University of Nebraska Omaha DigitalCommons@UNO

School K-12 Service Learning

1-1990 Service: From Youth As Problems to Youth as Resources Bonnie Benard

Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/slcek12 Part of the Service Learning Commons

Recommended Citation Benard, Bonnie, "Youth Service: From Youth As Problems to Youth as Resources" (1990). School K-12. Paper 12. http://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/slcek12/12

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Service Learning at DigitalCommons@UNO. It has been accepted for inclusion in School K-12 by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@UNO. For more information, please contact [email protected]. r ·.

Youth Service: From Youth As Problems~at;~~~~n~~~·~'2~~~nter 1954B=Ai~RoomR290 T0 YOU th AS Resources 'J9H•. tn••"'""'"''"'"""'·,.,,, ''' St. Paui,I'{JN SS'ttl$-6197 By Bonnie Benard "People become house builders by According to Kurth-Schai, our failure everywhere adolescents have been building houses, harp players by playing to view youth as resources, "to neglected or maligned - or ridiculously the harp. We grow to be just by doing acknowledge the potential of young romanticized. Adolescents still do not things that are just." people to contribute to the social order, ·• have a place in most societies, and those - Aristotle as quoted in is based on the following three current who have offended the mores of a society Researching Out: School-Based conceptualizations of childhood: are frequently treated like concentration Community Service Programs 1) Children as oictims of adult society; camp inmates" (p. 546). And, of course, 2) Children as learners of adult we've all heard the diatribes against the Youth as Resources: society; and self-centered and materialistic youth of A New Paradigm 3) Children as threats to adult society today. However, as Joan Lipsitz, former "Youth as problems, or youth as (pp. 114-116). director of the Center for Early resources? Communities with problems According to the first view, children Adolescence, states, "The only thing or communities with resources?" These are vulnerable and need adult protection universal about adolescence is puhcrty ... opening sentences to Reaching Out. a in order to survive. In the second. Most of what else they are, we (adult recent book on establishing community children are incompetent and society - parents, teachers, business service programs for youth, encapsulate a problemmatic and need adult leaders, the media] help make" (in critical issue I see confronting anyone interoention in order to develop properly. Harrison. p. 6). Denied the opportunities relating to or working with young In the third perspective, children - to be useful contributing members of people, whether as parents, teachers, especially those in need of public support society, youth will continue to protest community folk, or prevention advocates - are a danger to the social order and their segregation through dropping out, and other helping professionals: the need adult control. alcohol and other drug abuse, teen framework or perspective from which we None of these perspectives ascribe to pregnancy, suicide, delinquency. In other view youth in our society today. Whether youth a useful role in society, and words, youth who are denied the we view youth as problems or as consequently the types of tasks assigned opportunity to be resources, will be resources detennines not only our to youth - usually focused only on problems. expectations for our youth and our academic achievement - indicate they're actions towards them, but also the type not expected to contribute to the welfare ParticlpaUon: The Key of programs we, as preventionists, design of the family or the community. Kurth· to PrevenUon to address youth issues. Furthermore, Schai is not alone in voicing her Those of us in substance abuse from research in social and educational conclusion that, "Children are excluded prevention as well as in education and in psychology, we know the critical role from active and meaningful participation other helping professions have often adult expectations have on the in human society" (p. 116). Over 50 operated according to a "pathology" subsequent thoughts and behavior of years ago anthropologist Ruth Benedict paradigm in which youth are viewed as children. A salient example is the noted that "American society provides problems to be fixed instead of as research demonstrating that high few meaningful role opportunities for resources to our communities. While parental and teacher expectations are youth, thereby preventing them from many substance abuse prevention perhaps the most significant variables assuming adult responsibilities; then programs now focus on creating correlating with a youth's academic society blames them for their environments that provide positive success. According to one scholar, "It is pugnaciousness and irresponsibility" lin alternatives for youth, several programs therefore essential that educational Langton and Miller, p. 30). Furthermore, still refiect the pathological model by policies and practices'' - and I would other contemporary social researchers their often exclusive focus on individual add, pnwention policies and practices - suggest that society still tells "teenagers change strategies. that is, on providing "are developed on the basis of they have no real place in the scheme of information or teaching personal and expectations that are both realistic and things, that their only responsibility is to social competency skills. While the non-limiting, thereby allowing young go to school and Jearn and grow up. information and life skills strategies do people to express their full potential in When they have learned and grown up, have a place in prevention efforts, supportive and safe environments" which is supposed to occur miraculously research on both the risk and protective (Kurth-Schai, p. 113). Just as Kurth­ at age 18, they can perhaps make some factors for substance abuse and other Schai claims most educational policies modest contribution as a citizen. The inter-related problem behaviors like and practices are based on negative young people, therefore, view themselves delinquency, dropping out of school, and expectations for youth - on youth as as strictly consumers, not as teen pregnancy does not support these problems instead of as resources - many contributors" (Hedin in Langton and strategies as the central components in prevention policies and practices Miller, p. 20). According to adolescent prevention programming. What is clear similarly reflect this negative underlying psychologist Gisela Konopka, "Almost continued paradigm, NSLC 6 Pretlf!ntion Forum, January 1990 c/o ETR Associates 4 Carbonero Way -----·------·------...

Youth Service: From Youth As young adolescents in the life of the capture their inherent need for an Problems To Youth As Resources community. These contributory roles ideology and group" (p. 4). We must have largely been replaced by autonomy create within our families, schools, and continued and leisure and frequently accompanied communities the opportunities for young from research on resilient youth - by no adult supervision. This time could people to meet their basic human needs youth who have become healthy adults be put to good use both in the home and of connecting to other people and to a in spite of adversity - is the significant in the community. The family or large meaning or purpose. We must role played by the opportunity to community that learns to direct the provide the opportunities for youth to be experience somewhere in their lives a energy, general good will, and potential the resources they truly are and not the caring, nurturing environment which of these young adolescents into problems we think them to be. encourages their active participation !i.e., community or individual improvement problem-solving, decision-making, projects may find that they benefit the Youth Service: A planning, goal-setting, helping others) in community as well as the individual" Posithle Alternative meaningful activities. The Perry (pp. 564-565). By way of this long introduction, we Preschool Project, which found inner• established a rationale for participation city black youth who had experienced The Antithesis of in meaningfuJ activities as a means of this empowering environment at ages Participation: Alienation encouraging young people to develop three and four half as involved in Another way to underscore their potential and as a consequence, problem behaviors at age I 9, as well as participation in socially valued tasks as discourage their involvement in problem the research of Michael Rutter on perhaps the most critical protective factor behaviors. schools which appeared to "protect" in preventing social problems like Let's now discuss what I see as an youth from becoming involved in alcohol suhstance abuse is to look at the major exciting prevention approach that not and other drugs, etc. provide two consequence of not participating: only is based on the premise that youth examples of solid research supporting a alienation. Alienation has consistently are resources but also is focused on reorienting of our prevention efforts from been identified in study after study as a providing opportunities for youth to individual change to environmental major risk factor for involvement in participate in socially meaningful and change efforts focused on providing alcohol and other drugs, delinquency, valued activities: the youth service alternatives, that is, on creating teen pregnancy, school failure, and movement. This movement also bears the nurturing contexts that provide depression and suicide. In fact, lack of potential of coalescing on national, state, opportunities for youth to participate in social bonding to, that is alienation and local levels the numerous groups meaningful activities (see Prevention from, the major socializing institutions concerned with the welfare of this Forum. March 1987 for a discussion of of family, school, and community is generation and future generations of protective factors research). currently the main theoretical base young people. After a brief overview of In addition, several cross-cultural underlying prevention efforts (Hawkins et the youth setvice issue, we'll examine studies as well as several other sociological al). The hypothesized process, put the rationales for youth service, the and psychological studies indicate that simply, is that without opportunities to guidelines recommended by several " in socially and/or participate in meaningful ways in caring researchers and policy planners on youth economically useful tasks is associated environments within their families, service, and the implications for with heightened self-esteem. enhanced schools, and communities, young people prevention program planners. moral development, increased political will not identify with or bond to these activism, and the ability to create and social institutions, thus becoming Overview of Youth Service maintain complex social relationships" disconnected and alienated from them, Referred to by various terms - youth IKurth-Schai, p. 117). On the other and will, subsequently, seek their action, youth participation, youth hand. "Related studies demonstrate the identity within the context of their peer community service, national service, lack of participation is associated with culture alone and often through student service, civic service, youth rigid and simplistic relational strategies, participating in the negative activities of service - the phenomenon we're psychological dependence on external alcohol and drug use, delinquency, and discussing (and we'll use the term youth sources for personal validation, and the precocious sexuality. According to service) is youth working in the school expression of self-destructive and anti­ Levine, "Unless a social system - be it a or community performing "socially social behaviors including drug abuse, family, group, institution, neighborhood, needed" tasks (Mosko, p. !). Youth depression, promiscuity, premature or society - can instill in its youth service programs have even more fonns parenthood, suicide, and delinquency" some degree of purpose and community, than names, depending on their (Kurth-Schai, p. 117). a substantial portion of the adolescents, respective combinations of the following Lending support to this argument is particularly those with low self-esteem characteristics: the just published research by and increased vulnerability (for whatever I) local, state, or national Richardson et al that found latchkey reason), inevitably will become society's sponsorship; youth (who took care of themselves for problem" (p. 4 ). 2) in-school or out-of-school; 11 or more hours a week) were at twice The challenge to us, then, according 3) voluntary or mandatory; risk of substance abuse as those who to Levine, is that, "We - as ... pro­ 4) paid or unpaid; not take care of themselves at all. fessionals, as citizens, and as parents - 5 I focused on job/career development The authors conclude that, "Traditional should be searching for ways to harness or human development; societies had clearly defined roles for that force, to 'turn on' our youth, to conlinuttd

Prev1mffon Fornm, January 1990 7 ,..., BONNIE'S RESEARCH CORNER . · . ·.

,rvlce: Frum Youth As authors. everyone lauds the idea in the and the ability to organize diverse .. ms To Yauth As Resources abstract. but no one can agree on sources of information into a specifics:), during the last year a number constructive problem-solvin~ process" :wed of legislative proposals promoting youth (Lewis, p. 51. d re$idential or non-residential. service were introduced, including one Social development is encouraged in Youth service pro~rams vary from designed by the Bush Administration Isee that community service experiences ,. >twnal service programs like the Peace lleffernan and Tarlov, pp. 8·9 for an provide "a vehicle for developing a .orps and VISTA to local Boy and Girl overview of these proposals). What is reOective sense of responsibility to the Scout service activities; from school­ clear, according to several observers of society at large, empathy for the based cross-age tutoring programs to the youth service debate (see youth conditions of others, and bonding to and school-community programs in which Policy and Youth Record, newsletters of participation in social institutions" youth receive academic credit for the Youth Policy Institute. as well as (Lewis, p. 6). Young people can develop working in childcare centers: from Streams, 's self-esteem, empathy, and nurturing residential state conservation corps to newsletter, for ongoing coverage of this behavior only as they interrelate in a non-residential urban corps programs - issue), is that the "current level of caring way with others. to name only a few! interest suggests that some type of /1. H"lps youth assume adult Youth service is not a new idea. Most federal youth service initiative will be responsibilities. books and articles on the topic credit formulated this year" (Heffernan and According to the National Crime William James with laying the seed for Tarlov, pp. 8-9). Prevention Council's Reaching Out, national youth service with his 1910 More fuel has been added to the fire as while youth are visually exposed to more essay. "The Moral Equivalent of War," in well in that new groups are joining with of the adult world than any prior which he proposed that conscription of more traditional youth service advocacy generation, "Young people, nonetheless, the entire youthful population of the groups. For example, over the last five have fewer opportunities to make sense United States into community service years numerous task force and of how to learn adult skills, and how was ·•a means outside the context of war commission reports addressing the they will fit into the adult community" [for] galvanizing a society to its highest growing crisis of youth at risk for school (p. 12). Similarly, Heffernan and Tarlov levels of cooperative values, of raising a failure, substance abuse, and other state, "An empowering, character­ generation with a new sense of 'civic problem behaviors have recommended building experience, service also can help discipline'" (Langton and Miller, p. 27). that community youth service be prepare youth for adult responsibilities, Since that time national service has incorporated into the middle and high including productive roles in the job continued to attract interest as reflected school curriculum as a way to connect market and full participation as citizens in the church-based work camps of the "disconnected" youth. The Council of to lead the nation into the next century" 1920s: the New Deal's Civilian Chief State School Officers, the National (p. 4). Conservation Corps and the National Governors' Association. the William T. ll/. Work needs to be done! Youth Administration: the conservation Grant and Carnegie Foundation are just a Stanton claims that besides the work of conscientious objectors during few of the organizations that have positive developmental effects of service World War II and their human service published reports/ statements advocating on youth, the main reason for during the Korean and Vietnam youth service in just the last two years. service "is that there is much work Wars: the Peace Corps and ACTION in which needs doing and that [youthj can the 1970s, and "the growing number of Rationales for Youth Service do - as shoppers or drivers for shut-ins, small-scale conservation corps now Researchers and policymakers have as tutors, as collectors of recyclable operated by federal. state, and local proposed several reasons justifying youth materials, as singers of old songs at authorities" (Danzig and Stanton, p. 3). service as a needed social policy. The nursing homes, as trail-makers in state Youth service - even in its national following summarizes the most frequently parks, as daycare aides, and as helpers or form - has enjoyed widespread offered rationales: initiators in a hundred other ways" popularity among the public since the I. Promotes the heallhy psychological, (preface to Reaching Out). Similarly, Civilian Conservation Corps of the 1930s. intellectual, and social det•e/opment of Meisel states. "This country is in A 1984 Gallup poll reported that 65% of youth. desperate need of an effective youth the American people and 58% of young Youth service, according to a study by service program. If we look at many of people favored a program in which all Fred Newman and Robert Rutter, aids the major problems facing our country in young men and women would serve for the psychological development of youth literacy, education, childcare, eldercare, one year either in the armed forces or in by easing the "transition from the etc. - all solutions are labor intensive civilian social work in return for dependency of childhood to the status of and in part dependent on cheap human educational benefits I Danzig aPd an independent adult, able to care for energy and creativity. These are Stanton, p. 4). others, to make decisions on one's own, resources that young people have in Similar interest has been expressed by and to feel a sense of competence abundance. We need to challenge and federal policymakers as renected in the functioning in the adult world" (in support them in thei.r desire to serve" fact that bills to establish additional Lewis, p. 5). (p. 3). Danzig and Stanton suggest that youth service programs have been Service experiences promote the 3~ million service positions in introduced in almost every session of intellectual development of youth by education, health, childcare, the Congress over the last decade. While encouraging "the growth of reasoning environment, justice, libraries, and none have passed (according to several skills, abstract and hypothetical thought, continued

8 Pret~ntion Forum. January 1990 ....

Youth Service: From Youth As and motivate positive soda! families, churches, and other institutions Problems To Youth As Resources change. Additionally, young play diminished roles in linking teens people have demonstrated with their communities, schools become continued capacities to provide leadership, the major connector of youth with the mu:;eums could be created for both nurturance, and economic community beyond the family" young and old lp. 40-41)! assistance. In a world (Reaching out, p. 12). Schools often tv. The creativity of youth is needed 1..:haracterized by widespread remain the only institution - for large to address social problems of the present feelings of purposelessne" and numbers of our youth - that can build and future. powerlessness. the social the necessary "social capital" for Kurth-Schai warns that. "As we move contributions of childhood to live fulfilling, productive lives. toward future environments characterized represent a primary source of To counter this alienation and to make by .increasing challenge, change, humanity's hope for the future" education relevant to the present and the complexity, and choice. higher levels of lp. 123). future real worlds, Kurth·Schai states, personal responsibility, tolerance of "We must encourage [in our schools and diversity, cooperation, and creativity will V. Builds the linkage between school communities] the development of be required. In order to adapt and and community. children's complex, creative, and flourish, children need to develop a As I mentioned earlier, numerous task cooperative thought processes [creative strong :;ense of self-worth and social force and commission reports concerned thinking, critical analysis, and social commitment. By denying their potential with education's failure to meet the problem-solving], by providing to contribute to society we limit needs not only of youth at risk but of all opportunities for young people to act children's ability to develop these traits" youth who must live in the 21st century, upon their thoughts in real-life social (p. Jl7). According to futurist Alvin have emphasized the necessity of the settings. and by promoting reconcep­ Toffler, "The rest of us need all the school and community working together tualization of the roles of student in the energy, brains, imagination. and talent as partners. According to Ernest Boyer classroom and student in society" (p. that young people can bring to bear on I his 1983 book High School was one of 128). our difficulties. For society to attempt/a the first educational reform reports to Precedents for this type of "service­ solve its desperate problems without/he advocate youth service), "Students do learning" as Kendall describes it exist in full participation of even very young not see formal education as having a the alternative and people is imbecile" (quoted in Kurth­ consequential relationship to who they domain as well as in even more Schai, p. 118). are. or even, in a fundamental way, what traditional vocational education programs Kurth-Schai presents a fascinating they might become ... Our study seems (in Lewis). While only a small argument. supported especially by to reinforce the view that a well­ percentage of schools have a community anthropological research, that, "The implemented school service program can service program at present, the imaginative experiences of childhood counter the notion that school is movement is spreading due not only to represent humanity's primary source of irrelevant'' (in Harrison, pp. vii-viii). the push of the school reform movement personal and culturdl evolutionary According to Polk and several other but also to the pressure of growing potential" (p. 119). She proposes that, educational reformers, the alienation community problems like gangs and "Young people possess an unparalleled large numbers of at-risk youth feel in our drugs and to unmet community potential to contribute to the society as a result of not being offered environmental and human service needs. development of human society by either opportunities to participate in In fact, this year Atlanta became the first generating, expressing, and acting upon their schools and communities or hope large urban community to make youth optimistic images of societal futures" (p. for future careers is exacerbated by the :

Youth Service: From Youth As Schai; Boyer in Harrison, p. x). service program" (p. 160). And, of Problems To Youth As Resources According to one leader of Youth Service course, any full time youth service America's Youth Advisory Council, programs like state conservation corps continued "Youth will continue to commit involve payment of wages. However, the statewide and national coalitions around themselves to service as they become a issue of whether youth should be paid youth service was clear to the Youth part of substantive policy" (Cathy Palm (or parHime community service work is Service America Conference last year that in More than YAC YAC, p. 3). controversial. Former Maryland State endorsed, among other issues, initiatives Superintendent David Hornbeck (also that "emphasize both the tangible • Vital services Chair of the Carnegie Task Force on the benefits to society and the leadership Edward Doty states youth must be Education of Young Adolescents) development of young people as the allowed to "engage in work meeting real recently proposed a student service major reasons for youth service support" human need or compelling social requirement in his state that excluded (lewis, p. 16). concerns rather than chores or paid service. His and others' argument is housekeeping duties" (in Lewis, p. 16). that if developing altruism and a concern Ill. Act/vlti~s/Cont~nt Mosko claims the failure of most job for others is a goal of youth service, • Developmentally appropriate training programs for youth are due to paying youth defeats the purpose. throughout lifespan this lack: "Only when training programs Several researchers. however, advocate While the focus of "youth service" involve young adults in the delivery of the payment of wages: Polk states programming per se is usually on vital services to the community can they participants in youth action programs adolescence, the opportunities to hope to include the values that make for that combine school and part time participate in socially beneficial good citizenship ... In short, if job community service work "must be paid, activities, i.e., to help and care for ventures for youth were structured as since the issue is to use the process to others, must be available to people national service programs, they might model youth employment and to begin throughout the lifespan - from prove more successful ... " (p. 90), the work of creating new career ladders" preschool and early elementary (p. 477). According to Heffernan and opportunities to be a "buddy" to a new · Multistrategic/multifaceted Tarlov, "In light of the financial child or to work cooperatively in small As mentioned earlier, "Service pressures many young people face today, groups, to middle school cross-age and programs are almost as varied as the however, strategies to make service a cornmumry service programs (according communities where they are found" realistic option, especially for the Center for Early Adolescence, early (Harrison, p. 9). According to Heffernan and Tarlov, :·Increasingly, service disadvantaged youth, need to go beyond adolescence years are peak ones for altruism. Providing financial incentives service), combined job training and programs today include training, or rewards encourages more young community service programs in high education, prevention, and employment people to seroe" (p. 12). I would add one school, full time conservation corps jobs components for participants. Such additional argument for payment. When open to young and old, and other components further enrich the service society pays us for a service, we know intergenerational programs open to all experience and help promote we are valued, and this, consequently, ages. participation among disadvantaged increases our motivation and our youth" (p. 4). In other words, youth self-esteem. • Intensity service programs offer a unique Youth service programs should provide opportunity to integrate the development · Time for reflection and discussion youth "a sustained experience with of basic academic skills with career skills No other element is so unquestionably depth" (Hornbeck in Lewis, p. 16); and and other critical life skills - a advocated as essential to successful opportunity to "concentrate their efforts" combination advocated by most youth service programs as "the (Doty in Lewis, p. 16); and should researchers and policy makers concerned opportunity to systematically reflect" "engage students, not merely expose with the increasing population of youth (Langton and Miller, p. 32), or as them as many programs do" (Lewis, p. at risk. Kendall states, "a program design that 17). The idea here, as in other creates opportunities and programmatic prevention efforts, is to provide • Diverse, stimulating options structures from young people's experiences of the intensity sufficient to Youth should have the opportunity to intentional reflection on their actually influence a person's personal choose from a range of "challenging, experiences" (in Lewis, p. 25). and social development. exciting, and fun" setvice activities Hornbeck's proposal for statewide youth (Polk, p. 478). To actually engage • High degree of youth involvement service in Maryland created a writing students and create intensity of and/or similar component with "time for Most researchers/advocates of youth experience, service activities must be not service stress the importance of youth reflection" (in lewis, p. 16). Boyer only vital, as we discussed, but also concludes, "Students should not only go "ownership" of these efforts. Several salient and appealing to youth as well. claim youth should be involved in the out to serve; they also should be asked actual administration of and have the • Rewards to write about their experience, and, if resJJOnsibiility. to make decisions not only Most advocates of national service possible, discuss with others the lessons programs (Meisel, p. 13; Hedin agree with Mosko that, "Educational they have learned" (in Harrison, p. xi). in Langton and Miller, p. 32), but in the benefits for youth who complete a term Similarly, "Ample opportunity for guidance of their schools as well (Kurth- of duty are a keystone of any national participants to reflect and discuss their continued Prevention Forum, January 1990 11 , - , , .· : · . . BONNIE'S RESEARCH CORNER .

Youth Service: From Youth As differences] will avoid the problem of the points have been identified as particular Problems To Youth As Resources program either 'creaming' the top to implementing youth service programs: students or of negatively labelin~ the • Do not displace paid employees. continued group with the con

Service: From Youth As reflect each community's unique cultural "fear is that if we fail to create effective Problems To Youth As Resources configuration, youth service programs, policies and implement meaningful like other prevention efforts, will take a programs, we will blame young people. conlinued variety of forms and be reflected in a be the catalyst for effecting community Just remember, if it cfoesn 't work, it's diversity of programs. Danzig and because of bad policy, no/ bad kids" (p. change (Reaching Out, p. 15; Prevention Stanton conclude, "National service {and 4). Bad policy is policy that "fails to Forums, July 1988 and April1989). other forms of youth service] ... is not acknowledge and utilize the social simple or unitary; it is a hos/ of Condll$lons/lmpllcations contributions of childhood" (Kurth· possibilities that might be realized in a Our number one conclusion from this Schai, p. 127). Bad policy is policy that review of youth service is that youth host of ways, each with promise, each continues to view youth as problems service opportunities must be a key with difficulties ... " (p. 280). That this is instead of as resources and as our hope currently the case is obvious from the for the future of humanity. component of comprehensive prevention literature (for example, see progmm programming. While youth service descriptions in Reaching Out, Turning References represents one of the best means of Points, and books and articles by Bellah, Robert et al. Habiis of the Heart. providing positive alternatives to youth Heffernan and Tarlov, Lewis, and Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985. (an essential prevention stmtegy), it has Harrison). Bellingham, Richard et al. Connectedness: not received the attention in prevention That "the time is right" for developing some skills for spiritual health. Amen'can policy it deserves. Journal of Health Promotion 4 {) ), Sept./ A second conclusion is that creating coalitions at the local, state, and Oct. 1989, 18-31. service opportunities for young people national levels encouraging youth service Benjamin, Steve. An ideascape for education: opportunities for youth is clear. Several does not refer only to developing youth What futurists recommend. F.ducalional authors cite growing enthusiasm in the Leadership 7(1J, September 1989, 8-14. service programs per se, but rather to national public policy arena for the creating ongoing opportunities for youth Berkowits, Lois and Beryl Benderly. Building throughout the arenas in which youth concept, especially since youth service Bridges to Citizenship: How to Create appears to address several current social Successful Jntergeneralional Citizenship live their lives - families, schools, and concerns: political apathy among the Programs. Arlington, VA: Close Up communities - to actively participate in Foundation, 1989. critical decision-making, young, responsible citizenship, job training and national competitiveness, Danzig, Richard and Peter Stanton. National >rot>len•·solvirlg, goal-setting, and, &roice: What Would II Mean? l.eMington, for others. The unmet social needs (i.e., childcare, MA: C.C. Health, 1986. healthcare, eldercare, homelessness), and Eberly, Donald. National Service: A Promise becomes, then, the student financial aid. integrating, connecting, or to Keep. Rochester, NY: John Alden Books, linking arenas, of creating a According to Meisel, this enthusiasm 1988. at the national level for youth service Harrison, Charles. Student &roice: The New unified; consistent, ongoing positive only reflects what many local environmental message that youth are Carnegie Unit. Princeton, NJ: The Carnegie contributors and resources !Newman and communities and a few states have Foundation for the Advanc.:ement o( already been doing: "Movements are not Teaching, 1987. Rutter in Danzig and Stanton, p. 107; Hawkins, J. David el al. Childhood predictors Meisel, p. 3). 1 Creating nurturing born in Washington, D.C .. for by the time they get there they have already and the prevention of adolescent substance environments for youth means creating abuse. In NIDA Research Monograph 56: opportunities for youth to nurture. happened. Movements are created by and dependent on what is happening in Etiology of Drug Abuse: Implicalions for A third conclusion follows: the means Prevention, edited by Coryl Jones et al. for creating youth services opportunities hundreds of communities across the Rockville, MD: NIDA, 1985. is through the development of country" (p. 2). This is not only the case Heffernan, David and Suzanne Tarlov. Seroice community-wide prevention collabora­ for the youth service movement, but for Opportunities for routh. Adolescent the prevention movement as well. Pregnancy Prevention Clearinghouse tives/task forces that include young Report, May 1989. people, parents, school personnel, However, as we cautioned earlier, without any leadership (including Hodgkinson, Harold. The Same Client: The community businesses and organizations. Demographics of Education and Seroice and government agencies (see Prevention financial support) at the national or state levels, youth service programming will Delivery Systems. Washington, D.C.: Forum, October 1989). Institute for Educational Leadership, Our fourth conclusion is that because not achieve the scale necessary to effect broad youth policy changes. The September 1989. youth service opportunities will evolve Konopka, Gisela. Social change, social action from community-wide collaboration, and consequences of not providing service as prevention. In Prewntion, Powerlessness, opportunities for our youth are grave. and Politics: Readings on Social Change According to Mosko, "A comprehensive edited by George Albee et al. Beverly Hills, 1For a discussion of some of the issues program of national service would call CA; Sage, 1988, 537-548. inwlved in developing and implementing upon all of our country's races and Kurth-Schai, Ruthanne. The roles of youth in school·community partnerships, see the books classes to take part in a common civic society: a reconceptualization. Educational Reaching Oui by the National Crime enterprise. If this possibility is ignored Forum 52 t21, Winter 1988, 113-132. Council; Student Service by and time is allowed to slide by, the Langton, Stuart and Frederick Miller. Youth of the Carnegie Foundation; richest country in the world will enter community service: a new era for America's Northeast-Midwest the 21st century crippled by ethos of community service. Equily and Bridges to Citizenship Choice, Spring 1988, 25-34. an unemployed, unassimilated, and embittered underclass" (p. 99). Meisel's continued

Prevention Forum, January 1990 13 Youth Service: From Youth As .Investment in Youth: Child Care For Today Problems To Youth As Resources Traveling in Scandinavia this summer, education begins with daycare. Because continued I was impressed with the economic and the educational aspects of daycare and Lewis, Anne. Facts and Faith: A Status Report psychological investment of those kindergarten are taken so seriously, on routh Sen•ice. Report on Youth and countries in their children. elementary school does not begin in America's Future: The William T. Grant Scandinavians put their children in front Finland until the child is seven years of Foundation Commission on Work, Family, of most, if not all, other priorities. My age. Pre schools motivate children to and Citizenship. Washington. D.C.: William experience was greatest in Finland, ask, observe, and experiment to create T. Grant Foundation. August 1988. where I attended the meetings of the readiness for later learning, but do not Levine, Saul. quoted in Drugs and Drug Abuse International Society for the Study of explicitly teach reading and addition. liducatlon. October 1983. 4. Behavioral Development. My American Children's rights in Finland are Meisel, Wayne. Bad policy, not bad kids: colleagues agreed that we, so proud of embodied in a child welfare policy America's failure to develop a succesMul our heritage, our standard of living, and enacted by the national legislature: "A youth service policy. Youth Record_/ (9), August 3, 1989. 2·4. the American credo avowing equality and child is entitled to a secure and More than YAC YAC- YSA's Youth Advisory freedom of opportunity, are "backward" stimulating environment and to a Council. Streams (National Report on Youth in our attention to many educational and harmonious and well-balanced Service Programs). August 1989, 2-3. other environmental needs of our development. A child has a special right Mosko. Charles. A Call to Public Service: children. The Finns find amusing that to protection." National law in Finland NaUonal Service for Country and we in the U.S. are still debating whether prohibits corporal punishment and other Community. NY: Free Press, 1988. mothers should have time off from their humiliating treatment of children. Polk, Kenneth. The new marginal youth. jobs when their babies are hom, whether Moreover, child custody and Crime and Delinquency 30 (3), July 1984, the family should suffer an income loss guardianship legislation defines the 462-480. child's tight of access to both parents in Reat'hing Out: School·Based Community during this period, and whether there Service Programs. Washington, D.C.: should be child care and kindergarten the case of divorce. Maternity leave and National Crime Prevention Council, 1988. programs for the whole population of allowances in Finland are subsidized: 263 Richardson. Jean et al. Substance use among children in the nation. working days, 30 taken before the due SthMgrade students who take care of There are differences between Finland date. Adoptive parents are entitled to all themselves after school. Pediatrics 84 (3), and the U.S. that make many features of of this except the 30 days prior to September 1989. 556-566. the Finnish system difficult to import delivery. Parents can share the leave; the Turning Points: Preparing American Youth for here. There are only five million people days may be used cooperatively between the 21st Century. Report of the Task Force in all of Finland, and most families have mother and lather. Fathers have 12 days on Education of Young Adolescents. NY: only one or two children. About 80% of of paternity leave when lhe baby is born. Carnegie Council on Adolescent Develop­ Finnish parents with pre school-aged The government and employers meet the ment. Carnegie Corporation, June 1989. Urban Corps gets backing. Education l+'tek, children work full lime. costs jointly. September 27, 1989. 9. Play, work, and teaching are the One of my American psychologist cornerstones of Finnish early childhood colleagues in Finland, upon learning of education. Great attention is given to these customs, exclaimed, "All this and individual differences in children, and there is no poverty and very little crime screening for their talents and against persons in Finland?" "That's deficiencies is routine. Interventions for about tight," our Finnish friend replied. children with special needs are elaborate It's worth thinking about. and provided readily, through state· Lewis P. Lipsitt, Ph.D. subsidized programs. Some kindergartens The Brown University Child are even available on a 24-hour basis, for Behavior and Development parents with irregular working hours. Letter, 8/89 (Similar practices are cropping up elsewhere. The community of Stirling, Scotland, has established a children's play and care center where parents can leave children in familiar and safe surroundings for whatever reason a parent might wish - to go shopping, for example.) Before kindergarten, child care is extensively available, subsidized by the state and the local communities. A special profession of "child-minders" has evolved, a cohort of trained people who take seriously the Finnish cultural imperative that outside~ofMhome

14 ,.,_ '""'"'· ,.,....., 1990