Table of Contents Contexts Representation 3 Contexts – Key Questions 42 Key Questions 43 Stereotyping 44 Gender Stereotypes & The Representation of Women Media Language 45 Feminism & Objectification Part 1: How are Media Texts constructed? 46 Feminist Theories 4 Media Language – Key Questions 47 Representations of Men 5 What are media texts? 48 Gender Representation – Timeline 6 Mise‐en‐scène* 50 Representation of Rich/Poor 7 Composition 51 Representations of Race/Ethnicity 8 Audio Codes 53 Representation of Age 9 Technical Codes 53 Representation of Issues/Events 11 Camera Movement 55 News values 12 Editing 56 Political Ideologies 13 Anchorage & Cropping 57 Representation – Revision Questions 14 Film Poster Layout 16 Print Advert Layout 18 Webpage Layout 19 Newspaper Layout 20 Broadsheet vs Tabloid 21 Magazine Layout 24 Typography (fonts) 25 Lexical/Verbal Codes (Words) 26 Narrative Codes 28 Propp’s Narratology 31 Genre – Codes & Conventions 33 Intertextuality Part 2: WHY are they constructed in these ways? 34 Introduction to Semiotics 35 Connotations & Meaning 36 Dominant Ideologies 39 Audience Appeal/Uses & Gratification 40 Media Language – Revision Questions 1 Audiences Media Industries Part 1: Audience Targeting 77Key Questions 58 Audiences – Key Questions 78 The Production Process 59 Introduction to Audiences 78 Brand Identity 60 Demographics* 79 Production Values 61 Mass/niche audiences 80 Traditional vs New Media 61 NRS Social Grades 81 Corporate vs Independent Media 62 Psychographics/The 4cs 82 Commercial Media 63 How do media texts target different 83 Public Service Broadcasters audiences 64 Technological Changes 83 Regional/National/Global Media 85 Media Power 86 Media Regulation Part 2: Audience Appeal 87 UK Regulators 65 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 89 Difficulties in Regulation 66 Uses and Gratifications theory 90 Industry ‐ Revision Questions 68 Cultural Capital/Cult of Celebrity 69 Dyer’s Utopian Solutions 65 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 67‐68 Uses and Gratifications theory *Content in bold is essential to revise Part 3: Audience Responses 70 Media effects (active and passive) 70 Hypodermic needle theory 71 Bandura & media effects 73 Two Step Flow theory 73 Gerbner’s Cultivation theory 74 Reception theory 75 Pick and mix theory 75 Participation Culture 75 Audiences ‐ Revision Questions 2 Contexts When analysing contexts, you need to ask: WHAT was happening at the time (and place) the text was made? Historical Context: When was the text produced? What was happening at this time? Social and Cultural Where was the text produced (what nationality/society/culture Context: does it belong to)? What views or opinions were prominent in the culture at this time? Political context: What political debates were taking place during the time of the text’s production? What rules and regulations may have affected the text or its industry? HOW has this affected the text? Historical Context: How have historical events affected the way the text has been constructed (put together)? How has the text been influenced by other texts? If we compare it to other texts made at the time, how typical is: o its use of media language (e.g. considering fashions and technological limitations of the time) o the way(s) in which it represents particular groups or subjects o its themes, values, messages and viewpoints o the ways in which it has been distributed, marketed, regulated, circulated and consumed by audiences? Social and Cultural What views or opinions of this culture can we see being presented Context: in this text? How are these views or opinions made clear through the text’s use of media language? How typical are these views in this society/culture? Political context: How does the text reflect political debates in its representations, themes, values, messages and viewpoints? How does the text reflect these debates in terms of its ownership, production, distribution, marketing, regulation, circulation and audience consumption? 3 Media Language When analysing media language, you need to ask: HOW has the text been constructed (put‐together)? Selection & What elements have been included in the text (what do you see/hear)? Omission: Has anything been purposefully omitted/excluded/left out? Intertextuality: Does the text make any intertextual references (to other media texts)? Realism: Is the text trying to be realistic (to increase verisimilitude)? Narrative Does the text feature any Proppian character types (heroes and villains conventions: etc.)? Does it follow the narrative conventions of any other theorist (Todorov or Barthes, for example)? Genre What genre (or sub‐genre) does the text belong to? conventions: Is it typical of this genre? Does it follow established conventions? Does it blend elements of more than one genre (is it a hybrid genre)? In what ways does the text adapt/change/subvert established genre conventions? Context: Is the text’s style typical of others of its time period? Technology How have changes in technology affected the text’s style/production? WHY has it been constructed in this way? OR: WHY have specific elements been included and/or excluded/omitted? & How does this affect the text’s meaning? Messages and What does it connote or signify? Values: What is the text’s message (or messages)? What does it suggest about the producer’s likely opinion or viewpoint (or attitudes of the culture/time‐period in which it was produced)? What does it position the audience to think or feel (particularly: about the text, certain people or an issue/event)? Why may it appeal to the audience? 4 DESCRIBING MEDIA LANGUAGE HOW are media texts constructed? What is “media”? Media is plural for “medium” (a medium is a form of communication, e.g. ‘television’ or ‘film’). During the course we will study the following mediums (or media platforms): television, radio, film, magazines, newspapers, video games and the internet. Media is created by producers who work in media industries – like the television industry. It is produced for audiences to consume (whether by watching, reading, playing or listening). What is a “media text”? In Media Studies, a text refers to a media product. Examples of media texts/products are: o Television programmes (e.g. Luther) o Music videos (e.g. Bad Blood) o Films (and their marketing) (e.g. Spectre) o Magazines (e.g. GQ magazine) o Newspapers (e.g. The Guardian) o Video/computer games (e.g. Fortnite) o Websites (e.g. www.taylorswift.com) A “media text” is not to be confused by what is meant by “text” in English. Words are only a small part of what we study in this subject. Whereas literary texts communicate through words, media texts communicate through images, graphics, sounds and words, which are combined in many different and complex ways. These elements are what we refer to as media language (which is – essentially – everything we see, read and hear in a media text). Media Codes: A single element of media language can be referred to as a “code” – e.g. a television text will be constructed from various audio codes (e.g. music, dialogue and sound effects), visual codes (e.g. dress codes and non‐verbal codes), technical codes (e.g. the camera angles and movement) as well as various genre and narrative codes. In semiotic analysis (the study of signs), these codes are also referred to as signifiers or denotations (see page 34 for more details). 5 Visual Codes Mise‐en‐scène: The most essential visual code to study is a text’s mise‐en‐scène. This is not a single element, but refers to how various elements in an image (or scene) have been combined for effect. Mise‐en‐scène refers to what you see onscreen or ‘how the scene has been arranged’, including the use of setting, lighting and costume. Each element of the mise‐en‐scène is likely to have been carefully designed (often by teams of people) to communicate ideas to the audience. Therefore, when analysing mise‐en‐scène, you need to consider how the following elements have been used to create meaning: Setting The location of the scene, which often conveys important information about characters and events. Setting is also important to establish the mood or tone. Costume & Props What people or characters wear (and what objects they hold) are important signifiers of their job, status (e.g. wealth & power) and values. Non‐verbal codes Facial expressions and gestures often convey a character’s actions or feelings (e.g. that a character is happy, sad, angry or jealous). or gesture codes Colour/Colour scheme Colours are often chosen to set a particular mood, appeal to a certain audience or symbolise a specific topic or theme. Some texts have a colour scheme, where only certain colours are used for effect or to represent an idea (e.g. green to represent nature). Lighting Lighting sets a mood. Low key lighting (dark/lots of shadow) can create a moody atmosphere, while high key lighting (bright/lively) can make the scene appear fresh and upbeat. Producers can also choose to use natural lighting (daylight) or artificial lighting (electric/indoor light) to create particular effects. Terminology in Use (mise‐en‐scène): The poster’s mise-en-scène clearly communicates ideas associated with male power. For example, Bond is wearing a suit. This dress code connotes wealth and dominance. This idea is furthered by his expression, which is calm and emotionless (despite the chaos that surrounds him), a non-verbal code which signifies his confidence. 6 Composition: Composition refers to the way the different elements of a text have been arranged/put together for effect. As well as selecting various elements (e.g. images and words) to create meaning, producers can compose texts uniquely by the way they combine these elements. A film director may choose to dress a male character in a suit to signify his wealth and power.