From Insects to Jumbo Jets

The Simple Science of Flight From Insects to Jumbo Jets

revised and expanded edition

Henk Tennekes

The MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England 6 2009 Massachusetts Institute of Technology

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Tennekes, H. (Hendrik) The simple science of ﬂight : from insects to jumbo jets / Henk Tennekes. — Rev. and expanded ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-262-51313-5 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Aerodynamics. 2. Flight. I. Title. TL570.T4613 2009 629.132'3—dc22 2009012431

10987654321 Index

Advanceratio,102,103 Climb, 46 Ailerons, 153 Cloud streets, 22 Airbrakes, 55, 69, 109 Concorde, 18, 165–167, 170 Airbus A340, 172, 178 Condors, 17, 18, 114 Airbus A380, 24, 172, 175, 178 Contrails, 118, 119 Airships, 55, 168, 182 Convair B36, 167 Airspeed, 4, 38, 63, 70, 82, 109, 121 Convergence, 19–24, 178 Air traffic controllers, 65, 93 Crows, 125 Albatrosses, 10, 45, 54, 68, 105, 106, 113, Cruising altitude, 64, 170, 185 124 Alexander, David, 23 Dacron, 143, 148 Antonov AN225, 178 Da Vinci, Leonardo, 154 Approach procedures, 89–94 Descent, 68, 70, 106–114 Argentavis magnificens, 18, 21 Design constraints, 168–170 Armstrong, Lance, 41–43, 54, 155 Dive, 152 Aspect ratio, 122–129 Dornier X, 167 Athletes, 41–43 DouglasDC7,65 Attack, angle of, 4, 5, 15, 122 Douglas DC8, 168, 172 Automobiles, 50–54 Douglas DC10, 87 Downstroke, 29, 100–102, 112, 132 Ballast, 143 Downwash, 120 Bats, 20 Drag, 46–52, 100–104, 114, 115, 121–123 Beaufort scale, 16, 66, 83 Drela, Mark, 160 Beechcraft Bonanza, 20, 111 Dudley, Robert, 23 Beechcraft Starship, 162 Bernoulli principle, 3, 4 Electromotive force, 115, 116 Boeing B29, 63 Energy consumption, 48–55, 105 Boeing B52, 55 Engine mounts, 162 Boeing 707, 168, 172 Engines Boeing 737, 17, 173–175 bypass, 166, 177 Boeing 747, 1, 16, 24, 87, 125, 179–181 diesel, 56 Boeing 777, 55, 87, 124, 166, 172 failure of, 85, 87, 108 Bristol Brabazon, 167 fanjet, 56, 176 Buzzards, 70, 72, 128 gasoline, 56, 113 Bypass ratio, 166, 176, 177 steam, 148 two-stroke, 22, 112, 132 Calories, 49, 57 Carbon fibers, 142, 158 Finesse, 105–108, 128, 166 Carnot, Sadi, 169 Flapping, 26, 29–35, 99, 129 Circulation, 117–120 Flight diagram, 14, 15 Index 200

Fokker F100, 88 Lift, 2–5, 54, 104 Force triangle, 98–106 Lilienthal, Otto, 154 Friction, 123, 124 Lindstro¨m, A˚ ke, 77 Fruit flies, 16, 23 Lissaman, Peter, 158 Fuel Lockheed Constellation, 65 consumption of, 26, 52, 169, 177 Lockheed Constitution, 167 flow of, 165 Lockheed Tristar, 87 Lungs, 21 Galilei, Galileo, 14 Geese, 42, 102, 120 Mach number, 166–170 General Dynamics F16, 162 Mallards, 137 General Electric GE90-115B, 176 Mass flow, 3, 4 Glide ratio, 105, 108, 128, 132 McCready, Paul, 18, 157–160 Gliding diagram, 109, 110 McLuhan, Marshall, 187 Gnats, 67 Mediterranean Sea, 72, 73 Godwits, 76, 80, 81, 125 Mellisuga helenae,30 Golden Gate Bridge, 163 Metabolic rate, 36, 59 Grasshoppers, 67 Metabolic scope, 42 Gravity, 5, 6, 41, 42 Migration, 26, 45, 71, 132–134 center of, 150, 153 Monarch butterflies, 22, 67, 71 terrestrial, 6 Muscles, 36–38, 45, 59, 109, 112 Groundspeed, 63, 82, 84 Gulls, 13, 68, 74, 82, 89, 91, 125 Newton, 6, 39 Gusts, 91, 92 Newton, Isaac, 3, 6 North American P-51, 19 Hang gliders, 8, 69, 124, 146 Nutrition, 57–60 Harriers, 128 Hawker Hurricane, 145 Ocean liners, 181, 182 Helicopters, 53, 54 Oxygen, 35, 36 Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, 16 Hughes, Howard, 113, 167 Pan American Airways, 167, 183 Human-powered aircraft, 15, 18, 110, 114, Paper airplanes, 150–153 154, 155, 159, 160, 162 Parakeets, 35–43, 49, 52, 110, 115 Hummingbirds, 1, 2, 138 Peanut butter, 41, 57, 59 Pelicans, 91, 92 Insects, 30–32 Pennycuick, Colin, 103 Petroski, Henry, 163 Jackdaws, 26, 102, 111, 124 –134 Phalaropes, 75, 76 Jetliners, 55, 168–178 Pheasants, 110 Jet stream, 63–65 Piersma, Theunis, 77 Joule, 39–42 Pigeons, 111 Piper Cub, 55 Kites, toy, 143, 148 Plovers, 76, 80, 125 Kittiwakes, 12, 103 Popper, Karl, 163 Kremer, Henry, 155–159 Power, 38, 39 available, 45 Landing, 26, 82–84 continuous, 38, 45 Langford, John, 160 induced, 121 Langley, Samuel Pierpont, 148 mechanical, 36, 37, 41 Index 201

metabolic, 41, 42 Swept-back wings, 28, 29, 169 minimum, 36, 38, 43, 48 Swifts, 26–29, 45, 103, 111 muscle, 21, 30, 45, 97 propulsive, 36, 99 Takeoff, 82–85 Prandtl, Ludwig, 116, 118, 154 Terns, 10 Propellers, 102, 146–148 Thermals, 21, 70 Pteranodons, 17 Thrust, 46, 98–102, 176 Toys, 141–161 Questair Venture, 145 Trade winds, 75–78, 82, 129 Trains, 53, 54 Red knots, 71, 76–80, 125 Trippe, Juan, 167, 168, 180 Rowing, 99, 100 Tucker, Vance, 35–38 Runways, 18, 84–86, 170–175 Ultralight aircraft, 145–148 Sahara Desert, 67, 71–74 Updrafts, 21 Sailplanes, 54, 69, 106, 124, 141–143 Upstroke, 29, 132, 134 Sandpipers, 76 Upwash, 120 Sandwich construction, 142 Scale relation, 13, 14 Vogel, Steven, 3 Schleicher ASW-22B, 142 Vortices Sculling, 100 bound, 117 Shock waves, 23, 166 leading-edge, 29 Shute, Nevil, 163 roll, 22 Skating, 97–99 theory of, 115 Skydivers, 122 tip, 118, 119 Slenderness, 122, 125 trailing, 114, 120, 121 Soaring, 21, 26, 68–70, 80, 113, 129 Vultures, 68, 71 Solar-powered airplanes, 15, 18, 160–162 Sound barrier, 165, 166 Wagtails, 72–74 Space Shuttle, 35 Watt, 40 Sparrow hawks, 27 Webbed feet, 55, 69 Sparrows,7,8,42 Weight, 2, 6, 171–178 Speed. See also Airspeed, Groundspeed, Winds Windspeed cross, 89, 125 cruising, 9–20, 27, 48, 72–81, 168 head, 63–65, 71–78, 88 decision, 87 tail, 63, 64, 74, 78–82 of sound, 23, 63, 165–168 Windspeed, 65 Speed triangle, 99–106 Wind tunnel, 35, 141 Sports planes, 19, 52, 145 Wind turbines, 102 Spruce Goose, 113, 167 Wing area, 4–10 Stag beetles, 30 Wing-beat frequency, 102 Stall, 4, 28, 30, 124, 132, 150 Winglets, 125, 175 Starlings, 16, 45 Wing loading, 8–17, 27, 129, 171–175 Storm petrels, 66 Wingspan, 13, 128, 175 Stratosphere, 169, 170 Wrens, 32 Super-jumbos, 178 Wright brothers, 148 Supermarine Spitﬁre, 19, 20, 46, 145 Wright Flyer, 3, 20 Supersonic ﬂight, 165–168 Swans, 21, 22, 30, 54, 59–61