SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION (SI) APPENDIX

Early symbolic behavior in the Late Pleistocene of Adam Brumm, Michelle C. Langley, Mark W. Moore, Budianto Hakim, Muhammad Ramli, Iwan Sumantri, Basran Burhan, Andi Muhammad Saiful, Linda Siagian, Suryatman, Ratno Sardi, Andi Jusdi, Abdullah, Andi Pampang Mubarak, Hasliana, Hasrianti, Adhi Agus Oktaviana, Shinatria Adhityatama, Gerrit D. van den Bergh, Maxime Aubert, Jian-xin Zhao, Jillian Huntley, Bo Li, Richard G. Roberts, E. Wahyu Saptomo, Yinika Perston, Rainer Grün

Archaeological context The and rock-shelter complex of Leang Bulu Bettue (LBB) (4°59'31.18"S, 119°40'5.53"E) is situated at the foot of a tower in the Maros-Pangkep karst area, which lies between 4˚7´S and 5˚1´S on ’s southwestern peninsula. The topography of this extensive karst landscape (~450 km2) is dominated by plateau-like hill masses formed by rivers cutting through intersecting joints in the limestone, and, in areas of advanced plateau dissection, steep-sided towers surrounded by alluvial plains that extend to the western coastline at an elevation of ~5 to 30 m a.s.l. (1).

Some 120 sites with archaeological evidence for prehistoric human occupation, mostly in the form of rock art and/or surficial artifact scatters (e.g., flaked stone implements, ceramics, and shell midden refuse), have been recorded in this region. Prior to the current research, the oldest excavated archaeological findings dated to 35.6–34.5 ka cal B.P., as revealed by excavations at the Maros rock-shelter Leang Burung 2 (2). Some 20 km to the north, where the limestone karst crops out in the adjoining Pangkep district, excavations at a rock art site located 20 m above the alluvial plain, Leang Sakapao 1, yielded in situ stone artifacts and shellfish remains with a (nominal) maximum age of 30–20 ka (3).

LBB is located within a precinct of major prehistoric sites: Leang Burung 2 is 1.5 km to the south (2); 1 km to the southwest is Leang Timpuseng, a rock-shelter with a hand stencil and large figurative painting of a female babirusa ‘pig-deer’ with minimum Uranium-series (U-series) ages of 39.9 ka and 35.4 ka, respectively (4); and 300 m to the northwest is Ulu Leang 1 cave (5). The latter cave site has yielded the region’s best-known record of the Toalean (6-8), a regionally unique industry of purportedly Mesolithic character and presumed middle to late Holocene antiquity (5, 9, 10). The Toalean is characterized by backed blades, geometric microliths, and small pressure-flaked projectiles with hollow bases and serrated margins (‘Maros points’).

LBB is currently situated 20 km east of the modern coastline. However, a 40-60 km-wide carbonate platform (known as the ‘Spermonde Shelf’) lies off the modern coastline of Sulawesi’s southwestern peninsula adjacent to the alluvial plains fronting the Maros-Pangkep karsts (11-12). Presently, the shelf harbors a network of 67 low-lying coral atoll islands, as well as platform reefs, submerged patch reefs, and sea-grass meadows, and it is bordered on its western side by a discontinuous barrier reef (11). Referred to locally as the Sangkarang islands, the 200 km-long Spermonde archipelago is one of ’s largest coral archipelagos, and it contains what is probably the largest reef fishery in the region. The maximum shelf depth varies from 20 to 60 m (11-12), and hence it is likely the Spermonde Shelf would have been exposed as dry land when sea level dropped to below -60 m (11). Further, it can be speculated that the major decline in sea levels that commenced ~30 ka would have progressively eliminated the mosaic of shallow coastal flats, estuaries, and coral habitats that would have been established on the shelf during much of MIS3. These highly ranked patches are likely to have been preferentially exploited by AMH colonists whose initial migration through Wallacea is thought, by some, to have relied upon a highly developed marine coastal adaptation with roots that may ultimately extend back into the Middle Stone Age period of southern Africa (13-16).

Speleothem δ18O records obtained from U/Th analysis of 77 stalagmites in the Maros-Pangkep 1 karsts lack precise coverage for the time interval covered by the LBB sequence (17). However, high-resolution palaeoclimate records derived from lake sediment cores in central Sulawesi indicate a very wet climate and closed-canopy rainforest during much of MIS3 (~58 to 30 ka) (17-18). This phase is followed by the abrupt onset of a period of severe drying in the transition to the LGM, with the arid phase documented from ~33–16 ka at Lake Towuti (18), and from ~29–14 ka at nearby 13 Lake Matano (19). Biomarker records (δ CWAX) from these two lakes suggest grassland and open- canopy forest expanded during a more arid and seasonal MIS2 (19), with substantial expansion of C4 grasslands between 30 and 18 ka (18). Evidence for a human presence at LBB during most of MIS3 is scant. The low-density cultural assemblages show that people were making short-lived visits to this locality, while rock art is evident at nearby sites from at least 40 ka (4). Resource patches in the karst border plains of Maros-Pangkep may have became increasingly attractive to maritime-orientated populations as the climate became cooler and drier in the millennia preceding the LGM. This situation was owing to the decline in marine productivity along the coast – especially reef habitats on the now-submerged Spermonde Shelf – and the transition from closed- canopy rainforest, where return rates on forager investment are generally seen as being low (15), to open vegetation.

LBB comprises a valley floor entrance rock-shelter with a roof height of 15.6 m, and an adjoining, slightly more elevated cave chamber that is 27.3 m long, 12.6 m wide, and up to 9.2 m high. Rock art is visible on the walls and ceiling, including hand stencils (n = 35) overlaid by Austronesian- style drawings (4). During annual excavation seasons at LBB conducted between 2013 and 2015, we opened up a large trench that extended southwards from the cave entrance to the central floor area of the shelter. Our trench has revealed an archaeological sequence of human occupation that is divisible internally and on stratigraphic and chronological grounds into two distinct phases: Phase II: Historical (<1790 A.D.) and ‘Neolithic’ (1.7–1.6 ka cal B.P.); and Phase I: MIS 3/2 (~50–22 ka). The excavated archaeological findings reported in the present study were recovered from Layers 4a- e in Phase I. These are the uppermost Pleistocene deposits preserved at the site. A 108 cm-thick sequence of flowstones separates these sediments from overlying Holocene strata. The capping flowstones sealed-off the Pleistocene layers and protected them from erosion and anthropogenic disturbances. The Layers 4a-e sequence comprises thin silty clays (Layers 4a-b) that slope downwards from the rear of the cave and level out and thicken in the main shelter, where they inter- finger with ashy lenses (Layers 4c-e). This combined sequence is 1.5 m thick. Below this is a 50 cm-thick sandy clay (Layer 4f) that is only preserved near the eastern wall of the cave and which is underlain by a 50 cm-thick sandy clay (Layer 5).

Site chronology Dating results for the site are reported in ref. 20 and summarized in SI Table 1. Charcoal preservation in the Pleistocene deposits was extremely poor. Consequently, we conducted solution U-series dating of two in situ, still-emplaced vertical stalagmites that sandwiched Layer 4a, enabling us to bracket the time-range of this key depositional unit. The uppermost stalagmite (Stalagmite 485), which formed directly atop Layer 4a, has a basal U-series age of 13.7 ± 1.8 ka. This result provides a minimum age for Layer 4a and underlying deposits. The lowermost stalagmite (#605) grew on the upper surface of Layer 4b. This speleothem has a basal U-series age of 25.9 ± 0.7 ka, thus providing a maximum age for overlying Layer 4a and a minimum age for Layer 4b and the strata below it.

The high-precision U-series stalagmite chronology allows us to bracket the time-depth of Layer 4a to between approximately 26 and 14 ka. In order to more tightly constrain the age of Layer 4a, we conducted AMS 14C-dating of freshwater gastropod (Tylomelania perfecta) shells and laser ablation U-series dating of a pig tooth. We also carried out AMS 14C-dating on two T. perfecta shells collected from laterally continuous exposures of Layer 4a revealed by excavations inside the adjoining rock-shelter. These three independent dating methods allow us to infer a time-depth of

2 approximately 26–22 ka for Layer 4a.

Layers 4b-e span ~30–26 ka, as inferred from the overlying stalagmite dates, laser ablation U-series analysis of faunal remains, and radiocarbon dating. A bovid tooth from Layer 4f yielded a minimum U-series age of 39.8 ± 0.2 ka, which, in combination with the above chronological data, suggests this unit spans ~40–30 ka. U-series analysis of a bovid molar from basal Layer 5 provided an in- sequence minimum age of 51.8 ± 0.6 ka, providing Layer 5 with a provisional time-range of ~50– 40 ka.

We also undertook optical dating on two samples LBB-I and LBB-II from Layer 4a and Layer 5, respectively, based on infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL) measurements on volcanic !!.! feldspars (see ref. 20 for details). The IRSL dating yielded depositional ages of 25.3!!.! ka and !!.! 44.5!!.! ka for the two samples from Layer 4a and Layer 5, respectively. The ages are in correct stratigraphic order. The age estimate for LBB-I from Layer 4a is consistent with the high-precision U-series ages obtained for the stalagmites bracketing Layer 4a and the 14C age for the T. perfecta shell taken from the upper part of this layer, and the age of LBB-II from Layer 5 is consistent with the U-series minimum age of 51.8 ± 0.6 ka for the bovid molar from the base of Layer 5.

LBB appears to have been abandoned at or around the height of the LGM. Present evidence suggests the site remained unoccupied, or was only visited extremely sporadically, by 13.7–10.3 ka, when Stalagmite 485 grew atop Layer 4a over a minimum 1900-year interval. There is no evidence in the deposit for the Toalean industry. It seems that the site remained largely unoccupied from the LGM until the late Holocene, when ceramic technology and other evidence of ‘Neolithic’ culture first appears in the sequence.

Archaeological findings Layers 4a-f yielded rich cultural remains. Analyses of the large cultural assemblages from these deposits are ongoing, and will be reported in detail elsewhere. Briefly, the lithic technology was focused on freehand and bipolar reduction of imported chert flakes, and is characterized by an emphasis on exceptionally well-controlled bipolar flaking. Hints of specialist macroblade production occur, but this was evidently undertaken outside the excavated area of the site. Also recovered were chert tools used for processing siliceous plant materials, perhaps for artifact manufacture (e.g., basketry) (21). The dense faunal assemblages in Layers 4a-e are characterized by T. perfecta shells, and fragmented and often burnt elements of bear cuscuses (Ailurops ursinus), rodents, macaques, and other small mammals (Fig. SI1). Remains of birds, reptiles, crabs, and fish are also present. The largest animal represented in significant proportions is the endemic wild boar Sus celebensis (Celebes warty pig). Bear cuscuses were the dominant prey item of the inhabitants of LBB. Findings in Layer 4f are generally consistent with those in Layers 4a-e. However, there is a pronounced change in the behavioral record below Layer 4f. Evidence for human occupation in Layer 5 is sparse. The low-density lithic assemblage comprises simple flakes and core-tools made on cobbles, while the dominant prey species was anoa (Bubalus sp.), an endemic dwarfed buffalo.

Methods for analysis of ‘symbolic’ artifacts Each archaeological object under study was first photographed at high resolution with a Canon EOS 400D digital camera, before being examined with a Zeiss 2000-C stereo microscope fitted with a AxioCam MRc5 camera, along with a Dino-Lite Pro AM413ZTAS digital microscope for traces of taphonomic and anthropogenic modification. To obtain metrics, Mitutoyo (CD-6”CX) digital callipers with the jaws covered in a layer of plastic coating to prevent damage to the artifacts were used. Osseous pieces were compared with available reference collection examples held in the Archaeology & Natural History Osteological Reference Collection at The Australian National University (ANU) in Canberra. A Jeol 6000 desktop SEM was also utilized to examine the surface of smaller artifacts for traces of interest. Drawings (based on the digital photographs) of each 3 artifact were produced and traces of manufacture, use, and residue mapped onto the images using the Canvas Illustrating program. Mapping of anthropogenic traces was checked and re-checked against images taken with the various microscopes utilized in their analysis. Identification of manufacturing and use traces was based on comparison with published data, examples of similar artifacts, and experimental replication of the LBB artifacts, the results of which will be reported in detail in forthcoming publications. Specific details for each artifact/artifact category are provided in the following sections.

Ornamentation The three pieces of ornamentation recovered from Late Pleistocene deposits at LBB thus far are all on osseous raw material taken from endemic species. The identification of Babyrousa sp. (babirusa) tooth as the support on which Bead Blank A and Bead Blank B (both of which were recovered from Square -H2, Layer 4d, Spit 16, 280-290 cm below datum [BD]) (Fig. SI2; see also SI Table 2) was made through microscopic and morphometric comparison of reference collection specimens housed in the ANU’s Archaeology & Natural History Osteological Reference Collection. Babyrousa sp. incisors (such as that from LBB) are, at the most basic level, characterized by a total lack of enamel (a distinctive trait compared with homologue incisors of the genus Sus), a circular cross-section (unlike Sus sp. lower incisors, which are asymmetrical and have grooves on the upper side), and the presence of linear patterning on an unworn exterior surface (see Fig. SI3 for example).

Experimentation with modern S. scrofa incisors (sourced from the Canberra region) found that sectioning the tooth with an unretouched lithic edge, shell knife, or bamboo knife was either ineffective for this raw material or did not result in the facet and fracture pattern observed on the LBB specimens. A blow with a chisel to the top of the tooth surface followed by simple flexion is, however, believed to result in the same form of the stigmata found on the studied LBB artifacts (details forthcoming). No signs of use were found on the Babyrousa sp. bead ‘blanks’.

With regards to the latter artifacts, the majority of both faces of BBA (diameter = 8.4 mm, thickness = 4.6 mm) are largely flat and unstriated, and oriented 90° to the tooth axis. About 60% of each surface is consistent with having been broken away with a smooth fracture, while the remaining 40% is splintered — consistent with snapping via flexion. One face of BBB shows a similar pattern, with 60% ‘smooth’ and 40% splintered. The opposite face exhibits a snap fracture. Also observed was a shallow V-shaped notch that is clearly visible when the two pieces (BBA and BBB) are joined—this notch is thus situated over the initiation point for the break/fracture.

The perforated A. ursinus phalange (Square -F2, Spit 8, 150-160cm BD) weighs 0.8 g, and measures 27.5 mm in absolute length, 8.4 mm in absolute width and 7.2 mm in absolute depth (SI Table 3). The perforation on the intact left side is located 3.5 mm up from the base edge, and is 1.5 mm high and 1.8 mm wide. The right side of the base has deteriorated post-depositionally; however, it is clear that the perforation continues straight through the base of the phalange (Fig. SI4). Closer examination of the intact left side allowed for the identification of the ‘attack point’ (Fig. SI4: C1 indicated by black arrow), which remains from the initial incising of a notch in which to constrain a point for drilling — a technique seen on European (UP) ornaments in both stone and osseous materials. This notch consists of multiple overlapping V-shaped incisions, creating a narrow groove running from the perforation towards the anterior face of the phalange. Evidence for the beginnings of a notch being worn into a corner of the perforation owing to threading (‘key-holing’) is apparent on the distal edge of the perforation, along with a bright polish along its distal margin (Fig. SI4: C2 and C3). Polish was observed on the posterior face of the base (Fig. SI4: B). A bright polish begins here and continues around the right side of the perforation, overlapping with that extending from the attack point to the proximal end of the perforation. These wear traces suggest that the piece was strung and worn with the posterior face resting against a surface (i.e., body, clothing, bag or other material culture item), with the head of

4 the phalange pointing down.

Identification of these manufacture, use, and post-depositional traces was based on comparison with reference collection examples of the same faunal elements and comparison with published data sources (e.g., refs. 22-27).

Pigmented objects A painted rock slab was excavated in situ from Layer 4d (Fig. SI5). This artifact consists of a large, tabular piece of flowstone (measuring 300 x 230 x 70 mm) that is roughly rectangular in plan form and exhibits a straight, finger-width line of black pigment on one surface. It was found resting horizontally within the deposit, with the side bearing pigment lying face-down. The ~75 mm-long line of pigment runs from one edge of the slab to just past its center; a smaller pigment smear of the same width and direction suggesting the line may have once crossed the entire slab. The line is consistently 10-12 mm wide, and the surface morphology suggests paint was applied by a finger dipped in liquid pigment and then drawn across the stone. SEM analysis of the black pigment line shows that it is composed of carbon grains with a crystalline morphology, suggesting the paint used was derived from mineral carbon rather than charcoal. Pre-treatment tests conducted on a sample of the pigment submitted for AMS 14C-dating yielded no organic matter. The painted rock slab may be a fallen fragment of an overhead rock art panel. We note, however, that the slab was trimmed into its present shape by direct hard-hammer flaking, perhaps implying that it was intentionally modified for painting, and thus may constitute a form of ‘mobile’ art.

From Layer 4b, we also recovered a small section of an A. ursinus long bone that exhibits traces of red and black pigment (Fig. 4 in main text; see also Fig. SI6). This shaft fragment weighs 5.5 g and measures 63.9 mm in absolute length. Both extremities are fractured in a manner that is consistent with the bone having been processed/broken apart during food preparation. Red is visible on the external surface of the shaft, extending down to 41.9 mm from the ‘pointed’ extremity (broken with a spiral fracture). While calcium carbonate-cemented breccia covers a portion of the interior surface, red and black pigment is visible inside the bone, and the composition of this pigment is consistent with the other at LBB and in the Maros-Pangkep parietal art. The chemistry of red pigment on the bone artifact is consistent with the composition of the red ochres excavated at LBB (elevated Si, Fe, Pb and Cu abundances). Conversely, the chemistry of the black pigment is inconsistent with the breccia inside the bone (i.e., Mg is present in breccias and not the pigment). Although carbon is below the detection limits of our tests, the latter showed that the black substance on the artifact is not manganese oxide. We compared the composition of the black material with manganese accretions in the deposit at LBB and on the walls of a local rock art site, finding that the amount of Mn measured in the bone residues was in the order of background sediments in the deposit (~1–2 k, contrasting with 10–158 k in the accretions). It therefore seems unlikely that the black pigmentation on the A. ursinus bone is staining from the deposit. Rather, the restricted distribution of the black pigment in relation to the red suggests that the bone came into direct contact with both carbon- and ochre-based paints. While breccia covers much of the interior surface of the bone, careful examination identified the presence of pigment on the exposed left side (Fig. SI6). At this location, the black colorant appears to overlie the red, which may indicate a chronology of paint use. Finding comparative material for this artifact has proved difficult as only brief mentions of similar artifacts from European UP contexts could be located (e.g., refs. 28-30). Experimental use of long bones as blow pipes for the application of pigment in the production of rock art, however, indicates that pigment is dispersed not only throughout the tube, but also on its external surfaces as seen on the LBB artifact (e.g., see the experimental work of P. Pettitt and G. Tosello).

Identification of the hollow bone tube as originating from A. ursinus long bone was based on comparison with ANU reference fauna elements. Identification of the red and black colored traces

5 preserved on this specimen was based on microscopic examination of the substances (see below).

Utilized pigments Identification of primary (processing) and secondary (utilisation) traces on the LBB haematite nodules was based on a number of published sources (i.e., refs. 31-34). Most LBB specimens only display primary traces — that is, discernable evidence for having been ground or scraped for the production of pigment (i.e., Figs. SI7-10). Only one piece (Fig. SI11) displays evidence for secondary utilization — that is, for having first been ground and/or scraped before being directly applied to another surface. Furthermore, a single ochre piece (Fig. SI12) exhibits apparent signs of anthropogenic alteration in the form of localized flaking/retouch.

Incised stone artifacts Identification of the anthropogenic nature and characteristics of the incisions observed on the LBB stone artifacts was based on key published sources (i.e., refs. 35-37). Dimensions and descriptions of the incised stone artifacts from LBB are provided in SI Table 4, with further details below:

Artifact 2344 (Square –G2, Layer 4d, Spit 18, 280-290 cm BD) Chert artifact with a small square-shaped inclusion (measuring 6.5 mm x 6.5 mm) on a patch of remnant dorsal cortex. The square is marked with two lines, one crossing over the other at a 90° angle, forming a cross. Examination of these lines at low magnification demonstrates their anthropogenic origin. Each line originates in a corner of the square, with the line running from the distal end of the flake having being incised first (Fig. SI13). This order of working was able to be determined as the second line disrupts the progress of the first, while the second is unimpeded (detail shown in Fig. SI13: C, indicated by green arrow). The boundaries of the square are irregular, suggesting that it formed as a natural inclusion or fossil in the nodule’s surface; however, microscopic analysis shows that a lithic tool edge was used to accentuate the boundaries of the square. The surface of the square is smooth — contrasting with the rough surface of the surrounding cortex—and it may have been enhanced before the cross was incised, perhaps by lightly scraping it with a tool edge. Two sides of the natural inclusion also appear to have been traced over, emphasising its extremity (shown by yellow arrows in Fig. SI13: A and B). The remaining two sides are unaltered. Use of a lithic cutting edge is indicated by the V-shaped cross section and striations running within the outline of the incised line (see Fig. SI13: C, indicated by red arrows).

Artifact 10 (Square –F2, Layer 4a, Spit 8, 150-160 cm BD) Small fragment of tabular limestone that is incised with three diagonal lines. On the left side of the artifact, the line running from left-to-right was incised before that running from right-to-left. As the third line does not overlap the first two, we cannot determine its chronology. Each line was incised with a lithic cutting edge, as indicated by the V-shaped cross-section of the incisions. There are no clear percussion attributes and the artifact was probably not part of a stone tool or tool manufacturing debris.

Artifact 443 (Square –H2, Layer 4a, Spit 9, 210-220 cm BD) Cortically ‘backed’ chert flake with an incised section on the cortex measuring 21.8 mm (w) by 5.2 mm (l). Four parallel and oblique lines are incised, with the middle two lines being much closer than the outer two lines. The cortex is very coarse grained, making determination of how the lines were incised (from dorsal to ventral surface) impossible.

Artifact 153 (Square –E2, Layer 4a, Spit 10, 150-160 cm BD) Chert utilized truncated flake with at least six incised lines of anthropogenic origin present on the cortical dorsal surface. Flake truncation—sectioning flakes by placing them flat on a hard surface and striking the face—is a common practice in Pleistocene and Holocene assemblages in Indonesia. Red ochre residue is present on the tip of the pointed projection on this artifact, on the ventral

6 surface of the flake, the adjacent truncation facet, and the retouching scar. The edge opposite the projection was minimally retouched.

Artifact 1878 (Square –G2, Layer 4d, Spit 9, 210-220 cm BD) Utilized chert flake with a single incised line on a patch of dorsal cortex (Fig. SI13: D). The steep cortical facet forms a natural ‘back’ to the utilized edge opposite. The area of dorsal cortex (measuring 36.7 mm [l] x 30.6 mm [w]) exhibits a single, shallow 22 mm-long horizontal line across the right side. The cortical backed edge is unmarked. The coarseness of the cortex inhibited the identification of which direction the line was incised.

Stone artifacts with pigment residues We conducted microscopic analyses of a small sample of chert artifacts bearing macroscopically observed red colorant residue, including the two stratigraphically earliest such specimens recovered from the deposit (Samples #2-3). Individual details of these artifacts are as follows:

Sample 1 (Square -A1, Layer 4a, Spit 14) This piece weighs 4.6 g and measures 37.9 mm (max. h) x 20.7 mm (max. w). The concentration of visible red colorant on the dorsal surface reaches 14.5 mm from the proximal edge (Fig. SI14: A), with the proximal (active) edge measuring 12.6 mm (w) x 6.1 mm (d). Colorant has accumulated within the crevices created by flake scars. The distribution of the colorant on the proximal extremity of the flake is consistent with the tool having been used to scrape material from a colorant ‘core’. Confined within the flake scars is a darker residue which appears to be manganese or pyrite owing to the ‘flowery’ appearance of the extremities (Fig. SI14: B).

Sample 2 (Square -A1, Layer 4f, Spit 18) This blocky flake fragment weights 6.3 g and measures 22.3 mm (max. h) by 28 mm (max. w). Red colorant is visible on both the dorsal surface (Fig. SI14: D) and platform (Fig. SI14: C). As with the previous specimen, red colorant has accumulated inside the cavities formed by flake scars (Fig. SI14: C2) and within depressions in the flake topography (i.e., in the case of the dorsal surface), a distribution consistent with the platform having been used as the active edge (platform metrics: 16.8 mm [h] x 7.6 mm [w], with the likely active edge being ~7 mm wide).

Sample 3 (Square -A1, Layer 4f, Spit 18) This piece weighs 19.5 g and measures 59.3 mm (max. w) x 38.4 mm (max. h). The concentration of red colorant reaches up to 22.5 mm from the left edge (Fig. SI14: E), though a lesser amount of colorant continues higher up this side (Fig. SI14: F). The most likely active edge (lower right) — as based on the distribution of colorant — measures 18.5 mm in width. The concentration of colorant on this flake is much more ephemeral than the previous two examples, though this situation may simply be the result of an edge that does not display multiple flake scars, or other cavities in which colorant could gather was utilized. A black manganese-like residue was also observed at high (500 x) magnification.

Pigment characterization A common and effective strategy for the chemical characterization of rock art is to use diagnostic elements to determine the main color-producing constituents (38-40). Here, we have interpreted elevated manganese abundance with co-occurring barium observed via portable x-ray fluorescence (pXRF) spectrometry as diagnostic of manganese oxides (40-41). Manganese is a well known form of black pigment used in prehistoric rock art (42). We collected element profiles from a black accretion present on the outer surface of a reworked fragment of speleothem (non-cultural object) (Fig. SI15: A) excavated from stratified Late Pleistocene deposits at LBB and a black evaporite accretion visible at the edge of a rock art panel (Fig. SI15: B) at another limestone cave, Leang Sameungkeng, in the Maros-Pangkep karsts. These samples were compared with black pigment

7 from Austronesian-style prehistoric rock art motifs (n = 2) present on the ceiling of LBB (Fig. SI15: E-F) and the black paints on the flowstone slab (Fig. SI15: C) and apparent ‘blow-pipe’ excavated from the Late Pleistocene deposits at this site (Fig. SI15: D).

The black accretions from the speleothem fragment excavated at LBB and the rock art panel at Leang Sameungkeng were determined to be manganese oxides, with these samples showing elevated Mn/Ba abundances of 157,988/2,205 ppm, 10,134/174 ppm and 10,294/0 ppm (assays 1-3, respectively, in Fig. SI15 A-C). Mn/Ba abundances on the painted flowstone line and ‘blow-pipe’ were 599/0 ppm and 2,399/0 ppm, respectively. The amount of Mn in the ‘blow-pipe’ pigment is similar to that in the breccia inside this bone artifact (1,263 ppm – no Ba). We anticipate some attenuation of the x-ray signal on the breccia assay from the ‘blow-pipe’, given the small air gap created by its concave shape. Mn was negligible in the black rock art pigment on the ceiling of LBB (not measured in the head of the anthropomorphic figure and only 16 ppm in the line motif – again no Ba). We therefore conclude that the analyzed pigments on the flowstone slab and the ‘blow- pipe’ are, in both instances, carbon-based.

The most common black pigment reported in rock art studies is ‘carbon black’ – a colorant derived from the combustion of organic materials, usually referred to as charcoal (43). Charcoal grains have a distinctive fibrous and/or cellular structure, sometimes allowing analysts to identify the specific type of plant material used to produce rock art pigments (44). However, carbon-based pigments can also be made from mineralised material (45-47). Although rare, black paints made from mineralized carbon are known in prehistoric rock art (48). Unexpectedly, this was found to be the case for the black painted line on the flowstone slab from LBB. As Fig. SI16 illustrates, the carbon grains observed from the painted line on the flowstone slab and the black Austronesian motif on the ceiling at LBB have very different structures. Although both composed of almost pure carbon, the grains from the painted line on the excavated slab display the blocky form and crystalline shape typical of coal (47, 49-50), and are morphologically distinct from anthropogenically modified manganese pigments (e.g., see refs. 42, 51-52).

Methods for pigment characterization Pigment characterizations were undertaken using a Brucker TitanS1 800 portable X-Ray Fluorescence (pXRF) instrument, equipped with a silicon drift detector, Rh target X-ray tube (maximum voltage 50 kV, default to 150°C with ultralene window) and five position motorized filter changer. Two beam phases collecting for 90 analytic seconds were taken for each assay (in total, 180 seconds per spectrum). Phase 1 parameters: 45kV, 10.45 µA with a Ti 25 µm, Al 300 µm filter in the beam path. Phase 2 parameters: 15kV, 31.55 µA without a filter. Relative element abundances for reported ED-pXRF are derived from the manufacturer’s fundamental parameters calculations corrected for limits of detection. The relative abundances of characteristic elements were interpreted following established protocols (40-41, 53-56). A Zeiss Sigma VP FESEM. A Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) fitted with a Bruker light element SSD EDS detector for microprobe analysis (energy dispersive x-ray spectrometer for element profiling) was used to characterise radiocarbon samples.

References 1. McDonald RC (1976) Limestone morphology in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Z. Geomorphol. 26 (suppl.):79-91.

2. Glover IC (1981) Leang Burung 2: an Upper Palaeolithic rock shelter in south Sulawesi, Indonesia. Mod Quat Re SE Asia 6, 1-38.

3. Bulbeck D, Sumantri I, Hiscock P (1981) Leang Sakapao 1, a second dated Pleistocene site from South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Mod Quat Re SE Asia 18, 111-128. 8

4. Aubert MA, Brumm A, Ramli M, Sutikna T, Saptomo EW, Hakim B, Morwood MJ, van den Bergh GD, Kinsley L, Dosseto A (2014) Pleistocene cave art from Sulawesi, Indonesia. Nature 514:223-227.

5. Glover IC (1976) Ulu Leang cave, Maros: a preliminary sequence of post-Pleistocene cultural development in South Sulawesi. Archipel 11:113-154.

6. van Heekeren HR (1952) Rock-paintings and other prehistoric discoveries near Maros (South West Celebes). Laporan Tahunan Dinas Purbakala 1950:22-35.

7. van Heekeren HR (1972) The Stone Age of Indonesia (Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague).

8. Mulvaney DJ, Soejono RP (1970) Archaeology in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Antiquity 45:26-33.

9. Bulbeck D (2004) Divided in space, united in time: the Holocene prehistory of South Sulawesi. Mod Quat Re SE Asia 18:129-166.

10. Bulbeck D, Pasqua M, Di Lello A (2000) Culture history of the Toalean of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Asian Perspec 39:71-108.

11. Hoeksema BW (2012) Evolutionary trends in onshore-offshore distribution patterns of mushroom coral species (Scleractinia: Fungiidae). Contrib Zool 81(4):199-221.

12. Renema W, Troelstra SR (2001) Larger foraminifera distribution on a mesotrophic carbonate shelf in SW Sulawesi (Indonesia). Palaeogeogr Palaeocl 175:125-146.

13. Bulbeck D (2007) Where river meets sea: a parsimonious model for Homo sapiens colonization of the Indian Ocean rim and Sahul. Curr Anthropol 48(2):315-321.

14. Langley MC, O’Connor S, Piotto E (2016) 42,000-year-old worked and pigment-stained Nautilus shell from Jerimalai (Timor-Leste): Evidence for an early coastal adaptation in ISEA. J Hum Evol 97:1-16.

15. O’Connell JF, Allen J (2012) The restaurant at the end of the universe: modeling the colonisation of Sahul. Aust Archaeol 74:5-31.

16. Marean CW (2014) The origins and significance of coastal resource use in Africa and Western Eurasia. J Hum Evol 77:17-40.

17. Scroxton N, Gagan MK, Dunbar GB, Ayliffe LK, Hantoro WS, Shen C-C, Hellstrom JC, Zhao J-x, Cheng H, Edwards RL, Sun H, Rifai H (2016) Natural attrition and growth frequency variations of stalagmites in southwest Sulawesi over the past 530,000 years. Palaeogeogr Palaeocl 441(4):823-833.

18. Russell JM, Vogel H, Konecky BL, Bijaksana S, Huang Y, Melles M, Wattrus N, Costa K, King JW (2014) Glacial forcing of central Indonesian hydroclimate since 60,000 y B.P. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 111(14):5100-5105.

19. Wicaksono SA, Russell JM, Bijaksana S (2015) Compound-specific carbon isotope records of vegetation and hydrologic change in central Sulawesi, Indonesia, since 53,000 yr BP. Palaeogeogr Palaeocl 430:47-56. 9

20. Li B, Roberts RG, Brumm A, Guo Y-J, Hakim B, Ramli M, Aubert M, Grün R, Zhao J-x, Saptomo EW (2016) IRSL dating of fast-fading sanidine feldspars from Sulawesi, Indonesia. Ancient TL 34(2):1-13.

21. Sinha P, Glover IC (1983) Changes in stone tool use in Southeast Asia 10,000 years ago: a microwear analysis of flakes with use gloss from Leang Burung 2 and Ulu Leang 1 , Sulawesi, Indonesia. Mod Quat Re SE Asia 8:137-164.

22. d’Errico F (1993) La vie sociale de l’art mobilier Paléolithique. Manipulation, transport, suspension des objets on os, bois de cervidés, ivoire. Oxford J Archaeol 12:145-174.

23. d’Errico F, Villa P (1997) Holes and grooves: the contribution of microscopy and taphonomy to the problem of art origins. J Hum Evol 33:1-31.

24. White R (1995) Ivory personal ornaments of Aurignacian age: Technological, social and symbolic perspectives. Le Travail et l’Usage de l’Ivoire au Paléolithique Supérieur (Centre Universitaire Européen pour les Biens Culturels, Ravello) pp 29-62.

25. White R (2007) systems of personal ornamentation in the Early Upper Palaeolithic: Methodological challenges and new observations. Rethinking the Human Revolution, eds Mellars, P, Boyle, K. Bar-Yosef, O. Stringer C. (Cambridge Univ Press, Cambridge, UK), pp 287-302.

26. Vanhaeren M, d’Errico F, Billy I, Grousset F (2004) Tracing the source of Upper Palaeolithic shell beads by strontium isotope dating. J Archaeol Sci 31:1481-1488.

27. Buc N (2011) Experimental series and use-wear in bone tools. J Archaeol Sci 38:546-557.

28. de Mons L, Péan S, Pigeaud R (2015) Matières d’Art: Représentations Préhistoriques et Supports Osseux Relations et Contraintes (Éditions Errance, ).

29. Breuil, H (1906) Les Cottés. Une Grotte du vieil age du Renne a St-Pierre de Maillé (Vienne). Rev L’Ecole d’Anthropol 16:47-62.

30. Lorblanchet M (1972) L’Art parietal en Quercy. PhD thesis, Université Paris I Panthéon- Sorbonne, Paris, France.

31. Hodgskiss T (2010) Identifying grinding, scoring and rubbing use-wear on experimental ochre pieces. J Archaeol Sci 37:3344-3358.

32. Rifkin RF (2012) Processing ochre in the Middle Stone Age: Testing the inference of prehistoric behaviours from actualistically derived experimental data. J Anthropol Archaeol 31:174- 195.

33. d’Errico F (2008) Le rouge et le noir: Implications of early pigment use in Africa, the Near East and Europe for the origin of cultural modernity. South African Archaeol Soc 10:168-174.

34. Henshilwood CS, d’Errico F, Watts I (2009) Engraved ochres from the Middle Stone Age levels at , . J Hum Evol 57:27-47.

35. d’Errico F (1991) Microscopic and statistical criteria for the identification of prehistoric systems of notation. Rock Art Res 8:83-93. 10

36. d’Errico F, Cacho C (1994) Notation versus decoration in the Upper Palaeolithic: A case-study from Tossal de la Rosa, Alicante, . J Archaeol Sci 21:185-200.

37. Brumm A, Boivin N, Fullagar R (2006) Signs of life: Engraved stone artefacts from Neolithic south . Cam Archaeol J 16:165-190.

38. Newman B, Leondorf L (2005) Portable x-ray fluorescence analysis of rock art pigments. Plains Anth 50(195):277-283.

39. Huntley J, Aubert M, Ross J, Brand HEA, Morwood MJ (2015) One Colour, two minerals: a study of mulberry rock art pigment and a mulberry pigment ‘quarry’ from the Kimberley, northern . Archaeometry 57(1):77-99.

40. Roldán C, Murcia-Mascaros S, Ferrero J, Villaverde V, Lopez E, Domingo I, Martínez R, Guillem PM (2010) Application of field portable EDXRF spectrometry to analysis of pigments of Levantine rock art. X-Ray Spec 39:243-250.

41. Koenig CW, Castañeda AM, Boyd CE, Rowe MW, Steelman KL (2014) Portable x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy of pictographs: a case study from the lower Pecos canyonlands, Texas. Archaeometry 56(1):168-186.

42. Vignaud C, Salomon H, Chalmin E, Genste J-G, Menu M (2006) The ‘back to back bison’s panel’ of : access to the artists know-how by pigment analyses. L’ant 100:482-499.

43. Bonneau A, Pearce DG, Pollard M (2012) A multi-technique characterization and provenance study of the pigments used in San rock art, South Africa. J Archaeol Sci 39:287-294.

44. Huntley J, Watchman A, Dibden J (2011) Characteristics of a pigment art sequence: Woronora Plateau, New South Wales. Rock Art Research 28(1):85-97.

45. Taҫon PSC (2012) Ochre, clay, stone and art: the symbolic importance of minerals as life-force among Aboriginal peoples of northern and central Australia. Soils, Stones and Symbols: Cultural Perceptions of the Mineral World, eds Boivin N, Owoc MA (Routledge: New York), pp. 31-42.

46. Tomasin E, Siracusano G, Maier MS (2012) Spectroscopic, morphological and chemical characterization of historic pigments based on carbon. Paths for the identification of an artistic pigment. Microchem J 102:28-37.

47. Winter J (1984) The characterization of pigments based on carbon. Stud Conserv 28(2):49-66.

48. Hernanz A, Chang J, Iriarte M, Gavira-Vallejo JM, de Balbín-Behrmann R, Bueno-Ramírez P, Maroto-Valiente A (2016) Raman microscopy of hand stencils rock art from the Yabrai Mountain, Inner Autonomous Region, . Appl Phys A 122:699-707.

49. Qingzhao L, Lin B, Zhao S, Dai H (2013) Surface physical properties and its effects on the wetting behaviors of respirable coal mine dust. Powder Tech 233:137-145.

50. Sellaro R, Sarver E, Baxter D (2015) A standard characterization methodology for respirable coal mine dust using SEM-EDX. Resources 4:939-957.

11 51. Chalmin E, Menu M, Vignaud C (2003) Analysis of rock art painting and technology of Palaeolithic painters. Measu Sci and Tech 14:159-1597.

52. Heyes PJ, Anastasakis K, de Jong W, van Hoesel A, Roebroeks W, Soressi M (2016) Selection and use of manganese dioxide by Neanderthals. Nature: Sci Rep 6: article no. 22159, doi:10.1038/srep22159, Supplementary Information.

53. Lopez-Montalvo E, Villaverde V, Roldan C, Murcia S, Badal E (2014) An approximation to the study of black pigments in Cova Remigia (Castellón, Spain). Technical and cultural assessments of the use of carbon-based black pigments in Spanish Levantine Rock Art. J Archaeol Sci 52:535-545.

54. Jezequel P, Beny CGW, Delorme F, Veronique JP, Cottier R, Breton J, Dure F, Despriee J (2011) Characterization and origin of black and red Magdalenian pigments from Grottes de la Garenne (Vallée moyenne de la Creuse-France): a mineralogical and geochemical approach of the study of prehistorical paintings. J Archaeol Sci 38:1165-1172.

55. Gay M, Müller K, Plassardb F, Cleyet-Merle J-J, Arias P, Ontañónd R, Reiche I (in press). Efficient quantification procedures for data evaluation of portable X-ray fluorescence – potential improvements for Palaeolithic cave art knowledge. J Archaeol Sci: Reports.

56. Rifkin RF, Pinsloo L, Dayet L, Haaland MM, Henshilwood CS, Lozano Diz E, Moyo S, Vogelsang R, Kambombo F (2016) Characterising pigments on 30000-year-old portable art from , Karas Region, southern . J Archaeol Sci Rep 5:336-347.

12

Figure SI1: Distribution, frequency, and characteristics of faunal remains at Leang Bulu Bettue. Data collected primarily from faunal assemblages excavated from Square -A1. Left panel: black triangles indicate the total number of vertebrate specimens per 10-cm-deep excavation spit (including fossil fragments obtained from wet-sieving, but excluding fish teeth); blue diamonds indicate the amount of small-bodied vertebrate remains as a percentage of the total number of finds per spit (maximum 100%, including unidentifiable and identifiable bone fragments of Phalangeridae, primates, viverrids, birds, and reptiles); red diamonds indicate the amount of large- bodied vertebrate remains as a percentage of the total number of finds per spit (maximum 100%, including unidentifiable and identifiable bone fragments of Suinae, bovini, and other large-sized taxa). Central panel: vertical range chart of key taxa based on diagnostic faunal remains. Black crosses indicate the presence of a taxon in a particular spit of Square -A1. Some ranges could be extended with identifiable remains from other quadrants. These are indicated with crosses of other colors (key in upper right corner). Right panel: black diamonds indicate the number of bone fragments with signs of heating/burning; blue diamonds indicate the amount of specimens with signs of water transport (rounding, water-rolled) as a percentage of the total amount of finds per spit.

13

Figure SI2: Bead Blank A and Bead Blank B made on Babyrousa sp. (babirusa) lower incisor. Inset boxes A and B show alternative views of the worked face of Bead Blank B (scale bar = 1 mm), while the facet evident on the conjoined beads is shown in the middle of the figure.

14

Figure SI3: Ventral view of a mandible from a modern male Babyrousa babirussa (golden, or hairy, babirusa) originating from Buru (Naturalis Biodiversity Centre Coll. Nr. 28801). Note the absence of enamel. The blue arrow indicates the unworn surface of the lower incisor; the yellow arrow indicates the naturally worn surface of the lower incisor.

15

Figure SI4: Pendant on Ailurops ursinus (bear cuscus) phalange. A) Perforation on right side, which was damaged post-depositionally; (B) High polish on base; (C) Perforation on left side: (C1) Black arrow indicates the ‘attack point’ for initiating the perforation; (C2-C3) High polish on superior perforation edge. Scale bar = 1 mm.

16

Fig SI5: Painted rock slab from Leang Bulu Bettue. In the bottom image, the lines of grey dots show the extent of unifacial knapping around part of the periphery of the slab. The scale bar (top image) is 100 mm in length.

17

Figure SI6: Possible ‘blow-pipe’ made on a long bone of A. ursinus, and which exhibits red and black pigments on its external and internal surfaces. (A-C) Pigments on external surface of bone showing laying of black pigment on red; (D and E) Red and black pigments edge of bone again showing layers of black pigment on red. Scale bars = 1 mm.

18

Figure SI7: Utilized ochre (Square -G2, Layer 4a, Spit 11, 210-220 cm BD). The utilized ochre nodule weighs 9.4 g and measures 34 mm (max. l) x 13.3 mm (max. w) x 13 mm (max. d). Numerous striations resulting from scraping are visible on one side: A) Distal edge; B) Middle section; C) Proximal edge. Scale bars = 1 mm.

19

Figure SI8: Utilized ochre nodule (Square A2, Layer 4a, Spit 16, 160-170 cm BD). The ochre nodule weighs 24.1 g and measures 45.1 mm (max. h) x 30.8 mm (max .w) x 21.1 mm (max. d). One surface displays evidence for abrasion and scraping, with a small scraped section being partially worn down via abrasion, suggesting that the piece was first scraped and then ground. The soft nature of this material has resulted in most surfaces acquiring a light polish, most likely post- depositionally. Light grey = ground area; dark grey = scraped area; mid grey = scraped area partially worn away by abrasion. Microscope images (scale bars = 1 mm): A) Distal section; B) Middle section; C) Proximal end.

20

Figure SI9: Utilized ochre (Square -E2, Layer 4a, Spit 10, 150-160 cm BD). The coarse, blocky ochre nodule weighs 56 g and measures 52.2 mm (max. h) x 28.9 mm (max. w) x 29.3 mm (max. d). Two faces (on opposite sides of the block) display evidence for having been ground and scraped. As with the nodule illustrated in Fig. SI8, it appears that each face of this specimen was first scraped with a lithic edge before being ground. Light grey = ground area; dark grey = scraped area. Scale bars in microscope images A & B = 1 mm.

21

Figure SI10: Utilized ochre (Square B2, Layer 4b, Spit 17, 200-210 cm BD). The small ‘plaquette’ of ochre weighs 5.1 g and measures 24.4 mm (max. h) x 19.4 mm (max. w) x 4.9 mm (max. d). A single incised line measuring 7.1 mm in length is located on one side and begins 5.6 mm from the most distal edge. This incision may be the result of the ochre plaquette having been fractured from a greater whole (the overall form being natural) for transport and/or use. Also observed on the same side of the incision is a lightly scraped section. This mark reaches up to 15.5 mm from the proximal extremity and consists of numerous parallel and slightly curved lines. It may be the product of a lithic edge being scraped over the surface very lightly. Microscope images (scale bars = 1 mm): A) striations from a lithic edge apparently being scraped over the surface; B) The single incised line. Red arrows indicate the start and end points of the incision.

22

Figure SI11: Utilized ochre (Square B1, Layer 4b, Spit 17). The roughly pointed piece of ochre weighs 2.4 g and measuring 24.5 mm (max. h) x 15.8 mm (max. w) x 7.6 mm (max. d). Flake scars at the proximal extremity suggest it was detached from a larger nodule. A central (dorsal) facet reaches 14.8 mm from the distal edge, and along with a single facet located on both the left and right sides of this central one, displays evidence for rubbing on a soft surfaces such as animal hide or human skin. Scale bars in microscope images A & B = 1 mm. White residues visible in these images are a fungus that has developed post excavation.

23

Figure SI12: Ochre piece with apparent signs of anthropogenic modification (Square -F2, Layer 4a, Spit 13, 200-210 cm BD). The proximal edge appears to have been minimally altered through the removal of a small flake to create a ‘winged’ proximal morphology, with three flakes removed from the right side and several smaller flakes struck from the distal end of the left edge (indicated by red arrows). Raised sections on the dorsal surface and edges display minimal polish which may be the result of handling in prehistory, although it could also be from post-depositional processes active at the site. Microscope images (scale bars = 1 mm): B) Central facet; C) Pointed section.

24

Figure SI13: Incised chert implements from LBB. Artifact 2344 is shown at the top (and A-C) and Artifact 1878 is shown at the bottom (D). Both were excavated from Layer 4d. A-C show microscopic images of the incised design on Artifact 2344; red arrows: incised lines within inclusion boundary; yellow arrows: enhancement of inclusion boundary; green arrow: second (horizontal) line running over first vertical line. Scale bars in microscope images A & B = 1 mm. Artifact 1878 contains a single incised line (hightlighted in red) on the cortical dorsal surface. Scale bar in D is 30 mm.

25

Figure SI14: Flakes with pigment residues. A) (Square -A1, Layer 4a, Spit 14, Find No 287); B) (- Square A1, Layer 4c, Spit 18, Find No 624); C) (Square -A1, Layer 4c, Spit 18, Find No 609). Scale bars in microscope images = 1 mm.

26

Figure SI15: Location of pXRF assays (red boxes). Assays 1-3 are shown in panels A-C, respectively. A) Natural flowstone fragment excavated from Late Pleistocene deposits at LBB; B) manganese accretion on the limestone bedrock surface at nearby Leang Sameungkeng; C) painted black line from the flowstone slab excavated from Layer 4d at LBB (also showing the location of pigment sample taken for radiocarbon dating [yellow box]); D) possible A. ursinus bone blow-pipe from Layer 4b at LBB (D); E-F) black Austronesian-style rock art motifs (anthropomorphs and abstract geometric designs) on the ceiling at LBB. Photo scales shown in A-C are 100 mm in length. Scale bar in D is 5 mm.

27

Figure SI16: Backscattered electron images of black pigment samples from LBB. A-B) Mineral carbon grains from black painted line on the flowstone slab excavated from Layer 4d at LBB; C-D) charcoal grains from an Austronesian-style black rock art motif on the limestone ceiling at LBB. Scale bars are 10 micron.

28

SI Table 1: Key radiometric determinations from Leang Bulu Bettue. Sample code Layer Exc. Square/Depth Material Method Age Below Datum (cm)

Wk-37740 1 A2/30-40 cm B.D. Charcoal AMS 14C 1759 ± 20 BP (1720-1610 y cal B.P.)

485-0055 3/4a A1/95-110 cm B.D. Stalagmite U-series 10.3 ± 0.3 ka

485-0435 3/4a A1/95-110 cm B.D. Stalagmite U-series 10.6 ± 0.4 ka

485-0835 3/4a A1/95-110 cm B.D. Stalagmite U-series 10.5 ± 0.3 ka

485-1375 3/4a A1/95-110 cm B.D. Stalagmite U-series 11.7 ± 1.0 ka

485-1560 3/4a A1/95-110 cm B.D. Stalagmite U-series 13.1 ± 1.7 ka

485-1850 3/4a A1/95-110 cm B.D. Stalagmite U-series 13.7 ± 1.8 ka

Wk-37742 4a A1/131 cm B.D. Shell* AMS 14C 18,126 ± 51 BP (22,196-21,792 y cal B.P.)

Wk-42070 4a -H2/210 cm B.D. Shell* AMS 14C 19,765 ± 90 BP (24,070-23,520 y cal B.P.)

+7.0 LBB-I 4a A2/138 cm B.D. Feldspars OSL (pIRIR) 25.3 /-5.6 ka

LBB-3 4a A1/156 cm B.D. Sus molar U-series** 25.4 ± 4.7 ka

Wk-37743 4a A1/168 cm B.D. Shell* AMS 14C 23,154 ± 91 BP (27,645-27,244 y cal B.P.)

29 Wk-42069 4a -H2/226 cm B.D. Shell* AMS 14C 21,419 ± 115 BP (25,970-25,500 y cal B.P.)

605-0274 4b A1/151-169 cm B.D. Stalagmite U-series 24.6 ± 0.2 ka

605-0780 4b A1/151-169 cm B.D. Stalagmite U-series 26.0 ± 0.7 ka

605-1230 4b A1/151-169 cm B.D. Stalagmite U-series 24.7 ± 0.2 ka

605-1599 4b A1/151-169 cm B.D. Stalagmite U-series 26.4 ± 0.6 ka

605-1900 4b A1/151-169 cm B.D. Stalagmite U-series 25.9 ± 0.7 ka

Wk-42065 4b -H2/233 cm B.D. Shell* AMS 14C 21,539 ± 111 BP (26,040-25,620 y cal B.P.)

Wk-42067 4d -H2/255 cm B.D. Shell* AMS 14C 22,294 ± 122 BP (27,000-26,170 y cal B.P.)

Wk-42068 4d -H2/281 cm B.D. Shell* AMS 14C 22,265 ± 121 BP (26,960-26,140 y cal B.P.)

Wk-42071 4e -G2/279 cm B.D. Shell* AMS 14C 23,462 ± 142 BP (27,850-27,400 y cal B.P.)

Wk-42066 4e -H2/306 cm B.D. Shell* AMS 14C 21,888 ± 117 BP (26,360-25,840 y cal B.P.)

3612 4f -A1/191 cm B.D. Bovid tooth U-series** 39.8 ± 0.2 ka

+9.9 LBB-II 5 A1/205 cm B.D. Feldspars OSL (pIRIR) 44.5 /-8.4 ka

30 3609 5 -A1/232 cm B.D. Bovid molar U-series** 51.8 ± 0.6 ka

*Freshwater gastropod (Tylomelania perfecta) **Laser ablation U-series analysis

SI Table 2: Dimensions of Babyrousa sp. bead blanks from Leang Bulu Bettue, Layer 4d.

Length (mm) Width (mm) Depth (mm) Weight (g)

Bead blank A 8.4 8.4 4.6 0.2

Bead blank B 16.7 8.1 8.5 0.9

31

SI Table 3: Dimensions of perforated bear cuscus (Ailurops ursinus) phalange from Leang Bulu Bettue, Layer 4a.

Length (mm) Width (mm) Depth (mm) Weight (g)

Phalange 27.4 8.3 7.2 0.7

Perforation 1.8 1.5 --

SI Table 4: Incised stone artifacts from Leang Bulu Bettue*.

Item Provenance Description Length Width Thickness Weight (mm) (mm) (mm) (g)

2344 Layer 4d Complete chert redirecting 38.8 40.1 9.0 9.5 flake with remnant platform on the right lateral edge. Collapsed platform.

1878 Layer 4d Complete chert early 56.1 35.4 12.3 13.7 reduction flake with microflaking use-wear to the dorsal surface on the left lateral margin. Cortical platform (4.7 mm deep)

153 Layer 4a Truncated flake (mesial) 23.4 32.6 7.0 3.0 with bending fracture on one broken edge and demicone on opposite broken edge. One small retouching scar at junction of truncated surfaces and two overlapping retouching scars with internal microflaking onto the cortical surface on the non-truncated edge.

443 Layer 4a Truncated flake (proximal) 21.4 18.3 6. 9 2.0 with truncation facets on the right lateral/distal margin. Single facet platform (7.2 mm deep).

32 10 Layer 41 Limestone fragment lacking 15.9 9.3 3.0 0.5 percussion attributes.

*Artifact types and measurement conventions follow those described in ref. 37 (main text).

33