Crisis go on for altogether?

How did the Cuban Missile Crisis

affect Kennedy’s position?

How did the Cuban Missile Crisis

affect Khrushchev’s position?

What did Khrushchev achieve as a result of the Cuban Missile Crisis? Why was the Cuban Missile Crisis so significant? What was introduced after the crisis to ensure that both nations could resolve situations more easily? What impact did the Cuban Missile Crisis have on the nuclear arms race? Name three treaties signed by the USA and the USSR after the crisis, which helped to reduce the arms race. What did the Test Ban Treaty

(August 1963) state?

What did the Outer Space

Treaty (1967) state?

What did the Nuclear Non-

Proliferation Treaty (1968) state? Despite signing treaties to reduce the nuclear arms race, what could the USA and the USSR still do?

Write a narrative account analysing the main events in the superpower rivalry in Cuba in the years 1959 to 1962. (8) ______

TOPIC 2.3: The Prague Spring, 1968

The Prague Spring, 1968 Question Homework Revision How was freedom of speech

limited in Czechoslovakia?

Why were living standards low

in Czechoslovakia? What had Stalin forced the Czech government to do between 1949 and 1954? Who began to protest against the communist government in 1966? Who was elected as leader of the Czech government in January 1968? What did the USSR trust

Dubcek to do?

What was the Prague Spring?

When did the Prague Spring

start? What reforms were introduced during the Prague Spring? Why was Brezhnev worried

about the Prague Spring? What was the Romanian government doing during the Prague Spring? What did Dubcek reassure

Brezhnev?

Who did Dubcek invite to

Prague for talks? Why was Brezhnev worried about Dubcek meeting the Romanian leader? Who invaded

Czechoslovakia? When did Warsaw Pact troops invade Czechoslovakia? What happened to Dubcek during the invasion of Czechoslovakia? Who replaced Dubcek as

leader of Czechoslovakia?

What policy did the USSR introduce following the Prague Spring? What did the Brezhnev

Doctrine state? How did Brezhnev justify interfering in communist countries? According to the Brezhnev Doctrine, who was responsible for intervening if a communist country tried to introduce reforms? Why was the Brezhnev Doctrine welcomed by many communist governments? What did the USA do in response to the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia? Why did the United Nations not criticise the USSR’s invasion? Why was the USA’s reputation weakened following events in Czechoslovakia?

Write a narrative account analysing the key events of the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968. (8) ______

KEY TOPIC 3: The end of the Cold War, 1970-91

TOPIC 3.1: The détente of the 1970s

The détente of the 1970s Question Homework Revision What word means a

relaxation of tension? Why, by the 1970s did the USA and the USSR want to

take steps to avoid a nuclear war? Why did the Vietnam War lead to many American people wanting America to play a less active role in international events? Why did social problems in America contribute to many Americans wanting the USA to adopt a policy of détente? Why did the weak Soviet economy contribute to many people in the USSR wanting it to adopt a policy of détente? What does SALT 1 stand for

and when was it signed?

What were the three key

agreements of SALT1?

How did SALT 1 contribute

to a reduction in tension?

Why was there still continuing tension despite SALT 1?

Who signed the Helsinki

Accords in August 1975?

What were the three key agreements of the Helsinki Accords? How did the Helsinki Accords contribute to a reduction in tension? Why was there still continuing tension despite the Helsinki Accords?

What does SALT 2 stand for and when was it signed?

What were the two key agreements of SALT 2?

How did SALT 2 contribute to a reduction in tension?

Why was there still continuing tension despite SALT 2?

Explain the importance of the Helsinki Agreements (1975) for superpower relations. (8) ______

TOPIC 3.2a: The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 1979

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 1979 Question Homework Revision When was the Iranian

revolution?

What happened during

the Iranian revolution? Why was Brezhnev concerned about the Iranian revolution? Why did the USSR want a pro-Soviet government in power in Afghanistan? What happened in Afghanistan in September 1979? Who became the new

leader of Afghanistan? What happened when Amin became unpopular? What did Brezhnev hear

rumours about?

When did Soviet forced

invade Afghanistan? What was the USSR’s justification for their invasion of Afghanistan? What happened to Amin three days after the invasion? Who replaced Amin as the leader of Afghanistan? How long did Soviet forces remain in Afghanistan? What did the USA believe the USSR were trying to do in Afghanistan? What did Carter state in his doctrine (introduced in January 1980)? How did the USA

intervene in Afghanistan?

What did the Soviet

invasion bring to an end? Who became President of the USA in January 1981?

What was Reagan’s attitude towards communism? What did Reagan say during the election that contributed to his election victory? What did the USA boycott in 1980? What was the consequence for US athletes if they travelled to Moscow? How many countries supported the USA’s boycott of the Moscow Olympics? What did the USSR do in

1984? How many communist countries supported the

USSR’s boycott of the Los Angeles Olympics?

Explain the importance of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979) for the development of the Cold War. (8) ______

TOPIC 3.2b: Ronald Reagan and the ‘Second’ Cold War

Ronald Reagan and the ‘Second’ Cold War Question Homework Revision When did Soviet forced invade

Afghanistan?

What was the USSR’s aim in

Afghanistan?

Why did the USSR want a pro-Soviet

government in Afghanistan? What did Carter state in his doctrine (introduced in January 1980)? How did the USA intervene in

Afghanistan?

Why did Carter criticise Carter?

Who became President of the USA

in January 1981?

What was Reagan’s attitude

towards communism? What did Reagan say during the election that contributed to his election victory? How did Reagan describe

communism?

What was Reagan’s policy towards

communism?

Who did Reagan say the USA

would support? What impact did Reagan’s policies

have on arms spending? How much more money was spent

by the USA on arms in 1982? What new method of firing nuclear weapons was developed under Reagan? What was the formal name for the ‘Star Wars’ programme introduced by Reagan?

What was the SDI?

Which treaty did the SDI break? What did Reagan’s strong anti- communist stance bring to an end? What did Reagan challenge

Gorbachev to do?

Explain two consequences of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979) for the development of the Cold War. (8) ______

TOPIC 3.3a: Gorbachev’s ‘New Thinking’

Gorbachev’s ‘New Thinking’ Question Homework Revision By the 1980s, which country was struggling to keep up in

the arms race with its rival’s new technology? What was the condition of the

Soviet economy by 1985?

By the 1980s, why had some people turned against

Causes communism in the satellite states of Eastern Europe e.g. Poland? How were uprisings against communism stopped from

escalating in the satellite states? Who became leader of the

USSR in 1985? What was Gorbachev’s aim when he became leader of the USSR? What was the name of Gorbachev’s policy of reforming the Soviet economy

and introducing some practices that made

capitalism successful? What was the name of

Gorbachev’s policy of Events allowing people to express their opinions, including opposition to the government? What did Gorbachev’s decision to end the Brezhnev Doctrine mean for the USSR’s involvement in the affairs of other communist country? How did Gorbachev change spending on arms and defence? What was Gorbachev’s attitude towards working with

the USA? How did Reagan respond to Gorbachev’s desire to work with the USA? What were the two main agreements made at the Consequences Washington Summit (1987) between Reagan and Gorbachev?

What two things did Gorbachev announce in his visit to the United Nations in America in December 1988? Why were communist countries in Eastern Europe able to begin to introduce changes that would improve the standard of living and increase freedom in the late 1980s? Give three examples of successful protests against communist rule, which the USSR did not stop? From 1955, Europe has been divided into two armed camps. What were these called? As communist governments across Eastern Europe began to collapse, it became impossible for the Warsaw Pact to survive. When did it formally end? In the USSR who was blamed for losing control over Eastern

Europe and threatening Soviet security? Which parts of the Soviet Union declared themselves independent, further weakening Gorbachev? Gorbachev survived an attempt to overthrow him but eventually had to resign. When did he resign? What did Gorbachev’s resignation immediately lead to?

Explain two consequences of Gorbachev’s ‘new thinking’ on eastern Europe. (8) ______

TOPIC 3.3b: The end of Soviet control over Eastern Europe

The end of Soviet control over Eastern Europe Question Homework Revision By the 1980s, why had some people turned against communism in the satellite

states of Eastern Europe e.g.

Poland? What encouraged some

Causes dissidents in Eastern Europe to oppose communism? What were the four main policies of Gorbachev’s New Thinking? Why were communist countries in Eastern Europe able to begin to introduce changes that would improve the standard of living and increase freedom in the late 1980s? What happened in successful protests against communist rule in Hungary? What happened in successful protests against

communist rule in Czechoslovakia?? What triggered growing

Events protests demanding an end to the Berlin Wall and the ability to move out of East Berlin and East Germany? How did the East German government respond to growing protests demanding an end to the Berlin Wall and the ability to move out of East Berlin and East Germany? What happened in East Berlin on 9th November 1989, days before the East German government’s new policy came into force? What did Mikhail Gorbachev and President

George Bush agree at the Malta Summit (1989)? When did the Warsaw Pact

formally end?

What did the end of the Consequences Warsaw Pact allow many

Eastern European countries to do for the first time in decade?

In the USSR who was blamed for losing control over

Eastern Europe and threatening Soviet security? Which parts of the USSR declared themselves independent, further weakening Gorbachev? Gorbachev survived an attempt to overthrow him but eventually had to resign. When did he resign? What did Gorbachev’s resignation immediately lead to? What did many people do in the emotional scenes as people realised that the restrictions that had prevented them from crossing the border into West Berlin were gone? How did many Western leaders describe the fall of the Berlin Wall?

What had the Berlin Wall been a symbol of?

What did the destruction of the Berlin Wall symbolise?

What did the fall of the Berlin

Wall allow?

Write a narrative account analysing the main developments in the collapse of the Berlin Wall during 1989. (8) ______