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Meditations on First Philosophy Rene Descartes

SMARTER BETTER FASTER

Contributors: Brian Phillips, Jeremy Zorn, Julie Blattberg Copyright (c) 2002 by SparkNotes LLC All rights reserved. No partsoever without of the this written book permission may of be the used Publisher. or reproduced inSPARKNOTES is any a manner registered what- trademark of SparkNotes LLC. This edition published by SparkNotes LLC SparkNotes Publishing A Division of SparkNotes LLC 120 5th Ave, 8th Floor New York, NY 10011

2 you know. think Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. Whose words these are you Your paper’s due tomorrow, though; We’re glad to see you stoppingTo here get some help before you go. Lost your course? You’ll find itFace here. tests and essays without fear. Between the words, good grades atGet stake: great results throughout the year. Once school bells caused your heartAs to teachers quake circled each mistake. Use SparkNotes and no longer weep, Ace every single test you take. Yes, books are lovely, dark andBut deep, only what you grasp youWith hours keep, to go before youWith sleep, hours to go before you sleep. or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Stopping to Buy SparkNotes on a Snowy Evening

3 4 5 6 7 9 9 12 14 17 19 22 24 28 31 33 35 38 40 40 46 26 ...... (cont.) sum res cogitans ...... and ...... cogito ergo sum ...... Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC...... First Meditation: skeptical doubts Second Meditation, Part 1: Second Meditation, Part 2: theThird wax Meditation, argument Part 1:Descartes’ clear theory and of distinct ideas perceptionsThird and Meditation, Part 2: Descartes’Third theory Meditation, of part ideas 3: theFourth existence Meditation, of Part God 1: and God theFourth is Cartesian Meditation, no Circle Part deceiver 2: Will,Fifth intellect, Meditation: and "The the essence possibility of ofof material error God things, considered and a the second existence Sixth time" Meditation, Part 1: CartesianSixth body Meditation, Part 2: Mind-bodySixth dualism Meditation, Part 3: Primary and secondary qualities Quiz Bibliography CONTENTS SUMMARY CONTEXT LIST OF CHARACTERS OVERALL ANALYSIS AND THEMES SUMMARY AND ANALYSIS STUDY QUESTIONS REVIEW AND RESOURCES or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form

4 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. SUMMARY Ultimately, however, he realizes that he cannot doubt his own existence. In order to The Meditator’s certainty as to his own existence comes through a clear and distinct Secure in the knowledge that his clear and distinct perceptions are guaranteed by God, Because the essence of body is extension and the essence of mind is thought, the Medita- or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form The Meditator reflects that he hasthat often found he himself formerly to thought be were mistakenrebuilding certain, with regard and his to resolves matters knowledge to sweep fromwhich away the are all absolutely his ground pre-conceptions, certain. up, Allthe he and senses. had accepting Through previously a thought as process hesenses. of true knew methodological came only doubt, At to he any those withdraws him moment completely through God claims from he or the by could some be evil demon, dreaming, so or he concludes his that senses he could cannot trust be hisdoubt deceived senses or either about to anything. by think, theremay must be be about someone other doing things,follows the he from the doubting cannot fact help or that but he thinking. is concludethat thinking, Deceived that he thinks. as concludes he that he exists. He he knows further Since atand least his reasons that that existence that the he is mind he a is thing comes far to better know known to this him fact than by the means body. perception. of He his wonders intellect, what elseIn he order might to be be able certain that to hisneeds know clear to by and assure means distinct himself of perceptions that this are God indubitable, sure existsGod however, and in method. he his is first mind not cannot deceiving be him. createdas by He him perfect reasons since that as it the God is idea could far of more causeexist. perfect an than And idea he because is. so he perfect. Only is aarises perfect, Thus, being not he the would because Meditator not the concludes, deceive Meditator God the ismatters does Meditator deceived that about but the anything. because limited the Error intellect will does often not passes understand judgment clearly on and distinctly. the Meditator investigates materialprimary attribute things. of body is extension He andbreadth, that clearly etc. the primary and qualities He distinctly of alsowhile body perceives bodies are derives are size, that a essentially shape, extended, second the God proofis is essentially as for existent. inconceivable the as A existence a God that body of does that God not is exist from not the extended. fact that, tor concludes that the two areand completely distinctly distinct. perceive He the decides primary also qualitiesobscure that of perception while of he material secondary can things, qualities. clearly he has Thisget is only around because a in the confused the senses and world, are not meant to to help lead him him to the truth. Summary

5 Both are published Meditations, Spiritual Exercises. with a very Aristotelian outlook, Descartes is meant to serve as an underpinning for the new Meditations Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. Meditations in many ways resemble St. Ignatius of Loyola’s CONTEXT Descartes was writing at a time when a new physics was being developed by Galileo and Descartes was also writing at a time when Catholic philosophy inherited from Aristo- Meditations or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form in 1641, and generallywas considered widely the read starting and pointappointment discussed as for even tutor modern in for Western Queen Descartes’place philosophy. Christina at day. five of o’clock in Sweden. It the In morning, She and 1649,cold the demanded strain of of Descartes that Sweden rising early her accepted gave coupled Descartes lessons with an the pneumonia take unbearable and killed him within a year. others. This new physics couldothers be began understood understanding as the a processes mathematization offormalized movement of in and nature. a change small in Galileo number the of and mathematical universethe relationships. as universe being as This being led governed to by an a understanding verymetaphysics of few, simple, developed abstract, in mathematical the principles. The physics being developed at theinclined time. metaphysics as Descartes providing saw all the his foundations reason-basedprinciples. necessary and to develop mathematically- his own physical tle had a tremendousthe influence. Descartes himself was raised in the Jesuit tradition, and René Descartes (1596 - 1650) was born near Tours, inat France, a and Jesuit was college. educated for nine After years graduating withhe a traveled law degree about from Europe, Poitiers at developing the amost age of passion of twenty-two, for his mathematics life and after philosophy.and 1628 other sciences. He in spent Holland, In mathematics, and he invented published analyticthat geometry bears in and his the philosophy, name coordinate ("Cartesian"). physics, system mathematics, He alsohe prepared some withdrew significant works from in physics, publication which uponcondemned by discovering the that Inquisition for his teaching that contemporary,Descartes the Galileo, earth also rotates had around supported. been the sun, a His theory that great achievement, however, is the Context framed in a meditational formLoyola’s meant three to span stages six of days’of purgation meditation. the (skeptical Descartes self, doubt), also of illumination imitates God),ing (proof Loyola’s and of style, union and the opening (linking existence the this knowledge to the material world). In imitat- hoped to seduce the conservativeAfter thinkers having witnessed of Galileo’s fate, his he day hadmakes into every Descartes reason following far to more his be accessible cautious. line to This of the method reasoning. largely also Jesuit audience that he is addressing.

6 the Meditator is left are no doubt Descartes’ opin- Meditations, In the Meditations Meditations. Meditations. Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. ) The voice is not that of Descartes so much as it is the voice of —The narrative voice of the LIST OF CHARACTERS Spiritual Exercises. or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form List of Characters Meditator gender-neutral. The opinions expressedions, in and the it is significantchosen voice. that he (The writes style in andola’s meditational narrative are form imitative with of a the distinct Jesuit and founder carefully Ignatius of Loy- guidance to lead the reader through the

7 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. are generally considered the starting point of modern Western philosophy, OVERALL ANALYSIS AND THEMES Meditations We might understand the philosophical outlook that Descartes develops to be marked Skepticism also informs the mind-body problem which has come to define our concep- Skepticism and mind-body dualism have combined to create an understanding of the Descartes locates himself firmly in the rationalist camp, as opposed to the empiricism of While we can trace Descartes’ tremendous importance and influence to the development or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Overall Analysis and Themes The and with good reason.upside In down this and one frames brief manytoday. text, of Among other Descartes things, the Descartes turns breaks questions down many the that Aristoteliancomes Aristotelian notion via are that the doctrines all still knowledge senses and being that debated mentalIn states in so must doing, philosophy in he some develops way an resembleelse entirely what besides. new they conception are about. of mind, matter, ideas, and a great deal and defined by the skepticism hehe employs can in be the certain First of Meditation. anything He andas begins to then by why develops all he asking sorts ought how to of mistrust inventiveskepticism and his toward outlandish senses. knowledge reasons Philosophy claims, ever and sinceanything has the been with very marked certainty question a has constant of been how much we debated. can come to know tion of the human mind. Descartesthe imagination develops a are also conception mental of faculties. thethings mind Further, that where he can the argues know that senses our we minds and are clearlyan and essentially distinctly, understanding thinking but of must our work much bodies. harder Most tomind come important, and to he body. draws a Mind veryhave is sharp nothing distinction essentially between at thinking all and body inmind is and common. body essentially can Ever extended, interact so since, and the philosophers relate two have with one striven another. to understand how human mind as being lockedthis away mind inside can come a to bodyof know and anything this separated at knowledge off all is from about sharplyit the the questioned. is world world. sometimes is This difficult a How to conception mystery,outlook understand and of toward that the mind knowledge the certainty is and pre- sensory so Cartesian perception. world natural had to a us far that less skeptical Aristotle or his contemporary, John Locke.perceptions He of constantly the asserts intellect that are theconcludes the clear that only and the sure distinct senses means are of notto securing designed help knowledge, to us and give move us ultimately through knowledge the at world all, in but a are very rather practical meant way. of mind-body dualism and modern skepticism, hefor has also debate. provided a number of The other Cartesian seeds Circle, the Wax Argument, and Descartes’ theories of ideas,

8 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form of body, and ofexistence perception of God, are however, are all nota important original, fascinating nor subject matters are for for study they since very discussion. we successful. can Descartes see His makes a modern proofs worldview emerging for as he the writes. Overall Analysis and Themes

9 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. SUMMARY AND ANALYSIS Everything that the Meditator has accepted as most true he has come to learn from However, the Meditator realizes that he is often convinced when he is dreaming that he On further reflection, the Meditator realizes that even simple things can be doubted. The Meditator reasons that he need only find some reason to doubt his present opinions or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form in order to prompt himevery to one seek of sturdier his foundations opinions forhe individually, he can his doubt reasons knowledge. the that Rather foundations he and than might basic doubt cast principles them upon all which into his doubt opinionsor if are through founded. his senses.with He respect acknowledges to that objects sometimes thatthe the are whole very senses is small can quite or deceive, sturdy. fardeceived, but away, but The only and that Meditator that he acknowledges our is that sensory clearly insane not knowledge one on people of might them be and more needn’t worryis himself sensing about real that. objects. Hethat feels often certain he that has he dreamed ishis this present awake very sensations and sort may sitting of be by thing dream the andfrom images, waking fire, he been experience, suggests wholly but much that like reflects convinced even paintings by dream in it.imaginary images that creature, respect. are Though like drawn Even a when mermaid, a the painterand composite creates parts an fish, are drawn in from the realnew, things–women case at least of the a colors mermaid. inconcludes, the though painting And he are can even drawn doubt from when composite realparts things, a experience. he from painter cannot Thus, which doubt creates the they the Meditator something simple aredoubt and entirely studies constructed universal based on like composite shape, things, like quantity, medicine,that size, astronomy, we or physics, time, cannot he doubt etc. concludes studies based While on we simple can things, like arithmetic andOmnipotent geometry. God could make eventhat our God conception is of supremely mathematics good false. and would One not might lead argue him to believe falsely all these things. But Summary The First Meditation, subtitled "Whatreflecting can on be the number called of into falsehoods doubt," hefaultiness has of opens believed the with during body his the of life Meditator knowledge andto he on sweep has the away built subsequent up all from he thesehis thinks falsehoods. knowledge he once He more knows has on and more resolved to certainfree start grounds. of again He all from has worries seated the so himself foundations, that alone, building he by up the can fire, demolish his former opinions with care. First Meditation: skeptical doubts Summary and Analysis

10 as providing the metaphysical underpinning of his new Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. Meditations The motivation, then, behind the First Meditation is to start in a position Descartes saw his The Meditator finds it almost impossible to keep his habitual opinions and assumptions Reading the First Meditation as an effort to coax Aristotelians away from their custom- Meditations. or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Summary and Analysis Analysis The First Meditation issetting usually the approached ground in for the onetool meditations against of Aristotelian that philosophy. two follow, Second, where ways. it doubt can,the and is foundation First, often of employed is, modern it skepticism. as read standing can a We on willin powerful its briefly be own turn. discuss as read these complementary as readings by this reasoning we shouldand think that yet God this would is not clearlylikelihood deceive her of not with being true. regard deceived, to since If anything, ourperfect we being. imperfect suppose senses would there not is have no been God, created by then a there isout even of greater her head, try asand he imaginary might. in He order resolves tonot to counter-balance God, pretend his that but habitual these some way opinions evil arethinks of demon totally has he thinking. false committed knows He itself is supposes to false.into that deceiving falsehood By him by so doubting this that everything, demon. everything he he can at least be sure not to be misled physics. Like Galileo,into he the Western sought tradition to bya Aristotle. overturn great two-thousand-year-old The weight Aristotelian prejudices on thought injected thethe of testimony senses. Descartes’ of day the placed The senses,the Meditator’s suggesting senses suggestion is that that meant all all to knowledgethe appeal her comes directly most from to certain the knowledge Aristotelian philosophers comes who from will be reading ary opinions allows usFor to instance, read different there interpretations isArgument" into some to the debate suggest different as stages the toexperience, of universal I whether doubt. can possibility Descartes never know of intended which dreaming–that moments hissibility are of though famous dreams a and universal there "Dream dream–that which my are is whole waking–orIf life waking the is we pos- a read dream Descartes and as that there suggestingimportant is the distinction no universal waking between possibility world. the of Dream dreaming, ArgumentThe we and can latter the explain later suggests an "Evil that DemonThe Argument." all Dream we Argument, know if is meantonly false to that and suggest the the that senses universal we are possibility cannot not of trust dreaming, always the and suggests senses wholly one reliable. bit. The Dream Argument questions the Aristotelian philosophers would agree withit. and then, Descartes subtly, to is seduce awareorthodox them of away opinions from how of revolutionary the day his in ideas order are, to and be must heeded. pay lip service to the

11 Spiritual Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. can be seen to follow the model of St. Ignatius of Loyola’s these skeptical doubts are a means to the end of preparing a resistant The first step in the Jesuit exercises is to purge oneself of one’s attachment to Meditations Meditations, No one actually lives skepticism–no one actually doubts whether other people really We should note that Descartes’ doubt is a methodological and rational doubt. That is, Read on its own, the First Meditation can be seen as presenting skeptical doubts as a The or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Exercises. the material, sinful world.purgation, though In with the a Firstreaders Meditation, different to purge purpose. Descartes themselves leads of theirthe us Here senses prejudices. through that he are He a so wants also heavily similar hopes relied tohe upon to by persuade will lead the argue the Aristotelians. his that mind In our Aristotelian away the mostLastly, meditations from certain that this knowledge follow, process comes from of the radicalclaims mind doubt unaided Descartes by will will the hopefully senses. buildof rule up the out in any doubts the from next the five positive meditations. Read in the widersubject context of study indebated their topic own in right. philosophy,question Certainly, even of skepticism today. how is we Descartes can aThe claim was much idea to is discussed the know not and first with that these certainty hotly toruled doubts anything out. are raise about probable, And the the but if that world mystifying we their around cancuts possibility us. never straight can be to never certain, the be how heart entirely can of wecertain the claim foundation Western philosophical to for our enterprise know knowledge anything? and and its Skepticism understanding attemptso of to far the provide world. as a to It can be even read be as pushed a challenge to our very notionexist–but of it rationality. is very difficultDescartes to has justify a been dismissal largely of markedParticularly skepticism. interesting and responses motivated Western can philosophy by be since an found effort in Hume, to Kant, overcome and this Wittgenstein. problem. the Meditator is not justhis doubting doubt everything at each at stage. random, For butthat instance, is would she providing rejects undercut solid the the possibility reasons that rationality for this she that doubt might be within motivates mad, a his since rational doubt.arguments framework, to and Descartes proceed. needs is to trying maintain to a claim set to up rationality for his audience to the metaphysics Descartes plans to build. Summary and Analysis Aristotelian epistemology, while the EvilThe Demon "Painter’s Analogy," which Argument draws does on the away Dreamand Argument, with concludes other it that purely mathematics altogether. cerebral studiesan are important far step more away certain from thanrationalism. the astronomy Aristotelian or physics, reliance which on is the senses and toward Cartesian

: I 12 Discourse on Method argument, saying: "So cogito presents a picture of the world and of knowledge cogito Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. " ("I think, therefore I am"). This is possibly the most famous single is necessarily true whenever it is put forward by me or conceived in my mind." argument is so called because of its Latin formulation in the cogito The Meditator’s next question, then, is what this "I" that exists is. He initially thought Then, he wonders, is not he, the source of these meditations, not something? He has or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. cogito ergo sum All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form " line in all of philosophy, andphilosophy. is In generally it, the considered Meditator the finds starting hisposited first point in grip for the on modern First certainty after Meditation. Western the The radicalin skepticism which he the mind is something that can know itself better than it can know anything else. Analysis The after considering everything very thoroughly, Iam, must finally I conclude exist, that this proposition, that he had aand soul, also by that means he of hadcannot a which doubt body. he that All was he these thinks. nourished,cannot attributes He moved, exist have if may could been he exist cast does sense without not into and any think.thought doubt, other think; above Further, except of he all one: only the else exists above is he as attributes, inseparable longsense, from but as he being. he he is is The thinking. only Meditator a Therefore, concludes thing that, that in thinks. the strict conceded that he has no senseshas and also no noted body, that but does thenonexistence. that physical mean And world he yet does cannot to not existhim either? have exist, in these which all He these doubts, might insidious he also ways, he must seemcan must exist. exist to doubt, in be imply order For deceived, to his an and be misled. so evil on. There demon must to He be an formulates mislead "I" the that famous Summary and Analysis Summary The Second Meditation isknown subtitled than "The the nature body" and offirm takes the in place human his the mind, resolve day to after andis continue the how open his First to it search Meditation. the is for slightest The certainty doubt. better entire Meditator and He is earth to recalls given discard Archimedes’ famous as one saying false immovablecan that anything point: be he that could certain similarly, shift of the he justhe hopes one sees to thing. does achieve Recalling not great the exist,extension, things previous movement that if meditation, and his place he he are memory supposes mistaken that is notions.thing what remaining faulty, Perhaps, is that he that remarks, he there the has only is certain no no certainty. senses and no body, that Second Meditation, Part 1:cogito ergores cogitans sum andsum

13 I am, I exist, ? A number as a reasoned : "So after consid- cogito cogito Meditations as an epistemological remark, saying The absence of "therefore" is important, as a syllogism, that is, as a three-step argument Meditations. cogito only works for thought. I cannot say, "I walk, therefore sum res cogitans after its Latin formulation. There are three controversies Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. cogito and the formulation we get in the the Meditator advances the claim that he is a thing that thinks, an argu- sum res cogitans, cogito, as a performative utterance, where the utterance itself is what confirms its truth. Discourse on Method We should note, however, the distinction between the "I think, therefore I am" as stated (1) Whatever thinks exists (2) I think Therefore (3) I exist The trouble with a syllogistic reading, which Descartes explicitly denies elsewhere in But if everything is to be doubted, how can the Meditator know the After the It should be noted that the It is more plausible to read the cogito or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Summary and Analysis The idea that wephilosophy know ever our since, mind and firstmajor how and concern. the foremost mind has In can hadabout this connect a the conception, with world hypnotic and the reality hold becomes mind has on something ceases ever inside Western which since to we been be are a something locked. thatin helps the us know ering everything very thoroughly, I mustis finally conclude necessarily that true this proposition, whenever"therefore" it nor is "I think" put appear in forwardsince the by it dissuades me us or from reading conceived the in my mind." Neither as follows: his writings, is thatthe no Meditator has reason posited. is Also, given the why syllogistic (1) reading should interprets the be immune from the doubt that inference at a point ininto the doubt. Meditator’s doubt when even reasoned inferences can be called of readings have been given tothan an understand inference, this as step. something that One comesthe all is at to once, read in a it flash. as an Another reading intuition interprets rather I am," since I can doubtdoubt I itself am is walking. a form The of reason thought. I cannot doubt that I amment thinking called is the that That is, I could not say "Iit exist" is if what I makes did it not true. existI or can Thus, if I only I can do did only so not affirm think, in my and the so own present the existence tense: act (not of anybody I saying else’s) cannot and say "I thought, therefore I was/am." regarding the claim "I am...in theine strict in sense turn: only a whether thing the that claimand thinks," is what which metaphysical we is or will epistemological, meant exam- what by is "thinking." meant by "thing," that, "whatever else I may be,of I his know writings, only Descartes that makes I it am plausible a to thing read that him thinks." as However, making in a some metaphysical remark,

14 to hear and see things. His sensory perceptions seems Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. a thing that thinks." His reasoning might go something like this: "I know that am only "Thing that thinks" also carries some ambiguous baggage. By "thing," Descartes could The Meditator then moves on to ask how he comes to know of this "I." The senses, as or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Summary and Analysis Summary The Meditator tries to clarify precisely whatthat this "I" he is, is this not "thing that only thinks." somethingimagines He that concludes and thinks, senses. understands, and After wills,can all, but he still is may imagine also be things something dreaming and that or he deceived still by an evil demon, but he that "I I am a thinking thing, and Icannot do be not know one whether and I the am a same,them. bodily because thing. I Since My should I body either and know know myseparate I both mind things, I am of can them a conclude or that thinking I knowthinks." thing, am neither In not and of so a arguing, know bodily however, thing. that Descartes would my Therefore,of commit I basing body the am an so-called and only argument on a "intentional my what thing fallacy" one that mindor does are not both know. two not If known two things in hadare order to not be to one either be and both identical, known the we same as could well. argue that Bruce Wayne andsimply Batman be using thedon’t word want as to we bethe do more fundamental today, specific. and as indivisible anare More elements extended ambiguous likely, of things throwaway though, Cartesian (bodies) word he and ontology.that when is thinking we we things using In are (minds), it this minds andDoes to ontology, rather Descartes Descartes there than mean is mean bodies. substance, here only asserting Aristotelian the Of conception intellection course, of and mind? "thinking" understanding Or iswilling, does that also he is and also highly characteristic so include questionable. sensory of on? perception,sensory the imagination, perception and At so the on into beginningimagining, doubt, willing, of but and so by the on the Second are endexplored included of Meditation, as in the attributes the the Second of commentary the Meditation, Meditator on mind. sensing, has the This next cast question section. is further Second Meditation, Part 2: the wax argument may not be veridical, but they are certainly a part of thewe same have mind seen, that thinks. cannot beThe trusted. imagination Similarly, can he conjure concludes,be up he the cannot ideas trust guide of the to all imagination. knowinghas sorts his concluded, of he own things is essence. a that thinkingbody Still, are thing, is the not why and Meditator is real, it has remains so thatunderstand such puzzled. it he this a has cannot difficulty If, difficult such he as a time considers distinct he from identifying how grasp a we what of honeycomb: come what is through to his this the know "I" senses of or that a by piece thinks? some of other wax In means? just order taken to

15 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. He first considers what he can know about the piece of wax by means of the senses: its The Meditator considers what he can know about the piece of wax, and concludes that The Meditator reflects on how easy it is to be deceived regarding these matters. After The Meditator concludes that, contrary to his initial impulses, the mind is a far better The Meditator happily concludes that he can know at least that he exists, that he is a or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Summary and Analysis taste, smell, color, shape, size,the hardness, piece etc. of The wax Meditator is thenso placed asks that, near what for the happens fire instance, when and itof melted. is wax now All still soft of remains. when thesewax sensible before Our are qualities it knowledge the change, was that same hard. the cannotchanged. solid come Nonetheless, through piece the the of same senses wax piece since and all the of melted its piece sensible of propertieshe have can know only thatthis it through is the extended, senses, flexible, and and realizesmeans changeable. that of it He the is does imagination: impossible not that theand come he wax to he comes can know cannot to change know run into the throughknows wax an the all by infinite wax these number by shapes of means different inimperfect and of shapes his confused–as the when imagination. he intellect allowed herself alone. Instead, toor be he it led His by concludes, can mental his he senses be perception and clearperception imagination– of of and it it. distinct–as can it either is be when he applies only carefulall, mental we scrutiny might to say his "Iperceives see it, the rather wax," than though to in its"see" saying people color that down or we in shape. refer the to street Thisnot the when is our wax all similar eyes–judges as we to that the really the there see intellect way are are in people, coats which and and hats. we not might automata, Our under intellect–and thoseknower coats and than hats. the body.things. Further, he After suggests, all, he asmay must he be know a has his dream admitted, or mind he an farthat illusion. may better he not But than when is be he other perceiving perceiving isboth the perceiving nor the of piece that piece these of of he acts wax wax, of he is atworld cannot thought outside judging all: doubt imply us what that can it only he he doubtfully exists. perceivesconfirm be our to true Every own of thought be existence the we and a outside might establish world, piece have but the about it of nature must the of wax, with our certainty and own mind. thinking thing, that his mindperceptions is come by better means known of than the his intellect body, alone, and and that not the all senses clear or and the distinct imagination. Analysis The first paragraph of the above summarytion. covers the We could ninth paragraph identify of this the momentconception Second as of Medita- the the invention mind of separates thesurvive modern intellection death. mind. and understanding The Sensing, as Aristotelian imagining, attributes willing, of a etc., soul are that all attached to the sensory world and

16 Every cogito. Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. The rest of the Second Meditation concentrates on the "Wax Argument" with which This argument is another move against the Aristotelian theory of knowledge, according to Descartes’ next move is a little more questionable. He asserts that "I" cannot know This argument is plausible if Descartes means that the existence of the mind is better or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Summary and Analysis are therefore distinct, accordingis to a Aristotle. sharp distinction In betweenimagining–that the mind could Cartesian and take world, place conception where in of dreamsactivities, all mind, or and those in there exist activities–like disembodied only sensing minds in and arethen the considered totally mind. mental separate Things from in thingsphilosophy the in to world the determine such mind, how as and the treesnection it two between or becomes my connect. light a visual waves sensations major For and are concern instance, thesensations objects for there in are modern seems the a world to that part be Idifficult see, some of to but con- determine the since what visual mind that connection and is.now, but the This it objects picture and of the I mind theories may see ofthe seem mind twentieth are intuitive that century to a have us have sprung philosophers part from like itcome of Wittgenstein, originate to William the in question James, Descartes. world, Descartes’ and sharp Only J. it in distinction L. is Austin between very mind and world. Descartes hopes to showrather definitively than that through we the come sensesargument focuses and to on that know the we things process knowThe of through senses the change seem the by mind to which intellect better tell solid us thanabout wax things the anything solid melts about piece else. the into of world, wax a we and His liquid knowabout Descartes through puddle. the admits the senses. melted that wax, what The but senses we they can know and similarly cannot inform the tell us same. us that Nor, the Descartesand melted argues, wax make can and sense the the of solid imagination. what waxinformation: Only are we the one the perceive. intellect intellect is can The what organize senses helps only us perceive to a understand it. disconnected jumble of which all knowledge comes from the senses.us Descartes acknowledges about that the the senses world, inform butWithout the asserts intellect, that we the could senseshimself make can firmly no in only sense the give rationalist of camp, us what aswho disorganized we compared argue information. to perceive. for empiricists a Descartes such as sense-based thus Aristotle theory places or of Locke knowledge. with certainty that what "I"that perceive sensory is perception, real as (as a perEvery the form time doubts of "I" of thought, perceive the confirms "I" First thatperception am Meditation), "I" confirms thinking, but exist the and ("I" in existence being of thinkingexistence the "I" "my" of am mind.) mind the enacting and world. the only Thus, gives Descartes dubitable concludes, evidence the mind for is the better known thanknown the than body. the existence ofthe the mind body, is but better it known"I" seems than know that the not he nature only wants of that to thethe the say body. world mind that outside That exists, the the but is, nature mind. also Descartes of "I" wants This know to argument more say would about that only the hold mind if than about every thought, perception,

17 all cogito, Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. He is certain that he is a thinking thing and he clearly and distinctly perceives this fact. Before, he thought he was certain of all sorts of things that he has now cast into doubt. Before he can do so, however, the Meditator resolves first to classify his thoughts into The Meditator reasons that he cannot be mistaken with regard to ideas on their own, nor or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Summary The Third Meditation, subtitled "The existence of God,"what opens he with has the Meditator ascertained reviewing to date.certain that He he is exists and still that doubtful heand of is a senses, the thinking existence among thing of other that doubts, bodily things. understands, things, wills, but imagines, is He could not be certainhe unless concludes, all whatever clear he and perceives distinct clearly perceptions and can distinctly must be be certain. true. Therefore, These things are all apprehendednot by perceive the the senses, things and themselves, heappeared but must before only acknowledge his now the mind. that ideas, he orobjects, He did but thoughts, does concedes of not that those even he things, now wascould deny mistaken which inform in that inferring him he from about perceives these ideas theand ideas of things that geometry, material his though themselves. perception he He cannotTo be also assure himself absolutely seems that certain quite he since certain is God of not might deceived, arithmetic he be must deceiving inquire him. into thedifferent nature kinds. of God. First, therethings...for are example, simply when ideas, I think which ofSecond, he a there says man, are "are or volitions, as a emotions,object chimera, it and or were of judgments, the the where a sky, images or there thought, an of isdirected angel, and toward an or the idea, also God." object which of a is that further the thought. thing, such as anwith affirmation regard to or volitions or a emotions:The fear, he most can which common only error is make in mistakes judgment withresemble, is respect things to to outside judge judgments. the that mind. theand Considering ideas not ideas in referring in one’s them the mind to mind conform anything only to, outside as or the modes mind of should thought render him immune from doubt. Summary and Analysis Third Meditation, Part 1:tions and clear Descartes’ and theory of distinct ideas percep- imagination, etc., told "me" something new aboutthese the thoughts mind. tell "me" But, only according to onethat the and thinks. the Descartes same is thing: noteach that as "I" new clear thought exist, as and makes we that the might "I" mind like am better him a known to thing than be the as to body. what and how exactly

18 sum res cogitans is certain because is achieved. There and the cogito cogito cogito Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. can be cast back into doubt. cogito It seems there are three sources for ideas: they can be innate; they can be adventitious, The Meditator then contrasts his natural assumption that adventitious ideas represent The reasoning here might seem a little circular. On one hand, the Descartes seems to want to escape the problems involved in clear and distinct perceptions or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Summary and Analysis Analysis Having ascertained that hedetermine how exists he can and know these things, that andwell whether he by he similar might means. is come to He a concludes know that other his thinking things knowledge as of thing, the the Meditator tries to coming from outside ofus, us, such as as our with ideas ourbe of sensory mermaids certain perceptions; or which unicorns. or ideasadventitious The they come Meditator can (not from concedes be inherent that where, invented he but orconcerned by cannot with added even yet adventitious extrinsically), if ideas, and perhaps or whyno all he invented. effect thinks of they on come our For adventitious from ideas ideas: outside. thesimply are His he through moment, will innate, cannot the he has prevent will, is himself forsource from instance. transmits feeling these hot He adventitious when has ideaselse. it transmits thus is its come hot own to likeness assume rather that than whatever something outside outside objects with histhis knowledge fact that follows he from the exists. factlight." that He he Natural cannot doubts, assumptions, because doubt on that that truthand the is he have other "revealed...by misled exists the hand, him or natural in are that adventitious the far at past. less all. certain Further, he than Thefrom has the will within no may natural him. reason have light, to And no supposeresemble if effect that the they on these objects do ideas them, that come are but they fromto represent. they without, our still senses, there For may but is instance, astronomical be no the reasoning produced reason sun suggests to looks that think very it small is that in according they fact very large. are clear and distinct(which perceptions. he sometimes Thus, refers to he as concludes, "the all natural light") clear must and be distinct certain. it perceptions is clearly and distinctly perceived.be certain On because the they other are hand, the clear meansis and by which also distinct the perceptions the certainty must of difficulty the clear raised and with distinct the to case usrespect of to as geometry them. well, and but arithmetic. And thereeven if the is These God still truths can deceive the seem us possibility of that our we clear are and deceived distinct with perceptions,by perhaps relying on God’s existenceto to make prove them God’s true. existenceconundrum However, by Descartes is claiming famously also called seems it the to "Cartesian asthe want Circle," commentary a and to we clear the will and Third look at Meditation, distinct it Part more perception. 3. closely in This further

19 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. The Meditator asserts that no effect can have a greater amount of reality than its cause. The discussion of the theory of ideas is a preamble to Descartes’ attempt to prove the Some ideas are ideas in the strict sense only, while others are ideas in the strict sense or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form That is, everything that comes into beingor must be greater made amount to be of bypiece reality. something that of has For rock, an equal instance, since thecolor, a since larger stone a rock can stone has be has morecan more made reality, reality only by but than be chipping a a caused color. off stone byreality. something cannot The a The that Meditator be larger idea also has made of suggests as a out that much stone,be of an then, formal caused a idea could reality by be a as caused color. the by Thethere idea a Meditator must has stone grants ultimately or objective that be a ideas large something can rockfirst more be but cause than caused it of an by could an idea other not idea ideas, that mustobjective but is be reality. that the something cause with at of least these as ideas. much The formal reality as the idea has Summary and Analysis Summary The Meditator reasons that all ideas areequal: mere modes they of all thought, have the and same in amountHowever, that of what sense formal they they reality, represent are that differs all is, greatly, reality and intrinsicthings so to they their themselves. objective represent–also reality–the differs reality greatly. ofthan the Thus, the the idea idea of of God ared. has tree, more objective which Nonetheless, reality has all in threeformal turn reality. of more these (The objective ideas commentary realityby are section than "formal" below just the and will idea ideas, "objective" explain reality of and in and the all more what color have it detail means the what to same is have degree meant more or of less reality.) existence of God. According tois Descartes, made ideas up of are composite theof ideas. atoms of things" Descartes’ thought, suggestion is and that not all ideashave thought are meant ideas "as of to it God, reduce were of the justice,accompanied ideas images by of to an how image–hence to being the fix simply "as the visual it kitchen were" sink, representations. that none qualifies of "the which We images are can as of necessarily well things." as something else.Descartes is particularly That interested in "something judgments, else" sinceabout, these can and are he be the wishes things volition, to we emotion, can identifyMost be the or error wrong source judgment. in of judgment error in hasis order to where to do identify the with the mind source identifyinginvented, tries of things and doubt. to in adventitious pass the ideas, judgment material Descartesinherent world, regarding takes but since things added the that extrinsically) outside greatest ideas. of interestthings He it. in realizes outside that adventitious our often Thus, mind (not we without of assume any innate, we degree are of perceiving certainty or justification. Third Meditation, Part 2: Descartes’ theory of ideas(cont.)

20 he is asserting that, as a sum res cogitans, Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. For Descartes, as for most thinkers of his time, the fundamental building blocks of If he can conceive of some idea with so much objective reality that it must come from Sensible qualities like color, sound, smell, taste, heat, cold, and so on are only perceived All substances also have affections, things that hold of the substances. Affections are or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form reality are called substances. SubstancesCartesian can exist ontology, independently there and are are two indestructible.that kinds are In of minds, substances: there aremind, bodies God. finite and Thus, minds, minds. when such the as Meditator Of people asserts substances the and angels, and there is the infinite Summary and Analysis Analysis This section of text dives right into aphilosophers number that of distinctions would made have by been the very medievalwaned Scholastic current in and Descartes’ these day. terms Their are currencybe has no a since longer brief tutorial familiar on to Cartesian the ontology ordinary and reader, distinctions so within the what theory follows of will ideas. some cause with more formalhe reality than will he then herself know possesses,animals, the and that Meditator angels something reasons can that easily outsidecorporeal come his things from mind himself contain even exists. nothingreasoning if no of so such the His great things Wax that Argument, ideas exist.perceive he it of properties Similarly, has could like other concluded size, not that people, when he extension, originate examining can shape, in only corporeal motion, him. clearly things. duration,possesses. and number, distinctly From Most And and the of even substance motion, if, these these as properties properties are a the modes thinking ofa Meditator thing, the substance, himself substance and he of therefore also may body, has and,and more not as substances, reality have a will than thinking size, also these thing, be modes. extension, he elucidated is shape, (Cartesian in ontology, the or modes, commentary.) in a confused and obscurethey way, are and things the Meditator or isreality non-things. as not to even If originate certain unproblematically they as from are to the whether things, Meditator or himself. they not must have such a small degree of substance, he is a mind rather than a body. not substances themselves because theythey cannot affect. exist Affections independently can of bedivided the between divided primary substances between attributes that attributes and omni-generic and attributes. modes,attributes Primary and that attributes are attributes explain those the can essence be ofthe the substance primary they attribute belong to. ofThus, According body all to bodies is Descartes, are extension necessarily andare extended in necessarily the space bodies. primary and all attribute Similarlyand things of with that all are mind minds minds extended think. and is in thought:and space thought. Omni-generic do attributes all not are thinking define attributes their things that essence. are can Examples minds, hold are of existence, any duration, and substance number. Modes are

21 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. Now we move on to the distinction between formal and objective reality. For Descartes When Descartes speaks of things as having more or less reality than other things, we According to Descartes, something with a certain degree of objective reality must ulti- or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Summary and Analysis modifications of primary attributes, waysattribute. in For instance, which squareness something is canmight a have mode be a of extended. extension certain since Similarly primary imagining, it with willing, is color, sensing, a size, feeling, way in etc., other which for shapes, a minds. motion, body etc., for bodies; and and the Scholastics, ideas are theformal and link objective reality. that To connect clarify the mind distinction andreality once more, things world formal have because reality in they is this the have world kind both of andby objective different reality is ideas. the reality Thus, ofand the an it objects can idea represented also can have have objective formal reality, representing reality, something being outside a of mode itself. ofcan thought understand itself, him as roughly(i.e., dividing God) up have the reality most along reality,mentioned a followed earlier, scale by finite where finite substances substances, infinite are followed substances of by bodies body modes. and and mind, As minds, like we while color,other modes shape, things, size, are that imagination, modifications idea, ideas will,mind. have etc. the So, This formal for implies, reality instance, among is the of an idea modes, idea) of since and a the they car objectivea are would reality body). modifications of have a the On of finite formal the substance realitymode other (since (since of hand, the it a the idea is mode idea is an (since of idea) offear and it the a is the car, fear also objective which of a reality is cars of mode a would of mode thought). have (since the the formal idea reality is of of a a mately fear, be and caused by something withof that a degree car of (which formal has reality. thea So, objective reality bicycle, for of which instance, a only the finite has idea substance) thehave might formal be been reality caused caused of by by a the mode, idea awe but of bicycle trace that itself, the idea which causal of chain a has far bicycleas the enough might the formal back, then idea reality we has will of objective find a reality.reality a finite If cause than the substance. with he Meditator as has If can much formal locate formalof reality, an reality himself he idea which can had that to has conclude create more that thethe objective there idea. only must Since thing exist he has something that the outside something has formal besides reality more himself of reality exists a finite by is substance, contemplating infinite his substance. idea of God. Thus, he will try to prove that

22 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. While he can doubt the existence of other things, he cannot doubt the existence of God, The Meditator then entertains the possibility that he may be supremely perfect, that If the Meditator could exist without God, he would have come to be out of herself, or If his parents or some other imperfect being created him, this creator must have endowed The Meditator counters the argument that he might conceive of an infinite being through or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form negation, that is, through conceivingdesires of come from it an in understanding contrast thatthat we to lack lack unless his something, we own and were we finite aware would of being. not a be more Doubts aware perfect of and being that has thosesince things he which we has lack. such aobjective clear reality, and and is distinct therefore perception more of likely God’s to existence. be true The than idea any has otherall infinite idea. his deficiencies areperfection. potentialities If within perfection him, is a and potentialitycould within that be him, conceived he then in it him is is without slowly plausiblefor any that three outside improving the cause. reasons: toward idea The of first, Meditator God Godimproving, rejects is he this will all possibility never actual attain and that perfection notthird, where at potential there all being is potential; is no room not second, for being ifinfinite improvement; at he actual and all: is being. the constantly idea of God must be caused by something with from his parents, or from some otherfrom being himself, less perfect there than God. isescape If no he this reason derived reasoning his by that existence supposing he heThere has should always is have existed no and doubts reason never that had and he tohim, desires. should come that continue into creates being. to He him exist anew also unless atpower there cannot every of is instant. preservation some As though force a it that thinking preserves came thing, from he within should him. be aware of that him with the idea ofit God. how it If came this to creator possess is the a idea finite of being, an we infinite must God. still We ask can with trace respect this to chain back through Summary and Analysis Summary When considering God assupremely "a intelligent, substance supremely powerful, that and iselse," which the infinite, created Meditator both eternal, realizes myself immutable, that andhe the independent, everything idea has of formal God reality: mustSince have God the far idea is more of objective an God reality cannot infinitecause than have substance of originated in this whereas himself, idea he he and concludes is must that therefore only God necessarily a must exist. be finite the substance. Third Meditation, part 3: the existence ofCartesian God Circle and the

23 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. According to this reading, God cannot possibly be intended by Descartes Having concluded that God must necessarily exist, the Meditator asks how he received However, the proof of the existence of God relies on the Meditator’s having a clear and There are number of ways in which we could attempt to release Descartes from this Another strategy is to re-evaluate the epistemological role that God is meant to play in Meditations. or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Summary and Analysis countless creators, but we must ultimatelyin conclude God, that and the not idea in of some God finite can being. originate only the idea of God.invented by the Meditator. The Thus, idea thecreated idea cannot by must be be God innate, with adventitious, and this the comingis idea Meditator no must from already deceiver, have in without, been since him. all nor deception Hedefects. can relies clearly on and it some distinctly be defect perceives or that other, God and a perfect God has no Analysis Now that we havethe reached overall the strategy end that Descartes ofcertain is the only pursuing. that Third he The Meditation, exists Meditationknow we these and begins facts can that with through clear more he the and is Meditator distinct easilyall perception, a review his and thinking reasons other that thing. clear it should andand He follow distinct that distinct concludes perceptions, perceptions that however, he are he must true. prove comeswere the a to deceiver, existence In he of could a order be benevolent deceived to God. even with confirm If respect the God to his truth clear of and distinct clear perceptions. distinct perception of the idea"Cartesian of Circle." God. The The Meditator proof seemsbe seems committed to sure to fall of claiming into our both what clear (a)exists is that and because now we distinct we called can the perceptions clearly only if andtrue, Descartes God distinctly is exists perceive guilty and the of (b) idea circular we of reasoning. can God. know If that both God (a)circle. and One (b) strategy, are calledperceptions the going "Cartesian into spiral," the is prooffrom of to it. God’s suggest existence For that are instance, the different myGod from clear clear confirms the and and it, ones distinct but distinct my perception that clear that follow andfrom 2 distinct doubt. perception + of 3 In the = idea this of 5 reading, God can thereof is are which be somehow are different immune doubted totally kinds unless immune of from clear doubt andreading and distinct is some perceptions, of made some which plausible need by God toa the confirm judgment fact them. that and This my therefore clear openexists and to is distinct error, simply whereas perception an my that idea 2 clear in + and the 3 distinct strict = perception sense, 5 that with is God no judgment attached. the as confirmation of clear andcause distinct to try perceptions. to prove If God’sto that existence prove were by means anything the of case, by the it means intellect, would since of be we the would a not intellect lost be until able we know that God exists. Rather than

24 : clear Meditations, Meditations Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. This is all well and good, the Meditator reasons, but if God has endowed him with We should note that, in spite of the revolutionary originality of much of the No "proof" of the existence of God is widely accepted today, and the search for such a or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Summary The Fourth Meditation, subtitled "Truth andthe falsity," opens ground with he the has Meditator covered reflecting sothe on far, observing most that certain all his knowledge certainsenses that knowledge, or and the God in imagination. particular exists, Now comesfollow. that he First, from is he the certain knows of intellect, thatof God’s God and existence, would weakness a not not or great deceive from deal malice, him, more the him, and since can God the God’s is will perfection responsible to would for deceive not hisso is judgment, allow long a and as it. sign so he his uses Second, faculty it of if correctly. judgment God must created be infallible infallible judgment, how is ittime? that he The can Meditator be explains mistaken, that as he he finds undoubtedly himself is from somewhere time between to God–a perfect, Summary and Analysis Fourth Meditation, Part 1: God is no deceiver seeing God as the confirmationbuffer of against clear doubt. and distinct WeGod’s existence know perceptions, also clear provides we us and could with the read distinctreading, certainty God that perceptions (b) we as is independently might true, a not of but otherwise we have. God,and would In but distinct re-formulate this perceptions (a) retrospectively as once sayingwith that we this we are reading can is certain re-affirm that that our itand God clear totally distinct re-structures exists. the perceptions, way and The we not problem understand God, the become the ultimate foundation for knowledge. Descartes’ proofs of the existence ofthe God Scholastic are derivative philosophers. of proofs that Thismust were proof be popular relies a among on causeGod causal of might reasoning, the have come suggesting idea from that of mya there God father, priest, and that the my is suggestion father’s idea as isis of great that God. God at as might the God have end come The himself.some from of proof unmoved that mover Though of at causal my the the chain, source ideasince there first been of of is discredited, cause all since a change it is first in relies usually cause, onamong this a other universe. which used faulty things, understanding However, in that this of all causation proof pointing which causal has assumes, out chains must that have a there first must term. proof be is no longer a hotor philosophical not God topic. exists and While what there God’s nature isbe is, still proved it disagreement through is over generally a agreed whether feat thatGod God’s of existence requires the cannot a intellect. "leap (For of example, faith" Kierkegaard rather asserted than that a belief rigorous proof.) in

25 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. But the Meditator remains unsatisfied. If God is a perfect creator, God should be able to To better understand why Descartes has this conception of good and existence would or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Summary and Analysis complete, and supreme being–and nothingness.being, and He all was created created in bybe him a by only supreme that a and supreme finite infinite being being.participates is infallible, partly While but in he he nothingness. was participatesfaculty also partly created created When in to he by the is supreme God,Everything being wrong, but that of it is God God, is rather has he notbeing created the also the whose is result finitude result perfect, still of of leaves but his room some God for non-being, faulty has error. his created lack the Meditator ofcreate as perfection. perfect a beings. finite Surely, God could haveand willed God it always so wills that what the is Meditator best. wouldincomprehensible The never to err, Meditator finite reflects that beings God’s such motives and as reasons himself.for are final For this causes reason in also, physics: hemind rejects or the it search would understand require God’s motives. athe great Meditator Rather deal suggests than of he look arrogance mightHe at to find may one try appear perfection isolated to to read if part God’s be of heperfectly appropriate an the looks role imperfect universe, at in being God’s the creation when wider considered as context of on a a his whole. perfect own, universe. but he mayAnalysis play a In Descartes’ denial that God could be aexistence deceiver, he that is would employing a have conception been of familiartoday. power and in Existence his and day, the but power which tomore might act power are strike and both us existence conceived as one by rather has,of Descartes the odd some to better be negative one positives. being is. The thatof Evil being. counterbalances and negative positive In acts being, are being butsince not supremely these a result good, are result rather associated God with must from goodness. alsodeals a An have with lack act infinite what of being deception is is and not.is an infinite act supremely Thus, power, of real by falsity, and and Descartes’ falsity does reasoning,hand, not God are participate cannot understood in by be any Descartes a wayimplies to deceiver in that have since nothingness. they finite he also People, being, participate on and inbeing the that nothingness. on other their one lack If end, of there and infinite were nothingnessin being a and the line, evil middle. with on God Our the ability as otherthan to absolute end, in err humans God. comes would be to somewhere us insofar as we participate in nothingness rather require a better understanding ofancient Greek the conception history of virtue, of where ethics. whatclosely is linked. Briefly: real, Being what good is Descartes is true, is simply andis inheriting a what linked is matter an with good of unreality. are participating The all in Greek whatthere philosophical is was world real, reason and was being one and evil with purposebe a simply in teleology, a in the matter which very of approximating workings this of reality. the Descartes world; is still being entrenched good in the was ancient seen to

26 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. Since the will is perfect and unlimited, it cannot be the source of error. Similarly, since The Meditator also questions why a supremely good God would not create us with or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Summary The Meditator next looks at theintellect source (the of his faculty errors. of They knowledge)will). depend and simultaneously The the upon intellect, will the however, (thethem, only faculty and allows so of us in choice, to this or perceive strictwhich ideas, freedom sense, he it not of knows cannot to the is be make limited, thebeing judgments the source any on of Meditator greater error. reflects or In that more contrast heunderstanding, perfect. to could etc.–the the In not Meditator intellect, all conceive realizes his of other thatthan his he mental God will is. faculties– is as memory, But endowed imagination, in toin freedom of a this choice, respect much or more greater the than will, degree that any the it other Meditator is he realizes accompanied he by resembles is a herbut greater unlimited, creator. when knowledge and considering and God’s the power will will and may in that theas be it strict great ranges greater sense, over as in the everything, God’s. Meditator concludes Exercising thatavoiding. the his The will will feeling consists is of just indifference simply is in notof a affirming weakness what or in is denying, will but the pursuing rather true or ain lack or of that knowledge right God course has to supreme pursue. knowledge and Thus, can God’s always will will what is is onlyhis good. superior to understanding, our or own intellect,Meditator was concludes that created error bybut results God, from not the it from fact that can imperfections thewill in never will often either has be passes a of judgments wrong far on these wider either. matters scope faculties, that than are the The not understanding. fully As understood a and result, toward the which it is Summary and Analysis Fourth Meditation, Part 2: Will, intellect,sibility and of the error pos- worldview that he inherited from thefind Scholastics. in This later worldview philosophers has changed like since, Kant.we as apply According we to to the Kant, world. reasonneutral and universe. Thus, purpose It goodness are is is things Kant’s that anunderstand worldview idea that a that we worldview where our now goodness understand, reason and and imposes existence it upon are is a considered often morally one difficult and to the same. infinite being. In sum, we areways." given The a Meditator variant on suggests the that answer, God’sWhile "The motives on Lord are works our beyond in own, our mysterious we meager maycreation. comprehension. be We seen might as think of imperfect, a wewhen steering are we wheel only see on a its it small own in part assuit the rather of its larger useless a purpose. context and much imperfect, of larger but a car, we understand that it is perfectly designed to

27 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. The Meditator concludes that he cannot complain that God has created him imperfectly. The intellect is finite and limited because there are varying degrees at which perceptions The source of error, then, lies in this disparity between the scope of the will and the scope or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Summary and Analysis indifferent. For instance, the Meditator has suchthat a he clear and cannot distinct help perception but thathis he judge exists relationship (will) to that this the is corporealhave true. body a that proper However, he he understanding is normally ofas as assumes the yet to is relationship uncertain whether his. between about he mindliable Since and should to he body, make assent does he a not or is falseperceptions, indifferent deny judgment. there that In is all the some matters mind levelmake of a and of the false judgment. conjecture intellect the except The and body correct for uncertainty, usefrom are clear of and judgment. the and identical so will When distinct in the and cases "I" of will affirm is or uncertainty or is is "I" simply deny liable will to in arrive refrain to cases at of the truth uncertainty, "I" purely will by either chance. be inIt error is only naturalanything that less he than complete. has a Heto cannot finite false complain judgment, intellect, about since and the he imperfections is thecreation only in is will a him perfect is small even that if part lead indivisible, he ofcan so may God’s also larger seem it avoid creation, error imperfect cannot completely and when by his considered be suspendingonly role alone. judgment passing in in He judgments that cases concludes on where he he clear is and uncertain, distinct and perceptions. Analysis This section draws an important distinctionis between the the faculty intellect that and the not will.are only value-neutral understands The acts and intellect in thinks, themselves. but The alsoit will senses is is and in responsible imagines. for the affirming All willmy and these denying, visual that and perception value of and a the treethat possibility is it for created is in error indeed the manifest a intellect,I themselves. tree, but am it or For just is suspends instance, hallucinating the judgment willperception and because that to there I either me, is might affirms but be no my will dreaming. tree, would my Thus, be intellect mistaken even in if is judging not thatand mistaken it understanding is in indeed can reporting a function. this tree. while For some instance, of some us of canderstand us all calculate can the differential only mysteries equations of do in theits simple universe. a efficacy arithmetic, The is snap, will, not while on a noneproposition the matter of other put of hand, us to degree. is can me not un- by Because finiteMeditator asserts, my because I is intellect. have not a due The to freeOften, a fact will, weakness the that I in intellect we the can does will, do affirm but not not due orinformed understand to always judgment deny a a and affirm any weakness matter so or in well the the deny, enough will intellect. the to suspends allow judgment the instead. will to makeof an the intellect. The willtellect is is limited unlimited and and can can only clearly affirm and or distinctly deny perceive a any small proposition, number while of propositions. the in-

or 28 cogito Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. The objection could then be raised as to what we are to make of a fool who cannot We should also note that Descartes is a proponent of free will. The Meditator asserts The problem of free will and determinism is a common one in philosophy, and it is or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Summary The Fifth Meditation opens with the MeditatorRather turning than his inquire attention into toward material the objects. thingsthings. themselves, he inquires He into concludes her ideas thatlocal regarding motion, he material which can is distinctly associated imagine with duration. extension, size, shape, position, and Summary and Analysis Fifth Meditation: "The essence of material things, and the existence of God considered a second time" Most of what the intellectThe perceives is only confused time and that obscure, we likedistinct can our perception. be sensory certain perceptions. The that question weclear then are and arises judging distinct. of correctly is howthe Descartes’ in we will answer cases can cannot is of know help clear that but which affirm. and he clear perceptions exists, For and are since instance, distinct his the perceptions Meditator everywhat thought finds are he it confirms those impossible his sees, that to existence. as denyperceptions the On that are Dream the not other Argument clear hand, (in and he the distinct. can First doubt Meditation) shows. Therefore,help visual but affirm that 2mathematical + truths 2 is = not 22. ais result How not of can at a all we weakness clear, know of+ and that our 2 it our own? = is inability 22 The hard to ought answer to to deny to give think the a this harder better question before answer affirming than his that judgment. thethat only fool the who will, thinks of that allit 2 human is mental faculties, unlimited. is on The anthe will equal source footing is of with free God’s, error: because tojudgments affirm if on or God our confused deny had and whatever not obscure it blessed perceptions wishes. us and we with In would free fact, never will, make free mistakes. important we will that would is we not explain the blithely compatibilist pass thing position like of this: Descartes. The "if problemis we runs it are some- that a we part canindifference," of have that free nature we will?" and could Descartes’ subject have answer to actedis is differently. nature’s that that deterministic All we we his laws, have do conception "freedom how notinto of from have behaving free external the as will constraint," "freedom we requires that of do. we Wethat don’t behave our under feel judgments the we are idea are made of being freely. freedom, forced and that is enough to ensure

29 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. The Meditator also considers that there are abstract geometrical objects which do not The Meditator has reasoned that a triangle must have all the properties he ascribes to Clear and distinct perceptions are always convincing, according to the Meditator. Some The Meditator asserts that God is the guarantor of his clear and distinct perceptions. He or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Summary and Analysis exist in the material world,there do are no not triangles depend in on the world,ever her yet existed mind, they anywhere have yet outside some are kind the not of mindessence being. nothing. of which Even the is For if Meditator, no independent instance, triangles triangle ofhas still has the have come Meditator’s a to mind. determinate know the Thesorts nature Meditator of of also shapes triangles denies through that that the heas he senses. he has does never After with seen all, those and heclearly of can derive and the think their distinctly triangle. up properties perceives These them. all as propertiesalways Besides, clearly must regarded he and all mathematical notes, be distinctly and even true before geometrical sincethe he objects the senses. began as Meditator to more doubt, certain he than the objects of it, because the triangle existsall as these an properties. idea in He his thenhe mind reasons clearly and by he and analogy clearly that distinctly and God perceivesso distinctly exists all it as perceives of follows an his from idea his qualities. inessence clear his of One and mind God, and of distinct then perception these God that qualities wouldbe God not is a be must existence, triangle God exist. if if If he itbe existence did were as not is not certain exist, the three-sided. as just the as Atthem properties a in the triangle of the would very mathematical same not least, and way. geometrical then, objects the since existence he of can God prove must perceptions may be evident, like themore thought, fact like that the a Pythagorean theorem triangle that hasof states a three that right the sides, triangle sum is and of equal some the to squares the mayis square of take of proved, the the it legs hypotenuse. is just But once as thehis certain Pythagorean as theorem existence any other would clear immediately andconfusions distinct be caused perception. perceived by Similarly the clearly with senses God: and andbeen distinctly preconceived established, opinions. it if is Now it that as God’s weren’t certain existence as for has any the other clear and distinct perception. admits that he cannot constantlythere fix might his be mental times when vision he on istimes, any not doubt clearly particular and could perception, distinctly creep so perceiving a that in,him certain and if truth. has not At endowed such for him God.to with clear a Because and faultless he understanding distinct and perceptions, knowsthe a he that past will knows God is than that is and cannot what remains not but he trueThose deceiving assent clearly even judgments if and about he distinctly which is he perceived not is in intellect. currently mistaken directing are And not his even clearly mental if and vision distinctlybe he toward perceived it. mistaken is by with dreaming, the respect as to was a suggested clear in and the distinct perception. First Meditation, he cannot

30 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. Descartes’ discussion of essence is intended as a strong reaction against Aristotelian Descartes provides strong reasons to support his move against Aristotle. If essences Descartes then turns his discussion of essence toward a second proof of God’s existence. The proof of God’s existence found here is a version of a proof that was popular among or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Summary and Analysis Analysis "Essence" is one ofseventeenth century. those The philosophical essence of terms acannot thing thats is do the currency without. property or has For setof instance, waned of properties Aristotle a a that defines human the bit rationality thing being. as sincecease an to A the essential be person characteristic rational could and lose remain human. a leg and still beempiricism. human, According but to a Aristotle, person weinstances could learn of the not triangular-shaped essence objects of, infrom say, the a these world triangle, worldly and by instances. examining extracting Descarteslearn the the turns essence essence this of of formulation a triangles on trianglethe its solely real through head, world and the saying see intellect, if that and there we only areproperties instances afterward of of do a triangles. we thing look In that Descartes’ at we formulation,are whatever clearly essentially and extended, distinctly since perceive extension mustprior is be clearly to essential. and any Thus, distinctly empirical bodies perceived investigation.Sixth by Meditation. the The intellect essence of body will be further discussed inare the extracted from thethere are real none? world, And more howderived importantly, mathematically how is but do have never we it encountered understand in abstract that thehowever, real shapes we world? we that could In we point understand Aristotle’s have out defense, that perfect whileessences triangles Descartes of has when mathematical given us objects, a heknow better has understanding the of left essence the us of completely materialthe in things. essence the of, Is say, dark gold, it as without possible to ever to encountering how gold apply we in the can the intellect world? toThis understanding proof is weaker than thehe one found adds in it. the Is Third he Meditation,this not and we certain new might that proof wonder his patch why earlier up? proofclear is and Most satisfactory? distinct importantly, perceptions. it And if reinforces Clear so, andexists, the what distinct and connection holes perceptions God’s between are does existence, God made as certain and ancourse, because essential God this property, is reinforced clearly connection and onlyThis distinctly reinforces problem perceived. is the Of discussed conundrum in of the the commentary Cartesian to Circle. the Third Meditation, Part 3. the Scholastic philosophers. Our ideaattributes of of God a perfect is being the wouldexist. idea be of In existence, a Descartes’ since perfect formulation, it being, existence isof is and more God’s, not one perfect so just of that to an the God exist attribute, cannot thanon but be not the an conceived faulty to essential assumption, of first property without pointed existence. out by This Kant, proof, that existence however, rests is a predicate or a property,

31 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. He first distinguishes between imagination and pure understanding. In the case of a The imagination cannot be an essential property of his mind, since the Meditator could The Meditator then turns to reflect on what he perceives by means of the senses. He or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Summary The Sixth and finaldistinction Meditation between is mind entitled and "The body," andtence existence it of of opens material material with things. the things, Theexist Meditator and Meditator since considering they the accepts the are the real exis- the strong subject-matter possibility ofclearly pure and that mathematics, distinctly. material the He objects truths then of produces whichone two he based arguments perceives on for the the faculty existence of of material the things, imagination, the other based on thetriangle, he senses. can perceive that ausing triangle the is understanding three-sided and alone. derive He allby can sorts of picturing also other perceive the properties these triangle propertiesbecome with in clear the his imagination, when mind’s he eye. considershis a However, thousand-sided mind’s the figure. eye, weaknesses and It of more isimage the very of difficult a difficult still imagination 999-sided figure. to to picture The differentiate pure itrelations, understanding, that in however, can dealing mental only perceive in image all mathematical the from propertiestriangle. the of mental a thousand-sided figure just as easily as it can a still exist even if he couldother not than imagine. the Therefore, the mind imaginationconnected for must with rely its the on existence. body, something andstanding, thus the The mind allows turns Meditator the inward upon conjectures mind itself, to and thatthe in picture imagining, the body. the corporeal mind imagination objects. turns The outward is Meditator toward Inproof admits under- of that the existence this of is body. only a strong conjecture, and notperceives he a has definitive a bodypain, that emotion, exists hunger, etc., in and a can perceive world,hardness, other and bodies heat, with that color, extension, this shape, smell, movement, body taste,perceptions can etc. all experience He come pleasure, from thinks some itare outside not source. so unreasonable to much They suppose come more that to vivid these him than involuntarily, and the they perceptions he consciously creates in his own mind. It Summary and Analysis Sixth Meditation, Part 1: Cartesian body like "being red" or "being tall."red" In or fact, "is "exists" tall." is The a predicate veryworld. "exists" different does kind If not of modify I predicate an say than objectcar. "the "is so On red much the as car other it exists," modifies hand, the the "exists"such does property that not of the modify car redness the is is car in something so it. much that as In modifies it that the says sense, that "exists" the is world not is a property of the car’s.

32 This section of is to show that he can demon- Meditations. Meditations Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. The entirety of Cartesian physics rests on the claim that extension is the primary attribute For Descartes, there is no real distinction between physics and geometry and between The main problem with Descartes’ physics is that he does not explain what causes things Descartes’ arguments for the existence of body as essentially extended can then follow or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Summary and Analysis would be odd to suggestthan that the he ones can he involuntarily createssuppose create that voluntarily. perceptions the And source so if of much theseFrom they more sensory this come vivid ideas point from in of without, some view, it way itwithout resemble is via is the very the only ideas easy senses. natural themselves. to to convince oneself that all knowledge comes from Analysis What Descartes understands by "body" isto somewhat his counter-intuitive and physics, is closely whichcommentary linked will is depart a not bit from madeof the text Cartesian readily it physics. comments apparent on in in order to the clarify some concepts of body, and that nothing more isextended needed in to explain space, or understand and body.Descartes so "Extension" was a means also body is acoordinate anything great system that that mathematician, now occupies bears and his space. inventedwe name. should both Descartes’ We understand physics analytic should bodies is recall geometry highly as mathematical, anything that and and that the could be graphed in coordinate space. bodies and empty space.substances, Geometry and is if simply body the is nothing mathematicaletry more formalization and than physics of extension, dissolves. then extended the Similarly, space distinctionis between is body geom- extended, even just if as itimpenetrable: is material empty, two objects so bodies empty would cannot space be. occupyspace, the they It same would space. follows have from If thenothing two this same more bodies extension reasoning than occupied and that extension. the so same bodies would are be the same body, since bodyto is move. If body isanswers simply present extension, themselves. then whereeverything do about, First, force but this God and answer energy could seems comeas a be from? re-creating bit contrived. conceived the Three world Second, of we at aschange, could every conceive instant, they the of so are God force that perpetually change thatbuilding destroyed is natural moves and in laws fact re-created. into an the illusion. universe Third, that Things we do don’t could the moving conceive for of him. God one of two strategies. Thestrate one the he pursues existence in of the that body the through primary reason. attribute of body Hesenses is extension. are claims supposed His to arguments to perceive from show clearly theoutside that imagination of and and his the distinctly the mind. intellectual faculties While seem his argument to from be the linked imagination to only something leaves the existence of

33 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. Having questioned these assumptions in the First Meditation, he finds that there is plenty The Meditator reasons that imagination and sensory perception are modes of thought. Sensory perception is a passive faculty, and, as the Meditator has asserted before, there Alternatively, the strategy he follows in his writings on physics is simply to show that or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Summary The Meditator muses that he has been puzzledto as to one why his particular mind body, seems particularly which attached body he but calls not his in own. anybody Why body suggest does external to he to his feel it? mind painthe that And and tugging he why tickling and should should in the eat, a this decision since tuggingthe there to in things is eat? the he no stomach does He obvious about of concludes connectionassumptions his that between that prior body to and he developing about is any the inclined arguments world by regarding external them. nature to to it, assume since he acceptsof these reason to doubt that material things areHowever, he the way believes he he is is naturally now inclined to wellentirely. assume enough First, they equipped he are. clearly that and he distinctly needn’t perceivesBody that doubt is he their is, essentially existence in extended essence, and only mind adistinct is thinking from thing. non-extended, his so body he can and conclude could that exist he without really it. is He could conceive of himselfessential to without him, imagination but or imagination sensorycontain and perception, sensory them. perception so Similarly, could they there not arecontain are exist them. not without modes a of mind extension to that cannot exist without a body to must be some activeoutside of cause him. that Either createsperceptions it have sensory could objective reality be perceptions or other it and could bodiesthese be with this God perceptions. or as cause some The much other Meditator must being formal capable is realityare of reside naturally as creating created inclined the by to sensory things suppose whichperceptions that were resemble sensory caused perceptions those by perceptions, some andhave other misled he means. the would Meditator be Since into God deceivedMeditator thinking if is concludes there that no the are material deceiver, material objects God objects must would if exist. not there were His not, perception so of the most properties of Summary and Analysis Sixth Meditation, Part 2: Mind-body dualism body as a reasonably goodsatisfied. guess, his argument from the senses will ultimately leave him we can conceive of body as existingphysical and explanation of being of essentially the extended and universe.should build be up If an no entire reason this to explanation question is the assumption satisfying that and body exists complete, and there is essentially extended.

34 in the Second Meditation, as there the sum res cogitans Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. The discussion of sensory perceptions as being "caused" by some outside source marks The Meditator next considers those ideas about body that he perceives only confusedly This sharp distinction between mind and body is called "mind-body dualism" and has or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form an important turning pointdistinguished from in the world the of bodies historyhave around nothing it. of in The Western common, Meditator philosophy. argues so thatout they mind that must and The Clark body be mind Kent two totally andargue is distinct Superman by sharply substances. are analogy very that We could dissimilar mindsame point and and thing. are body However, even yet might the the beessentially primary extended, same two attributes whereas very thing, of mind mind different is and non-extended and ways so andare body of essentially totally are thinking. looking different, different. Since at the the Body the Meditator two step is concludes beyond that what he is is only stated mind, by and the not body. This is a Summary and Analysis Analysis This section concludes the Meditator’sof argument body. by Sensory means perceptions of must theor either senses be something created for else, by the the or existence Meditatorof by himself, creating God. by these someone perceptions, The andit Meditator they come would can upon be rule him inconceivable himself so thatenough out forcefully that he and since sensory could involuntarily perceptions he that be have is some thehis not outside sensory creative cause. aware perceptions force are He behind caused is by them. naturallynot things inclined a that deceiver, to This he resemble think must is those not perceptions. proof he be Since fooling concludes, him God bodies in is giving must him bebe this refined something natural by inclination. like the what Therefore, distinction they betweensection. primary seem and to secondary be. qualities discussed This in the conclusion next will material objects is confused andbut he obscure, can so at his least perception be of certain of them those might properties not that be he perceives perfect, and clearly obscurely, and hoping distinctly. that hisFirst, knowledge he that reasons God that is he notanything. must a have deceiver Further, a will mind body, help and as himthe nature body further. body teaches are like that intermingled a to to him sailor formintellectual more in one understanding. vividly a unit. than ship, Instead, he If hemind feels would the itself be these mind were sensations able were suffering. sharply to in The and perceivesensations confused pains result directly modes precisely and as of because hungers if thinking the mind that by his andsurvey arise purely body the with are matter respect intermingled disinterestedly. and to the these mind cannot Meditator asserts that he onlyonly knows a that thinking he thing. is a thinking thing. Now he knowshad that tremendous he impact is on Western philosophy ever since. If sensory experience is in the

35 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. But we often make mistakes even with regard to what is harmful to us. For instance, a or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Summary Though the Meditator canthere reach are conclusions about other his bodiescertain own which claims body about are and material the also thingsclaim source he conclude that is the that of not heat, his color, justified andas many in taste it making. sensory that is he perceptions, For present perceives instance, to resides thereseek he in his out are cannot that senses. pleasure object and in Nature, avoid theconclusions pain, as same about among the way other material combination things, objects of but basedin mind it solely such and does matters on body, not depends sensory teaches teach on perception. us the usto intellect to to infer Correct alone draw from judgment and any the not the sensationreside senses. of in the heat It flame would or itself. be pain unreasonable The inas fact of to approaching the what a matter is flame is beneficial that that the anddistinct. the senses what Our are heat is mistake meant or harmful, comes only in the to and expecting inform in pain themof us also that the to respect things inform we they us are are of perceiving, the perfectly when trueregard. clear nature they and or can essence only give us very obscure information in this sick person may crave foodbegin or answering water this even objection, ifindivisible. food the or While Meditator we water notes can will break that only extendedway while things make be into body him divided smaller sicker. is up. parts, the divisible, To the There mind mind can are will, in is different the no faculties such intellect, ofimagines, etc., the it but mind: is these the the are imagination,totally whole not the indivisible mind different senses, and that parts bodies imagines, of cantwo and the be very not mind. easily distinct some divided, things. part When it Further, of the is there it. clear mind is that only Since the a the mind small and mind part body is of are the body that can affect the Summary and Analysis Sixth Meditation, Part 3: Primary and secondary qual- ities mind and the bodies that causethe our sensations two are can in causally the world, interact.been the a question What arises great is as concern to the in how connectionMalebranche, particular between for Spinoza, mind the and and rationalist world? philosophers Leibnizof that being This mind followed the has Descartes– in most general important–asthe ever since. mind well becomes as When conceived for thethe of philosophy mind world as and except being the through trapped world acommentary within to are causal the the held interface Second body, as at Meditation, unable Part the totallydualism 2, to has sensory distinct, the know only causal surfaces. about begun interface to generated As by be mentioned mind-body questioned in in the the past hundred years.

36 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. There are two major conflicting interpretations of how Descartes views the ontology of Here it might be useful to draw a distinction between sensory and intellectual perception. The Meditator concludes that, on the whole, he can be quite certain of things that he had or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Sensory perception is perception usingthe the understanding. imagination, In while discussing intellectual a thousand-sided perceptionconcluded figure that uses the in imagination the can Sixth only give Meditation, us Partof a 1, confused geometrical and we obscure figures visual whereas representation theno intellect matter could how clearly many and sides distinctly itbody perceive has. the as figure Similarly, they the all intellectsecondary relate can qualities to grasp the extension. from primary the qualities However,thinking imagination. of there of the is I visual no appearance cannot clear of easily way red. think that of we the can color divorce secondary red qualities. without One is called sensationalism, andexclusively suggests in that secondary the qualities exist mind and notanything in in the any corporeal way world, in according bodies. toby this Secondary things interpretation, qualities though in do they the may not be world. represent caused Sensationalism seems then to imply that when one perceives red, Summary and Analysis Analysis Descartes draws an important distinction between properties suchthe as one heat, hand, color, and and taste size, on shape,while and the texture on former the are other secondary hand:primary qualities. qualities the latter of The are a Meditator primary body qualities cangeometric since be qualities he certain and can with relate clearly to regard andessence. the to distinctly On extension the perceive the of them. other a hand, They the bodybecause Meditator are in can they all often space, are be which non-geometric misled and connects regarding secondary can with qualities only its be perceived obscurely and confusedly. mind. In Descartes’ day, it wassense, thought which that the sends pineal all glandonly sensory was the the pineal perceptions seat gland to of can the send thepart "common" messages mind. of from the the body Thus, body to the thethese must mind. transmissions Meditator then must A concludes, be sensation take transmitted in place another of through by expression. the means of body All nervous these to signals factssending the that the combine pineal have right to a gland. message suggest limited to that range Further, the sometimes mind. the body is incapable of cast into doubt in the First Meditation.get around The senses in are the normally world, quite adequatewith and in when our helping in us intellect doubt, or wethe our can doubt double-check memory. our presented sensory The in perceptions through Meditator the memory also Dream to notes Argument. all thatdisconnected other our Any and waking memory somewhat waking experiences, random can experience whereas manner. dispel cansafe in Since from be God dreams, erroneous is connected things judgment not as happen a long deceiver, in as the a he Meditator applies is her mind carefully.

37 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. The other interpretation is called physicalism, and suggests that secondary qualities exist We should note that sensationalist and physicalist agree that secondary qualities do not We have already explained how we can use the imagination to have a sensory perception Descartes concludes by giving a rather interesting account as to why our senses can go or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Summary and Analysis the mind is, in some sense,we red. are to This make claim sense sounds of very odd it. and it is not entirely clearboth how in bodies and inthemselves the in mind, bodies but as in surfacecalling textures very a surface which different texture a reflect color, ways. but light. the thrust Colors, ofqualities We the for physicalist might are argument is instance, feel not present that manifest uncomfortable secondary inthat the these bodies surface themselves. textures are what Rather, cause the color physicalist sensations argument to be suggests present inreside the in mind. material objects,objects. but that The they debate also issensationalist agree over that wants what secondary to precisely we qualities say are"red" are that is to caused "red" a call by is surface the texture. a color, sensation taste, and sound, etc. the physicalist The wantsof to a primary say quality and that the intellect toFurther, we have an know how intellectual we perception can of use the the imagination primary toquality. quality. have a The sensory question perception remains, of a however, secondary as toquality what would consist an in. intellectual perception A of physicalist would a suggestin secondary that the perceiving intellectual perception the consists surface textureindirect of and objects. confused understanding Thistexture of kind is the the of secondary cause perception of qualities cansensationalist secondary themselves would only qualities, suggest since give but that us surface not we an mind, the could though it understand secondary is less a qualities clear sensation themselves. how anature as sensationalist of A would being secondary account a for qualities. the mode confused of and obscure the wrong. Our intellect and our willequipped are for meant to this judge task. what is Ourand true senses, and thus however, false, are are and only they not are meant equipped well what to for the help accurate world us judgment. is get like, by The butnature in we senses of the should can body. world, not give That use us is them good a as clues a task as tool best for to left pursuing to the the truth intellect. about the

38 cogito is not confirmed at all cogito a "clear and distinct perception," but then but that doesn’t mean it brings me closer to an cogito cogito, Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. is meant as an intuition rather than an inference. Part of the puzzle Meditations. cogito ? STUDY QUESTIONS cogito or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form 1. In thea First universal dream Meditation, or doessuggesting the the that universal all Meditator life possibility might want of beat to one dreaming? any big given suggest dream In moment or the for other simply all possibility that words, we weThere of is is know? could no be he definite answer dreaming to this question,interpretation and more it is consistent debated among with interpreters. Descartes’dreaming. Perhaps wider the We could project see this is idea, this the measurereliance of universal doubt, on possibility as meant the of to question senses the without Aristotelian were doing suggesting away the possibility with of knowledge a and universal dream,a the the great world Meditator would altogether. deal be more sweeping If away than he follows just the Aristotelian Dream epistemology. Argument seems Also,that to we the can rely Painter’s Analogy derive on images which thefully from, fact abandoned which the that would notion there suggest of are to a things material us world. that in the this Meditator world has2. not yet What stops thethe doubt of the First Meditation? WhatThis kind crucial of question reasoning is supports infuriatingly"I difficult think, to therefore I answer. am" WhileAfter is the easy all, classic to it read formulation comes as of atMore a a likely, syllogism, time the that when reading the is Meditator probably has inaccurate. cast even rational thought into doubt. understanding of my mind every time.that It I just exist. reinforces the same But one perhaps piece of Descartes knowledge– is not thinking of items of knowledge when he says Study Questions lies in the fact that the Meditator calls the 3. Whatsucceed? does the Wax ArgumentThe show? Wax Argument What isdoes is meant so by it to suggesting meant show thatperception everything that to "I" rather the know than show? about through mind bodies the "I" is senses. Does know better through it Since intellectual known every than act of the thought body. reinforces the It goes on to suggest that wehave can established only that be certain God of exists. ouruntil clear a If and bit that distinct later perceptions is in once the the we case, then the that also suggests thatunderstanding "I" my own am mind. a We might thinkingEvery question act thing, how of accurate thought every this may assessment act reinforce is, the of however. thought brings me closer to

39 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Study Questions that the mind ismore better distinctly, and known a than constant reinforcement thedistinct of body. the knowledge. mind’s existence Perhaps might help he to simply give the means that it is4. known Explain and analyze theing? Cartesian Circle. Is Descartes guilty of circular reason- 5. Explain the distinctionwhat kind between of formal reality? and objective reality. What things have 6. Analyze and evaluate the twoIs proofs one of more God’s existence. convincing Howproofs? than are they Do the different? they other? do different Why work did for Descartes him? think he7. needed two Explain the relationshiphow between it intellect is and possible will, that according we to err. Descartes, and 8. Does Descartesand give divine a creator? satisfactoryunnecessary Are and account less Descartes’ of than arguments perfect human that convincing, error, God or created given us does a with it perfect flaws? 9. still How seem do mind anddoes body the interact? mind affect How the does body? the body affect the mind?10. And how Explain the distinctionperceive between them primary and what and kind secondary of qualities. knowledge do How we do have we of them?

40 ? Meditations ? cogito Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. REVIEW AND RESOURCES A. Visual perception B. Clear and distinct perception C. Obscure and confused perception D. Imagination A. A piece of wax B. A painting C. A chimera D. A fishing line A. He exists B. He is a thinking thing C. God exists D. He knows his mind better than he knows his body A. I think I walk, thereforeB. I I am think I walk, thereforeC. I I walk walk, therefore I am D. I walk, therefore I walk A. The Meditator might beB. dreaming The Meditator might be deceivedC. by The God Meditator might be mad D. The Meditator might be deceived by an evil demon or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form 5. What’s the most certain kind of perception? 4. Which of the following is not used in an example in the 3. Which of theMeditation? following is the Meditator NOT sure of by the end of the Second 2. Which of the following is a version of the Quiz 1. Which of the following is NOT accepted as a rational doubt? Review and Resources

41 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. A. A primary attribute B. A substance C. An omni-generic attribute D. A mode A. A turtle B. The fear of God C. The color red D. Temperature A. A turtle B. The fear of God C. The idea of a turtleD. The idea of the idea of God A. Infinite objective reality B. Modal formal reality C. Finite formal reality D. Modal objective reality A. Modal objective reality B. Infinite formal reality C. Infinite objective reality D. Finite formal reality A. Finite formal reality B. Finite objective reality C. Modal objective reality D. Modal formal reality or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form 11. What kind of thing is the color red? 10. Which has the most formal reality? 9. Which has the most objective reality? 8. What kind of reality does the idea of dogs have? Review and Resources 7. What kind of reality does the idea of God have? 6. What kind of reality does a rock have?

42 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. A. The imagination and theB. senses The will and the understanding C. The imagination and the will D. The understanding and the senses A. Clear and distinct perceptionsB. are God true exists because because God I exists clearlyC. and Help! distinctly We’re perceive caught it inD. circular Descartes reasoning! never made a slip in his reasoning A. Redness B. Imagination C. A pebble D. Sweetness A. Body B. Color C. God D. Mind A. Thought B. Understanding C. Extension D. The will A. A primary attribute B. A substance C. An omni-generic attribute D. A mode or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form 17. What faculties combined are responsible for human error? 16. Which of the following is NOT true? 15. Which of the following is NOT a mode? 14. Which of the following is NOT a substance? Review and Resources 13. What is the primary attribute of mind? 12. What kind of thing is duration?

43 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. A. They have colors B. They are perceptible C. They can be imagined D. They are extended A. Through the brain B. Through the pineal gland C. The two cannot reach oneD. Through another the nervous system A. Size B. Shape C. Sound D. Width A. Size B. Color C. Taste D. Heat A. Existence B. Extension C. Thought D. Cookies A. God is deceiving us B. We pass judgment on thingsC. we Our do understanding not is understand flawed D. Our will is not free or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form 23. What do all bodies have in common? 22. How does the body contact the mind? 21. Which of the following is a secondary quality? 20. Which of the following is a primary quality? Review and Resources 19. Which is an essential property of God’s? 18. Why do we make mistakes?

44 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. A. To lead us toward theB. truth To help us get byC. in To the deceive us world D. To perceive secondary qualities A. Empty space B. Geometrical space C. Liquid nitrogen D. None of the above or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Review and Resources 25. What is the purpose of the senses? 24. Which of the following is NOT body?

45 :B :D :D :B 22 23 24 25 :C :D :B :B :A :A :C 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. :A :D :C :A :B :B :B 10 11 12 13 14 9 8 or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. :C :A :C :D :B :A :C All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Review and Resources Answer Key: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

46 Trans. John Cotting- Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc., Copyright 2002 by SparkNotes LLC. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986. Descartes. A History of Western Philosophy. The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy. The Philosophical Writings of Descartes, Volume II. or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, any file sharing system, or any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of SparkNotes LLC. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, or distributed in any form Review and Resources Bibliography Audi, Robert, Ed. versity Press, 1997. Cottingham, John. Descartes, René. ham, Robert Stoothoff, and1984. Dugald Murdoch. Cambridge: CambridgeRussell, University Bertrand. Press, 1972.