Table of Contents

Contexts Representation 3 Contexts – Key Questions 42 Key Questions 43 Stereotyping 44 Gender Stereotypes

& The Representation of Women Media Language 45 Feminism & Objectification Part 1: How are Media Texts constructed? 46 Feminist Theories 4 Media Language – Key Questions 47 Representations of Men 5 What are media texts? 48 Gender Representation – Timeline 6 Mise‐en‐scène* 50 Representation of Rich/Poor 7 Composition 51 Representations of Race/Ethnicity 8 Audio Codes 53 Representation of Age 9 Technical Codes 53 Representation of Issues/Events 11 Camera Movement 55 News values 12 Editing 56 Political Ideologies 13 Anchorage & Cropping 57 Representation – Revision Questions 14 Film Poster Layout 16 Print Advert Layout 18 Webpage Layout 19 Newspaper Layout

20 Broadsheet vs Tabloid 21 Magazine Layout 24 Typography (fonts) 25 Lexical/Verbal Codes (Words) 26 Narrative Codes

28 Propp’s Narratology 31 Genre – Codes & Conventions 33 Intertextuality

Part 2: WHY are they constructed in these ways? 34 Introduction to Semiotics 35 Connotations & Meaning 36 Dominant Ideologies 39 Audience Appeal/Uses & Gratification 40 Media Language – Revision Questions

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Audiences Media Industries Part 1: Audience Targeting 77Key Questions 58 Audiences – Key Questions 78 The Production Process 59 Introduction to Audiences 78 Brand Identity 60 Demographics* 79 Production Values 61 Mass/niche audiences 80 Traditional vs New Media 61 NRS Social Grades 81 Corporate vs Independent Media 62 Psychographics/The 4cs 82 Commercial Media 63 How do media texts target different 83 Public Service Broadcasters audiences 64 Technological Changes 83 Regional/National/Global Media 85 Media Power 86 Media Regulation Part 2: Audience Appeal 87 UK Regulators 65 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 89 Difficulties in Regulation 66 Uses and Gratifications theory 90 Industry ‐ Revision Questions 68 Cultural Capital/Cult of Celebrity 69 Dyer’s Utopian Solutions 65 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 67‐68 Uses and Gratifications theory *Content in bold is essential to revise

Part 3: Audience Responses 70 Media effects (active and passive) 70 Hypodermic needle theory 71 Bandura & media effects 73 Two Step Flow theory 73 Gerbner’s Cultivation theory 74 Reception theory 75 Pick and mix theory 75 Participation Culture 75 Audiences ‐ Revision Questions

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Contexts When analysing contexts, you need to ask: WHAT was happening at the time (and place) the text was made? Historical Context:  When was the text produced?  What was happening at this time?

Social and Cultural  Where was the text produced (what nationality/society/culture Context: does it belong to)?  What views or opinions were prominent in the culture at this time?

Political context:  What political debates were taking place during the time of the text’s production?  What rules and regulations may have affected the text or its industry?

HOW has this affected the text? Historical Context:  How have historical events affected the way the text has been constructed (put together)?  How has the text been influenced by other texts? If we compare it to other texts made at the time, how typical is: o its use of media language (e.g. considering fashions and technological limitations of the time) o the way(s) in which it represents particular groups or subjects o its themes, values, messages and viewpoints o the ways in which it has been distributed, marketed, regulated, circulated and consumed by audiences?

Social and Cultural  What views or opinions of this culture can we see being presented Context: in this text?  How are these views or opinions made clear through the text’s use of media language?  How typical are these views in this society/culture?

Political context:  How does the text reflect political debates in its representations, themes, values, messages and viewpoints?  How does the text reflect these debates in terms of its ownership, production, distribution, marketing, regulation, circulation and audience consumption?

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Media Language When analysing media language, you need to ask: HOW has the text been constructed (put‐together)?

Selection &  What elements have been included in the text (what do you see/hear)? Omission:  Has anything been purposefully omitted/excluded/left out? Intertextuality:  Does the text make any intertextual references (to other media texts)? Realism:  Is the text trying to be realistic (to increase verisimilitude)? Narrative  Does the text feature any Proppian character types (heroes and villains conventions: etc.)?  Does it follow the narrative conventions of any other theorist (Todorov or Barthes, for example)?

Genre  What genre (or sub‐genre) does the text belong to? conventions:  Is it typical of this genre? Does it follow established conventions?  Does it blend elements of more than one genre (is it a hybrid genre)?  In what ways does the text adapt/change/subvert established genre conventions?

Context:  Is the text’s style typical of others of its time period? Technology  How have changes in technology affected the text’s style/production?

WHY has it been constructed in this way? OR: WHY have specific elements been included and/or excluded/omitted? & How does this affect the text’s meaning?

Messages and  What does it connote or signify? Values:  What is the text’s message (or messages)?

 What does it suggest about the producer’s likely opinion or viewpoint (or attitudes of the culture/time‐period in which it was produced)?

 What does it position the audience to think or feel (particularly: about the text, certain people or an issue/event)?

 Why may it appeal to the audience?

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DESCRIBING MEDIA LANGUAGE HOW are media texts constructed?

What is “media”?  Media is plural for “medium” (a medium is a form of communication, e.g. ‘television’ or ‘film’).

 During the course we will study the following mediums (or media platforms): television, radio, film, magazines, newspapers, video games and the internet.

 Media is created by producers who work in media industries – like the television industry. It is produced for audiences to consume (whether by watching, reading, playing or listening).

What is a “media text”?  In Media Studies, a text refers to a media product.

 Examples of media texts/products are:

o Television programmes (e.g. Luther) o Music videos (e.g. Bad Blood) o Films (and their marketing) (e.g. Spectre) o Magazines (e.g. GQ magazine) o Newspapers (e.g. The Guardian) o Video/computer games (e.g. Fortnite) o Websites (e.g. www.taylorswift.com)

 A “media text” is not to be confused by what is meant by “text” in English. Words are only a small part of what we study in this subject. Whereas literary texts communicate through words, media texts communicate through images, graphics, sounds and words, which are combined in many different and complex ways. These elements are what we refer to as media language (which is – essentially – everything we see, read and hear in a media text).

Media Codes:  A single element of media language can be referred to as a “code” – e.g. a television text will be constructed from various audio codes (e.g. music, dialogue and sound effects), visual codes (e.g. dress codes and non‐verbal codes), technical codes (e.g. the camera angles and movement) as well as various genre and narrative codes.

 In semiotic analysis (the study of signs), these codes are also referred to as signifiers or denotations (see page 34 for more details).

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Visual Codes

Mise‐en‐scène: The most essential visual code to study is a text’s mise‐en‐scène. This is not a single element, but refers to how various elements in an image (or scene) have been combined for effect.

Mise‐en‐scène refers to what you see onscreen or ‘how the scene has been arranged’, including the use of setting, lighting and costume.

Each element of the mise‐en‐scène is likely to have been carefully designed (often by teams of people) to communicate ideas to the audience.

Therefore, when analysing mise‐en‐scène, you need to consider how the following elements have been used to create meaning:

Setting The location of the scene, which often conveys important information about characters and events. Setting is also important to establish the mood or tone.

Costume & Props What people or characters wear (and what objects they hold) are important signifiers of their job, status (e.g. wealth & power) and values.

Non‐verbal codes Facial expressions and gestures often convey a character’s actions or feelings (e.g. that a character is happy, sad, angry or jealous). or gesture codes

Colour/Colour scheme Colours are often chosen to set a particular mood, appeal to a certain audience or symbolise a specific topic or theme. Some texts have a colour scheme, where only certain colours are used for effect or to represent an idea (e.g. green to represent nature).

Lighting Lighting sets a mood. Low key lighting (dark/lots of shadow) can create a moody atmosphere, while high key lighting (bright/lively) can make the scene appear fresh and upbeat. Producers can also choose to use natural lighting (daylight) or artificial lighting (electric/indoor light) to create particular effects.

Terminology in Use (mise‐en‐scène):

The poster’s mise-en-scène clearly communicates ideas associated with male power. For example, Bond is wearing a suit. This dress code connotes wealth and dominance. This idea is furthered by his expression, which is calm and emotionless (despite the chaos that surrounds him), a non-verbal code which signifies his confidence.

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Composition: Composition refers to the way the different elements of a text have been arranged/put together for effect.

As well as selecting various elements (e.g. images and words) to create meaning, producers can compose texts uniquely by the way they combine these elements.

A film director may choose to dress a male character in a suit to signify his wealth and power. However, if this character is sat in an office, which appears overwhelmingly large and monotonous, then he may appear small and insignificant.

Foreground/Background: One way to give specific elements prominence is by placing them closer to the camera.

We refer to the part of the image which is closest to the viewer as the foreground, while the background is the part that is farthest away, e.g. a person in the foreground standing in front of a burning car, which is in the background.

Juxtaposition: Another way that producers can compose images to create meaning is by putting together (or ‘juxtaposing’) contrasting elements.

For instance, the image on the right juxtaposes a nuclear explosion with a tree. This juxtaposition could emphasise the contrast between nature and atomic weapons, with their visual similarity at odds to their different impacts on the world.

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Audio Codes

Sound (audio codes): As well as images, many media texts (such as TV and film) rely heavily on the following audio codes:

Sound which exists in the characters’ world, which they can hear (e.g. Diegetic* sound speech, the sound of explosions etc.)

Sound that has been added, which is not in the characters’ world and Non‐diegetic sound which they cannot hear (e.g. voice over and non‐diegetic music).

Parallel sound Sound that complements the actions onscreen.

Sound that is produced in the world of the text but the audience cannot Asynchronous sound see it being created (e.g. footsteps when we cannot see the person walking).

A person who talks over the images, usually narrating or contributing to the Voiceover story.

Sound that is in contrast to what we see onscreen (for instance tense Contrapuntal sound music over a scene of celebration).

The music or voiceover can anchor the (emotional) meaning of a scene Anchorage (e.g. melancholic music played over scenes of children playing).

Where the sound of the next scene is played over the shot of the Sound bridge preceding scene (we hear the action before we see it). This creates a sense of continuity.

* The word “diegesis” refers to the fictional world created in the media text, which the characters inhabit.

 non‐diegetic music can be described using the following words/phrases:

 Soft, gentle, upbeat, frantic/up‐tempo/fast, loud, celebratory, triumphant music etc.  Downbeat, sinister, eerie, moody, foreboding, tense/intense, melancholic (sad) music etc.  Electronic/piano/string/guitar/orchestral music or rock/punk/reggae/hip‐hop music etc.

Terminology in Use (audio codes):

The non-diegetic voiceover anchors the meaning of the black and white images. The audience is meant to feel sorry for the animals. The advert also makes use of contrapuntal sound towards the end, when the melancholic non-diegetic piano music plays over images of smiling faces – encouraging the audience to build an emotional connection to the animals and care for their wellbeing.

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Technical Codes

Camera angles/frames: These refer to the way the camera has been positioned to capture a scene.

NAME OF SHOT DESCRIPTION USEFUL FOR…

Long shot (LS)  Establishing the setting/ or Wide Shot (WS) setting the scene (often used as an  Showing action ‘Establishing shot’) A wide view of the scene

 Showing people talking Mid shot (MS)  Showing a single person’s actions

Shot from the waist up

 Showing emotions or Close up (CU) reactions  Showing key objects or drawing the audience’s attention to details Closed in on the face

Extreme close up  Building tension (XCU)  Showing important details

Focus on small objects e.g. eyes

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 Conversations (which Over‐the‐shoulder usually cut back and forth between two opposite shot (OSS) OSS shots in what is called “shot‐reverse‐shot”) Camera is positioned over someone’s shoulder

 Showing a character is Low angle shot powerful, dangerous or important

Looking up at the subject

 Showing a character is weak, inferior or High angle shot vulnerable  Signifying freedom (when used with a crane shot) Looking down on the subject

Canted angle  Suggesting that (also known as tilting something is wrong or “Dutch angle”)  Creating a sense of drama Camera is tilted to one side

 Creating tension Point‐of‐view (POV) (especially when we don’t shot know whose eyes we are looking through) Shown through a character’s eyes

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Camera Movement:

When the camera sweeps (or appears to sweep) across a scene. This effect is Pan usually created by swivelling the camera on a fixed tripod.

Although not technically a camera movement, zooming can give the Zoom appearance of movement as the focal length of the lens is altered, giving the illusion of moving closer or further away from the action.

When the camera is moving on wheels. This motion often gives a scene a sense Dolly shot of energy.

When the dolly is mounted on rails and is tracking the action, as if on a moving Tracking shot train.

Steadicam Camera is attached to the operator and moves smoothly amid the action.

Hand‐held Shaky use of camera (realism or documentary style).

Camera moves high above the action or from a high point towards the Crane shot characters to give an idea where the characters are.

Aerial shot Camera shoots from a helicopter/drone to give a very wide view of the setting.

 Terminology in Use (camera angles/movement) 

 A tracking shot is used to follow the men as they run down the street, which gives the scene a sense of energy.  The scene makes use of hand-held camera to make it appear more naturalistic.  A low angle shot is used to emphasise the man’s strength and power.  We see a close up of…

 Terminology in Use (editing techniques) 

The scene cross-cuts between the bank robbers and the police-officer strolling towards the building, unaware of what is happening inside. The pace of the cuts becomes more rapid towards the end of the scene as the tension builds – juxtaposing the panicked faces of the robbers and the calm face of the police officer as she gets closer to finding them.

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Editing Techniques: Editing refers to the ways camera shots can be put together to create effects.

Cut: Going from one shot to another, changing perspective, advancing the shot.

Cutting on action: Cutting from one shot to another, while the subject is still in motion.

Cutting to an insert shot of something (e.g. something the character is looking Cut away: at or thinking about) and then back to the character.

Cross‐cutting: Cutting back and forth between two locations.

When the editor cuts between the same shot, which is either used to show Jump cut: the passing of time or to add a sense of urgency to the scene.

Cuts from one shot to a similar shot by either matching the action or the Match‐cut: composition (sometimes referred to as a “graphic match cut”).

Fade in/out: The shot dissolves to or from black.

Dissolve: Blends one shot into another. Can represent a passing of time.

Abrupt transition between two shots (e.g. waking up from a dream or Smash cut: nightmare).

Iris: A stylistic use of vignettes. The image appears as a circle in a screen of black.

Wipe: One shot “wipes” over another.

A cut is hidden by passing through black or as part of a “whip‐pan”, giving the Invisible cut: impression of a single shot.

L‐cut: When the audio from one shot carries through to the next.

J‐cut: When the audience hears the audio for the next shot, before they see it.

A collection of shots edited together, usually from different times and places Montage: (and usually accompanied by music) that create an idea or tell a story.

The placing of (sometimes contrasting) shots together to create meaning, e.g. Juxtaposition: juxtaposing shots of warfare and grinning politicians creates specific meaning.

Cuts are used sparingly and single shots are onscreen for a reasonable length Slow cutting: of time. This gives a sense of calm and stillness to the scene. It can also build up tension (as the audience may expect something to break the calm).

Cuts are frequent and shots are therefore onscreen for a very short period of Rapid cutting: time (sometimes less than a second). This creates a sense of energy, action and excitement.

Shot reverse shot: Usually used for conversations, this is a film technique where one character is or shown looking at another character (often off‐screen), and then the other character is shown looking back at the first character. shot/countershot:

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Anchorage: Sometimes the words (or sounds) that accompany an image fix a specific meaning to it.

This is called anchorage (fixing a meaning to an image/group of images).

Images without an anchor are polysemic (open for the audience to interpret as they wish).

Voice‐overs, captions (words placed beneath images to describe them) and music can anchor particular meanings to images – encouraging the audience to view them in specific ways.

For example, the two headlines below anchor different meanings to the same image of Trump.

Cropping: Cropping is the removal of unwanted outer areas from an image.

However (as can be seen in the example on the right), an image can be cropped to focus readers’ attention onto a particular part of the image and can even distort or mischaracterise the person or event that the image captures.

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Film Poster Layout: Portrait format:

Landscape format:

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Title: The name of the film.

Image (or central image): Provides information such as: (This can also be a  Who stars in the film composite image – made  Its genre (and tone) up of different images)  What the film is about/What happens in it/Its narrative It also needs to appeal to and entice audiences.

A film’s advertising slogan. It should give a quick and catchy insight Tag‐line: into the film’s themes and tone. This can add prestige to the production – a logo is a sign of quality.

Film company logo: Some companies are also associated with particular kinds of films (e.g. Pixar or Dreamworks). Credits: Emphasises the film’s biggest stars (actors and directors). Informs audiences about when the film is out in cinemas (or on Release date: DVD/Blu‐ray).

Informs audiences about the main creative team behind the film. Credit block: Film credits are listed in a set order (see below), which begin with the film production company and end with the writer and director.

(You can create a similar looking credit‐block by using the Steel Tongs font)

Terminology in Use (cropping/anchorage/film poster layout)

The poster’s central image is of a man holding a match. By cropping the image around his face, the audience is directed to see his concerned facial expression. The poster’s tag-line ‘someone is missing’ anchors the meaning of this image, encouraging us to think that he is trying to solve the mystery and find the missing person. It also encourages the audience to think that the film is tense and suspenseful, which is furthered by...

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Print Advert Layout:

Image (or graphic)

heading*

*sometimes accompanied by a sub‐heading

Usually the largest font on an advert. A short phrase which sums up the promotion or product. Heading: Dramatic and provocative headings are usually used to grab the audience’s attention and appeal to their desires.

Sub‐heading: Smaller headings which usually summarise the copy (writing) beneath it.

Copy: Words/sentences written into paragraphs.

Image: Used to grab the audience’s attention or appeal to their desires.

Graphic: An illustration used in an advert.

Slogan: A short and striking (memorable) phrase used in adverts e.g. “Just do it”

The rule of thirds is a simple technique where designers divide their designs up Rule of thirds: into three rows and three columns. At the points where the vertical and horizontal lines meet is where key focal points should be.

Most adverts contain web‐addresses to encourage audiences to visit their URL: websites and find out more information.

The idea that a viewer’s eye will move across an advert following a Z shape Z‐Line (from top left to right before moving diagonally to the bottom left to right). This (or Z‐Pattern is why many advertisers put key information in the top left and bottom right Advertising): corners – where the eye starts and finishes.

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Advertising Techniques: Advertisers have a range of different techniques they can draw on:

Technique Description

These are designed to be memorable or relate to something important about Slogans the product. They are often a play on words. Some famous slogans are "Just Do It" (Nike), or "Live in Your World, Play in Ours" (Sony PlayStation).

A unique and recognisable symbol which represents the product. Like the Nike Logo ‘swoosh’ or the Apple logo.

Advertisers often use celebrities to endorse products, such as David Beckham promoting Adidas or Gillette products. These types of ads can be much more Endorsement expensive to produce. Ordinary people are often used to endorse everyday goods like washing up liquid.

USP The element of the product that makes it unique or special, e.g. a 'special ingredient'. This could be the 'snap, crackle and pop' used to promote Rice (Unique Selling Krispies or the secret chicken recipe used to market KFC fast food. Point)

The 'Hard Sell' is short, loud and concise ‐ telling you the price of the product Hard sell and why you need it ‐ with as little information as possible.

The 'Soft Sell' promotes the product with an associated lifestyle or a mysterious Soft sell story. This may have the audience wondering what the product is, right up until the final image. This technique is often used in ads for perfume or aftershave.

Defining the product through an icon – making the product design distinct to Icons such a degree that it is so recognisable it almost sells itself, like a can of Coca‐ Cola or a bar of Toblerone.

Product Showing the audience how the product works. This is often used in adverts for demonstration cleaning products or makeup.

This is usually in the form of hyperbole (exaggerated language), to make the Persuasive product seem more effective or desirable than it really is. For example: language "Gillette: The best a man can get" (See page 25 for more details).

How the advert, as a media text, speaks to us. This could be a celebrity Mode of address appearing to speak to us directly as Ewan McGregor does in an advert for Unicef.

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Web‐page Layout:

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Newspaper layout:

Key newspaper terms:

The title of the newspaper. The masthead can communicate some of the paper’s values. Mastheads with traditional, serif fonts and a royal crest tend to Masthead be more conservative (supporting right‐wing views), for instance The Daily Mirror and The Times.

Sometimes referred to as “the splash” (the paper’s main story) when used on the front page. A headline is a phrase that captures the essence of a story Headline while often provoking an emotional reaction. It usually grabs the reader’s attention by using puns, exclamations, imperatives, well known phrases, intertextual references, hyperbole and direct address.

Tabloids tend to have a higher image‐to‐text ratio; however, every paper will Image use images to help tell their stories.

Caption A brief explanation placed below an image which helps anchor its meaning.

‘Copy’ refers to writing – the words that make up a story. Broadsheets tend to Copy produce/print more copy than tabloids.

Puff A graphic that has a promotion or offer.

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Broadsheet vs. Tabloid (the generic conventions of newspapers): Put simply – tabloid newspapers use smaller pages than broadsheets. However, these terms also refer to the style of the newspapers. While many broadsheet newspapers have now changed their size to a tabloid or compact format (so they can be read more easily – for instance, on public transport), they still retain the characteristics of broadsheet newspapers.

Tabloids Broadsheet (e.g. The Daily Mail, The Sun and The Daily (and former broadsheets include: The Daily Mirror) Telegraph, The Times and The Guardian)

This is typical of a tabloid/broadsheet newspaper in that it features…  A smaller page/paper size  A larger page/paper size  Pages dominated by images  Pages dominated by words (copy)  Shorter paragraphs  Longer paragraphs  Simple/informal language/slang  Formal/sophisticated language  Short and dramatic stories  Longer/more in‐depth stories  Emotive and dramatic headlines (which  More informative headlines are more likely to use puns, jokes or  Formal, factual, informative language humour)  More focus on national, international and  Sensational, exaggerated and emotive political news language  Emphasis on quality news rather than  More focus on entertainment and special offers. celebrity gossip  An attempt to be more objective in its  More entertainment – articles/headlines quizzes/offers/games  More subtle bias  More opinionated articles/headlines  Clearer bias Broadsheets tend to have a higher cover price/lower circulation (broadsheets are less Tabloids also tend to have a lower price/higher popular than tabloids) circulation (tabloids are more popular than broadsheets)

The term "red tops" refers to British tabloids with red mastheads, such as The Red Top Sun, the Daily Star, the Daily Mirror, the Daily Record and the Daily Sport. These tend to be tabloid in style and format.

Terminology in Use (newspapers)

The Sun’s headline on the eve of the European Referendum was “BeLEAVE in Britain”. This is typical for a tabloid newspaper in that it used a pun to entertain its audience. This headline is also clearly opinionated, encouraging its readers to vote to leave the EU. Tabloids such as The Sun often make such bias more obvious.

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Magazine Cover Layout:

The title of the magazine. Masthead Communicates a brand image to its audience.

A strapline sums up the essence of a brand or company e.g. “the UK’s best Strapline fashion magazine”.

The writing on the cover, describing the content of the magazine Cover lines and often containing teasers and rhetorical questions.

The largest cover line, which lets the reader know of this edition’s Main cover line biggest/most appealing feature.

Models on the front cover of the magazine are more likely to be looking directly into the camera. This can help build a connection with the Direct mode of audience. Research demonstrates that magazines which feature a direct address mode of address on their cover image tend to sell more copies than magazines which don’t.

The celebrity on the cover, e.g. Miley Cyrus has been the cover Cover star: star for Bazaar magazine.

This makes the magazine recognisable to its readers. The house style is House style established through the choice of colour, the layout and design, the font style, the content and the general 'look' of the publication.

The colours chosen for a magazine. Covers typically use only three colours Colour scheme at a time.

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Feature Article Layout: In magazines, the main (or one of the main) stories in an edition is called a feature article. Features are generally located in the middle of the magazine, and cover more than one or two pages.

[Standfirst]

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The largest font on the page. A good headline grabs the reader’s attention and Headline gives them an indication of the article’s content. Usually written beneath the headline, this is a brief introductory summary of Standfirst the article.

If an article could be broken up into sections, a sub‐heading can give an Sub‐heads/ indication of the content of these sections, e.g. ‘The original plan’, ‘What sub‐headings actually happened’, ‘The expert’s view’. A short quote/section from the article, which has been copied and printed in a larger font (this is usually something interesting, intriguing shocking or dramatic). Pull quote

Pull quotes can grab (or “pull”) a reader’s attention, while giving them a sense of what the article is about.

Terminology in Use (magazine layout):

The magazine’s main cover line informs readers that this edition contains a big feature on summer fashion. This may appeal to an audience who feels it is important to keep up-to-date with trends.

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Typography (Fonts):

Typography is the art of arranging type – particularly its design. Most of the time, it relates to choosing an appropriate font for a specific purpose.

Serif or sans‐serif? There are two main types of fonts:

Serif fonts tend to be easier to read in print and often look more traditional.

Sans‐serif fonts tend to be easier to read on screens and often look more ‘fresh’ and ‘modern’.

Adjectives & Key Phrases to describe fonts: You can also use a range of adjectives to describe fonts, for instance whether the font is:

 Formal/Informal  Bold  Creative  Traditional/Modern  Elegant  Cursive script (handwritten)  Feminine/Masculine  Exotic  Capitalised/All‐caps/Initial  Eroded/Degraded/Worn  Artistic caps/lowercase  Stencilled  Retro‐looking

Or you can use the following phrases to describe fonts:

 It looks like… (e.g. “It looks like it’s been moulded from clay”)  It looks as if… (e.g. “It looks as if it belongs on a tombstone”)  In the style of… (e.g. “In the style of a comic‐book”)

Terminology in Use (typography):

The newspaper uses a serif font for its masthead, which connotes tradition and formality.

The poster makes use of an artistic sans-serif font in the style of a comic book. This connotes artistry and creativity.

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Lexical/Verbal Codes (Words)

Of course, media texts also make use of lexis (words) to communicate meaning. While you can use any terms and concepts learned from English, please pay particular attention to the use of:

Lexical choice Specific words that have been chosen to create meaning.

Lexical field A group of words that relate to the same theme, topic or meaning.

Informal/Colloquial This is conversational language where the words used are less formal than language those in written speech.

Pun A play on words, e.g. I’ve Been Edam Fool.

Alliteration Repetition of the same letter at the start of the word.

Hyperbole Deliberate exaggeration.

Direct address Use of the pronoun “you”. Uses words that provokes an emotional response. e.g. The headline uses Emotive language emotive words such as “abandoned”, “flea‐infested” and “slum”. Exclamatives Sentences that shout out.

Superlatives Saying something is the best.

Comparatives Saying something is better than…

Rhetorical question A question asked for effect where no answer is expected. The specific language and vocabulary used to engage the audience. Subject‐specific lexis Subject‐specific lexis used on the front cover of a magazine will make the reader feel part of the group who belong to the world of that magazine. For example, terminology used on the front covers of gaming magazines.

Mode of Address: As well the specific language techniques above, media texts can use different modes of address (or ‘registers’) – they can ‘speak to’ their target audiences in various ways. For instance, they could use:

A direct mode of address An indirect mode of address OR speaking to “you” directly Speaking indirectly to “the readers”

A formal register/mode‐of‐address An informal register/mode‐of‐address OR using a formal tone & language Using an informal/conversational tone & language

A polite mode of address OR A hostile mode of address

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Narrative Codes

Narrative is another word for “story”.

A story is a sequence of events, which contains conflict. This can be:

 External conflict (conflict we can see – characters fighting/overcoming obstacles)  Internal conflict (conflict that is happening inside the character’s head/a dilemma ‐ should they or shouldn’t they?)

Most books on scriptwriting advise that narratives feature both types of conflict. While characters are trying to resolve the external conflict, there will be an arc of transformation (or character arc), which will see the character develop and transform (overcoming internal conflicts) as the story progresses.

Many ideas about stories have come from academics (people who study narratives and narratology), who have different theories about what the main elements of narrative are. Some of the most widely known theories are described below.

Todorov – Disequilibrium: Tzvetan Todorov suggested that all stories are based on a change from equilibrium (where everything is in order) to disequilibrium (or disruption) (chaos/disorder). This can also be described as stability versus instability. Eventually, the narrative is ordered into a new equilibrium.

Lévi‐Strauss – Binary oppositions: Claude Lévi Strauss identified that narratives are often drawn out of the conflict of oppositions (good vs. evil, strong vs. weak). He also argued that the way these conflicts are resolved communicates messages to the audience.

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Roland Barthes – Narrative Codes: Roland Barthes argued that narratives are constructed from various codes. The three most frequently used are:

Enigma Codes These are elements which set up a question or a mystery. (also known as Texts can often tease the audience with mysterious or unexplained Hermeneutic Codes) elements to draw them into the narrative (and which are later answered or resolved).

 Who killed Samuel Ratchett?  What happened last night? Why is there a tiger in the bathroom?  Who is Harry Potter?

Action Codes Any action initiated needs to be completed, setting up audience expectations (i.e. if a fight or battle is started ‐ someone will win). (also known as Proairetic Codes)

Semic Codes Semic codes communicate through creating connotations. The semic code can construct characters through signifiers such as name, costume, physical appearance, psychological traits, speech and lexis.

You may also wish to find out about what Barthes referred to as Symbolic Codes and Cultural Codes.

Propp’s ‘Spheres of Action’ (summary): Vladimir Propp analysed one hundred Russian folk tales and found an identical narrative structure in each of them. He identified spheres of action, where a character would appropriate specific roles to progress the story. See the next two pages for more details. The eight character roles and their spheres of action are:

The hero The character who seeks something.

The villain Who opposes the hero’s quest.

The donor Who gives the hero a magical property.

The dispatcher Sends the hero on his quest.

The false hero Disrupts the hero on his quest.

The helper Helps the hero.

The princess The hero’s reward (he gets to marry her at the end).

Her father Who rewards the hero at the end of his quest.

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Vladimir Propp’s Narratology:

Propp also broke the stories down into morphemes (analysable chunks) and identified 31 narratemes (narrative units) that comprised the structure of many of the stories.

As folk stories formed the basis of most modern stories, Propp's morphology is not only useful in understanding Russian folk tales but pretty much any other narrative. And, although this theory has been criticized for its lack of sensitivity to subtle story elements (such as mood and deeper context), his analysis provides a useful tool in understanding the structure of stories.

He identified that “five categories of elements define not only the construction of a tale, but the tale as a whole”.

Propp’s Five Categories of Elements 1. Dramatis Personae (or dramatic characters). These have been classified into eight separate broad character types, who inhabit specific spheres of action (where characters appropriate specific roles to progress the story). According to Propp these are: i. The Hero (who seeks something) ii. The Villain (who opposes the hero’s quest) iii. The Donor (who gives the hero a magical property) iv. The Dispatcher (who sends the hero on his quest) v. The False Hero (who disrupts the hero on his quest) vi. The Helper (who helps the hero) vii. The Princess (the Hero’s reward (he gets to marry her at the end)) viii. The Princess’s father (who rewards the hero at the end of his quest)

2. Conjunctive Elements (or joining elements). These include elements that connect one event to another in order to move the plot from one scenario to the next (e.g. someone gets lost, the victim stumbles into the Villain’s path etc.).

3. Character motivations (the reasons and aims of the characters). This attempts to explain the reasoning for certain actions carried out by the characters (e.g. revenge, love, absolution).

4. Forms of appearance of dramatic characters. The characters are introduced in ways that convey their personas, e.g. their shadow looming over the scene, arriving on the back of a dragon etc.

5. Attributive Elements/Accessories. These are items of importance that keep recurring in the story (e.g. a witch’s broomstick or a magic lamp).

While not all stories will contain all of Propp's narratemes, it is surprising to find stories that contain none at all. Many modern books, films and TV programmes fit nicely into his categories.

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Propp’s 31 Narratemes or “Spheres of Action” Here are the 31 story elements that Propp identified. Note that some of these functions generally occur in pairs (such as departure and return) and they may also be repeated. While few stories contain all elements, when they are used, they will often occur in the following sequence:

1st Sphere: Introduction Steps 1 to 7 introduces the story and most of the main characters, setting the scene for the adventure. 1. Someone goes missing (absentation) 2. The Hero is warned (interdiction) 3. The Hero ignores this warning (violation of interdiction) 4. The Villain seeks something (reconnaissance) 5. The Villain gains information that helps them (delivery) 6. The Villain attempts to deceive a Victim (trickery) 7. Unwittingly, the enemy is helped ( complicity)

2nd Sphere: The Body of the story The main story starts here and extends to the departure of the Hero on the main quest. 8. A problem/need to help is identified (Villainy and lack) 9. The Hero discovers the need to help (mediation) 10. The Hero chooses to act (counteraction) 11. The Hero leaves on their mission (departure)

3rd Sphere: The Donor Sequence In the third sphere, the Hero searches for a way to solve the problem, gaining help from the Donor (this in itself may be a complete story). 12. The Hero is challenged to prove heroic qualities (testing) 13. The Hero responds to this test (reaction) 14. The Hero gains a magical item or power (acquisition) 15. The Hero reaches their destination (guidance) 16. The Hero and Villain do battle (struggle) 17. The Hero is branded, wounded or changed in some way (branding) 18. The Villain is defeated (victory) 19. The initial misfortune or problem is resolved (resolution)

4th Sphere: The Hero’s return In the final (and often optional) phase of the storyline, the Hero returns home, hopefully uneventfully and to a Hero's welcome (although this may not always be the case). 20. The Hero sets out for home (return) 21. The Hero is chased (pursuit) 22. The pursuit ends (rescue) 23. The Hero arrives unrecognized (arrival) 24. A False Hero makes unfounded claims – e.g. that they saved the day (claim) 25. A difficult task is proposed to the Hero (task) 26. The task is resolved (solution) 27. The Hero is recognised (recognition) 28. The False Hero is exposed (exposure) 29. The Hero is given a new appearance (transfiguration) 30. The Villain is punished (punishment) 31. The Hero marries the Princess and ascends the throne (wedding)

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Additional Narrative Terms/Concepts:

The leading character or one of the major characters in a play, film, novel, Protagonist etc., e.g. James Bond is the protagonist of ‘Skyfall’. The protagonist is usually trying to achieve something in the narrative and we follow them in their struggle.

The person who works against the protagonist and attempts to stop them Antagonist achieving their goal(s).

Linear narrative Where the narrative unfolds in chronological order from beginning to end.

Non‐linear Here the narrative manipulates time and space. It may begin in the middle narrative and then include flashbacks and other narrative devices.

Where the camera places the audience in a superior (omnipresent/God‐like) Privileged spectator position position within the narrative. The audience can then anticipate what will follow.

When the audience knows more than the characters. This is effectively used Dramatic irony in narratives to build suspense (e.g. the audience knows the character is in danger before they do).

Events that took place before the story and may be referred to throughout Back story the narrative.

Terminology in Use (narrative codes): Todorov may have argued that the film Shrek follows the typical narrative structure that he outlined in his theory. The film begins with an equilibrium, which sees Shrek (the film’s protagonist) happily living alone in the woods. This scene is then disrupted by the narrative’s disequilibrium – as a host of fantastical creatures take refuge in Shrek’s house (which greatly annoys the ogre). Shrek than attempts to repair the damage by completing antagonist Lord Farquaad’s quest, resulting in Shrek realising that he no longer wants to live alone. The film’s new equilibrium sees Shrek happily married to Fiona.

However, Propp may argue that Shrek also follows the narrative structure that he outlined in his ‘spheres of action’ theory. For instance, the film features a hero (Shrek) who is put on a quest to rescue a princess (Fiona) from a dragon. Eventually, however, he finds himself rescuing Fiona from an evil villain (Lord Farquaad), who initially attempts to take the credit for her dragon rescue, demonstrating that he is also a false hero.

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Genre Codes & Conventions: Genre is another word for category.

Most media texts fit into clear genres (or “categories”), e.g. “horror” or “comedy” to help audiences find or choose a media text that suits them.

A conventional media text may decide to follow the conventions (traditions) of the genre (giving audiences what they want), whereas an unconventional text may subvert the conventions (surprising the audience by doing something different and thus challenging their expectations).

TERM DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE

‘Category’ or ‘type’ of text that follows clear Genre Horror conventions.

Vampire, zombie, slasher, A sub‐category of a genre that focuses on a Subgenre supernatural are all sub‐ particular set of conventions within a specific genre. genres of horror

The film Shaun of the Dead Hybrid genre Mixture of two or more genres. is a horror/comedy/ romance hybrid

Genre code/ A butcher’s knife in a A specific ingredient of the genre (iconography convention/ horror film (or a gun in an refers to something specifically visual) iconography action film)

A theme (or story element) which is typically used in Jump scares are a common Genre trope a specific genre. trope in the horror genre

The repertoire of elements for a horror film Repertoire of could include isolated A list of all the elements of a particular genre. Elements locations, darkness, a butcher’s knife, blood, screams, terrified faces

Different films (and Realism/ A style of presentation that claims to portray ‘real genres) will have different Verisimilitude life’ accurately and authentically. levels of verisimilitude (realism)

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Video/Computer Game Genres: Video games offer audience interactivity which other media texts often cannot provide. This is more immersive and intense than the interactivity offered by websites. Some examples include:

 Computer Role Playing Games (CRPGs) ‐ these allow the player to assume a role in a virtual world. As they move through the game narrative, they will be faced with tasks or obstacles which get progressively more difficult as the game advances. They are forced to make decisions, solve puzzles, engage in combat, or perform a variety of moves to go forward. Fallout, Skyrim and the Final Fantasy series have been popular CRPGs.  Massively Multi‐player Online Games (MMORPGs) ‐ Unlike a CRPG, where the user often plays alone, in a MMORPG large numbers of players are part of the game at the same time. The game continues (and the story progresses) even when one or more players log out. Fortnite is probably the most well‐known example of this type of game.  Mobile Games ‐ this is a rapidly growing platform with games such as Candy Crush, Clash of Clans and Angry Birds dominating the market. They can be played anywhere on a smartphone or tablet and are often free to play, but will include advertising or in‐app purchases.

Music Video Genres: The performance music video: The different components in a performance music video are:

 Footage of the artists performing, singing or playing instruments. The mode of address may be direct so the audience feel the artist is performing to them specifically. For example, One Direction's, You and I.  Clips from concert footage which often shows the crowd and makes the viewer feel part of the concert audience. For example, Justin Timberlake's Take Back the Night.  Artists and bands may perform their songs in unusual places, such as cliff tops or on tropical beaches. Justin Bieber's, I'll Show You is a good example of this type of video.  Footage of the band in informal situations that illustrate their job, such as casually singing on a tour bus or in their rehearsal room. For example The Vamps’ video Wild Heart.

Unless the single or album that is being promoted is a live recording, all the video vocal performances will be lip‐synched.

The narrative music video: A narrative music video will usually:

 Tell the story of the song lyrics through technical codes and how the video is edited. A good example of this is the Olly Murs' video Dear Darlin'.  Use actors to tell the story of the song, although sometimes the narrative will cut back and forth between the actors playing roles and the music artist performing. This is what happens in the Carly Rae Jepsen video I Really Like You.  A music video can take the form of a short film to communicate the meaning of the song by using the same narrative techniques as a feature film. Taylor Swift's Blank Space, or Kanye West's Runaway (which is an epic 34 minutes) are good examples of this.

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Intertextuality:

What is intertextuality? Intertextuality refers to the interconnectivity of media texts. When a media text makes a deliberate reference to another media text, we call this an intertextual reference. For example, the film title Shaun of the Dead is an intertextual reference to George A Romero’s film Dawn of the Dead.

Media texts can make intertextual references through:

 Lines of dialogue (e.g. “[…] I am your father”)  Visual references (see above)  Character names (e.g. Spiderpig)

Why do media texts use intertextuality? There are many reasons why intertextual references are made. For instance:

 To parody/make a joke (this may also gratify the audience, who may feel clever when they spot the reference)  As an homage/pastiche – referencing media that has been an influence to the creators  To target a specific audience (by referring to texts they would recognise). This builds a relationship with the audience (implying that the producers enjoy the same texts as them)  Because it’s hard to be original (and audiences are now more media literate) media texts often use intertextuality as a way of using old ideas without insulting the audience’s intelligence  Because it can be realistic. Media represents people and people talk about media  Sometimes to promote other media texts (especially if they were produced by the same parent company)

Terminology in Use (intertextuality):

‘Family Guy’ makes intertextual references to ‘Star Wars’ throughout its ‘Blue Harvest’ episode. The name, itself, is a reference to ‘Star Wars’s’ working title. This is because the episode is a pastiche (paying homage to the franchise) as well as a parody (making jokes, based on the audience’s familiarity with the source material).

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ANALYSING MEDIA LANGUAGE WHY has the text been constructed in this way? (WHY have specific elements been included and/or excluded/omitted? How does this affect the text’s MEANING?)

Audience Positioning: A media text can position audiences to:

 think something (e.g. “this positions the audience to think that drinking and driving is dangerous” or “this positions the audience to think that Bond is tough”) or  feel something (e.g. “this positions the audience to feel scared [or angry/exhilarated/admiration for...]”)

This is because – essentially ‐ media texts are put together in particular ways to communicate a particular message (or meaning) to the audience, which they may find useful or gratifying (e.g. by providing entertainment, an emotional experience or by appealing to their desires).

Communicating Messages & Ideas (Semiotics): All elements of media language (sound, costume, lights, props etc.) have been chosen carefully (often by creative teams) to communicate ideas to the audience. They are signs that create meaning.

Semiotics is the study of signs. In semiotic analysis, texts communicate on two levels:

 Denotations (this is what we see or hear) – it is the literal meaning of a sign. These are the audio, visual and technical codes described on the previous pages.  Connotations (this is what is symbolised). This is the meaning that these codes (or “signs”) suggest and imply.

Connotations are meanings beyond the literal and are not (usually) text specific, creating meanings that are not bound to a particular character or element. When an element of a text appears to have a fixed (singular) meaning, we use the word “signifies”. These meanings are usually text specific (signifying an idea associated with a particular character, for instance).

Signifies: “The gun in Bond’s hand signifies his power”

Connotes: “The gun in Bond’s hand connotes power”

Note the inclusion of “his” when dealing with signification – because the gun is a sign of one person’s power ‐ Bond’s. However, when analysing connotations, we are interested in the ideas associated with the prop – the idea of power, in general, which is not solely related to Bond.

Connotations also vary according to their contexts. The skull‐and‐crossbones icon, for instance, signifies death or poison when printed on a bottle, but would signify pirates when printed on a ship’s flag. 34

Common Connotations: Most connotations are abstract nouns. Some of the most common connotations are listed below: Positive Connotations: This… connotes/signifies…

Authority Determination Joy Power Beauty Elegance Kindness Pride Bravery Excitement Love Relief Calmness Freedom Loyalty Strength Comfort Friendship Luxury Success Confidence Happiness Peace Victory Courage Intelligence Pleasure Wealth

Negative Connotations: This… connotes/signifies…

Anger Danger Fear Sadness Brutality Death Fragility Submission Evil Defeat Hate/Hatred Suffering Chaos Despair Helplessness Violence Conflict Destruction Loss Vulnerability Confusion Disappointment Pain Weakness Crime Failure Poverty

…suggesting/implying that…

Common Themes & Messages: Connotations will suggest or imply something (e.g. about a character, setting, event or issue). They also communicate ideas or messages. Please see some examples below:

Examples of Positive messages vs Examples of Negative messages This supports/reinforces the message that…  People respect kindness  People respect power  Justice always prevails/Good always  The world is unfair, dangerous and corrupt triumphs over evil  Money will solve most problems/Wealth  Money can’t buy love (or happiness) brings happiness/Poverty equals failure  People can achieve anything if they work  Talented people don’t need to work hard hard  Our society is unequal  Our society is equal/everyone has value  Revenge is sweet/Criminals must be  Hate breeds hate (or violence begets punished violence)/Love overcomes hate  Our society values physical appearances  Beauty is only skin deep/A person’s over character character is more important than their looks

Terminology in Use (Connotations & Meaning):

Bond is wearing a suit. This dress code connotes wealth and dominance, implying that Bond is important. This reinforces the message that people in our culture respect power, as we are positioned to look up to him.

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Dominant Ideologies: Put simply, an ideology in an idea that many people share about how the world works (or how it should work).

See some of the most dominant ideologies of the past century below. We’ve grouped together opposing ideologies to highlight their differences.

A media text can either support/reinforce these ideas/ideologies or challenge/subvert them, which often gives us an insight into the views and opinions of the producer(s).

Feminism Patriarchy vs (Feminist ideology) (Patriarchal ideology) This reinforces/subverts feminist/patriarchal ideology because it supports the idea that…  Men and women are/should be equal  Men are superior to women  Men are oppressing women  Women need men to protect them  Men have forced themselves into  Men are born leaders positions of power  A child is a mother’s responsibility  A child is the responsibility of all parents  Women should serve men (not just the mother)  Women are fully independent

Anti‐colonialism/imperialism Colonialism/Imperialism Vs (Anti‐colonial/imperialist ideology) (Colonialist/Imperialist ideology) This reinforces/subverts imperialist/anti-imperialist ideology because it supports/challenges the idea that…  All races/cultures are equal  Some races/cultures are superior to  All countries have the right to others independence  Some countries cannot cope (or “be  No country has the right to dictate to trusted”) with independence others  Some nations are “backwards” and need  Colonialism is a process where “help”, “assistance” or “modernisation” “wealthy” nations exploit the poor from more developed nations.

Egalitarianism Elitism vs (Egalitarian ideology) (Elitist ideology) This reinforces/subverts egalitarian ideology/elitist ideology because it supports/challenges the idea that…  All people are equal and deserve equal  Some people are better than others rights and opportunities  A society or system should be led by an  A society or system should be led by elite group of superiors representatives of all people

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Liberalism (left‐wing) Conservatism (right‐wing) (Liberal/left‐wing ideology) (Conservative/right‐wing ideology)

“We’re all in it together” vs “We need to put “our” needs first” “Help the community” “The freedom of the individual”

This reinforces/subverts liberalism/conservatism because it supports/challenges the idea that…  People should be open to change,  Traditions should be conserved/ adapting to include the views/ protected as they make “us” who “we” beliefs/religions of others. are.  People should support the idea of social  Everyone should be free to look after responsibility & community/people need themselves and not be burdened with to help each other, especially those who the needs of others. are weak and vulnerable.  Anyone can be rich if they work hard  The rich often exploit the poor. enough.  People should support taxation to fund  Everyone should pay for their own schools, healthcare, fire‐services etc. schooling, healthcare and services (and  Society needs rules and regulation to be that taxes should be lowered and/or fair (and ensure that the weak are not abolished). exploited by the powerful).  Society needs fewer rules and  Crime is a symptom of a sick society. regulations so people are not held back Improving people’s lives will reduce by the state. crime. Criminals need help.  Criminals need to be severely punished. They are individuals, who have made the wrong choice. Harsher punishments make better deterrents.

(Liberalism has much in common with socialism (Conservatism, generally, supports capitalist and Marxism – systems based on collective ideology – a system based on private ownership ‐ particularly, the idea that the rich ownership, wealth accumulation and exploit the poor). competition).

Pacifism Hawkism vs (Pacifist ideology) (Hawkish ideology) This reinforces/subverts pacifism/hawkish ideology because it supports/challenges the idea that…  People should seek diplomatic/non‐  Violence is the quickest way to resolve violent ways to resolve conflict conflicts  War should not be used to resolve  War is necessary to resolve disputes disputes  Military action is superior to diplomacy  Protests should be non‐violent

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Environmentalism Consumerism (Environmentalist ideology) (Consumerist ideology) vs “Reduce, reuse, recycle” “Buy, buy, buy”

This reinforces/subverts environmentalism/consumerism because it supports/challenges the idea that…  Society should focus on improving the  Society should focus on stimulating environment by reducing CO2 emissions economic growth  People are defined by their ability to  People are defined by what they buy work against climate change  People should purchase/consume more  People should purchase/consume less to to be happy and fulfilled reduce harmful greenhouse gasses  Increased consumption leads to  Increased consumption leads to booming economies and comfortable catastrophic climate change (we are all lifestyles (we all have more money) in danger)  People are individuals, who need their  Humanity needs to work and act own products to express their together to combat catastrophic climate individuality change  Resources should be used freely to  The Earth’s resources are limited and ensure consumers get what they want must be respected/used responsibly  Goods needs to be cheap. Offering value  Companies and governments need to is more important than reducing assess the environmental impact of their environmental impact practices more closely

Terminology in Use (Ideologies):  The magazine’s cover line “the best sports watches for under £200” reinforces consumerist ideology because it supports the idea that people should buy more to be happy and fulfilled.

 The newspaper’s headline “How can this be justice?” (questioning the release of a criminal after only a few years of her sentence) reinforces conservative ideology because it supports the idea that criminals should be severely punished.

 The film Black Panther subverts colonial ideology because it challenges the idea that some races/cultures are superior to others and supports the idea that all countries have the right to independence.

Polysemy & Oppositional Readings: We need to be aware, however, that media texts are polysemic (they have lots of possible meanings and mean different things to different people). While some audiences may agree with the text’s message – some may reject or disagree with it, instead having an oppositional reading (see page 74 for more detail).

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Audiences – Uses and Gratifications (Blumler and Katz, 1974): According to Blumler and Katz, media texts may also be constructed in specific ways to appeal to audiences by providing the following uses and gratifications (see pages 67‐68 for more details):

Information & Surveillance (to find out about stuff):  What information does the text provide?  What will audiences/consumers learn from the text? Personal Identity (to help form their sense of “self”):  Who is featured in the text that the audience could look up to as a role model?  Who is featured in the text that the audience could relate to?  How could the text help reinforce the audience’s views or values? Social Interaction (to help them connect with others):  How does the text help the audience interact with others? E.g. does it provide any opportunities to connect with others on social media (e.g. does it use Twitter hashtags)?  Does the text provide any so‐called ‘watercooler moments’ ‐ interesting talking points (anything which audiences can discuss with other people the next day)?  Does it provide a sense of connection with others (i.e. provide the illusion of company)? Entertainment (to enjoy/escape their problems):  How may the text help distract/divert audiences from their problems?  Why may the text be enjoyable or interesting?  Does the text provide an emotional release?  Is there anything which could be viewed as artistic or cultural?  Does it contain anyone attractive, who the audience may find arousing?

Terminology in Use (Uses & Gratifications):  Blumler & Katz may argue that the text provides useful information about…  According to Blumler & Katz’s Uses and Gratifications theory, the text may gratify the audience’s sense of personal identity by: o providing aspirational role models, such as… o providing characters who the audience can relate to, such as… o reinforcing the audience’s values by supporting the idea that...  It could be argued that the text provides opportunities for social interaction (Blumler & Katz, 1974) in that it offers: o the potential to interact with others on social media, such as… o a significant watercooler moment/talking point when… o characters (or people) who can provide a sense of company if the audience is feeling lonely, for instance…  According to Blumler & Katz’s Uses and Gratifications theory, the text could entertain audiences by providing something which…  momentarily distracts them from their problems  is enjoyable and interesting  provides an emotional release  could be viewed as artistic or cultural  sexually arouses them …for example…

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Revise Media Language: 1. Name three mediums (or media platforms) – p.5. 2. How does a media text differ from a literary text – p.5? 3. What is a code – p.5? 4. What is mise‐en‐scène ‐ p.6? 5. List five elements of mise‐en‐scène – p.6. 6. What is the difference between foreground and background – p.7? 7. What is juxtaposition? How can it be used to create meaning ‐ p.7? 8. What is the difference between diegetic and non‐diegetic sound – p.8? 9. Give an example of diegetic and non‐diegetic sound – p.8. 10. What camera angle(s) would you use to:  Show emotion ‐ p.9‐10  Create tension ‐ p.9‐10  Establish a setting ‐ p.9‐10  Demonstrate a character’s power ‐ p.9‐10  Demonstrate a character’s vulnerability ‐ p.9‐10  Film a conversation between two people ‐ p.9‐10  Show action ‐ p.9‐10 11. What camera movement(s) could be used:  For an action scene – p.11  To create a sense of realism – p.11 12. In film editing, name the following techniques (p.12):  When one shot changes to another  When shots intersect back and forth between locations  When we jump to a shot of something the character is looking at or thinking about 13. What speed of cutting would be used for (p.12):  An action scene?  A funeral scene? 14. What is the difference between cross‐cutting and shot‐reverse‐shot (p.12)? 15. What is cropping used for – p.13? 16. What is anchorage? How could you anchor different meanings to the same picture – p.13? 17. What is a tagline and what’s it used for in film posters – p.14‐15? 18. What information does a film poster provide – p.14‐15? 19. In print adverts, what is the difference between an image and a graphic ‐ p.15‐16? 20. Name three elements of a print advert – p.16. 21. Name three advertising techniques – p.17. 22. Name three elements of a website p.18. 23. On a newspaper front page, what is the difference between a masthead and a headline – p.19? 24. What can a masthead communicate about a newspaper – p.19? 25. What is the purpose of a headline – p.19? 26. What is copy in a newspaper – p.19? 27. Identify at least three differences between a broadsheet and a tabloid newspaper – p.20. 28. Give two examples of a broadsheet newspaper – p.20. 29. Give two examples of a tabloid newspaper – p.20. 30. On a magazine cover, what is the difference between a cover line and a main cover line – p.21? 31. On a magazine cover, what is a strapline – p.21? 40

32. What is direct mode of address and why do magazine covers use it – p.21? 33. On a magazine article, what is the difference between sub‐heading and standfirst – p.22? 34. On a magazine article, what is a pull quote and what is its purpose – p.22? 35. Is this question written in a serif or a sans‐serif font (and how can you tell) – p.24? 36. Why are serif and sans‐serif fonts used? What ideas do they communicate – p.24? 37. Identify two lexical/verbal codes which could be used for (p.25):  An advert  A broadsheet newspaper  A tabloid newspaper  A specialist/niche magazine 38. According to Todorov, what are the three main parts of a narrative – p.26? 39. What is an enigma code? Why are they used – p.27? 40. What do audiences expect from an action code – p.27? 41. Name three character roles in Propp’s spheres of action and what they do – p.27. 42. What is the difference between a protagonist and an antagonist – p.30? 43. What is the difference between linear and non‐linear narratives – p.30? 44. What is the difference between (p.31):  A sub‐genre and a hybrid genre  A genre code and the repertoire of elements  Iconography and a trope 45. What is another word for realism – p.31? 46. In computer/video games, what is the difference between a CRPG and a MMORPG – p.32? 47. What is the difference between a performance and narrative music video – p.32? 48. What is intertextuality – p.33? 49. Describe an example of intertextuality – p.33. 50. Give two reasons why intertextuality is used – p.33. 51. What is the difference between a denotation and a connotation – p.34? 52. Why would you sometimes use the word “signifies” rather than “connotes” – p.34? 53. List at least four positive connotations – p.35. 54. List at least four negative connotations – p.35. 55. List at least four positive messages in the media – p.35. 56. List at least four negative messages in the media – p.35. 57. What is an ideology – p.36? 58. Summarise how feminist ideology differs from patriarchal ideology – p.36. 59. Summarise how anticolonial ideology differs from colonial ideology – p.36. 60. Summarise how egalitarian ideology differs from elitist ideology – p.36. 61. Summarise how liberal ideology differs from conservative ideology – p.37. 62. Summarise how pacifism differs from hawkism – p.37. 63. Summarise how environmentalism differs from consumerism – p.38. 64. What is meant when we call texts polysemic (and what do we call a reading that wasn’t intended by the producer) – p.38? 65. What are the four uses and gratifications identified by Blumler and Katz – p.39?

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Representation When analysing representation, you need to ask: HOW has the issue/event/group been represented? Mediation:  How has the text been constructed to “re‐present” reality?  What elements have the producers decided to: o include o exclude? o combine?  How could the producer have presented the same issue/event/group differently?

Stereotypes:  Does the text reinforce or subvert particular stereotypes (e.g. about gender or race)?

Under‐representation &  Has any group been under‐represented (and does not appear in the text)? Mis‐representation:  Has any issue, event or group been mis‐represented (i.e. represented unfairly or wrongly)?

WHY has it been represented in this way? Viewpoints,  What is the apparent purpose of the representation(s)? messages, values  What message(s) does the representation appear to be making? For and beliefs: instance… o Does it support or challenge patriarchal ideology? o Does it support or challenge colonial ideology?  Does it demonstrate any bias (for example left or right‐wing bias)?  What does it reveal about the opinions and viewpoints of the producer?  Who does the representation benefit? Who does it potentially harm?

Audiences:  Have certain issues, events or groups been represented in this way to simplify a story for the audience (so it is more easily understood)?  How could audiences read the text differently (e.g. if they had different views to that of the producer)?

Social, cultural,  Is the representation typical of other media texts produced during its historical and time?  What does the representation say about the culture it was created in? political context:  Does it reflect any themes, issues or events that were considered important during the time of the text’s production?  Have stereotypes changed over time?

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REPRESENTATION HOW and WHY are specific groups, issues and events represented in different ways? Introduction to Representation: As David Buckingham has argued, Media texts do not offer us a “window on the world” (Buckingham, 2003) i.e. they do not simply record events as they are and then transport them to our screens.

Media texts depict groups, issue or events in specific ways through their use of media language, which can manipulated to support or challenge particular viewpoints, perspectives and beliefs.

Reality is mediated ‐ packaged in ways that distort it.

For example, some groups, issues or events may be:

 under‐represented (ignored or excluded by the media, as if they don’t exist) or  mis‐represented (depicted in misleading ways that do not reflect the truth).

Stereotypes: One way of mis‐representing a group, issue or event is through using stereotypes (exaggerated representations).

Stereotypes are often used in media texts to quickly communicate ideas/characters to the audience.

Media texts can either:

 reinforce stereotypes (by using/repeating them) or  subvert stereotypes (by challenging/going against them).

Identifying the use of stereotypes in media texts is important in allowing us to understand the power structures (hierarchies) that exist in our world.

Theorist Stuart Hall argues that stereotyping tends to occur when there are inequalities of power. If a group is associated with positive stereotypes, they are more likely to be in a position of power within society. Conversely, groups who are stereotyped negatively are more likely to have less power. There appears to be a great deal of truth to this theory as we explore the representations of various groups.

Stereotypes & Ideologies: As we will come to see, when stereotypes are reinforced, they often support a certain ideology (a way of thinking). Generally, when a media text subverts a stereotype, it challenges the ideology.

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The Representation of Gender: Gender Stereotypes: The traditional gender stereotypes (listed below) are sexist, reinforcing patriarchal ideology.

Male stereotypes: Female stereotypes:  men are strong  women are weak  men are independent  women are vulnerable  men are aggressive  women are kind and caring  men are logical  women are emotional  men are decisive  women are indecisive  men are confident  women are submissive/subservient  men are unemotional  women are nurturing (motherly)  men are dominant/in control  women are housewives/child‐carers  men are the “breadwinners”  women are domestic  men are practical  women are more concerned with beauty/appearances

While these stereotypes depict men positively, as “strong”, “confident” and “dominant”, women are depicted negatively as being “weak”, “vulnerable” and “submissive”.

This is probably due to the historical sexism that exists in our society.

Patriarchy: Women have been oppressed around the world for thousands of years – sometimes considered as the property of men. Virtually all modern civilisations are patriarchal ‐ controlled and dominated by men.

The idea that men are superior and should therefore rule is referred to as patriarchal ideology.

Despite the fact that women currently have virtually the same legal rights as men in the UK, there is still evidence of patriarchy to some extent. For instance:

 Women are still, on average, paid less than men (even when they do similar jobs)  There are fewer women in positions of power. Political, legal and business leaders are still, on average, mostly men  Women continue to be objectified in our media (see below for more details)

And if we look to other countries – like Afghanistan and Saudi‐Arabia, for instance, – women do not even have the same legal rights as men. Rights that we may take for granted – like the right to an education, employment or independence – are still denied to many women around the world.

Many of these rights were similarly denied to British women for centuries. Patriarchal ideology was enshrined in British law, forbidding women to vote, own property or be treated as equal to men. Women had to fight for these rights in a struggle that continues to this day.

Terminology in Use (Representation of Gender):

 This reinforces the patriarchal stereotype that women are vulnerable.  This subverts the stereotype that women are vulnerable, challenging patriarchal ideology.

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Feminism: The struggle for gender equality is called feminism. Feminists believe that men and women should be equal in society.

The opposing ideology is called sexism (the belief that one gender is superior to the other).

Over the past century, feminists in the UK have fought sexist governments and institutions for many basic human rights; for example:

 The right to own property (1882 – The Married Women’s Property Act)  The right to vote (1918/1928)  The right for equal pay (1970 The Equal Pay Act)

As patriarchy persists throughout the world, the feminist struggle continues to this day through movements such as #MeToo (highlighting the widespread abuse of women by men) and Time’s Up (challenging the male dominance in culture industries, such as the film industry).

As a result of this struggle, we are seeing an increasing number of more positive representations of women in the media – with women appearing strong, confident and powerful – subverting traditional/patriarchal stereotypes. We are also (slowly) seeing a rising number of female writers, producers and directors working in the creative industries.

Objectification: Media producers know that “sex sells”. Sexually suggestive material is often used in media texts to appeal to audiences (particularly men) or – at least – to grab their attention.

As a result, women are frequently sexualised and objectified in the media ‐ presented as sexual objects for the pleasure of men. For instance, women in the media are more likely to be:  wearing revealing clothing (e.g. bikinis/underwear) ‐ or nothing at all  striking sexually suggestive or flirtatious poses  framed in such a way that the camera (and audience) is focussed on their bodies.

When more emphasis has been placed on women’s bodies than their personalities (making women look attractive for a male audience) we could argue that they have been devalued or relegated to a mere sex object.

This is not a modern phenomenon. Art critic John Berger observed in 1972 that throughout the history of art “men act and women appear” ‐ men are admired for their action, whereas women are admired for their beauty.

Objectification & Patriarchal Culture: According to theorist Liesbet van Zoonen, objectification is a core element of patriarchal (male dominated) culture.

This is, possibly, for three main reasons:

1. Women are devalued when they are objectified ‐ their value is purely dependent on their looks (their other qualities are ignored) and, more importantly, this value is dependent on the approval of men. 2. Women are presented as being passive “objects” – when being objectified, women are the ones being looked at (rather than the ones doing the looking).

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3. It reinforces the idea that men are more important than women. As the objectification of women is much more frequent and normalised in our society, it would appear that most media is made by men for men (who therefore dominate both its production and consumption) – supporting an idea that only male pleasure is important.

The repeated objectification of women also, arguably, has a negative impact of women’s mental health. As media texts repeatedly judge and value women by their bodies, women are increasingly suffering from body image issues – seeing themselves as inferior to the images of women they see in the media. This is made worse by women comparing themselves to digitally edited (“photo‐shopped”) images, with looks which are impossible to achieve in the real world. A rise in eating disorders has often been linked to this issue.

The Beauty Myth (Wolf, 1991): In her book The Beauty Myth, Naomi Wolf argues that beauty is the “last, best belief system that keeps male dominance intact” in that:

 Women’s value is dependent on looking a certain way: youthful, smooth‐skinned, small‐nosed, silky‐haired etc.  If a woman fails to achieve this look (as most women do), she is encouraged to feel ugly her entire life and is “kept in her place”.  The idea that a woman’s value is dependent on her beauty is reinforced in media. Men have to be skilled to achieve, but women have to be skilled and beautiful (think of daytime TV hosts, which often consist of an older male and a younger (more attractive) female.

The “male gaze” (Mulvey, 1975): Theorist Laura Mulvey coined the term “the male gaze”. She argued that cinema (and most other media) often:

 Presents women in ways that please/appeal to the male gaze – the enjoyment that men may take in looking at women’s bodies.  Presents women through the male gaze. The camera mimics the eyes of men (e.g. panning up a woman’s body), forcing the women in the audience to see themselves through the eyes of men.

Mulvey’s theory is now, largely, seen as outdated ‐ particularly because she presumes that all men think alike (and are heterosexual) and relies upon Freudian psychoanalysis (which is – itself – outdated).

However, the two principles above continue to be useful when exploring the depiction of women in the media.

The Bechdel Test & The Under‐Representation of Women in the Media: So far, we have argued that:

 Women are mis‐represented in the media (with many media texts reinforcing negative stereotypes – reinforcing the idea that women are weak, vulnerable and submissive).  Women are objectified in the media – often sexualised for the pleasure of the male gaze, with their value reliant on their appearance and the approval of men, reinforcing the beauty myth (Wolf, 1991). 46

Both of these issues demonstrate the patriarchal ideology that continues to influence the representation of gender in today’s media.

However, we can also see evidence of patriarchy in the lack of female representation in the media.

The under‐representation of women is so rife in the film industry that a comic‐book artist drew attention to it in what has now become known as ‘The Bechdel Test’.

THE RULES: To pass the Bechdel test, a film must feature two or more female characters (with names), who talk to each‐other about something other than a man.

Although it sounds very easy for a film to pass this test – a large proportion of major Hollywood films fail the Bechdel test every year.

Perhaps this would be a different story, if there were more female writers, directors, actors and producers working in Hollywood. This is the thinking behind the Time’s Up movement, which seeks to challenge male dominance within the culture industries.

Representations of Men: Men – by contrast – are often represented in ways which reinforce their dominant positions in society and thereby support patriarchal ideology.

For instance, it is common to see men represented in hyper‐masculinised ways – placing emphasis on their physical strength, aggression and sexual confidence. The strong, dominant male is a typical trope/convention in media texts – displaying men in ways that normalise the idea that they are powerful, confident and in charge (in comparison to women, who are frequently shown as being vulnerable, submissive or subservient).

Men are more likely to be represented in ways that show them:

 Being strong/in positions of authority over women  Rescuing female characters  As being the central character(s) in the narrative

Even symbols of masculinity can represent male dominance. The phallic symbol, for instance ‐ an object which broadly resembles or represents the penis (e.g. a cigar, rifle or skyscraper) ‐ is often used in media texts to represent male power.

However, we are seeing a change in the way that men are represented in the media.

For years, large corporations have encouraged women to feel insecure about their appearance to help sell make‐up, beauty, diet and fashion products. However, an increasing number of similar products are currently aimed at men. This has followed an increase in the sexualised representations of men in the media and a change in what is perceived as being typical masculine behaviour.

Journalist – Mark Simpson – coined the term “metrosexual” to define a heterosexual urban male who enjoys shopping, fashion and similar interests traditionally associated with women or homosexual men. This is in stark contrast to representations of men in the past, where beauty was associated with being ruggedly handsome.

Additionally, men’s bodies are frequently on display in the media for the pleasure of the female gaze (Gamman and Marshment, 1988). However, as such representations are nowhere near the scale of female objectification and as most media industries continue to be male dominated, we do not currently argue that men are objectified in the media in the same way as women.

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Representation of gender after World War II:

By WWII, the first wave feminist movement had fought for (and won) the rights for women to vote and own property in the UK and US. We saw the following changes after WII.

Period Background Representations of Representations of men in women in the media the media 1950s  More women in paid According to theorist David According to theorist David employment (after Gauntlett, in the past there Gauntlett, in the past there taking jobs during was less variety in the was less variety in the WWII). representation of women representation of men than  Women lacked access than there is today. there is today. Men were to contraception. Sex Women were frequently frequently presented as outside of marriage presented as being: being: risked unwanted  A housewife, serving  The hard‐working pregnancies. their husband and husband/provider/  It was a societal looking after the breadwinner expectation that children  Strong & tough (e.g. a women looked after the  Ladies of leisure (not soldier or a cowboy) children & home, while working)  Dominant & powerful men worked.  Beautiful (but not  Powerful  Most media was always objectified).  The main character produced by men.  Despite having some important (and complex) roles, women were far more likely to be a love interest or supporting character. 1960s  The contraceptive pill  Generally, there was  Generally, there was made it easier for little change from the little change from the women to hold onto way women were way men were and build their careers. represented in the represented in the  The start of second 1950s. 1950s. wave feminism which  However, we did see an  As a whole, men sought more than just increased sexualisation continued to be legal equality – but of women (largely represented as being equality in culture and thanks to development strong and dominant. society. of the contraceptive pill,  Most media continued which made sex outside to be produced by men. of marriage more acceptable in society).

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Period Background Representations of Representations of men in women in the media the media 1970s &  The Equal Pay Act came  Although the previous  Although the previous 1980s into force in 1970. trends continue to trends continue to Finally, women were dominate, we see an dominate, we see an legally entitled to the increase in stronger increase in same pay as men. female characters representations of men  Margaret Thatcher (Princess Leia in Star being emotional/ became the first female Wars (1977) and Ripley vulnerable. prime minister in the UK in Alien (1979), for  We also see some and the first female instance – although representations of male judge was appointed to both characters also domesticity – e.g. men the Supreme Court in demonstrate more raising their children the US. typical female (Kramer vs Kramer  RAF enlisted first official vulnerability in parts of (1979) and Three Men female pilots in combat these films). and a Baby (1987).  Difference feminism  Kathi Maio argued that developed, which “Strong, victorious argued that equality women [do] exist” in between men and films such as Dead Calm women did not (1989) and Heathers necessarily mean that (1989), “just not often women should be seen enough, and generally as being “the same” as not in movies that get men in society. much play”.  Most media continued to be produced by men.

1990s &  UK women used in  We see a rise in strong,  We see examples of 2000s ground combat for the female characters – for films where a first time in the Gulf example in action films vulnerable male is War. such as Terminator 2 rescued by a strong  While most media (1991) and Resident Evil female character (e.g. continued to be (2002) The Kingdom (2007)). produced by men, there  However, in these films  We also see men taking was a small rise in the women often imitated more care of their number of successful men to signify their appearance in the female writers, strength (e.g. holding media, e.g. David directors and producers. large phallic weapons or Beckham. Journalist  The rise of third‐wave demonstrating their Mark Simpson coins the feminism, which physical strength) and term metrosexual to embraced all kinds of were often objectified describe this social ideas and language and in the process. Hilary phenomena. aesthetics that the Radner (2000) coined second wave had the term psychofemme worked to reject: the to describe this trend of word “girl” (rather than strong and powerful “woman”), makeup, women, who were still high heels and high‐ sexualised. femme girliness

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Period Background Representations of Representations of men in women in the media the media 2010s  We have seen a rise in  David Gauntlett argues  David Gauntlett argues the number of female that there is currently that is currently much politicians and more variety in the more variety in the successful representation of representation of businesswomen. gender in the media. gender.  While most media still  Although traditional  Although traditional continues to be stereotypes continue to stereotypes continue to produced by men, the be reinforced, we see be reinforced, we are number of female women branching out more likely to see men actors, writers and into genres previously being vulnerable, producers is growing. dominated by men, e.g. relying on women or  Movements like comedy (Bridesmaids being weak and #MeToo and Time’s Up (2011)) and the emotional. (and a growing superhero genre awareness of the (Wonder Woman (2017) Bechdel test) could and Captain Marvel possibly be evidence of (2019)). Fourth Wave Feminism

Representation of Social Class (rich and poor): The richest people in the world hold an enormous amount of power – and their wealth (and power) is growing. Currently, we are seeing an unprecedented transfer of wealth from the poor to the rich (with the richest 1% owning 45% of the world’s wealth).

As a result of this power imbalance, it is not surprising to see the rich often stereotyped positively in the media, in contrast to the poor.

Although rich people can sometimes be associated with being cold, selfish and impersonal (e.g. Ebenezer Scrooge in Dickens’s A Christmas Carol or Montgomery Burns in The Simpsons) or leading excessive/immoral lifestyles (leading to salacious stories in tabloid newspapers of drug‐abuse and sexual depravity), wealth is (more often than not) used as a shorthand for success.

Stereotypes of rich people: Stereotypes of poor people:  successful  failures  independent  needy  happy  miserable  powerful  powerless  hard‐working  lazy/scroungers  have high standards  have low standards  law‐abiding  more likely to be criminals

The above stereotypes can also apply to representations of social class; working class people are often more negatively represented in the media than people in higher social classes.

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Representation of Race/Ethnicity: When exploring the representation of race and ethnicity, it is important to understand the difference:

 Race refers to a person’s physical characteristics, such as their skin/hair/eye colour as well as their bone structure (e.g. most Africans, Asians and Europeans share physical similarities).

 Ethnicity, however, is cultural. It refers to a person’s nationality, language, music, art and fashion (e.g. French and British people may look similar – but their ethnic/cultural identity is very different)

People can have more than one ethnicity, but they are said to have one race (even it’s “mixed race” or “dual heritage”).

Britain is a multicultural, multi‐ethnic and multiracial country. Our core values are based on mutual respect and tolerance for different faiths and beliefs. Racism and bigotry are not tolerated in Britain.

In 1976 The Race Relations Act made it illegal to discriminate against people on racial grounds in the UK.

However, Britain has a history of racism and, unfortunately, this has had a marked impact in the way other races/cultures are represented in its media.

Ethnocentricity: Many cultures are ethnocentric, believing their culture is superior to others. This is probably because people adapt to their culture when they are young and grow up seeing it as being “normal”. Different cultures can, in contrast, appear “different” or “other”.

However, Britain’s past economic and military power allowed the nation to act on its ethnocentric beliefs with brutal force. For hundreds of years. Britain was a hegemonic (dominant) power, which (along with other European nations) used its dominance to exploit other people and expand its wealth.

The Slave Trade: For instance from the mid 17th century, Britain enriched itself through the barbaric slave trade (until its abolition in 1838). British citizens made money through kidnapping and selling people into servitude ‐ and profiting from the goods these slaves produced (e.g. sugar and coffee).

British people often justified the slave trade at the time by arguing that white Europeans were a “superior” race – seeing Africans and Asians as being less intelligent and primitive – more akin to cattle (a racist and ethnocentric myth which later helped fuel fascism in Nazi Germany).

Colonialism: Britain also gained wealth through colonialism. The country expanded its territories far overseas by dominating and setting up colonies in India, Africa, Australia and the Americas.

During colonisation, Britain would take advantage of each country’s resources and impose its culture on the people.

Any resistance to this domination was frequently met with brutal violence. Again, colonials excused such practices through the belief that they were a “superior” race – trying to “help” more primitive nations develop (a myth which, arguably, continues to this day).

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The colonial stereotypes below reinforce the idea that European cultures are superior to those of Asia and Africa and can be applied to the representation of race and ethnicity: According to colonial ideology: White/European people are: “Other”* cultures/races are:  rich/wealthy  poor  intelligent  uneducated  civilised  uncivilised  saviours  helpless  sophisticated  primitive  law‐abiding  criminal/violent/dangerous  superior  inferior  normal  unusual/exotic

*The only exception is those cultures which grew to resemble European nations – particularly those of Australia, the USA, Canada and South Africa.

On paper – these stereotypes appear obviously racist; however, it is surprising how many of them are still used regularly in media texts, often going unnoticed and unchallenged. Antonio Gramsci argued that hegemonic (dominant) power structures are often constructed to appear “normal” or “common‐ sense” to make them appear more acceptable to the general public.

Edward Said made a similar point in his seminal book Orientalism (1978), where he argued that in European culture (art and literature – and, by extension, the media) we see:

 European identity being defined in opposition to other cultures – by emphasising their differences and exoticism (creating an idea of “us” versus “them”)  A normalisation of the idea that Europe dominates other cultures

Representations of Africa/Africans: In 1987, media academic, Manuel Alvarado argued that black characters are often represented in the following ways:

 to be pitied  laughed at  seen as “exotic” (different)  and/or dangerous

Charity adverts often fall into the trap of representing other cultures as pitiable and helpless, in need of a white saviour to rescue them (either by donating money or offering aid/resource/help). Such representations have recently been criticised for reinforcing racist and colonial myths.

The white saviour myth encourages people to think that wealthy nations are supporting a ‘helpless’ and ‘needy’ Africa. However, it could be argued that the very opposite is true. According to campaign group Honest Accounts, more wealth leaves Africa every year than enters it. Wealthy countries continue to exploit the continent’s vast natural resources ‐ at the expense of its people (many of whom live in extreme poverty). They do this while reinforcing the myth that they are “helping” the region by providing “aid”. Some critics have argued that the spirit of colonialism continues to this day – that Africa is in need because of wealthier nations. 52

Representation of Age: There are various stereotypes which surround the following age groups:

 Children are often stereotyped as being weak, vulnerable, innocent and in need of protection.  Teenagers are often stereotyped as being stroppy, antisocial or “trouble”.  Adults are often stereotyped as being responsible and caring (when shown in contrast to other age groups).  Older people are sometimes stereotyped as being frail, forgetful, lonely or “grumpy”.

Again these stereotypes reflect the power structures that exist in our society. Adults hold the most power in the world and are therefore stereotyped more positively in comparison to their older/younger counterparts.

Young people are, arguably, a group with the least power in the world (it is typical for young people to be denied the right to vote, to drive or to lead independent lives). This lack of power is communicated in the stereotypes associated with them.

Media producers tend to target younger adult audiences as they have a long lifespan (and, typically, higher incomes). However, as people are living longer, producers have realised the value of the “grey pound” and older people are therefore now less likely to be stereotyped in the media than in the past (as producers don’t want to offend this lucrative demographic, producing media that they like).

Representation of Issues/Events: When reporting factual content – e.g. on the news or in a documentary, there is a tendency to see the media as being an objective reporter – simply telling the truth.

However, again, there is distortion in the way these issues (e.g. crime, poverty, drug abuse) and events (e.g. sporting events, royal weddings, elections, wars, terrorist attacks) are represented by the media.

Sensationalism: First of all, there is a tendency for many media texts to sensationalise (or be sensationalist) – presenting news stories in ways that provoke public interest or excitement at the expense of accuracy.

A sensational news story may be more dramatic, which appeals to audiences, but it may also blow issues or events out of proportion and distort reality. However, because bigger audiences means bigger profits, there is a tendency for journalists to sensationalise.

Moral panics (Cohen, 1972): A moral panic is a feeling of fear spread among a large number of people that some evil threatens the well‐being of society. It is a reaction that relates to morality – to right and wrong.

Stanley Cohen (1972) argued that when media reports on deviant behaviour, they construct a narrative which features a clear villain: the folk devil. The creation of folk devils can kickstart a moral panic.

Drug use, violent video games, drill music and even eggs have all been sources of moral panics in the UK over the years.

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Fake news: Mainstream news has an important role in challenging and questioning people in power, bringing wrongs to light. However, it has been criticised for the following reasons:

 It sometimes gets facts wrong and recycle false stories.  Every news source/story is presented with bias. It’s nearly impossible for a journalist to be completely objective. Facts can be picked and discarded to support nearly any point of view.  People may disagree with the angle of a news story.  News can sometimes be influenced by its owners/advertisers (who may object to a story that makes them (or their friends) look bad.

However, the above criticisms do not mean that we can label the mainstream media as “fake news” (as politicians such as Donald Trump have done, referring to news stories or networks that are simply critical of him).

Fake news is the production and circulation (the making and sharing) of stories which are known to be false/made‐up/lies for the purpose of influencing/distorting people’s opinions.

This is not new, of course. Disinformation has been used as a form of propaganda for many years by states such as the Soviet Union and Germany (during WWII) – and even in less authoritarian states such as the UK & USA.

What is different today, however, is the ability for anyone to create and share these stories on social media, creating a ‘noise’, which can seed confusion and doubt in people’s minds (which is often what the producers have intended). These false stories can spread very quickly and if people see them enough times, they may start to see them as genuine news articles.

Whereas mainstream media is regulated (i.e. if they intentionally tell lies, they can be fined or sued), news spread on social media is difficult to control, which is why governments are putting increasing pressure on social media platforms (such as Facebook and Twitter) to be more active in the fight against fake news.

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Where does news come from? News stories can be sourced via international news agencies (also known as a wire service) such as the Associated Press and Reuters, or from press releases or press conferences (where companies and institutions will share information). However, companies and institutions can lie and attempt to cover‐ up wrong‐doing, which is why some journalists may dig a little deeper to find a story. Investigative journalists go out into the world and ask questions, finding trusted sources of information (e.g. people with insider information – such as whistle‐blowers) to write their articles. These people may speak on the record ‐ and can therefore be quoted by name‐ or off the record (if they are scared of losing their job or facing criminal investigation) and could be quoted anonymously (if at all). To ensure that what they publish is likely to be true, journalists are required to have multiple (and reliable) independent sources together with material evidence (recordings, documents and data) to back up their story. As a result, good investigative journalism is costly in terms of time and resources and is therefore in decline.

News Values (Galtung and Ruge, 1965): News editors will decide which stories to run with and which ones to discard based on their news value (their value for attracting readers) as well as their ability to reflect the style, ethos and ideology of the newspaper. News editors therefore act as gatekeepers (deciding what does and doesn’t get past the “gate” – i.e. what is and isn’t news).

Media researchers Galtung and Ruge identified a number of factors that help stories make the headlines around the world. Here are some of the most significant factors they pinpointed:

Important breaking news such as a terror attack is reported with immediacy. Recency Breaking news is very competitive with newspapers keen to be the first to report things as they happen.

The bigger the story, the more people it affects. A bomb with many casualties is Size more news worthy than a hoax bomb alert.

Continuity An ongoing news event like war will continue to be reported on.

Simple stories which are easy to explain (huge lottery wins, celebrity deaths, Simplicity road accidents) will be preferred to those which are more complex (foreign wars, economic stories, long‐term court cases).

In the UK a story about the American president or an American social issue is Elite nations or more likely to be reported on than a story about less influential countries and people their leaders.

An anti‐war demonstration is likely to be eventful so journalists will cover the Predictability event. This means that it will be reported on, even if it passes off peacefully.

Something out of the ordinary has more news value than something that Unexpectedness happens every day.

Negativity Bad news is more likely to make the headlines than good news.

A story about a celebrity or a heroic member of the general public will have a Personality human interest angle.

Meaningfulness How close to home is the story, is there a local connection?

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Political Ideologies: Newspapers can be partisan – i.e. support a specific political party (for instance The Times, The Sun and The Daily Mail all support the Conservative party while The Daily Mirror supports Labour).

Of course, newspapers employ many journalists (who investigate and write news stories) and sub‐ editors (who manage different sections of the newspaper) – who each have their own political views. However, the representation of events can be significantly affected by the political ideology that the news organisation editorially supports, which is why we understand the difference between them.

Even television news (which has a duty to be politically impartial) can often demonstrate examples of these biases.

There are two dominant political ideologies. Left‐wing (liberal) ideas, which opposes right‐wing (conservative) thinking. Each offer alternative beliefs about how civilisations should be structured.

Whereas the major political parties in the UK lean towards one or the other of these ideologies, we have also seen that they can sometimes be more centrist (or central‐left/central‐right). This means that they do accept ideas from the other side or balance the two ideologies. Very often, political parties do this in order to win over larger public support (and thereby gain power).

Left‐wing/Liberal ideology: This ideology is generally associated with the Labour, Liberal Democrat and Green parties in the UK. It tends to be:

1. Community minded (supporting the idea that “we’re all in it together”). Supports the welfare state (e.g. free schools/healthcare), which protects the poor and sick. 2. More open to change, adapting to the views/beliefs of others. 3. Supportive of higher taxes (as these benefit the community – paying for better services and welfare). 4. Supportive of more rules and regulation to ensure that people (e.g. workers/“labour”) are protected from powerful groups (e.g. big businesses). 5. Concerned about the social causes of crime (e.g. poverty/mental health) and seeks to help rehabilitate criminals rather than punishing them.

Right‐wing/Conservative ideology: This ideology is generally associated with the Conservative party in the UK (as well as smaller parties, such as UKIP). It tends to:

1. Support the freedom of the individual (“every man/woman for him/herself”), believing that helping the poor and sick should be a choice. 2. Prefer tradition, conserving the past (hence the term “conservative”). 3. Support lower taxes (if people want healthcare, education, etc., they should work harder to be able to afford it). 4. Support fewer rules and regulations (cutting red‐tap), believing that businesses should be free from government meddling and be able to grow as big as they like, charge as much as they want and pay workers as little as they can get away with. If people don’t like it, they have the freedom to choose other products to buy or other companies to work for. 5. See criminals as individuals, who have made the wrong choices, supporting severe punishments (to put others off doing the same).

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Revise Representation:

1. What is the difference between under‐representation and misrepresentation – p.43? 2. What two things “can” media texts do with stereotypes – p.43? 3. When does Stuart Hall argue that stereotyping tend to occur? What are positive stereotypes associated with – p.43? 4. List at least three traditional stereotypes associated with men – p.44. 5. List at least three traditional stereotypes associated with women – p.44. 6. Considering these stereotypes, which gender appears to be more positively represented – p.44? 7. What is patriarchy/patriarchal ideology – p.44? 8. What evidence do we have that patriarchy still exists (to some extent) in the UK – p.44? 9. What rights have feminists fought for (and won) for women – p.45? 10. What evidence do we have that the struggle against patriarchal ideology continues – p.45? 11. What is objectification – p.45? 12. How are women frequently objectified in the media (how can we tell if a woman is being objectified) – p.45? 13. Why is objectification patriarchal – p.45‐46? 14. What is the beauty myth (and whose theory is it) – p.46? 15. How are media texts constructed to appeal to the male gaze – p.46? 16. How do media texts encourage audiences to view women through the male gaze – p.46? 17. What issue does the Bechdel test draw “attention to” – p.46‐47? 18. What are the rules of the Bechdel test – p.47? 19. In what ways are men often represented differently to women in the media? – p.47? 20. Explain at least three ways (together with reasons) that representations of women have changed since WWII – p.48‐50? 21. How have representations of men changed since WWII – p.48‐50? 22. What stereotypes exist about rich and poor people – p.50? 23. What is the difference between race and ethnicity – p.51? 24. What is ethnocentricity – p.51? 25. What historical events/issues have affected the representation of race/ethnicity – p.51‐52? 26. What colonial stereotypes exist about white/European people – p.52? 27. What colonial stereotypes exist about “other” cultures/races – p.52? 28. What did Alvarado argue that black people are often represented as being – p.52? 29. What is the white saviour myth and why is it a distortion of reality – p.52? 30. What stereotypes exist about:  Children?  Teens?  Adults?  Older people – p.53? 31. Why may media producers currently be reluctant to stereotype older people – p.53? 32. What is sensationalism/moral panics? How may they affect the representation of events – p.53? 33. What is fake news? Why is it a problem? How do you spot it – p.54? 34. Where do news stories come from (identify three main sources) – p.55? 35. What is investigative journalism and why is it expensive – p.55? 36. Why are newspaper editors considered to be “gatekeepers” – p.55? 37. Identify five criteria (according to Galtung and Ruge) which gives news “value” – p.55’? 38. What is the difference between left and right‐wing ideology? How may it influence the representation of events – p.56?

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Audiences When considering media audiences, you need to ask: HOW do media texts target different audiences? Target Audiences:  How can audiences be categorised (e.g. by gender, age, fans of…)?  Who does the text target (who is it aimed at)? Is it a mass or niche audience?  How do we know this (how has the text been constructed to target this specific audience)?  What assumptions appear to have been made about this audience (e.g. about their interests, politics and sexual orientation)?  Why may the producers of the text want to target this audience?

Technology:  How has technology affected the way in which the text’s producer can reach audiences (e.g. has it limited or expanded the ways in which the text can be viewed)?

WHY do audiences consume different media? What Uses and Gratifications do media texts provide? Uses and  What uses does the text provide (e.g. information/education/advice)? Gratifications:  How does it gratify the audience (e.g. provide entertainment, escapism and/or opportunities for social interaction)?

Identity:  What themes or issues does the text address?  Who can identify with these issues?  What social or cultural significance does the text have?  How does the text help create a sense of identity for the audience?

HOW and WHY may audiences respond differently to the same text(s)? Audience  What is the preferred reading of the text (what do the producers want Interpretation: the audiences to think/feel)?  What is a negotiated or oppositional reading to the text (how could audiences think/feel differently)?  Why may audiences read the text so differently?  How could changes in society over time affect the reading of the text?

Active &  Has technology allowed audiences to be more interactive (with the text Participatory or with other audience members)?  How can audiences use technology to respond in different ways? Audiences

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AUDIENCE TARGETING HOW do media texts target different audiences?

Do media texts really target audiences? There is a tendency to believe that media is produced by creative people, who just make what they like and – if it’s any good – it finds an audience. While some media is made in this way, it is certainly not the norm.

Most media texts are expensive – especially films, television programmes and video games, which often cost millions to produce.

Most media companies work for profit and they only invest in projects that are likely to generate a return (or profit) – more than enough money to pay the salaries of all the people who made it (and if you’ve ever noticed how many names appear on film credits – that’s often a lot of people).

Companies want larger audiences in order to profit from ticket sales, in‐app purchases, subscription fees, advertising revenue etc.

But companies can’t rely on guesswork to tell if something will appeal to audiences. They need to know exactly who their target audience is and what this audience wants. If a project doesn’t have a clear target audience, it is unlikely to get made; it’ll be seen as too much of a risk.

This is why media producers use a range of techniques to identify/categorise and target specific audiences.

What is an audience? In Media Studies, an audience is a group of people who consume a media text (consumption collectively refers to the ways audiences can watch, listen, read, play and interact with media texts.

However, these audiences are not all the same and not everyone consumes the same media texts. So, how are audiences defined or categorised? What makes BBC Radio 4 listeners different to the people who play Fortnite?

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How are audiences categorised? The various media industries categorise their target audiences in different ways, depending on what’s important to them.

Demographics: A target audience is simply the group who the text is being made for. There are many ways of categorising (defining/describing) who this is.

We call a group of people, who share something in common, a demographic (e.g. “a female demographic” or “a teen demographic”).

However, it is often clear that media texts have more than one audience (or demographic). For instance, many texts may have a primary target audience (a group who the text is particularly aimed at), but may also appeal to a different, secondary (and sometimes tertiary) audience. For example, Pixar studios primarily target a young demographic with their films, but also appeal to a secondary audience of adults/parents.

When categorising a target audience (or demographic), we need to consider factors such as:

e.g. “25‐31 year olds”, “adults”, “mature adults” or “a Age: teenage demographic” or “children”

Gender: e.g. “a female demographic” or “men”

Interests (or fans of particular people or e.g. “fans of…” or “people who like…” things):

Viewing habits: e.g. “regular readers/viewers of…”

mainstream media texts could be said to appeal to more of a The size or type of mass audience whereas alternative or “specialised” texts audience: would appeal to more of a niche or “specialised” audience.

Other factors, inc. nationality, heritage, beliefs, ethnicity, religion, e.g. “Christians”, “homosexual women”, “French people” cultural practice and sexuality

Terminology in Use (audience categorisation):

The text appears to target…  a female demographic  fans of the action genre  regular listeners of BBC Radio 4  the C2DE social group (see next page)  an ABC1 demographic (see next page)  the 18-25 ABC1 demographic (see next page) 60

Mass and Niche Audiences: Put simply – a mass audiences is large and a niche audiences is small.

It is challenging creating a media product for a mass audience, i.e. something that lots of people will enjoy. This often requires bigger budgets (e.g. to afford celebrities to appear in it). Therefore creating texts that have mainstream appeal can be risky as there’s more to lose, which is why many studios like to play it safe, producing:

 sequels to already successful films or part of already successful franchises (like the Marvel cinematic universe, Fast & Furious, Star Wars, James Bond or Harry Potter)  texts which follow a tried and tested formula or feature big stars (e.g. Tom Hanks/Cruise)

The danger of this is that audiences can quickly become bored – and big productions can flop if they don’t offer anything interesting or new.

While niche audiences are smaller, they are, in some ways, easier to gratify (as you don’t have to please lots of different people). While texts aimed at niche audiences yield smaller returns/profits, these audiences tend to be more loyal and the text can therefore be seen as a lower financial risk. Producers of niche texts can often experiment more (as budgets tend to be smaller, there is less to lose) and producers understand that they could get lucky and produce something new, which becomes a breakout hit.

The NRS social grade/Social demographics: Advertisers ‐ and any media producers who rely on advertising for their revenue (e.g. magazines) ‐ will also be interested in the income of particular audiences. This is to ensure that adverts are seen by the people who are likely to be interested in (and afford) their products. These organisations therefore use the NRS social grade to identify their audiences, which is divided into the following six groups:

Sometimes these groups can be bundled together, e.g. a magazine may claim its audience is ABC1 (the top earners) or C2DE (the lowest earners). 61

Psychometrics/The 4cs (Cross Cultural Consumer Characterisation): It’s not only income, which affects people’s purchases, it’s also the way they think (psychometrics).

The marketing and communications company Young and Rubicam used psychometrics to categorise audiences based on their values, attitudes and lifestyle (VALs).

According to this research, people fit into the following VALs.

Explorers like to discover new things and are attracted to new or innovative Explorers brands, products and experiences. They seek discovery.

Aspirers want status brands that show their place in society. They are happy to invest in luxury goods, often using credit. They consider themselves stylish Aspirers and on trend and may be persuaded by celebrity endorsements. They seek status.

Succeeders are those who have a high social status and are in control of their lives with nothing to prove. They believe they deserve the best and decide Succeeders upon the best brands and products for themselves based on reliability. They seek control.

Reformers are defined by self‐esteem and self‐improvements. They are not influenced or impressed by status and they are not materialistic. They are Reformers socially aware people who are inclined to invest in brands and products that are good for them or good for the environment. They seek enlightenment.

Mainstreamers make up 40% of the population. They like tried and trusted brands that are value for money. They like to think they are part of a larger Mainstreamers group of like‐minded people and are less likely to take risks. They seek security.

The struggler has a ‘live for the day’ attitude and doesn’t think about the Strugglers future. They may see themselves as victims with only their physical skills as helping them in society. They seek escape.

The resigned are predominantly older people who have built up their The Resigned attitudes over time and believe in institutions and traditions that they have come to trust and believe they can invest in safely. They seek to survive.

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How do media texts target different audiences? You can often identify who the text is targeting through the following features:

Characters/ Generally speaking, the characters/celebrities featured in a media text resemble the target audience (or, at least, who the audience want to be). celebrities the For example: audience can  children often feature in television programmes aimed at children relate to/  black British women often feature in magazines aimed at black aspire to be British women

Media texts often work within clear genres as it allows them to specifically Genre codes appeal to fans of that genre.

This can help create a sense of identity or communicate themes. For example, media texts can make use of: The use of colour  bright, vibrant colours to attract young people  feminine colours to attract women  greens to attract people who care about the environment

Media texts can quickly appeal to certain demographics by referring to other media that they may be familiar with. The title of the film Shaun of the Intertextuality Dead would appeal to cinephiles (or “film buffs”) who would recognise the reference to George A Romero’s 1978 horror classic Dawn of the Dead.

For example, media texts can make use of:  slang to appeal to young people  formal language to appeal to professionals Its choice of words  technical language to appeal to niche audiences who have a

specialist interest in a subject  hyperbole (or exaggerated language) to people who crave entertainment

Its platform/ If you want to target a specific audience, you need to know the type(s) of method of media they consume. For instance, younger people don’t tend to read distribution newspapers and magazines, whereas older adults do. While streaming services are more popular with younger audiences, broadcast television schedules its programmes on specific days (and times of day) to target a range of different audiences. For instances: The use of TV  Programmes shown after the 9pm watershed are targeted towards scheduling adults, as they generally feature more mature content  Zoning can be used (where a TV programme is slotted between other similar texts shown in a sequence.  Stripping can be used (where the programme is shown at the same time every week to encourage audiences to form their daily routines around it).

What’s the text about? Does it contain anything else which specific groups Content of people will enjoy/be interested in?

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Target Audiences & Technological Changes: New technology – especially the internet ‐ has changed the ways in which companies can target audiences. Adverts (and other media) can now be selectively shown (or recommended) to audiences based on their recent searches and even the messages and emails they send. Services like Spotify, Netflix and YouTube recommend music and videos to their users based on what they have already seen or heard.

There are positives and negative aspects to these changes.

Positive Changes: Recommendations help people find media and products that interest them

Because the internet allows users to view media from all over the world (and from smaller producers), there is a greater variety of content to suit all audiences – what is referred to as plurality. As more people are able to produce media (for example, on their phones or home computers) and can distribute this work online for free, there is much more experimental content available; producers often have little to lose and lots to gain by trying new things.

Also, audiences have more choice over when, where and how to consume media. They are often no longer bound (as much) by TV, radio or cinema scheduling.

Negative Changes: However, there are downsides to this increase in choice and flexibility.

Firstly, media companies like Google (who own YouTube) have been accused of snooping too much into people’s online activity in order to target ads and products. Some have argued that audiences have lost their privacy for the sake of convenience.

Secondly, if people only look at media that is recommended to them, they may not find anything new or different. While this may be acceptable for finding entertainment, it may limit people’s access to views and opinions which challenge their own. There are growing concerns that people live in their own filter bubbles – only viewing content that reinforces their own belief systems. This could be making the world more divisive as people feel they exist in different worlds to others.

New technologies have also resulted in audiences being more segmented/split up. In the past, it was easier for television programmes to reach millions of viewers. As there were only a handful of TV channels, most people watched the same things (usually as a family) in the evening and were able to talk about these programmes with their friends and colleagues the next day. This is now becoming less likely as there are many more channels and streaming services (not to mention radio stations websites and games), which make it more difficult for a single programme to attract a large audience. Increasingly, people are consuming different media (even within their families) and, as a result, feel less connected with the people around them.

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AUDIENCE APPEAL WHY do audiences consume different media? What Uses and Gratifications do media texts provide?

Why do people consume anything? Before we explore what media provides people, we need to consider what people want or need.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs In 1943 Abraham Maslow proposed that humans were driven by five basic needs.

Although we no longer accept that there is a specific order (or hierarchy) to these needs, it is generally accepted that human beings are driven by the need for the following:

Although media does not directly meet people’s physiological needs, it can meet many of the others.

Blumler and Katz built on this theory in 1974, arguing that the media provides many different uses and gratifications for audiences. These were categorised into four distinct categories:

 Information and Surveillance  Personal Identity  Social Interaction  Entertainment/Escapism*

*see pages 67‐68 for more details

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Cultural Capital: Blumler and Katz claimed that media texts can have cultural capital ‐ a worth relating to their cultural significance.

The tastes and preferences of an audience can be linked to their social class and backgrounds. People can improve their social standing by developing their cultural knowledge and consuming specific media texts. Some social groups may be more impressed with your knowledge of the films of Akira Kurosawa, for example, than who won Love Island. It could be argued that knowledge of the former has a higher cultural capital and you are more “cultured” for it.

The Cult of Celebrity: Blumler and Katz also argued that audiences often consume media as it is aspirational – encouraging people to want (and be) more ‐ inspiring them to improve themselves, their possessions and the world.

Watching celebrities may form an important part of this driving force in what has been termed the cult of celebrity.

People are obsessed with celebrities– watching media texts they appear in, buying products they endorse and have a thirst for more information about them – often reading news stories about their relationship updates, following them on social media or seeing paparazzi photos of them appearing in real life.

Dr. Michael Platt, an American neurobiologist has argued that this desire to follow celebrities formed millions of years ago in human evolution. In 2005, he led an experiment with 12 adult male rhesus monkeys. Platt conducted the experiment by offering thirsty monkeys a choice: their favourite drink (in this case Juicy Juice cherry juice) or the opportunity to look at computer images of the dominant "celebrity" monkey of their pack. Despite their thirst, they chose to look at the pictures. Monkeys with status have food, power and sexual magnetism ‐‐ everything the others crave. The impulse to look at these "celebrity" monkeys was so strong, it superseded thirst.

This research would suggest that humans (who are genetically similar to monkeys) crave images and news of celebrities in a similar way ‐ because they want to learn how to be a successful/dominant human being – and that this desire is hard‐wired into our brains.

Of course, companies around the world now make regular use of this powerful drive to make people consume certain media (which feature celebrities), buy certain products (because celebrities use or endorse them) or as clickbait to encourage people to read an online article and see all its embedded advertising.

Celebrities are very powerful in attracting audiences as they often epitomise who people want to be.

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Uses and Gratifications Theory (Blumler & Katz, 1974):

Information & Surveillance: People consume media to learn, seek advice or find out about events

Consider… Write…

Blumler & Katz may argue that the text What information does the text provide? provides useful information about…

Blumler & Katz may argue that What will audiences learn from the text? audiences will use this text to learn about…

Personal Identity: People consume media to help reinforce their personal values, find models of behaviour (role models), identify with people in the media and/or gain an insight into themselves.

Consider… Write…

According to Blumler & Katz’s Uses and Gratifications theory, the text may Who does the text feature, who the audience gratify the audience by providing could look up to as a role model? aspirational role models, who they can use to help form a sense of personal identity. For example…

According to Blumler & Katz’s Uses and Gratifications theory, the text Who does the text feature, who the audience provides characters of a similar age/gender/race/background [etc.], could relate to? who the audience can relate to, providing a sense of personal identity. For instance…

According to Blumler & Katz’s Uses How could the text help reinforce the audience’s and Gratifications theory, the text may views or values? reinforce the audience’s views/values by supporting the idea that...

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Social Interaction: People consume media to find a basis for conversation, help identify with others, gain a sense of belonging (community), as a substitute for real life companionship, to gain an insight into others and/or to help connect with family, friends and society.

Consider… Write…

How does the text help the audience interact It could be argued that the text with others? E.g. does it provide any provides opportunities for social opportunities to connect with others on social interaction (Blumler & Katz, 1974) in that it offers: media (e.g. does it use Twitter hashtags)?  the potential to interact with others on social media, such as… Does the text provide any so called ‘watercooler  a significant watercooler moments’ ‐ interesting talking points (anything moment/talking point when… which audiences can discuss with other people  characters (or people) who can the next day)? provide a sense of company if the audience is feeling lonely, for instance… Does it provide a sense of connection with others (i.e. provide the illusion of company)?

Entertainment/Escapism: People consume media to escape, help divert them from their problems, fill time, provide an emotional release and/or sexual arousal.

Consider… Write…

How may the text help distract audiences from According to Blumler & Katz’s Uses their problems? and Gratifications theory, audiences could find …. entertaining, providing Why may the text be enjoyable or interesting? something which…  allows audiences to

escape/momentarily distracts them from their problems Does the text provide an emotional release?  is enjoyable and interesting  provides an emotional release  could be viewed as artistic or Is there anything which could be viewed as cultural having artistic or cultural value?  sexually arouses them

Does it contain anyone who the audience may …for example… find attractive?

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Dyer’s ‘Utopian Solutions’ (Dyer, 1992): Richard Dyer argues that certain elements are missing from modern life, which the media make up for by offering ‘utopian solutions’.

People crave… Because, in the past… While today… Utopian Solution Media offers people a Many people live in large sense of community ‐ People used to live in towns or cities, social media, soap small, close‐knit surrounded by strangers Community operas and sitcoms all communities where and feel less connected give the illusion of having everyone felt connected. with the people around a shared experience with them. a group of people. Media offers people a For many, people have People used to live on sense of intensity that never been so safe. Laws the edge of life‐or‐death. they crave (but is lacking and rules protect us from Intensity They used to hunt and be in real life) by showing us dangers while modern hunted. Danger was all various life‐threatening medicine keeps us alive around. situations in the comfort longer. of our own homes.

People used the We are constantly shown We can vicariously live materials they found new products, lifestyles more abundant lifestyles Abundance around them. They often and fashions. We always through the characters had no knowledge of (or want more. we watch and play. need of) anything else.

The media makes the Life used to be simple. Life is vastly more world easier to People gathered food, complicated. Civilisations understand. For they sheltered. work and interact in instance, media texts Transparency Sometimes they fought complex ways and we (including the news) over land or possessions, cannot always easily often break events down but –more often ‐ ascertain people’s into stories of “good” worked together. motives. versus “bad”.

Hunter‐gatherers worked The media provides between 20‐40 hours a people with the illusion People work a 40 hour week, which included of being energetic – week and have to clean, time for preparing food, exploration, chases, shop, exercise, prepare cleaning, making clothes fights and adventures are Energy food and wash their etc. They used to be a staple of many media clothes. They have less active outdoors during texts. People can time and energy for their working hours and experience these without adventure. had more free time to even having to get out of explore and be creative. their seats.

Terminology in Use (Dyer’s Utopian Solutions):

This offers audiences a sense of intensity, which they may crave in real life (Dyer, 1992).

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AUDIENCE RESPONSES HOW and WHY may audiences respond differently to the same text?

Media Effects: A media text can position audiences to:

 think something (e.g. that “drinking and driving is dangerous” or that “James Bond is tough”) or  feel something (e.g. fear, rage, exhilaration or admiration)

However, there are different theories about how audiences receive these messages.

Some theorists argue that audiences are passive – easily manipulated, simply thinking and feeling what the media wants them to think and feel.

While others argue that audiences are active – interpreting media texts in their own ways, thinking and feeling independently of the media.

Although we currently think of audiences as being active, it is worth considering the arguments for passivity.

The Hypodermic Needle Theory: For decades, people have voiced concerns about the negative effects of media on the public.

 Does seeing violence on TV/in video games encourage people to be violent?  Do adverts for junk‐food, cigarettes or alcohol make people unhealthy?  Does sexism and racism in the media make people more sexist or racist?  Do newspapers (or fake news stories) manipulate people’s views or voting habits?

In the past, it was generally accepted that audiences were easily influenced by the media, almost as if they were empty vessels being filled by the ideas that they saw, read or heard.

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This is the thinking behind the hypodermic needle theory, which supports the idea that audiences are passive – simply accepting the messages being fed to them by the media.

These fears were intensified after World War II, when the Nazi party’s propaganda indoctrinated the minds of millions of educated German citizens, encouraging them to support their genocidal, murderous and racist regime.

Nazi propagandist Joseph Goebbels actually used sophisticated PR (Public Relations) techniques pioneered in America by people such as Edward Bernays (nephew of Sigmund Freud) in the 1920s.

Bernays had reinvented advertising in the US by using Freud’s theories on how the brain works. Prior to Maslow’s work, Freud had argued that people were influenced by primal desires or needs ‐ for example, the desire for sex, power or security ‐ without even being aware of them. Bernays encouraged advertisers to appeal to these unconscious desires. By doing so, advertisers were able to bypass people’s logic, encouraging them to connect products with emotions. Bernays encouraged people to buy things ‐ not because they needed them ‐ but because they fulfilled deep‐rooted desires, e.g. to be attractive or accepted. Worst of all, people were unaware they were being manipulated in these ways.

Among a number of successful campaigns, Bernays used these techniques to help the tobacco industry encourage more women to smoke and even helped the US overthrow a democratically elected government in Guatemala (resulting in the death of 200,000 people).

Propaganda can be dangerous.

The Bobo Doll Experiment (Bandura, 1961): As well as brainwashing the public, there have also been concerns that the media encourages people to imitate negative/transgressive* behaviour that they see. This argument often crops up when the news covers a mass shooting. People often blame violent video games or horror films for warping the mind of the killer.

*behaviour which breaches social norms

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In the 1960s, there appeared to be laboratory evidence to “prove” that people really did copy the violence they saw on TV. Albert Bandura conducted the Bobo Doll experiment, where young children were placed in a room with a variety of toys – including a giant doll called Bobo. Some of these children were shown a short film beforehand, where they saw the doll being treated violently. The children who had watched this film were much more likely to imitate this behaviour and beat up the doll than those who had not. It appeared to prove the social learning theory ‐ that children really did copy what they saw on TV.

However, the experiment was flawed. For one, it did not imitate real‐life (where there is a complex interaction of competing influences). Also, the children may have been motivated to act in this way, thinking that this is what the people running the experiment wanted. Rather than learning to be violent, the children may have been performing a role.

In reality, it may be impossible to prove that media has any effect on people, as it is impossible to isolate the influence of media from other factors (such as poverty, mental illness, extremist ideologies, education and exposure to real‐life violence). There are simply too many extraneous variables (elements that cannot be independently controlled) to run a reliable experiment.

Some critics argue that media has profound effects on people, whereas others claim it has little to no effect at all. There are also various studies that appear to prove both arguments. However, the real answer is probably somewhere in‐between. We simply do not know for certain.

However, we no longer think of the audience as being purely passive and both the hypodermic needle theory and Bandura’s media effects model are now considered to be out‐dated. People do not react in the same way to the same media text. They are independent, intelligent people, who have their own opinions and cannot be so easily swayed by what they see or read in the media.

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So why do people still blame the media for real‐life violence? If there is no reliable evidence to support the argument that media makes people violent, why do people still claim this to be the case?

To put it simply – it makes a good scapegoat. If someone blames the media for negative/transgressive behaviour, it’s virtually impossible to prove them wrong (allowing them to avoid responsibility). Some politicians in America, for instance, may point the blame for mass shootings on violent video games or films, as it can deflect attention away from more difficult (and potentially expensive) issues to fix – such as gun control, mental health support, education, extremism, racism and poverty. Blaming a violent crime on video games is a useful distraction and pushes the blame from politicians to media producers.

Newspapers are also quick to pick up such stories as it stokes a moral panic (public anxiety or alarm in response to a problem regarded as a threat to society); it fuels a narrative which personally impacts readers (and is therefore more likely to generate sales). While many people feel unmoved by politics, they are likely to feel concerned if the video games that their children play are thought to be turning people into violent criminals. Such stories have more immediacy and therefore a higher news value.

Two‐Step Flow (Lazarsfeld, 1944): Two‐step‐flow theory diverts from hypodermic needle, claiming that audiences do not simply copy what they see, but rather that people are influenced by media via others. According to this theory, some people ‐ referred to as ‘opinion leaders’ – take a message in the media and then spread it to others. This theory implies that the media doesn’t have to influence everyone to have an impact – just the right people (e.g. not everyone has to read a newspaper to be affected by its messages).

Cultivation Theory (Gerbner & Gross, 1976): Although people don’t just copy what they see in the media, it doesn’t mean that they’re immune to its effects (television, for example, can be extremely hypnotic). George Gerbner’s cultivation theory argues that the media has a cumulative effect, gradually changing people’s views over time. Gerbner argued that the mass media repeat certain messages (often reinforcing the status‐quo), which the public accept after repeated exposure.

For example, when considering the issue of TV violence, Gerbner argued that by repeatedly exposing people to violence, the cultivated viewer would develop mean world syndrome – the belief that the world is more hostile than it really is. Rather than simply copying the violence, Gerbner argued that there was a subtle acceptance that the violence reflected something real.

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The Reception Model (Hall, 1980):

We no longer believe that audiences are passive – simply accepting the messages communicated in the media – as not all people respond to the same media texts in the same way (as Stuart Hall outlined in his reception theory).

Hall argued that media producers encode messages within media texts, but that audiences are active in how they decode, read and respond to these messages. He argued that texts are polysemic (have multiple meanings) as audiences can decode the messages in different ways.

According to reception theory, there are three ways in which audiences can decode/respond to a text:

The reader accepts the message that is intended by the writer and sees it Dominant/Preferred as natural and transparent (e.g. someone watches an anti‐smoking advert reading and accepts the message that smoking is bad for people’s health).

The audience slightly modifies the original message, partly reflecting on their own views and experiences (e.g. someone watches an anti‐smoking Negotiated reading advert and, while agreeing that smoking is bad for people’s health, thinks it’s OK to smoke as long as people eat a good diet and exercise).

The reader understands the original message, but chooses to criticise or Oppositional reading oppose it (e.g. understands that the advert is against smoking, but believes that smoking causes little harm and that the advert is exaggerating).

Terminology in Use (Receptinon theory):

The poster’s encoded message is that Bond is a strong hero, which is the text’s preferred reading (Hall, 1980). However, audiences could have a negotiated reading – agreeing that Bond is a strong hero, but also think that he is quite clichéd or stereotypical. Alternatively, Stuart Hall may argue that audiences could have an oppositional reading to the poster. Some may think that Bond is not a fit hero as he reinforces both patriarchal and colonial ideology. 74

Pick and Mix Theory (Gauntlett, 2002): British sociologist and media theorist, David Gauntlett, proposed a similar view to Stuart Hall. He argued that audiences select different aspects of media texts to suit their needs and ignore the rest in what he called a “pick and mix” way of reading texts.

Some people may notice elements in a media text that others don’t pick up on. That’s how they come to different readings.

This view is largely backed up by studies on how the human brain filters the information it receives to support people’s inherent biases (e.g. confirmation bias, which leads people to select information that reinforces their personal world views and ignore anything which contradicts it).

Interactive Audiences, Fandom & Participation Culture: Audiences are not just active in how they interpret media messages, new technology has allowed audiences to become interactive –engaging with texts in ways that were not previously possible.

Generally, when we discuss ‘new’ technology – we are speaking about the internet as this relatively new technology has completely transformed the media landscape.

The internet has enabled audiences to interact with texts by:

 Commenting on them (e.g. on official sites or on social media, or sometimes live‐tweeting during broadcasts)  Sharing links to help promote texts (viral marketing)  Creating their own fan‐sites or blogs  Creating or contributing to memes that exist around a media text

Theorist Henry Jenkins studied fans and fandom and noted that people do more than this, however. He studied what he refers to as textual poaching – where audiences or fans may take particular texts and interpret or reinvent them in different ways e.g. by creating fan art or fan fiction.

Jenkins also argued that audiences connect with each other to create such content – what he refers to as participation culture. He argues that this culture transcends limitations of time and space – as people can collaborate across different countries and time‐zones – bringing old and new media together.

However, Jenkins also argued that there is an uneasy relationship between producers and fans. While corporations want to encourage online participation (as it builds relationships with brands, fostering brand loyalty), they also want to control it (to limit criticism or people using their creations in ways that were not intended by the creators). He argued that the freedoms offered by the internet face challenge from the corporations, who seek to dominate it.

Other theorists have argued that the very idea of a passive audience as separate from media producers is no longer relevant. In 1980 Alvin Toffler coined the term prosumer – arguing that audiences are now both producers and consumers.

Clay Shirky similarly argued that ‐ because so many people are producing and publishing their own media (e.g. on platforms such as Instagram, Facebook and YouTube) ‐ we could consider this age to be the ‘end of audience’ – meaning that we should reconsider what audiences are and their relationships with media industries.

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Revise Audiences: 1. What is a target audience – p.59? 2. What is a demographic – p.60? 3. What is the difference between a primary and secondary audience – p.60? 4. List four ways audiences can be categorised – p.60. 5. What is the difference between a mass and niche audience – p.61? 6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of targeting a mass/niche audience – p.61? 7. What does the NRS social grade define audiences by – p.61? 8. What is the difference between ABC1 and C2DE audiences – p.61? 9. What are the 4cs? What are psychometrics “based on” – p.62? 10. Name three of the groups that Young & Rubicam defined in their research on VALs (and explain which group fits you best) – p.62. 11. Describe four ways in which media texts can target specific audiences – p.63. 12. How has the internet helped target audiences – p.64? 13. How has the internet negatively affected audiences – p.64? 14. According to Maslow, what five needs does every human have (and which ones could be fulfilled by media) – p.65? 15. According to Blumler and Katz, what are the four uses and gratifications – p.65? 16. What is cultural capital – p.66? 17. Why may people be obsessed with celebrities – p.66? 18. According to Richard Dyer, what are the five utopian solutions offered by media – p.69? 19. What can media position audiences to do – p.70? 20. What is the difference between passive and active audiences – p.70? 21. What is hypodermic needle theory – p.70‐71? 22. What has the media been accused of influencing audiences to do – p.70‐71? 23. What historical event “intensified” fears about media influences – p.71? 24. How did Edward Bernays change advertising – p.71? 25. What is transgressive behaviour – p.71? 26. What did Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment appear to prove – p.71‐72? 27. Why was Bandura’s experiment “flawed” – p.72? 28. Why do we no longer consider the hypodermic needle theory to be accurate – p.72? 29. Why may people continue to blame the media for encouraging violence – p.73? 30. How does two‐step flow theory differ from hypodermic needle theory – p.73? 31. What is Gerbner’s cultivation theory? According to this theory, how are audiences affected by messages in the media – p.73? 32. What is mean world syndrome and how does it develop – p.73? 33. Does Stuart Hall’s reception theory suggest that audiences are active or passive – p.74? 34. What does it mean when Hall argues that texts are polysemic – p.74? 35. According to Hall, what are the three ways audiences can decode media messages – p.74? 36. Who developed “pick and mix” theory – p.75? 37. How does “pick and mix” theory differ from reception theory – p.75? 38. How are audiences more interactive thanks to the internet – p.75? 39. What is textual poaching (and who studied this) – p.75? 40. Why do media companies want to encourage participation culture – p.75? 41. Why do media companies want to control participation culture – p.75? 42. What is a prosumer and who coined this term – p.75? 43. Why does Clay Shirkey argue that we may be seeing an ‘end of audience’ – p.75?

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Media Industries When analysing media industries, you need to ask: WHO produced the text? Production  Was it produced by a large company working for a corporation (e.g. part Companies: of a conglomerate) or was it a small, independent production company?  Is the text part of a successful franchise?

Commercial v.  Is this a commercial text (seeking profit) or does it provide a public‐ Public Service: service (paid for by public money)?

HOW has the production affected the text? Effect:  Considering the above, what impact has the producer had on the text?  How has the production process affected the text?  What are the similarities and differences to other media texts the producer has created?

Regulation:  Which industry does this text belong to (e.g. the film/newspaper/television industry)?  Who regulates this industry?  How is it regulated? What rules have been put in place?  What impact has regulation had on this text?  Why is it important to regulate this industry?  What problems has technology caused regulators? How has it made regulation more difficult for this industry?

Digital  Which media platform (e.g. film, magazines, newspapers, television) Convergence: does this text belong to?  Has the producer attempted to reach audiences through more than one platform (e.g. via a newspaper and online)?  How has technology helped such convergence?  Has the producer attempted to reach a global audience with this text?  If so, how has technology helped to reach a global audience?

Contexts:  How similar is this text to others produced at the time?  Why is it important to have not‐for‐profit texts (e.g. public‐service or government‐funded media) as well as commercial texts? What purpose do they serve?  Are media texts increasingly aimed at a global audience? How has this affected their production?

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MEDIA INDUSTRIES WHO produced the text & HOW has the production affected it?

The Production Process: At first glance, the production process is virtually identical for all media texts. Most media follow these stages:

 Development/Pre‐Production (planning and preparing the product)  Production (making it)  Post‐production (editing it)  Distribution & Marketing (promoting the product and getting it to audiences)

However, there are many different types of producers, each of which has a significant impact on the end product. We will study the following:

 Traditional vs. New Media (p.80)  Corporate vs. Independent Media (p.81)  Commercial vs. Public Service Media (p.82‐83)  International (Global) vs. National/Regional (Domestic) Media (p.83‐84)

Brand Identity:

Each production company uses branding to create a specific brand identity (or “image”) – individual characteristics which audiences associate with the brand, can invest in and remain loyal to.

A brand identity will be built up over time. It is reinforced with advertising campaigns and new products that represent the ethos (or “values”) of the organisation.

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A good example of this is Pixar who have developed a very recognisable style of animation. Films like Inside Out and Finding Dory share many of the design elements of the original Toy Story movie. Audiences have come to associate the Pixar style of animation with their brand identity and logo.

Most multinational media brands are easily recognisable by their logo, like the BBC blocks.

Very often, a company’s brand identity is informed by the company’s ethos – their core values or goal. For instance, Disney are firmly committed to creating big‐budget, quality, family‐friendly entertainment – the family unit is a core part of their ethos. Whereas the Hammer Films ethos was to create cheap horror films, which terrify and shock people.

Often, a whole company can support a specific ideology, demonstrating institutional bias. For instance, Rupert Murdoch’s news corporation (which owns UK newspapers such as The Sun and The Times as well as Fox News in the US) supports a right‐wing ideology, reflecting Murdoch’s own conservative views (Murdoch, himself, has been accused of racism and homophobia – views, which are often reflected in his news outlets).

Hollywood, on the other hand, is sometimes criticised for being too liberal – often supporting ideas such as tolerance, co‐operation and mutual respect.

Production Values: As well as their different beliefs and images, productions companies can also be differentiated by their size (and budgets), which affects the quality of the productions. These are referred to as production values.

 High budget  Realistic special effects  Good quality set design, lighting & costume High Production  A‐list actors Values  High quality filming techniques (e.g. aerial or crane shots)  Good quality animation & CGI

 Low budget  Cheap “clunky” special effects  Amateur set design, lighting & costume Low Production  B, C & D‐list (unknown) actors Values  Budget filming techniques (e.g. hand‐held camera)  Dated/poor quality animation & CGI

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Traditional vs. New Media: ‘Traditional media’ or ‘old media’ are the names given to the industries that existed before the internet, like radio, print and television.

“New” media

There are also emerging formats and platforms for media texts that have developed since the rise of the internet. They are called ‘new media’ (even though many of us would not consider them to be “new”) and include websites, blogs, vlogs, online games, podcasts and apps.

New media is on‐demand content accessed via the internet through digital devices, such as personal computers and smartphones. New media texts can involve interactive elements such as audience engagement and feedback.

These new, digital texts have completely transformed the way people consume media. For instance, fewer people watch broadcast TV and instead use services like Netflix, Amazon Prime, Apple TV, Disney+ or iPlayer. Many also prefer more snackable content (short media, which is designed to be easy‐to‐watch and easy‐to‐share) on services such as YouTube or Tik‐Tok.

Technological advancement has allowed previously separate media industries to develop media convergence ‐ the coming together of media industries and/or platforms. Media convergence lets audiences use one platform to consume various types of media texts – e.g. accessing books, films, television and music from a mobile phone. It also allows producers to tell stories (and promote them) across multiple platforms.

Cross‐platform marketing is now often used to promote new media texts. By advertising on television, print, radio and the internet – the campaign is more likely to reach a wider audience.

Prosumers (& the Democratisation of Media): Thanks to new technologies, it is now relatively cheap to produce media content. People no longer have to rely on major broadcasters, production companies and publishers to help them create and distribute media. So‐called prosumers (audiences/consumers, who are also producers) can make their own podcasts, videos and songs completely independently (using home computers or mobile phones) and share them online to a global audience. Some have hailed this as the democratisation of media (as anyone can now produce media – not just the few), which has arguably shifted power away from large corporations into the hands of individuals. However, this is not necessarily the case.

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Corporate vs. Independent Media: Independent production companies (as well as many individual producers/prosumers) are not attached to large corporations. Although they often have smaller budgets, they also have more creative freedom. Because their work is relatively cheap to make, they don’t need to make a lot of money to reach a profit. This means that they can create more experimental, quirky, niche content which plays with audiences’ expectations. As a result, independent producers are less likely to create crowd‐pleasers (generic content which is repetitive and derivative but has mainstream appeal).

However, independent producers can sometimes strike it lucky and produce something which is a breakout hit (something that was surprisingly successful). If this happens, often a large corporation will sponsor or buy out/acquire the company or individual. While the independent may make large amounts of money during such an acquisition or sponsorship deal, the corporation will be able to exert more control, limiting the producers’ creative freedoms.

Corporations like Disney, Google, Comcast, 21st Century Fox, Facebook, Viacom, Sony and WarnerMedia dominate the production of media around the world.

No single company has a monopoly on the world’s media (having a monopoly would mean that one company produces all the content). Monopolies are considered bad for business as they eliminate competition, choice and value – giving a corporation an enormous amount of power and influence.

However, some industries are dominated by an oligopoly (a small number of companies). For example, the world’s music industry is dominated by just three companies – Sony, Universal and Warner (known collectively as “the big three”), who distribute 88% of the world’s music.

Corporations grow in power and strength by their acquisitions (buying up smaller companies) and by merging with other companies (becoming conglomerates), allowing them to diversify ‐ combining their assets to offer a greater range of content. Diversification allows producers to create cross‐ platform media franchises (e.g. Marvel produce films, television programmes, comic books and games). However, it also allows for transmedia storytelling – telling a single story across multiple platforms (for example, The Matrix story is told through films, comic books, an anime series and a video game – each contributing to the overall narrative). It can also help keep costs down.

Acquiring smaller companies down the production chain (e.g. a production company purchasing a marketing company) is known as vertical integration.

Mergers between companies of a similar size is known as horizontal integration.

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Such mergers and acquisitions allow for corporate synergy – different parts of the same company working together for a common goal. For example, Sony Music may release the soundtrack for a Sony Pictures film – each company helping the other to make a profit (the film promotes the music while the music promotes the film). As such, synergy gives corporations immense power in promoting and distributing their content, which no independent can compete with (and which challenges the very notion of media democratisation).

While corporate products generally have access to higher budgets, they are also less likely to take creative risks. As their productions tend to have bigger budgets, there is more to lose if the product flops. Larger companies also have more pressure to please their investors/stockholders (by making the company even more profitable and efficient). Corporate productions are therefore more likely to stick to already successful genres or build on existing franchises (e.g. a new Star Wars, James Bond or Harry Potter film), which is why they are often criticised for their lack of originality.

Commercial Media: Most media texts are made for profit. We refer to these as commercial media texts. This can sometimes be used as derogatory term, especially when media texts have clearly been made for the sole purpose to make money (often criticised for being “too commercial”). For example, music videos can use some blatant product placement – clearly displaying products as a form of advertising – which can make the artist appear money‐grabbing, rather than authentically expressing themselves.

Commercial media can make money in the following ways:

Industry Revenue streams:  Cinema ticket sales (box office)  DVD/Blu‐ray sales/Digital Downloads  Streaming/Broadcasting deals (allowing films to be shown on TV) Film  Product Placement/Sponsorship deals  Merchandising (e.g. clothes & toys)  Associated soundtracks, books etc.  Advertising revenue (companies paying to show adverts/commercials in‐ between programmes) – programmes with higher ratings (more people watching) earn more money for the channel Television  Monthly subscription fees (for services like Sky, HBO or Netflix)  Product Placement/Sponsorship deals  DVD/Blu‐ray sales/Digital Downloads  Royalties from radio plays/streams  Music sales  Product Placement/Sponsorship deals Music  Ad revenue from online content (e.g. on YouTube videos)  Merchandise  Concert ticket sales  Game sales Video Games  In‐app purchases  In‐game advertising/sponsorship Magazines &  Advertising revenue Newspapers  Print sales (products with higher circulations make more money from this)  Advertising revenue Online content  Collecting and selling user data (information about audiences)  Subscription fees 82

Public Service Broadcasters (PSBs): Public Service Broadcasters (PSBs) are not‐for‐profit companies paid for with public money. For example, in the UK every household has to pay £154.50 a year for a TV licence if they watch live TV or BBC iPlayer. Without one, households can be fined (although the UK government is currently reviewing this). This revenue pays for the BBC (the UK’s biggest PSB) and also contributes to funding public service content (e.g. news and documentaries) on ITV, Channel 4 and Channel 5.

But ‐ if commercial media already produces a diverse range of texts for a wide range of audiences – why is there a need for companies like the BBC?

If we didn’t have PSBs, then all media producers would primarily be concerned with making money. They would produce what consumers want – not what people need. A useful analogy to think of here is that people want to eat sweets and crisps, but they also need vegetables.

People want to be entertained – to escape reality. But they also need to learn about important subjects, such as politics, history, culture, the environment and the law (which affects everyone).

People want to feel good about themselves. But sometimes they need to be challenged ‐ for example, challenging any false, dangerous or negative views, beliefs or habits.

Corporate media also encourages people to buy/consume more (as companies profit through increasing consumption). However, this consumerist message may have a devastating effect on the earth’s climate. People need to consume less if they want to tackle climate change, which is a message that corporate media may be reluctant to spread.

According to David Hesmondhalgh, corporate media also lacks originality, often sticking to tried and tested formula, repeating previously successful ideas in order to minimise risk and maximise audiences. Public Service Broadcasters, therefore, may provide an opportunity for artists to experiment and create something new. Public Service Broadcasting, therefore, may produce something because it is good, not because it is popular, judging success on elements such as:

 Critical reception (did the text get good reviews from professional critics?)  Audience responses (did the public think it was good/interesting?)  Audience participation (did the audience actively engage with the text?)  Social, political, cultural impact (did it have an impact on society, politics or culture?)

Therefore, there is a real need for media that is not funded purely for commercial purposes.

International (Global) vs. National/Regional (Domestic) Media: The internet has made it far easier for people to communicate around the world. Media is now easily shared between nations – both quickly and cheaply. For example, in 2012, a song from a relatively obscure South Korean music artist (Psy – who was pretty much unknown outside his home country) became a global phenomenon. Gangnam Style’s success would have been inconceivable a decade earlier (before the creation of YouTube) but seemed perfectly natural at the time. The world appears to be getting smaller.

Theorist Marshall McLuhan coined the term the global village back in 1962. He was referring to the historic interconnectedness of different countries – largely helped by technological developments. When the Spanish conquistadors first set foot on the Americas, it seemed to the Native Americans as if aliens had landed from outer‐space (they had no idea of Spain’s existence). Now most people around

83 the world don’t just know of others countries’ existence – they also share common laws and customs, times and dates as well as financial and trade agreements. They also share each other’s media.

Certain texts (for example, most American blockbuster films) have global appeal – they appeal to audiences in different countries. Media producers are increasingly aware of how profitable this can be, which is why an increasing number of films feature Asian characters and settings (to target China’s large – and increasingly affluent ‐ population).

Chinese actors Donnie Yen and Jiang Wen were given prominent roles in Rogue One – A Star Wars Story – possibly in a bid to appeal to Chinese audiences

However, not all texts have global appeal. Some (like news, for example) are often constructed for national or even regional audiences. The news of a new parking initiative in Auckland, New Zealand, for example, may have little interest for residents of Moscow, Russia.

Media texts that would only appeal to people living in specific regions within a country – e.g. counties, states or districts. Regional For example, regional (e.g. Cornish) news may be of little interest to people living outside that location.

Media texts that would only appeal to people living in a specific country, e.g. the UK, Spain or the USA. National/Domestic For example, Bollywood – the Indian film industry – is huge in India, but has not connected as effectively with the rest of the world.

Media texts which would appeal to people living around the world.

International/Global For example, films such as Avengers Endgame and music such as Gangnam Style have had significant global success.

Texts made for global audiences are likely to make more money (as more people are likely to pay to see them), but it’s hard to please everyone. As the poet John Lydgate said “You can please some of the people all of the time, you can please all of the people some of the time, but you can’t please all of the people all of the time”.

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Media Power: If media texts can influence the way people think and feel, media producers have a lot of power in our society.

It is no coincidence that – since 1988 – UK prime ministers and US presidents have regularly met with Rupert Murdoch (one of the UKs biggest newspaper proprietors and owner of Fox News in the US). He – and his businesses – are enormously powerful and influential. As a result – so is he.

Antonio Gramsci argued that media and culture play an important part in maintaining systems of power by normalising certain ideas and beliefs, in his theory of hegemony.

The dominance of one group over another, often supported by normalising social patterns. For example, it has become generally accepted that the dominant social and Hegemony political positions in society are taken up by the wealthy and the subordinate ones by the poor.

One way media producers reinforce dominant/hegemonic power structures is by filtering their content – controlling who gets to speak and who doesn’t.

Media companies, therefore, often act as gatekeepers – deciding which stories, issues, artists, styles or people to cover in their media content (and which to ignore).

Rupert Murdoch has been accused of being such a gatekeeper. A great deal of self‐censorship apparently takes place within his organisations – only editors, journalists, guests and interviewees with right wing views are employed or used (which is how its institutional bias is maintained). People with opposing views are often excluded (or ridiculed). As a result, a Murdoch newspaper (or news channel) will not be fair or objective, but rather echo his views of the world. This includes The Sun newspaper ‐ and it’s worth considering that (since 1979) no UK prime minister has been elected without The Sun’s backing. If Murdoch is able to swing elections (which is debatable), it’s an enormous amount of power for one man to have ‐ especially, when politicians are likely to be repaying the favour ‐ by changing their countries’ laws in ways that favour Murdoch and his media empire (and not the people who voted).

This immense power is just one of the reasons why media companies are regulated to keep them in check.

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Media Regulation: Every major industry is overseen by an independent organisation – a regulator, who ensures that companies act appropriately and follow its rules – and thereby protecting the public from harm.

Without effective regulation, media companies could:

 Grow so large and powerful that there wouldn’t be any real competition (damaging public choice, affordability and preventing media companies from having too much influence)  Publish material which is harmful to the public (children, in particular) – e.g. breach people’s privacy or promote extremely violent, racist or sexist views (damaging public safety)  Lie to people or unfairly encourage the public to buy certain products or vote for specific political parties, individuals or policies (damaging the democratic process)

Some industries (such as music, advertising, newspapers and magazines) are self‐regulated, which means that they are paid for by the media companies, themselves. This also means that they are independent of government control. This is important as government regulation could result in media being used to spread pro‐government propaganda and the censorship of critical opinions, which is essential for a healthy democracy (giving people free choice over who and what to vote for). Countries such as China and Russia have such control on their media.

Copyright & Intellectual Property Law: Regulators often don’t have legal powers, but are assisted by various existing laws. Arguably one of the most important laws for the creative industries is the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988. This law protects intellectual property – a legal concept which refers to creations of the mind. These rights cover assets such as music, literary and artistic works as well as words, phrases, symbols and designs.

Without copyright and intellectual property laws, the creative industries would be unable to make money. If someone spent millions on making a film, there would be nothing stopping someone else from selling tickets to see a copy of that film (keeping the money for themselves), selling counterfeit DVDs or downloads or making a film with the same story and characters.

Copyright law enables people (and companies) to sue anyone who breaches their copyright (i.e. copies their work and attempts to share or sell it), which ensures that only they profit from it. It also stops people from using their creative works without permission. A music artist may not want their song to be played on the next McDonalds advert or at a Donald Trump rally, for instance. Copyright law often gives them the right to say no.

However, there are some criticisms of copyright law and there needs to be some element of “fair use” built into the legislation because:

 Copyright law could prevent people from using media culture in their communications. From memes and parodies to sampling, mash‐ups and culture‐jamming, people use and re‐use media (often without permission) to produce art or make us laugh. If copyright law is too strict, this will not happen, which will restrict people’s freedom of expression.  Copyright law could be used by corporations to silence criticism. In order to criticise something, you may need to reproduce images, sounds or excerpts. If the copyright owner doesn’t like what you are saying, they may use copyright infringement law as a way of stopping you from saying it.  If copyright law is enforced too strictly, it can also stifle creativity. The difference between imitation and inspiration is very thin. Music and culture evolves – with each artist building on what has previously been accomplished. Copyright can stifle such developments. 86

List of UK media regulators: INDUSTRY REGULATOR

Film: BBFC (British Board of Film Classification)

Responsible for giving film age ratings/certificates (see below):

*

*please note that 12A certificates are only issued to films on cinema release (where people under the age of 12 can see the film when accompanied by an adult). DVDs are only issued 12 certificates.

TV & Radio Ofcom (the Office of Communications)

Responsible for ensuring television and radio content in the UK is varied, accurate and fair (and does not cause harm or breach privacy).

For instance, Ofcom’s broadcasting code requires that broadcasters ensure that before the 9pm watershed, its television content is suitable for younger viewers.

Ofcom also ensures that there is healthy competition in the market and no single company dominates.

Computer/ VSC (Video Standards Council) Rating Board Video Games: Responsible for giving computer/video games age ratings/certificates. The VSC Rating Board use the PEGI (Pan European Game Information) system (see below), which most people recognise.

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Newspapers & IPSO (Independent Press Standards Organisation) Magazines: Established in 2014, following the Levenson Inquiry ‐ which investigated widespread illegal phone‐hacking in newspapers and various invasion of privacy allegations.

Lord Levenson advised that the previous regulator (the PCC) wasn’t tough enough. IPSO now has powers to fine newspapers much larger sums of money when they breach their code of practice.

The newspaper industry is self‐regulated, which means that newspaper and magazines pay subsidies to fund this regulator.

Advertising: The ASA (The Advertising Standards Authority)

The self‐regulatory authority, which ensures that the advertising industry sticks to its codes and not offend or mislead audiences.

Music: MCPS, PRS for Music, PPL and VPL

Regulatory bodies ensure that record companies and other media organisations pay music artists and composers royalties for use of their music. These regulators include:  Mechanical Copyright Protection Society (MCPS) – they oversee the collection of royalties for album and single sales, both in physical formats and digital downloads ‐ and pay these to the bands and artists  Performing Rights Society (PRS) – a society of songwriters, composers and music publishers. They license the use of members’ musical compositions and lyrics when they are played in public, broadcast on radio or TV, used on the internet or copied onto physical products such as CDs or DVDs.  Phonographic Performance Limited (PPL) – licenses the use of recorded music when played in public, broadcast on radio or TV, or used on the internet, on behalf of record companies and performers.  Video Performance Limited (VPL) ‐ PPL's sister company and specifically deals with the licensing of music videos when they are played in public or broadcast on TV. VPL distributes the fees as royalties to its right‐holder members.

The internet: Surprisingly, there is currently no regulatory body for the internet in the UK, although the government is now considering whether one is necessary (possibly expanding Ofcom’s role).

In practice, regulation of the internet is incredibly difficult (see below).

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Why regulation is difficult: Effective regulation is problematic for a number of reasons.

1. Regulation could restrict freedom of speech. There is a fine line between protection and censorship. If someone wants to publish something racist, sexist, homophobic or just generally offensive (for instance, to make a joke), should the public be protected from these views or should the producer be given the freedom to say what they want (and the audience given the freedom to choose whether they want to listen)? When should regulators censor media and when should they protect freedom of speech?

2. The internet is difficult to regulate. Most media can now be found on the internet and, as most websites are hosted in other countries, UK regulators do not have the authority to fine them or shut them down if they do not comply with their rules. People can illegally download copyrighted films, music and TV programmes; they can also access material which regulators may have censored in their country, such a pornography. It is also difficult to ensure that children are prevented from accessing inappropriate material online (no watershed).

3. Regulators often lack legal powers. As a result, their rulings lack clout. Some media producers may take “a telling off” from a regulator if it means a dramatic increase in profits. This is partly why Lord Levenson ruled that the newspaper industry needed a new regulator with increased powers. Sometimes, getting into trouble with a regulator can give media texts free publicity (the news, itself, can become news).

4. Regulators can’t please everyone. According to Livingstone and Lunt, regulators find it difficult to serve the interests of both citizens and consumers, as these two groups have different (and often conflicting) needs. Citizens want protection from harmful or offensive material and for their media to benefit society (which may require censorship). Consumers want the freedom to access whatever media they want (which includes content that some may find extremely offensive or harmful) – they want choice and value for money. It is often difficult to please both of these groups at the same time.

So, for example, if a new horror film is made which contains extremely offensive content, regulators have a dilemma:

 Do they allow the film to be shown uncensored to give consumers choice?  Do they censor the film to protect citizens?  Do they risk drawing more attention to the film by requesting cuts (a horror film may use a “banned in the UK” phrase in their marketing)?  Does any request they make really matter, as people are likely to be able to find the uncut version on the internet, anyway?

This is one of the reasons why the relationship between audiences and media continues to be problematic.

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Revise Media Industries: Media Production 1. What are the four stages of media production – p.78? 1. What is brand identity and how do media companies establish/communicate it – p.78? 2. What is meant by a brand’s ethos – p.78? 3. What political ideology is supported by most of Rupert Murdoch’s news output – p.79? 4. What is the difference between high and low production values – p.79? 5. Name three types of traditional media and three types of new media – p.80. 6. What is media convergence and what does it allow audiences to do – p.80? 7. What is cross‐platform marketing – p.80? 8. What is the difference between corporate and independent media – p.81? 9. What is a monopoly and why are they bad for consumers – p.81? 10. What is an oligopoly and give one example within media industries – p.81. 11. What is the difference between vertical and horizontal integration – p.81? 12. Why do companies merge and acquire smaller companies? What does it allow them to do – p.82? 13. Why are corporate media companies less likely to take creative risks – p.82? 14. What is commercial media made for – p.82? 15. Name six different ways media producers can make money – p.82. 16. What does PSB stand for – p.83? 17. What is the UK’s “biggest” PSB and how is it funded – p.83? 18. What is public‐service content? What do PSBs offer, which commercial broadcasters don’t – p.83? 19. What did Marshall McLuhan mean by the term “global village”? How has the internet helped interaction between nations – p.83‐84? 20. How and why do Hollywood films increasingly target Chinese audiences – p.84? 21. What is the difference between regional, national and international media – p.84? 22. What evidence do we have that media producers are powerful – p.85? 23. What is hegemony and how does the media help maintain hegemonic power structures– p.85? 24. What does the term “gatekeeper” mean in media studies – p.85?

Media Regulation 25. What is the purpose of regulation – p.86? 26. What would happen if media industries weren’t regulated – p.86? 27. Why is it important that media is not regulated by the government – p.86? 28. What are the advantages and disadvantages of copyright law – p.86? 29. Who regulates the film industry in the UK – p.87? 30. What different age ratings can be issued to films on cinema and DVD release – p.87? 31. Who regulates the TV industry in the UK – p.87? 32. What is the purpose of the 9pm watershed – p.87? 33. Who regulates the computer/video game industry in the UK – p.87? 34. What age‐rating system does the video game industry use – p.87? 35. What different age ratings can be given to video games – p.87? 36. Who regulates the newspaper and magazine industries in the UK – p.88? 37. Why was the previous newspaper and magazine regulator replaced in 2014 – p.88? 38. Who regulates advertising in the UK? What does this organisation ensure that adverts do (and not do) – p.88? 39. Name two bodies which help regulate the music industry in the UK – p.88? 40. Why is difficult to effectively regulate the media – p.89? 41. What’s the difference between citizens and consumers (how do their needs differ) – p.89?

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