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HISTORY OF MODERN

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© All rights reserved by MADE EASY PUBLICATIONS. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form without the written permission from the publisher. Contents History of Modern India

Unit – I: An Era of Power Struggle Chapter-3 Chapter-1 Advent of Europeans...... 29 3.1 Introduction...... 29 Mughals...... 2 3.2 Need for New Trading Routes...... 29 1.1 Development of the Mughal ...... 2 Geographical Causes...... 29 ...... 2 Technological Advancement...... 29 ...... 3 Political Causes...... 30 Empire (1540-55)...... 3 Economic Causes...... 30 ...... 3 Psychological Causes...... 30 ...... 5 Religious Causes...... 30 Jahan...... 5 3.3 The Portuguese...... 30 ...... 5 Portuguese Rise in India...... 30 1.2 Later Mughals...... 5 Portuguese Decline in India...... 31 Bahadur Shah-I...... 6 3.3 The Dutch...... 31 Jahandar Shah (1712-13)...... 6 Dutch Rise in India...... 31 Farrukh Siyar (1713-19)...... 6 Dutch Decline in India...... 32 Saiyid Brothers...... 6 3.4 The French...... 32 (1720-48)...... 6 French Rise in India...... 32 1.5 Foreign Invasions...... 6 French Decline in India...... 32 Nadir Shah’s Invasion...... 6 3.6 The British...... 33 Ahmed Shah Abdali’s Invasions...... 7 Reasons for Success of British 1.6 Analysis...... 7 Company...... 33 Causes of Decline of ...... 7 Chapter-4 Chapter-2 Obstacles to British Rise...... 35 Rise of Regional Powers...... 12 4.1 Anglo-French Conflict...... 35 2.1 Introduction...... 12 Introduction...... 35 2.2 Successor States...... 12 First Carnatic War (1746-48)...... 35 ...... 12 Second Carnatic War (1749-1754)...... 35 ...... 15 Third Carnatic War (1758-1763)...... 36 Hyderabad...... 17 Critical Analysis...... 37 2.3 The New states...... 19 4.2 Anglo-Mysore Wars (1767-99)...... 38 ...... 19 Introduction...... 38 Marathas...... 19 First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69)...... 38 Jat State...... 21 Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84)...... 39 2.4 Independent Kingdoms...... 21 Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92)...... 39 Mysore...... 22 Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1798-99)...... 40 Kerala...... 25 4.3 Anglo- Wars (1775-1819)...... 41 States...... 25 Introduction...... 41 2.5 Conclusion...... 27 First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82)...... 41

(iii) Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-06)...... 41 6.2 Judicial System...... 54 Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-18)...... 42 Need for a Judicial System...... 54 4.4 Anglo-Sikh Relations...... 43 Development of Judicial System...... 54 The Sikhs...... 43 An Overview...... 55 Emergence of Ranjit Singh...... 44 Critical Analysis...... 55 Governance under Ranjit Singh...... 44 6.3 Indian Civil Services...... 55 Religious Policies...... 44 Introduction...... 55 First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46)...... 44 Important Chain of Events...... 55 Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49)...... 45 6.4 Finance and Revenue: Drain of Wealth...... 56 Drain of Wealth: Factors and Forces...... 56 Chapter-5 Drain of Wealth: Mechanism...... 56 Rise of British Power in Bengal...... 47 Drain of Wealth: Impact...... 56 5.1 Introduction...... 47 Drain of Wealth: Theories...... 56 5.2 Bengal...... 47 6.5 Land Revenue Policy...... 56 Factories and Farmans...... 47 Need for a Land Revenue System...... 57 Tension in Bengal...... 47 ...... 57 5.3 Black Hole...... 48 Ryotwari Settlement...... 58 5.4 (1757)...... 48 Mahalwari System...... 58 Introduction...... 48 6.6 Commercialization of Agriculture...... 59 Conspiracy...... 48 Factors and Forces...... 59 Causes...... 48 Pattern...... 59 Events...... 48 Features...... 59 Aftermath...... 49 Impact...... 59 Significance of Plassey...... 49 6.7 De-industrialization of India...... 59 5.5 ...... 49 Factors and Forces...... 60 5.6 ...... 49 Impact...... 60 Treaty with Calcutta Council (1760)...... 49 6.8 Famines...... 60 Mir Qasim and ...... 50 Causes of Famines...... 60 Conflict Continues...... 50 6.9 European Business Enterprises...... 60 5.7 Battle of (1764)...... 50 Characteristics...... 60 Causes...... 50 Development of Means of Transport and Events...... 50 Communication...... 60 Aftermath...... 50 Development of Industries...... 61 The Treaty of ...... 50 Significance of ...... 51 Unit – II: Awakening of India 5.8 Dual Government in Bengal (1765-72)...... 51 Chapter-7 Dual Government...... 51 Reasons for Dual Government...... 51 Socio-Religious Reform...... 65 Impact...... 51 7.1 Indian Society...... 65 5.9 Analysis: Battle of Plassey and Battle of Buxar...51 7.2 Reform Movements...... 65 5.10 Conclusion...... 52 ...... 65 Young Bengal Movement...... 67 Chapter-6 ...... 68 Administration during East India Mission...... 68 Company (1757-1856)...... 53 ...... 69 6.1 Dual Administration of Bengal...... 53 Paramhansa Mandalis...... 69 Introduction...... 53 ( Seekers’ Society)....69 Consequences...... 53 Gyan Prasarak Mandalis...... 70 Critiques of the Dual Administration...... 53 The Servants of India Society...... 70

(iv) Social Service League...... 70 ...... 80 Seva Sadan...... 70 Jhansi...... 80 Movement...... 70 Other Areas...... 80 Veda Samaj...... 70 8.4 Causes of Failure of the Revolt...... 80 7.3 Philosophical Movements...... 70 8.5 Analysis of the Revolt...... 81 Deva Samaj...... 70 8.6 Changes After the Revolt...... 81 Radha Movement...... 70 In Administration...... 81 7.4 Movements in South India...... 70 In Military...... 82 Shri Narayana Paripalana In Economy...... 82 Movement (SNDP)...... 70 In Society...... 82 Vokkaligara Sangha...... 71 8.7 Nature of the Revolt: Analysis...... 82 Justice Movement...... 71 Self Respect Movement...... 71 Unit – III: From Crown Rule to Independence Indian Social Conference...... 71 Theosophical Society of India...... 71 Chapter-9 7.5 Movements by the Muslims...... 72 Indian National Movement: First Phase Wahabi/Walliullah Movement...... 72 (1858-1907)...... 86 Movement...... 72 9.1 Introduction...... 86 Titu Mir’s Movement...... 72 Nation...... 86 Faraizi Revolt...... 72 Nationalism...... 86 Movement...... 72 ...... 86 7.6 Parsi Reform Movements...... 73 India: A Nation...... 86 Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha ...... 73 9.2 Causes that helped the Rise of Indian 7.7 Sikh Reform Movement...... 73 Nationalism...... 86 ...... 73 Political and Administrative Unification of India..86 ...... 73 Development of Transportation and 7.8 Movements Organized by Orthodox Sections.....73 Communication Network...... 86 Dharma Sabha...... 73 Western Education...... 87 Bharat Dharma Mahamandala...... 73 British Rule...... 87 Deoband School...... 73 Modern Press...... 87 7.9 Analysis of the Socio-Religious Reform...... 73 Contemporary Movements...... 87 Positive Impact...... 73 Rediscovery of the Past...... 87 Negative Impact...... 74 Social and Religious Reform...... 88 Rise of New Middle Class Intelligentsia...... 88 7.10 Conclusion...... 75 British Policies...... 88 Chapter-8 9.3 Political Developments...... 89 In ...... 89 Revolt of 1857...... 77 In ...... 89 8.1 Introduction...... 77 In Madras Presidency...... 90 8.2 Causes...... 77 In Other Parts...... 90 Economic Causes...... 77 9.4 First Phase (1885-1905)...... 91 Socio-Religious Causes...... 78 Efforts at National Unity...... 91 Political Causes...... 78 Major Initiatives...... 91 Administrative Causes...... 78 9.5 Foundation of Indian National Congress...... 92 Military Causes...... 78 Safety-Valve Theory...... 92 Immediate Cause...... 79 9.6 Programme and Objectives of Early Congress...93 8.3 Beginning and Spread of the Revolt...... 79 9.7 Social Composition of Early Congress Delhi...... 79 Leadership...... 93 Kanpur...... 80 9.9 Moderates and Extremists...... 93 ...... 80 The Moderates...... 93

(v) Major Demands...... 94 11.2 Rise of Gandhi...... 116 Economic Nationalism...... 94 Champaran...... 116 Achievements of Congress in Its Early Phase.....95 ...... 117 Failures of Early Congress...... 95 Kheda...... 117 The Extremists...... 95 Analysis...... 117 9.10 Partition of Bengal (1905)...... 97 11.3 Montague: August Declaration...... 118 9.11 Anti-Partition Movement...... 97 Background...... 118 ...... 98 Key Features...... 118 Rift between Moderates & Extremists...... 98 Implications of August Declaration...... 118 Movement under Extremists...... 98 11.5 Rowlatt Satyagrah...... 118 New Forms of Struggle...... 99 11.6 Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement...... 119 Weakening of the Movement and ...... 119 Annulment of the Partition...... 100 Non-Cooperation Movement...... 120 9.12 Analysis of the Swadeshi Movement...... 100 11.7 Characteristics of Gandhian Nationalism Achievements...... 100 and Gandhi’s Popular Appeal...... 122 Failures...... 101 Characteristics of Gandhian Nationalism...... 122 9.13 Surat Split (1907)...... 101 Gandhi’s Popular Appeal...... 123 Ideological Differences...... 101 11.8 Post Non-Cooperation Movement...... 123 The Split...... 101 National Politics...... 123 No Changers...... 125 Chapter-10 11.9 Revolutionary Movement-II...... 125 11.10 ...... 126 Indian National Movement: Second Phase (1907-17)...... 104 11.11 ...... 126 10.1 Rise of Extremism...... 104 11.12 Delhi Proposals and Jinnah’s Fourteen Points..127 Militant Nationalism...... 104 11.13 Delhi Manifesto...... 128 Doctrine...... 104 11.14 Session...... 128 Factors for the Rise...... 104 11.15 Civil Disobedience Movement...... 128 10.2 All India Muslim League...... 105 Reasons Behind CDM...... 129 Background...... 105 Course...... 129 10.3 Revolutionary Nationalism...... 106 11.16 Gandhi-Irwin Pact (Delhi Pact)...... 131 Rise of Revolutionary Movements...... 106 Evaluation of Civil Disobedience Movement.....132 Bengal Scenario...... 106 Reasons Gandhi Agreed to Call Off CDM...... 132 Major Leaders of Anti-Partition Agitations 11.17 Karachi Congress Session (1931)...... 132 in Bengal...... 107 11.18 2nd Round Table Conference and 2nd Ghadar Party...... 109 Phase of CDM...... 132 Socialist Republican Association.....109 Government Action...... 133 Armoury Raid...... 110 Communal Award...... 133 10.4 Royal Commission on Decentralisation...... 110 Gandhi’s Response...... 133 10.9 First World War and Nationalist Responses...... 111 Poona Pact...... 133 Beginning of First World War...... 111 11.19 Evaluation of CDM...... 134 Indian Scenario at the outbreak of First 11.20 Government of India Act, 1935...... 134 World War...... 111 Provisions of the Act...... 134 Nationalist Movements during First World War. 111 Evaluation of the GoI Act, 1935...... 135 10.10 India after First World War...... 115 11.21 Strategic Debate...... 136 First Stage...... 136 Chapter-11 Struggle-Truce-Struggle and Standing for Victory...... 136 Indian National Movement: Gandhian Era (1917-47)...... 116 Second Stage...... 137 11.1 Introduction...... 116 11.22 Elections of 1937...... 137

(vi) I Unit

An Era of Power Struggle

1. Mughals...... 2 2. Rise of Regional Powers...... 12 3. Advent of Europeans...... 29 4. Obstacles to British Rise...... 35 5. Rise of British Power in Bengal...... 47 6. Administration during East India Company...... 53 1 Mughals

1.1 Development of the Mughal . The armies of Babur and Sanga eventually fought the Battle of in 1527, where Sanga was Empire defeated. The word 'Mughals' derives from the Mongols, a nomadic tribe native to Mongolia. In the thirteenth century A.D. Chengez (Genghis) Khan united fragmented groups of Mongol people to lay the foundation of the Mongol Empire, which straddled across Asia and Europe during the thirteenth and fourteenth century A.D. Later in the fourteenth century, , a Barlas Turk, proclaimed himself as the son in law of the Genghis Khanid and declared himself as an independent sovereign. Babur a descendent of Chengez (Genghis) Khan founded the Mughal Empire in India by defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of in 1526.

Babur Babur’s ancestor, Timur, had largely Painting: Scene from benefited of his Indian adventure. Timur The secured Babur’s position in the had annexed some areas of Punjab, Delhi- region. He then led a campaign (Battle of which remained with his successors ) against Medini Rai of Chanderi in 1528, in which for several generations. When Babur he captured Chanderi. conquered , he felt he had right over these areas. This conquest Babur made him think of the conquest of India.

Reasons for Conquest of India Like myriad earlier invaders of India from Central Asia, Babur too was drawn towards India by the lure of its wealth. Babur was looking towards India as a place which could add to his meager revenue from . Moreover, he was apprehensive of the attack of Uzbeks on Kabul, because of which he considered India as a suitable base for refuge and also to carry out operations against Uzbeks. Also, the Painting: Scene from Battle of Khanwa splintered political conditions of India suited Babur. He But, the Afghans who were dominant in eastern Uttar also received embassies from chief Daulat Khan Pradesh were not reconciled. In 1529, Babur started a Lodi and , requesting him to invade India. campaign (Battle of Ghaghara) against them but could By defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat not win a decisive victory. He signed an agreement with (20 April 1526), Babur established his control up to Delhi Afghan chiefs, who were allowed to rule over . Shortly and Agra. But presence of Babur in the Indo-Gangetic after, Babur died on 26th December 1530. valley was a threat to Rana Sanga. While Sanga wanted to Although Babur was an orthodox Sunni, he was not bigot. confine Babur to Punjab, Babur accused Sanga of breach He was one of the two important writers in the Turkish of agreement as Sanga did not join him against Ibrahim language. He wrote ‘Tuzuk-i-Baburi’. History of Modern India 3 BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group Significance of Babur’s Conquest of India (1540-55) 1. He brought Kabul and Qandhar within the North Indian Sher Shah ascended the throne of Delhi Empire, which in 1540. He ruled over the mightiest • secured the North-west frontier for almost 200 empire in the since the time years. of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. He added and to his territories. • increased India’s share of trade with China and He died in 1545 and was succeeded Mediterranean seaports. by his son Shah, who ruled till 1553. After Islam 2. Defeat of Lodi's and the Rajput confederacy under Shah's death a civil war set in amongst his successors. Sanga, eventually led to the formation of an all-India This created an opportunity for Humayun, who in 1555 Mughal empire. defeated Afghans, to recover Delhi and Agra. 3. A new mode of warfare began in India. Although Contribution of Sher Shah already known, Babur popularized gunpowder and 1. He re-established law and order across his empire. artillery in India. 2. He improved communication by building roads which 4. He formed a state based on strength and prestige of helped in fostering trade and commerce. He restored the crown. the connecting Bengal with North- Humayun west. He built sarais and inns along these roads. Many of these sarai developed into market-towns (qasbas) Humayun succeeded Babur in 1530. and stages for news service or dak-chowki. He had various challenges in the form of consolidation of the infant Mughal 3. His currency reforms and standardisation of weights empire, timurid tradition of dividing and measures all over the empire helped in increasing the empire among all the brothers, the trade and commerce. Afghans who were thinking of expelling 4. For land revenue administration, he insisted on Mughals from India and growing measurement of the sown land for computation of power of Bahadur Shah of . Humayun average produce to determine the state’s share, which Shortly, Humayun undertook Gujarat campaign. He won was one-third of the average produce. both Gujarat and Malwa from Bahadur Shah, but also lost 5. The tomb built by Sher Shah for himself at is them in a quick succession. However, he succeeded in seen as a culmination of Sultanat type of architecture destroying the threat posed by Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. and a starting point of a new Mughal style. Meanwhile, Sher Shah, a powerful Afghan sardar, Akbar increased his power when Humayun was busy in his Akbar was the greatest of the Mughal Gujarat campaign. Although Sher Shah professed loyalty rulers. He was crowned in 1556. After to the Mughals, he was planning to expel Mughals from the between India. Sher Shah defeated Humayun in the battle of him (led by his wakil ) and (1540). This battle made Humayun a prince , the Afghan leader, he established without a kingdom and he had to take a shelter at the court his control over the empire. During the of Iranian king. first phase of expansion of the empire, The major cause of Humayun’s defeat was that he failed he brought regions like , Malwa, Akbar to understand the nature of the Afghan power. Afghan Garha-Katanga, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Bengal under his tribes were scattered over north India, who could always control. unite under a capable leader. Sher Shah gave them this The administrative changes made by Akbar as well leadership. Also, Humayun showed bad political sense in as his liberal religious policy resulted in rebellions in the form of his Bengal campaign against Sher Shah. Also, Gujarat, Bengal and Bihar. These rebellions kept the after Sher Shah’s victories he did not receive help from his empire distracted for two years (1580-81). Akbar with the brothers. services of his nobles like , Man Singh etc. But in 1555, with the breaking up of the Sur empire, successfully handled these rebellions. Humayun was able to recover Delhi. But he died soon Soon after this, due to rising threat from Uzbeks, Akbar had thereafter, after falling from the first floor of the library to concentrate on the North-west frontier. He consolidated building in his fort at Delhi. His tomb was build by his his power in the North-West and gave the empire a favourte wife Bega Begum. scientific frontier. He also captured Odisha (Earlier known 4 Mughals BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group as Orissa) and Dacca. With this, by the turn of the century 5000 for the nobles, which was later raised to 7000. The the political integration of the North India was achieved. rank decided the personal status (zat) of a noble and Hereafter, Akbar turned his attention towards the Deccan. salary due to him as well as the number of cavalrymen He was afraid that sectarian rivalries of the Deccani states (sawar) he was required to maintain. Ideally, for every one could spread into the Mughal empire in the North. Also, cavalryman, two horses had to be maintained. the Portuguese were trying to expand their position over The Mansabdars were paid by assigning jagirs to them. the mainland. This along with proselytizing activities by the But, sometimes paid in cash too. Akbar would not have Portuguese impelled Akbar to get involved in the Deccani been able to expand his empire and maintain his hold over affairs. it without a strong army. For this purpose, it was necessary Akbar himself marched down to capture Khandesh in for him to organize the nobility as well as his army. Akbar 1601. In the same year control was established over Berar, realized both these objectives by means of the mansabdari Ahmadnagar and parts of Telangana. However, no lasting system. solution could be arrived at for the Deccani problem, as Relations with the Bijapur was yet to accept Mughal suzerainty. This situation Akbar expanded Humayun’s policy of winning over the was left to be tackled by Jahangir. Rajputs through matrimonial alliances. But, he did not insist Land Revenue Administration under Akbar upon matrimonial relations as a precondition. Many Rajputs, In the field of land revenue administration, Akbar instituted like rulers of Ranthambhor, Banswara etc. surrendered to a new system called the dahsala (Ain-i-Dahsala). Under him without entering into matrimonial relations. The Rajput it, the average produce of different crops and average policy also had the angle of broad religious toleration. The prices prevailing over the past 10 years were calculated. only state that defied Mughal suzerainty was , led One third of the average produce was the state’s share. by Rana Pratap. The revenue demand was in cash. This system was called the zabti system. The zabti system was associated with Raja Todar Mal. Other systems of assessment were also followed during Akbar’s period. The batai or ghalla-bakshi system was the most common and oldest of all. Under it, the produce was divided in the fixed proportion between the peasants and the state. Under batai, the peasants had the choice to pay in either cash or in kind, but the state preferred cash. Another system which was used was nasaq. Akbar was interested in advancement of cultivation. Under him, loans (taccavi) to peasants was provided for seeds, Painting: Akbar Greeting Rajput Rulers implements etc. In fixing of the land revenue, continuity Akbar’s policy of inducting the Rajput into Mughal of cultivation was taken into account. Also, the land was service and treating them at par with Mughal nobles classified as per the quality of the land. benefited. This along with his religious tolerance cemented Akbar’s ties with the Rajputs. Akbar’s Rajput policy was continued by his successors, Jahangir and .

Akbar’s Religious Policy Akbar followed a liberal religious policy. He emphasized that the state should be based on sulh-i-kul i.e. equal toleration of and respect to all sections irrespective of their religious beliefs. In 1575, Akbar built , the Hall of Prayer at , where he discussed religious and spiritual topics with selected theologians, Todar Mal and Akbar mystics, scholarly courtiers and nobles. He tried to establish a new order tauhid-i-Ilahi which literally means Mansabdari System ‘Divine ’. Under this system, every officer was assigned a rank Akbar also introduced social and educational reforms. (Mansab). The lowest rank was 10 and the highest was He stopped sati and allowed it only when a widow herself History of Modern India 11 BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group 2 Rise of Regional Powers

2.1 Introduction and it consisted of five sarkars viz Awadh, Lucknow, Bahraich, Khairabad and Gorakhpur. The death of Aurangzeb in 1707 triggered the decline As the Mughal power declined after the death of of Mughal Empire in India. The rise of regional powers Aurangzeb the later emperors lost their paramount status was primarily due to the decline of the Mughal Empire. and the feudal lords strengthened their position. Awadh The regional nobles and overlords had already become grew stronger and more independent. It’s capital city was powerful during Aurangzeb's reign and the chain of . Saadat Khan, the first of Awadh, laid events after his death gave them the leeway to assert their the foundation of Faizabad at the outskirt of ancient city independence. of . The regional states that rose in the 18th century can be broadly classified into Successor states-states that arose Saadat Ali Khan due to assertion of independence by governors of Mughal Saadat Ali Khan I was declared as provinces due to decay of central authority- and Rebel the first Subedar Nawab (Governor) states- states that arose due to rebellion by local chieftains, of the Mughals in Awadh province and peasants against Mughal authority, from 1722 to 1739. Son of a wealthy merchant of Khurasan, at the age 2.2 Successor States of 25, he accompanied his father Muhammad Nasir and took part in Awadh the campaign of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb against the Marathas. He was honored with the title of Khan Bahadur for his contribution to the Saadat Ali Khan Mughal Emperor. He was among the commanding Mughal generals in the Battle against Nadir Shah. Saadat Khan was captured during the battle and died in the massacre of Delhi by Nadir Shah on 19 March 1739. Faizabad, the capital city of Awadh, was founded in 1730 by Saadat Ali Khan. He is the founder of the lineage Nawab of Awadhs. He was succeeded by Nawab Safdarjang and Nawab Shuja-ud- daula who further consolidated power in the awadh region.

Political Sphere of Influence After the decline of the Mughal Introduction Empire, the of Awadhs Awadh was established as one of the twelve original exercised significant influence in (top-level imperial provinces) by Mughal emperor the Ganga-Yamuna Doab region. Akbar and it became a hereditary tributary polity after the Safdarjang, who succeeded Saadat death of Aurangzeb. Awadh was known as the granary Khan, was an able administrator. of India as it was a fertile plain between the and He was not only effective in keeping the Yamuna rivers. It was important strategically for the control of Awadh, but also rendered control of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and was a wealthy and valuable assistance to the weakened prosperous province. Faizabad was the capital of Awadh Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah. Safdarjang History of Modern India 13 BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group Safdarjang was given governorship of Kashmir by the centers such as Delhi, Agra, Burhanpur etc. The new trade Mughal Emperor, gradually became a central figure at the centers were established in Lucknow, Faizabad etc. Delhi court. He gained complete control of administration To remove economic hardships, Nawabs also in the Mughal Empire in the later years of Muhammad commissioned various public works in which the laborers Shah. When Ahmad Shah Bahadur ascended the throne at were paid from the treasury. One such initiative had led Delhi in 1748, Safdar Jung was given the title of Chief to the construction of the majestic in Minister of Hindustan. Shuja-ud-Daulah, the son of Lucknow. The East India Company after establishing Safdarjang, was also an able administrator. He was chosen influence over Awadh, plundered it of its wealth, and as Grand Wazir by Shah Alam II. resulted in the decline of the Industrial towns such as Shuja-ud-daulah, the 3rd Nawab, Kanpur and Lucknow. allied with Mir Qasim of Bengal against the British, lost the crucial battle of Buxar in 1764. This resulted in beginning of the political influence of British in the Awadh region. Given the strategic significance of the region, British always maintained an upper hand in the region. After installing Shuja-ud-Daulah Saadat Khan II as Nawab in 1801, they pressurized him to cede half of the Awadh to him. Even at the time of first war of Independence in 1857, Awadh was a crucial political region.

Religion Bara Imambara The Nawabs of Awadh belong to Persian Shia Muslim dynasty from . They encouraged the existing Society Persian literature to shift from Delhi to Awadh. During that The society at the time of Nawabs of Awadhs was largely period Awadh also witnessed a steady stream of scholars, traditional in nature. Cities such as Lucknow, Faizabad, poets, jurists, architects, and painters from . Nawab of Jaunpur etc. witnessed the growth of the synthesis of the Awadhs like the erstwhile great Mughal rulers was largely Hindu-Muslim culture also commonly known as Ganga- tolerant in their religious outlook. Saadat Khan, the founder Jamuni Tehzeeb. The caste system was still highly of the Awadh Royal House, had many in his service prevalent as the top positions in the administrations were who from time to time helped him to achieve his goal. generally occupied by the . With the rise of Shuja-ud-daula, the 3rd Nawab, did not impose undue British influence, and development of mercantile trade, the trading class also assumed significant role in the society. restrictions on the personal freedom of Hindus as well as was one of the prominent people, who dealt on the public celebrations of their religious festivals. Many in hundis –a type of negotiable instrument to send money Hindu saints who came to Ayodhya were allowed to settle from one place to another. Education was still limited to down and granted plots of land for the erection of the privileged few, and due to adoption of purdah system and Dharmashalas for pilgrims. Hindus and Muslims from cultural synthesis, the condition of women further used to celebrate each other’s festivals and there was not deteriorated in the society. restriction on the Hindus. Literature Economy The Nawabs of Awadh, patronized literature and several As discussed earlier, Awadh was the region of the fertile noted writers and poets were part of their court. The land in the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. Therefore, the economy period saw the development of Indo-Persian genre of the during the reign of Nawabs was dominantly agrarian in literature. was also a popular language of literature nature. The traditional crops were sugarcane, wheat and at that time. Nawab was among the great rice. Due to presence of well managed supply chain, patrons of literature. The renowned urdu poet 'Ghalib' was peasants were generally prosperous under the nawabs. in the court of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. Apart from him, other It is also pertinent to mention that Awadh was one of the notable persons were ‘Barq’, ‘Ahmad Sabir’, ‘Mufti prosperous provinces of the Mughal Empire. This period Munshi’, and ‘Aamir Ahmad Amir’, who wrote books at the also witnessed the decline of the traditional urban trade orders of Wajid Ali Shah. 33 Advent of Europeans

3.1 Introduction Europe was preferred by the traders but with the rise of Arabs in the tenth century and their plundering raids along In 1498, when Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, the route, the land route became unstable and dangerous arrived at Calicut on the south-western coast of India, he for trade. had discovered a new (all-sea) , around Africa Safe Passage through Water: While the land with a via Cape of Good Hope, to India. It was the culmination of number of passes fell within the territory of one or the other efforts, which began in Europe, to search a new and all- kingdom, the oceans and seas had not yet been brought sea trading route to India. It was precisely in this endeavor under control and thus offered a safe passage. to search a new trading route to India that Christopher Columbus, a Spanish explorer, reached and discovered Technological Advancement America in 1492. But you may now ask: why did the European nations, especially Portugal and Spain, embark on a journey to search all new trading routes to India?

Astrolabe, Mariner’s Compass and Canons Navigation: The period witnessed a number of technological advancements. The advancements in navigation (astrolabe for fixing the height of heavenly bodies for navigation and mariner’s compass) by the Arabs and ship building by the Europeans at a time when land route had become unstable made waterways a natural Portuguese Ships choice. 3.2 Need for New Trading Routes In popular western imagination, India was a fabled land of riches and of highly profitable trade. Many foreign rulers had invaded India for its fabulous wealth. Besides the plundering raids, a highly profitable trade between India and European countries dated back to the ancient times. Since the days of the Roman Empire Indian cloths, spices and drugs were in great demand in Europe. Initially, this trade between East and West was carried on along several routes but in beginning of the late fourteenth century a number of changes in the geopolitical conditions in West Asia and Europe forced the traders to search for new routes. Now let’s look at the changes or causes which brought the search for new trading routes. Map of Ottoman Empire Geographical Causes Use of Gunpowder: By the end of thirteenth century Unstable Land Route: In the Middle ages (5th century CE gunpowder, which was invented in China in the ninth to CE) the land route from the Middle East to century, spread to Eurasia. As sea voyages gained 30 Advent of Europeans BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group popularity in the fifteenth century, canons and gunpowder Glory: Above all the desire to achieve glory acted as began to be used on ships to protect them from attacks. inspiring factor for navigators and explorers. The use of gunpowder made ships safe from attacks as Mercantilism: A set of economic doctrines and policies it added more firepower, was easier to carry, was more involving state intervention to promote national prosperity stable and helped in making of most destructive weapons and strength known as mercantilism had gripped the of the time. European states in its clutches.

Political Causes Religious Causes Monopolies: The merchants of Venice and Genoa Proselytizing Zeal: The explorers were motivated by zeal monopolized the trade between Asia and Europe. The to spread into the new lands. western side, i.e. the Mediterranean area, was under the merchants of Venice and Genoa and eastern side, i.e. 3.3 The Portuguese the Asian side, was under the Arab merchants. These Vasco da Gama, who reached Calicut merchants did not allow new merchants from other West in 1498, he was welcomed by Zamorin, European countries to trade through the old routes under the then king of Calicut, returned with their control. a cargo, which sold for sixty times the The Ottoman Turks captured Ottoman Empire: cost of his entire expedition. After this, Constantinople in 1453 and established the Ottoman direct trade between India and Portugal Empire in the area stretching from Syria to Egypt. This grew, albeit slowly Francisco De Almeida brought the old routes under the Turkish control. Moreover, Vasco de Gama came to India in 1505 as first portuguese expansion of Turkish power in eastern Europe and growth viceroy. The 'Blue Water' policy is attributed to Francisco of Turkish navy alarmed the Europeans. De Almeida. According to it, the Portuguese should be th Rise of New Nation States: The later part of the 15 the sole trade power in Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean. In century saw rise of centralised states with strong kings, 1510, Albuquerque captured Goa from Bijapur. Here after, like Spain and Portugal, who were keen to partake in trade the Portuguese established trading settlements at Cochin with Asia. The Kings encouraged, often supported and and Daman and Diu. sponsored geographical explorations and navigators. The Portuguese established their domination over the Economic Causes entire Asian coast from Hormuz in the Persian Gulf to Malacca in Malaya. They almost monopolized the highly Economic Growth in Europe: The European economy was expanding rapidly due to expansion of land under profitable Eastern trade for nearly a century. cultivation, introduction of improved plough and scientific Portuguese Rise in India rotation of crops. As a result of this growth, there was rise Early Mover Advantage: Being the first in India they of towns and an increase in trade. established their supremacy over the . With Demand for Spices and Pepper: The economic revival in Goa, Daman and Diu and Cochin under their belt, it took Europe increased demand for spices and pepper which less than fifteen years for them to completely destroy the were needed to make meat palatable. Arab supremacy of trade over the Indian coast. Tolls and Taxes: The tolls and taxes were constantly Spanish Renouncing of Interest in East: The Spanish increased on both the European as well as the Asian side king Charles V renounced interests in the Indian ocean of the trade, which reduced the profit margins. area giving Portuguese a monopoly in Eastern maritime Profit Maximization: Although the trade between Asia empire. and Europe was carried on along several routes, yet it Short Sightedness of Mughals: Another reason for the was highly profitable. However, raids along the land route rise of the Portuguese in India is that they did not have to and monopolies by various groups had been reducing the face the might of the Mughals as the Mughal empire was still profits. Thus, there was attempt to maximize profit through in its formative stage. Moreover, when the Mughal empire new trade routes. was established they were not interested in developing the navy as their territories were not adjacent to coastal areas Psychological Causes and they were not keen happenings in south India. Renaissance: The cultural revival or Renaissance in Europe during the fourteenth century infused a spirit Naval Supremacy: The Portuguese navy controlled the of daring and adventure among the people of Western sea with the help of its superior navigational technology Europe. and arms especially with the help of gunpowder. History of Modern India 31 BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group Strategic Presence: Conquest of Goa, strategically naval superiority in the sixteenth century by transporting located on the west coast of India, by Albuquerque in goods brought to Lisbon by the Portuguese. 1510, allowed the Portuguese to command and control • The Dutch defeated the Portuguese and built Fort Malabar trade and keep an eye on the policies of the rulers William in modern Kochi in 1663. in the Deccan. • The first Dutch company in Bengal was setup in Pipali : The Portuguese rise in India could also Cartaz System (1627) later in Chinsurah (1635). be attributed to the Cartaz system - a system of license or pass for ships sailing to a destination not reserved by the • The Dutch were the first to start a joint stock company Portuguese. to trade with India.

Portuguese Decline in India Dutch Rise in India Political Causes Attachment to Spain: In 1580, Portugal got attached to the Spanish crown which linked it to the declining fortunes of Spain. Aristocratic Dominance: The Portuguese society was dominated by aristocrats. The merchants lacked the social influence required to mould the state policy suitable to their interests. Lack of Political Will: The Portuguese political masters were mainly concerned with establishing sea trading posts and not concerned in territorial expansion thus making them vulnerable to attacks on their trading posts. Dutch Factory in Hooghly

Social Causes Political Causes As the Religious Conversions: The Portuguese were religious Vacuum Created by the Portuguese Losses: fanatics and resorted to forceful religious conversions in Portuguese empire weakened due to internal conflicts, their spheres of influence. This led to a general sense of rigid aristocracy and poor strategic planning on the hostility among the locals against them. eastern trading posts, it created a vacuum which was filled by the Dutch. Technological Causes Nationalistic Feeling: Arousal of the nationalistic feelings Rise of other Naval Powers: Rise of other naval powers among Dutch in their struggle against the domination of like the Dutch and British increased the competition on the Spain over their homeland Netherlands, helped the Dutch naval routes leading to armed conflicts with the Portuguese. rival Portugal (which had then been attached to Spain) in Loss of Spain's Naval Supremacy: In 1588 Spain`s naval the spice trade in the East. supremacy was challenged and busted by the British Fluyt Ship: The Dutch built fluyt ships which were a navy. This was a big jolt to Portuguese empire which had masterpiece of Dutch shipbuilding industry. These ships been attached to the Spanish empire. were lighter, could carry more cargo and required fewer Conclusion people to operate as compared to their peers. These ships With all these developments, the Portuguese were reduced helped in reducing its operating cost. Eventually these in their sphere of influence to Daman, Diu, Goa, ships proved to be superior to the bulkier and slower and Timor. In a way the Portuguese became the victims of Portuguese ships. their early mover advantage as they kept on establishing Indian Cloth Trade: The Dutch, who initially had interests only trading ports and did not make any significant in the spices trade in the Indonesian archipelago and Spice territorial expansion to protect their interest. Islands, soon realised the importance and necessity of Indian cloths in trade with South-East Asia where they were 3.3 The Dutch in good demand. After the vacuum created by the fall Factories at Malabar and in Ceylon: Dutch factories of Portuguese in the East the Dutch in Malabar and their Cinnamon trade with Ceylon struck took the charge of these territories. decisive blows to the Portuguese control of Goa. This The Dutch had been steadily presence also helped in blocking Goa in the trading adding to their commercial and Dutch seasons. 52 Rise of British Power in Bengal BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group be said of Buxar. Mir Qasim had made adequate 5.10 Conclusion preparations for the conflict and the Nawab of Oudh had assembled his best soldiers in the field but it was It can, therefore be safely concluded that the both the the victory of superior military power. Battles Plassey as well as Buxar had important effects on the growth of British Power in India but it is true that the • Buxar confirmed the power and position of the England results of the Battle of Buxar were more important for the which they have achieved by the results of Plassey. British. The Battle of Buxar completed the work of Plassey. • The Battle of Buxar was only an attempt by the native The eventual and secondary consequences of the Battle powers to challenge the position acquired by the of Buxar were very important. By this war the English were English in Bengal, Bihar, Odisha its victory in Plassey. drawn into connection with upper India, and were brought • After the Battle of Buxar, English power in Northern out upon a scene of fresh operations that grew rapidly India became almost unchallengeable. They had to wider. contend with the Afghans and the Marathas as serious rivals in their struggle for an Indian Empire. nnnn Battle of Plassey Causes Signicance

• Misuse of trade privileges by the Company • It made the British masters of Bengal. ocials. • The revenues of Bengal enabled the • Attack on the sovereignty of the Nawab by Company to organise a strong army. forti cation of Calcutta by the Company. • The control of Bengal’s revenue and • Asylum to political fugitives by the monopoly over its trade strengthened the Company. nancial position of the company. • Black hole tragedy. • It helped the Company’s servants amass • The Company was on the oensive and untold wealth. wanted to replace the Nawab with Mir • Indian Industries declined rapidly after this Jafar. Battle. • After the battle began a process which culminated in Anglicisation of India.

Battle of Buxar Causes Signi cance

• Failure of Mir Qasim to ful ll the Company's • It demonstrated superiority of English nancial demand. Army. • The Nawab- Company tussle over transit • The Company ceased to be a trading and trade duty company and became a political power. • Outbreak of series of wars between the • The British defeated both the Nawab and English and Mir Qasim in 1763 the Mughal Emperor. • It made the English contenders for the supremacy of the whole country. • It con rmed the decision of Plassey.

Dual Government Reasons Impact

• Company’s reluctance to take the • Led to an administrative breakdown in responsibility of administration of Bengal. Bengal. • Neither the company nor the Nawab • Company only wanted to make good of cared for the administration and public its revenue possessions. welfare. • Company’s unwillingness to recognise • Company’s servants rack-rented the the transformation in its role from a people. trading company to a ruling power. Administration during East 6 India Company (1757-1856)

“I shall only say that such a scene of anarchy, confusion, bribery, corruption, and extortion was never seen or heard of in any country but Bengal; nor did such and so many fortunes acquire in so unjust and rapacious a manner. The three provinces of Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha, producing a clear revenue of £3 million sterling, have been under the absolute management of the Company’s servants, ever since Mir Jafar’s restoration to the Subahship; and they have, both civil and military, exacted and levied contributions from every man of power and consequence, from the Nawab down to the lowest .” –

6.1 Dual Administration of Bengal weaknesses of the government could be blamed on the Indians while its fruits were gathered by the British. Introduction • The consequences for the people of Bengal were By the of 1765, Shah Alam granted the company the Diwani (revenue collecting rights) of Bengal, disastrous; neither the Company nor the Nawab cared Bihar, and Odisha–in another words, absolute control over for their welfare. the lucrative resources of the prosperous Bengal. The East • The Company’s servants who were not conversant with India Company became the real master of Bengal from the language, customs, traditions, and laws prevailing 1765. The Nawab depended on the British for his internal in Bengal rack-rented the people. and external security. As the Diwan, the Company directly • The company stopped sending money to England collected its revenues, while through the right to nominate to purchase Indian goods. Instead, they purchased the Deputy Subahdar, it controlled the Nizamat or the these goods from the revenues of Bengal and sold police and judicial powers. This arrangement is known in them abroad. These were known as the Company’s history as the ‘dual’ or ‘double’ government. Investment and formed a part of its profits. In the year 1766, 1767, and 1768 alone, nearly £ 5.7 million was drained from Bengal.

Critiques of the Dual Administration 1. It brought catastrophic results. The administration in Bengal was shattered completely. 2. Lawlessness prevailed in most parts of Bengal. Cases of theft and robbery increased by leaps and bounds. The common people suffered due to want of justice. They Shah Alam Conveying the Grant of the Diwani to Lord Clive suffered to such an extent that they preferred even to leave their home and heart. Consequences 3. Agriculture in Bengal gradually deteriorated under the • The dual Government in Bengal helped the East India Dual Government of Clive. The power of collection of Company to remain free from the real responsibility of revenue rested in the hands of the company only. So, administration of Bengal. the Nawab could not make any provision like irrigation • The English Company got power and pelf by this for the development of agriculture in Bengal. system of Government by successfully keeping 4. The poor administration in Bengal led to a rapid themselves away from the hazards of administration. increase in private trade. While the servants of the • The Nawab and his officials had the responsibility of East India Company carried on trade and commerce administration but not the power to discharge it. For privately without paying any taxes and earning profit every omission and commission in the Government, out of this trade, the merchants of Bengal suffered a the Nawab of Bengal was to be held responsible. The lot because they were over burdened with tax. Thus, 54 Administration during East India Company (1757-1856) BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group the Dual Government dealt a terrible blow to the local • People were perceived to be more driven by trade and commerce. consideration for pecuniary benefits than justice and this led to the complaint about the “venality” of the justice system. • Need for some sort of direct or overt European supervision to ensure a centralization of the judicial system to assert company’s sovereignty.

Development of Judicial System

Phase-1: Warren Hasting (1772-85) When took charge as the Governor of Bengal in 1772, he undertook efforts to take full control Painting: Bengal Under British Rule of the judicial system and devised a new judicial system, 5. The servants of the Nawab became wayward and based on the Mughal model. The new system had two tiers: oppressive when they came to know that the Nawab one at the districts and other at Calcutta or Murshidabd was a puppet in the hands of the English company. (Appellate). 6. The Dual Government of Clive was further responsible At the district there were two courts, a civil court or Diwani for the downfall of local industries. The company’s Adalat and a criminal court or Faujdari Adalat. The civil people forced the local weavers to work exclusively for courts were to be presided over by the European District the company. Many other small local industries also collectors, assisted by maulvis and Brahman pundits were brought under the control of the company. interpreting the indigenous laws for their understanding. 7. The judges of the Nawab were influenced by British The criminal courts were to be presided by Indian officers authority because the latter played a vital role in their of the Company with the assistance of Kazis (qazis) and appointment. Thus, the judges failed to give an impartial muftis. The European districts collectors were vested with verdict which was detrimental to the interest of the the power of supervision of these courts. common people. The Muslim laws were to be applicable in criminal cases 8. The English Company became apathetic to agriculture in and the Muslim or Hindu laws in civil cases as per the Bengal which led to the loss of production in the field. It religion of the litigant. ultimately resulted in a decrease of revenue collection. Appeals from the Faujdari Adalat lay to the Sadar Nizamat Adalat presided by Deputy Nizam assisted by the Chief 9. The Dual Government proved a failure in Bengal. The Qazi, the Chief Mufti and three Maulvis. For a brief period absence of responsibility on the part of the company (1772-1774, when its seat was at Calcutta) the court was led to abuse of power and corruption. presided by the President (Governor of Bengal) and 6.2 Judicial System council members. Appeals from the Diwani Adalat could be made to Sadar Diwani Adalat presided by the President Administration of justice between 1765 and 1772 was and council members with its seat at Calcutta. under Indian officers and the process of dispensing justice Under the Regulating Act of 1773, a Supreme Court was was often arbitrary as it depended to a large extent on the established at Calcutta. Initially, it acted as an appeal court. colonisers’ understanding and interpretation of indigenous But very soon its jurisdiction clashed with other courts, justice system. which led to confinement of its authority to Calcutta and Need for a Judicial System to matters related to factories dependent on Fort William. • The Mughal judicial system was never centrally Later in 1780, the Sardar Diwani Adalat was reconstituted organized and depended to a large extent on the local to serve as an appeal court, with Sir Elijah Impey, the Chief Faujdars and their executive discretion. Justice of the Supreme Court, as its Superintendent. • The focus of this system was more on the mutual Phase-2: Cornwallis (1786-93) resolution of a conflict rather than punitive justice The process begun by Warren Hastings was continued by (except in the case of rebellion), and punishment his successor, Cornwallis. He introduced a code, popularly when meted out often depended on the status of the known as Cornwallis’s code of 1793, which separated accused.