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Lighting Res. Technol. 2010; 42: 449–458

The effects of and on alertness and mood at night B Plitnick RN, MG Figueiro PhD, B Wood and MS Rea PhD FSLL Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 21 Union Street, Troy, NY 12180, USA

Received 23 October 2009; Revised 18 December 2009; Accepted 28 December 2009

This study was designed to explore the roles that long- and short- have on momentary mood and alertness at night. Twenty-two subjects participated in a mixed-design experiment, where we measured the impact of two levels of long- and short-wavelength lights on brain activity and on self- assessments of alertness, sleepiness and mood. Measurements were obtained 60 minutes prior to, during and after light . Results showed that lights increased electroencephalographic beta (12–30 Hz), reduced sleepiness, and increased positive affect relative to the previous dim-light period indicating that alertness and mood can be affected by light without necessarily stimulating the melatonin pathway. The impact of light was modest, however, compared to the increase in fatigue over the course of the night.

1. Background changes in momentary mood and alertness because optical incident on the Environmental stimuli can affect momentary has multiple effects on brain activity mood and alertness. The impact of colour on through parallel neural pathways. momentary mood and alertness is still con- For example, some studies suggest that troversial, at least in part because of the colours seen as ‘warm’ (red, , ) confusion between three distinct domains, evoke feelings of arousal while colours seen as physical, physiological and psychological. ‘cool’ (, blue, ) are associated with Strictly speaking colour is not a stimulus, calming feelings. The colour red, for example, but rather a psychological result of processing has been associated with feelings of danger, by neural mechanisms of the spectral irra- love, rage and excitement as well as negative diance distribution (SID) incident on the feelings such as anxiety, anger and annoy- retina. Some authors suggest that apparent ance. It has been suggested that the colour red colour itself affects momentary mood and increases human receptiveness to external alertness. Other studies have examined the stimuli and increases excitation, therefore impact of different SIDs on hormone pro- affecting a person’s emotional and motor duction and electrical brain activity asso- responses.1,2 Goldstein has argued that red ciated with momentary mood and alertness colours, though arousing, impair perfor- without specific regard to the apparent colour mance on complex activities in which exact- those stimuli evoke. It is usually very difficult, ness is required. The colours green and blue however, to determine the underlying have been associated with feelings of relax- mechanisms contributing to light-induced ation and calmness.2–6 Elliot et al.7 performed a series of studies to investigate the impact of red colour on Address for correspondence: MG Figueiro, Lighting Research performance in achievement contexts, that Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 21 Union Street, Troy, NY 12180, USA. E-mail: [email protected] is, in situations in which competence is

ß The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers 2010 10.1177/1477153509360887 450 B Plitnick et al. evaluated and positive and negative outcomes effect that short-wavelength light is also seen are possible. They hypothesised that red as blue in these studies. This assumption has colour is associated with danger of failure, justification because the results of recent and therefore, there would be an automatic, studies using short-wavelength light as a unconscious decision to avoid the object, stimulus for enhancing alertness and perfor- situation or events. Their findings supported mance and reducing sleepiness are entirely the hypothesis that perception of red colour consistent with the neurophysiological evi- prior to an achievement task impairs perfor- dence that neural pathways from the SCN are mance compared to a green and an achro- important to sleep and alertness.13 These matic colour. Similar findings have been converging lines of research add weight to reported by Stone.8 These results are not the inference that the SCN, through consistent with findings by Hill and Barton,9 stimulation by short-wavelength light, plays however, who reported that red enhances an important role in human alertness and performance of athletes who wore red colour. probably performance. Very recently, how- 14 In general, the studies of colour on emotions ever, Figueiro and colleagues showed that and performance are conflicting. Although the circadian system may not be the only part of the explanation for this lack of pathway associated with light-induced alert- consistency may be due to random, non- ness at night. They showed that both long- systematic effects of apparent colour on wavelength, red light and short-wavelength, human physiology and behavior, or to indi- blue light of the same corneal vidual differences in apparent colour prefer- evoked similar alerting effects (i.e. increased ence, or to differences in cultural associations power in the electroencephalogram (EEG) with apparent colour,10 some of the uncer- beta and reduced power in the tainty must arise from a failure to define the EEG alpha frequencies). light stimulus independent of the psychologi- The goal of this study was to expand on cal response that the stimulus evokes, that is, that by Figueiro and colleagues by its apparent colour. Without a characteri- investigating the impact of long-wavelength, sation of the stimulus independent of the red and short-wavelength, blue light on mea- response it evokes, it is not possible to develop sures of sleepiness and momentary mood an understanding of the physiological (both measured subjectively). The present study was expected to serve as a partial mechanisms mediating the measured outcome. validation of the previous results as well as Other studies have examined the impact of to investigate the dissipation of the alerting SIDs (combinations of both and effects of light after exposures to blue and ), not simply apparent colour, on red lights. alertness, sleepiness and performance.11,12 Of particular interest for the present study, several studies have examined the impact of 2. Methodology short-wavelength light on nocturnal alertness and performance as it might be mediated by In order to minimise differences in cultural the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN), the pace- biases toward colours, 24 native-born subjects maker for regulating circadian rhythms. from the United States (19–27 years of age) Short-wavelength light is an important stim- were recruited to participate in the study ulus to the human circadian system; it is from an electronic posting at Rensselaer known to be maximally sensitive to short- Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York. wavelength radiation peaking at about All subjects were screened for major health 450 nm. Presumably, it is only a collateral problems and except for women taking birth

Lighting Res. Technol. 2010; 42: 449–458 Effects of light on alertness and mood at night 451 control pills, subjects reported not taking affecting the spectral irradiance distributions any pharmaceuticals or medications. Every of the LEDs. Measurements of pupil area subject completed a Munich Chronotype completed after the experiment with a differ- Questionnaire (MCTQ) prior to the study; ent group of subjects (N ¼ 5) were: red at those who were late or extremely late 10 lx, 34 mm2; red at 40 lx, 22 mm2; blue at chronotypes were excluded from the experi- 10 lx, 10 mm2; blue at 40 lx, 6.5 mm2. ment. This study was approved by the The Biosemi ActiveTwo system with active Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Institutional electrodes was used for EEG recordings. This Review Board. Subjects were asked to refrain system is battery powered, minimising elec- from alcohol and caffeine on the days of the trical interference from alternating current experiment and were asked not to sleep after (ac) during recording sessions. Electrodes awakening for the day. Subjects were also were placed on subjects’ scalps according to asked to go to bed no later than 23:00 the night the International 10-20 system at Oz, Pz, Cz before the experiment. Of the 24 individuals and Fz.15 Two additional electrodes serving recruited for the study, 22 (9 males and as virtual reference electrodes for those 13 females) subjects completed the entire attached to the scalp were attached to the experiment and their results are reported right and to earlobes. Another elec- here. Two subjects decided to withdraw from trode was placed approximately 5 cm below the experiment after the first session. the left clavicle to measure an electrocardio- Four experimental lighting conditions, two gram (ECG) . spectra (blue and red) at two levels (10 lx and To minimise introducing personal biases 40 lx), were delivered to individual subjects associated with colour into the experiment, from 0.6 0.6 0.6 m3 light boxes, each fitted a mixed-design experiment was conducted with arrays of light-emitting diodes (LEDs). whereby half the subjects only saw blue light The arrays (ICove, Colour Kinetics) were and half the subjects only saw red light. located behind the front box to be Subjects were given the same instructions outside the subject’s direct view, thereby before starting the experiment during which creating a uniform, non-glaring distribution they were informed that the light colour they of light within the box. During light expo- would be seeing (red or blue) was known to sures, subjects placed their chin on a rest have an alerting effect and that we were mounted near the front of a box, ensuring investigating the impact of light level. The delivery of the prescribed light exposure. The light stimuli were approximately equated in spectral emissions of the blue LEDs peaked at terms of visual response (i.e. illuminance at 470 nm with a full width at half maximum the cornea), not in terms of circadian response (FWHM) of 25 nm. The red LEDs peaked at because equal circadian responses by both 630 nm with a FWHM of 25 nm. Before the spectra would have resulted in exceedingly experiment, each of the light boxes was bright red-light conditions relative to the calibrated using a Gigahertz illuminance blue-light conditions. Marked disparities in to provide 10 lx or 40 lx for both the apparent of the blue and red LED arrays at the plane of the subject’s lights would have confounded interpretation corneas when positioned in the chinrest. Two of any subjective responses to the light stimuli boxes provided blue light (40.2 mW/cm2 at because it would have been impossible to 40 lx and 10 mW/cm2 at 10 lx) and two emitted know whether subjects were responding dif- red light (18.9 mW/cm2 at 40 lx and 4.7 mW/cm2 ferentially to the apparent brightness or to the at 10 lx); light levels were adjusted with an apparent colour. The mixed-design study was electronic dimmer without significantly conducted over the course of several weeks

Lighting Res. Technol. 2010; 42: 449–458 452 B Plitnick et al. during February and March 2009. Each and momentary mood) in the dim light (D1) subject saw one light level per night in a were completed after 15 minutes into the counterbalanced order. Twenty-four subjects dim-light period. Self-assessments of sleepi- were recruited originally, but since only 11 ness and alertness were performed using the subjects in each group completed the study Karolinska Sleepiness Scale (KSS)16 and a the planned counterbalancing was not com- modified Norris mood scale.12,17 Self- plete; six subjects saw the blue and the red assessments of momentary mood were lights at 10 lx first while five subjects saw the obtained using the Positive and Negative blue and red lights at 40 lx first. All subjects Assessment Scale (PANAS).18 KSS is a were asked to arrive at the laboratory at 23:00 9-point standardised sleepiness scale ranging to receive instructions and be fitted with from ‘extremely alert’ (1) to ‘very sleepy, electrodes for EEG/ECG recordings. Groups fighting sleep’ (9). The modified Norris mood of four subjects participated in two sessions scale was comprised of 12 items; however, we separated by at least 1 week. only used responses to one, 7-point scale (3, Every session began at 00:00 and was drowsy, to þ3, alert) in the analyses. The completed at 03:30. Figure 1 shows the PANAS scores are each based on 10, 5-point experimental design for one subject. The scales developed to independently measure start of data collection for each of the other positive affect and negative affect. three subjects in a session was successively As shown in Figure 1, the first set of EEG/ staggered by 5 minutes. The 60-minute light ECG measurements, at (E)R, was exposure condition was preceded by a obtained after 60 minutes in dim light, 60-minute period in dim light (51 lx of red followed by another set of subjective assess- light (max ¼ 630 nm) at the cornea). Starting ments, at time (S)R, also collected in the dim at midnight, subjects remained in the dim light. Subjects were then asked to sit in front light for 60 minutes. Recordings of the first of the (red or blue) illuminated light box for subjective assessments (sleepiness, alertness 60 minutes. Subjective assessments (La) were

Reference measurement (R)

Preparation First dim (D1) Light (L) Second dim (D2) EEG/ECG L

(E) D2b D2c (E)R D2a Self-report Lb D1 D2 La

(S) (S)R 2:00 3:00 1:00 0:00 23:00

Figure 1 Four subjects were scheduled to arrive at the laboratory at 23:00 for preparation for an experimental session. Data collection for the four subjects in a session was staggered to permit sequential EEG/ECG recordings. Every session began at 00:00 and data collection was completed for the last of the four subjects at 03:30. Illustrated is the measurement time sequence for the first subject in a session. During every session, each subject was presented a high (40 lx) or a low (10 lx) light exposure condition of the same spectrum (blue or red). Subjects within a group received the same colour of light (red or blue), but half saw the lower and half the higher light level. EEG/ECG collection ( bars): The reference measurement (E)R ¼ after 60 minutes in the dim light, L ¼ after 60 minutes in the light, D2a ¼ 5 minutes after light was turned off; D2b ¼ 25 minutes after light was turned off; D2c ¼ 45 minutes after light was turned off. Self-report collection times ( bars): D1 ¼ after 15 minutes in the first dim light condition, (S)R ¼ after approximately 63 minutes in the dim light; La ¼ after 15 minutes in the light condition, Lb ¼ after approximately 63 minutes in the light condition; D2 ¼ approximately 48 minutes after the light condition was completed

Lighting Res. Technol. 2010; 42: 449–458 Effects of light on alertness and mood at night 453 obtained 15 minutes after the red or blue light the two sessions, it was possible to statistically was turned on. After 60 minutes of light compare self-reports of alertness, sleepiness, exposure, EEG/ECG measurements (L) and and affect, both negative and positive, inde- subjective assessment (Lb) were obtained pendent of the order in which the light levels again. Lights were turned off 20 minutes were presented to the subjects. after data collection and subjects sat again in To minimise inherent idiosyncrasies among dim light. EEG/ECG measurements (D2a to the subjects, the difference between responses D2c) were taken at 5, 25 and 45 minutes after given by the subjects during the reference the experimental treatment light was turned measurement time (S)R, after 60 minutes in off. Subjective assessments (D2) were taken the dim light, and responses given during the again after the final EEG/ECG measurements other conditions (D1, La, Lb and D2) were (45 minutes after the light was turned off). used to evaluate the experimental conditions. Subjects were asked to perform word searches Thus, difference scores on the Norris scale, or crossword puzzles continuously during the the KSS scale and the PANAS Positive and dim and light periods; these diversions were Negative scales were each submitted to a placed on clipboards so that subjects could one-between (colour) by two-within (light keep their chins in the chin-rest for the level and time) mixed-design analysis of prescribed exposure duration. For the last variance (ANOVA). Responses to questions 15 minutes prior to EEG/ECG collection, on the Norris scale and on the PANAS subjects were asked to complete Sudoku Negative scale exhibited no statistically puzzles. During the last 45-minute of data significant effects and are not discussed collection (after lights were turned off), sub- further. jects continuously worked on completing Difference scores for the KSS and the Sudoku puzzles until each collection time PANAS Positive scales were quite similar, (5, 25 and 45 minutes after the lights were both showing a significant main effect of time turned off). (F ¼ 18.3, p50.0001 for KSS and Near the end of every dim and every light 3,60 F3,60 ¼ 39.5, p50.0001 for PANAS Positive). exposure period, the electrodes affixed to each A significant light level time colour inter- subject in a session were, in turn, plugged into action (F3,60 ¼ 7.3, p ¼ 0.0003) was found for the recording system for EEG and ECG KSS difference scores and for the PANAS measurements. Three minutes of continuous Positive difference scores (F3,60 ¼ 2.83, data were collected from each subject. The p ¼ 0.046). For the PANAS Positive scale, subjects were asked to fixate on a specific student’s two tail t-tests were performed for marked point on the far side of the light box, the combined light level data and revealed a approximately 1 m away. When in the dim significant difference between (S)R-D1 and light, subjects were asked to continue to sit in (S)R-La (p50.0001), (S)R-D1 and (S)R-Lb front of the light box, but the LEDs were not (p50.0001), (S)R-D1 and (S)R-D2 (p5 energised. Subjects were visually monitored 0.0001). For the KSS, significant differences by an experimenter to ensure compliance with the protocol. between (S)R-D1 and (S)R-La (p50.0001), (S)R-D1 and (S)R-Lb (p50.0001), (S)R-D1 and (S)R-D2 (p50.0001), (S)R-La and 3. Results (S)R-D2 (p ¼ 0.005) and (S)R-La and (S)R-Lb (p ¼ 0.002) were obtained. To correct 3.1 Self-report for multiple comparisons, the criterion alpha Since the order of light level presentations level (i.e. p50.05) was adjusted in accordance were counterbalanced within groups across with the Bonferroni/Dunn method to

Lighting Res. Technol. 2010; 42: 449–458 454 B Plitnick et al.

1.50 6 1.25 4 1.00 0.75 KSS 2 0.50 0 0.25

0 –2 –0.25 –0.50 –4 PANAS+ Mean difference score Mean difference Mean difference score Mean difference –0.75 –6 –1.00 –1.25 –8 R-D1 R-La R-Lb R-D2 R-D1 R-La R-Lb R-D2 Self-report (S) Self-report (S)

Figure 2 Mean difference scores SEM for responses to Figure 3 Mean difference scores SEM for responses to the KSS scale over the course of the night. Data for each the PANAS Positive (þ) scale over the course of the night. subject are based upon the change in response at the Data for each subject are based upon the change in reference time (S)R, that is, at the end of first dim-light response at the reference time (S)R, that is, at the end of period, to those at each of the other sampling periods D1, first dim-light period, to those at each of the other La, Lb and D2 sampling periods, D1, La, Lb and D2 p50.0083. Figure 2 shows the mean difference interactions suggests, however, there were scores standard error of the mean (SEM) for differential effects for the blue and red lights the KSS difference scores and Figure 3 shows at 10 lx and 40 lx with the KSS and PANAS the mean difference scores and SEM for the Positive difference scores or, perhaps, that PANAS Positive difference scores. These subjects within the two groups associated figures also show that the mean difference with the blue and red lights responded scores for the KSS and the PANAS Positive differently on these self-report scales. The scales are effectively images of one blue light at 40 lx had, as might be expected, another. Whether this close correspondence a more positive effect on sleepiness and between the two self-report scales has funda- momentary mood than did the blue light at mental significance (i.e. increased sleepiness 10 lx. A different pattern resulted from the red leads to reduced positive affect but not light exposures. Red light at 10 lx had a increased negative affect) cannot be deter- greater impact on reducing sleepiness and mined from this experiment. A future study, improving positive affect than did the red specifically aimed at determining if such light at 40 lx. Another experiment would need relationships exist, would have to be con- to be conducted to determine if this effect is ducted where attention was given to ‘cali- reliable and, if so, what was its basis. brating’ the self-report data with objective There was no evidence for persistence in measures of sleepiness and mood.19 these effects in the following dim-light periods Moreover, both red and blue lights had using any of the self-report measures. Rather, similar impact on KSS and PANAS Positive there was only evidence for a steady increase difference score, suggesting that there was no in subjective sleepiness and reduction in differential impact of light spectra on both positive affect over the course of the experi- measures. As the significant three-way ment using these scales.

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3.2 EEG is the heart rate, and (2) determining the The EEG were sampled at elapsed time between the QRS complexes (the 16 384 Hz and then low-pass filtered and successive peaks, Q then R then S, in the ECG downsampled to 2048 Hz for electronic stor- signal) of the ECG.20 The QRS complex age by the Biosemi system. All subsequent represents ventricular depolarisation. It is EEG data processing and analyses were called a complex because there are three performed with Matlab, version R2008a by different in it (Q-, R-wave and The Mathworks. The signals recorded from S-wave). The QRS complexes were located by the two reference channels were averaged and the first derivative of the ECG falling below a these values were subtracted from those negative threshold value after individual obtained from all of the other channels. The normalisation of first derivative of the ECG. direct current (dc) offset of each channel was As with the self-report data, the differences eliminated by subtracting the mean value of between relative power in the alpha and the each channel from itself. A low-pass finite beta bands obtained from each impulse response (FIR) filter (f3dB ¼ 50 Hz) subject after 60 minutes in the dim light (E)R was applied and the data were downsampled and during the subsequent conditions to 512 Hz. Then a high-pass, third-order (L, D2a, D2b and D2c) were used to evaluate Butterworth filter (f3dB ¼ 4 Hz) was applied the experimental conditions. Power differ- to the downsampled signals from each chan- ences in the alpha and in the beta frequency nel to eliminate slow trending in the data. bands were both submitted to a one-between Another program divided the filtered data (colour) by three-within (light level, time of into 5-second epochs. blink artefacts were measurement and channel) mixed-design eliminated by removing epochs from all ANOVA. A statistical significant main effect channels where voltage fluctuations of any of time of measurement was found for the epoch exceeded 100 mV. A Blackman power differences in the beta frequencies window followed by a fast Fourier transform (F3,60 ¼ 4.0, p ¼ 0.012). Figure 4 shows that (FFT) was then applied to the data segments. unlike the positive change in the relative This process yielded spectral power distribu- power in the beta frequencies for subsequent tions from 1 to 50 Hz. The power spectra for dim-light conditions, the change in relative each 1-minute segment were then combined to power in the beta frequencies was negative for give an average spectral power distribution the light exposure condition, (E)R-L, indicat- for each trial. The relative power levels for the ing higher relative beta power during the light 3 minutes in the alpha (8–12 Hz), alpha–theta exposure period than during the preceding (5–9 Hz), theta (5–7 Hz), beta (12–30 Hz) and dim-light period. Post hoc two-tail student’s gamma (30–50 Hz) ranges were calculated as t-tests on the beta power differences were a percentage of overall power from 1 to performed and revealed a significant difference 50 Hz. between (E)R-L and (E)R-D2a (p ¼ 0.046), The ECG data were digitally processed the (E)R-L and (E)R-D2b (p ¼ 0.015) and (E)R-L same way as the EEG data up to the high- and (E)R-D2c (p ¼ 0.0016). It is perhaps pass filtering. For the ECG analysis, the worth noting too, that the gradual increase high-pass filtering 3dB cut-off was lowered in the difference between beta power after the to 0.2 Hz. Heart rates corresponding to the light exposure (L) and after dim-light expo- filtered ECG data were determined by two sures (D2a, D2b and D2c) suggests a gradual methods: (1) by taking the FFT of the ECG, dissipation of the light’s alerting effect; the whereby the frequency having the peak power difference after 5 minutes is smaller than after within the range from 40 to 120 beats/minute 45 minutes in dim light. Consistent with the

Lighting Res. Technol. 2010; 42: 449–458 456 B Plitnick et al.

0.02 ANOVA. No significant effects were obtained using the FFT method but there was a 0.015 significant colour by time of measurement 0.01 interaction (F3,60 ¼ 3.2, p ¼ 0.03) using the QRS method. The difference between (E)R 0.005 and L for blue light conditions was signifi- cantly greater (p ¼ 0.02) than for the red light 0 conditions. This interaction is difficult to –0.005 interpret because the effect may be due either

Mean difference power Mean difference to differential effects of the two light spectra –0.01 Beta on heart rate or to differential responses to light by the two groups of subjects who each –0.015 R-L R-D2a R-D2b R-D2c saw different spectra. A different experimental design would be needed to resolve the EEG/ECG (E) question. Figure 4 Mean difference and SEM for beta power. Data for each subject are based upon the change in relative power in the beta frequency range from the end of the 4. Discussion first dim-light period, (E)R, to those at each of the other sampling periods, L, D2a, D2b and D2c The present study investigated the impact of long-wavelength, red and short-wavelength, self-report data, beta power after exposure to blue light on subjective and objective mea- both red and blue lights increased relative to surements of alertness, sleepiness and beta power after the previous dim-light momentary mood. Although the mixed- period, suggesting that both light spectra design experiment did not allow for a precise impacted brain activities. comparison of effects of the two light spectra, These results are consistent with the both the red and the blue lights reduced hypothesis that mental activity increased in self-reports of sleepiness (decreased KSS) and the light exposure conditions relative to the improved self-reports of momentary mood dim conditions. Consistent with the results for (increased positive affect on the PANAS scale). Objectively, the light stimuli increased changes in beta power, although they were alertness relative to the dim condition as not statistically significant, the change in measured by the power in the beta frequency relative power in the alpha frequency band range of the EEG recordings. There was also was greatest for the subsequent light exposure a gradual reduction in beta power after the period, with progressively smaller differences blue and red lights were turned off suggesting associated with each successive dim period. a small persistence effect of light on alertness. Further studies are recommended to investi- 3.3 Heart rate gate the persistence of light’s effect after the The FFT and QRS heart rate data were stimulus is removed. treated in the same way as the self-report and In general, these results are consistent with EEG data. The differences between heart the literature in that light can have an rates measured after 60 minutes in the dim influence on people at night as measured by period, (E)R, and during the subsequent increased brain activity, reduced self-reports conditions (L, D2a, D2b and D2c) were of sleepiness, and improved self-reports of submitted to a one-between (colour) by momentary mood. It is still not clear, how- two-within (light level and time) mixed-design ever, how light stimuli affect these outcomes.

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